Aircraft Control Systems, basic

construction, wing and fuselage

construction

N. TAMILSELVAM
AP/Aero
ACE-HOSUR
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
Introduction
The architecture of the flight control system,
essential for all flight operations, has significantly
changed throughout the years.
Soon after the first flights, articulated surfaces
were introduced for basic control, operated by
the pilot through a system of cables and pulleys.
This technique survived for decades and is now
still used for small airplanes.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
The introduction of larger airplanes and the
increase of flight envelopes made the muscular
effort of the pilot, in many conditions, not
sufficient to contrastthe aerodynamic hinge
moments consequent to the surface deflection.
The first solution to this problem was the
introduction of aerodynamic balances and tabs,
but further grow of the aircraft sizes and flight
envelops brought to the need of powered
systems to control the articulated aerodynamic
surfaces.
 Nowadays two great categories of flight
control systems can be found:
A full mechanical control on
gliders and small general aviation, and
A powered, or servo-assisted,
control on large or combat aircraft.
 One of the great additional effects after the
introduction of servo-mechanisms is the
possibility of using active control
technology, working directly on the flight
control actuators, for a series of benefits:
Compensation for deficiencies in the
aerodynamics of the basic airframe;
Stabilisation and control of unstable
airplanes, that have commonly higher
performances;
 Flight at high angles of attack;
Automatic stall and spinning protection;
Gust alleviation.
 FLY-BY-WIRE
A further evolution of the servo-assisted
control is the fly-by-wire technique, based
on signal processing of the pilots demand
before conversion into actuator control.
The number and type of aerodynamic
surfaces to be controlled changes with
aircraft category.
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
ON AIRLINER
 CONTROL SURFACES
Aircraft have a number of different control
surfaces:
Those indicated in red form the primary flight
control, i.e. pitch, roll and yaw control, basically
obtained by deflection of elevators, ailerons and
rudder (and combinations of them);
Those indicated in blue form the secondary flight
control: high-lift and lift-dump devices, airbrakes,
tail trimming, etc.
 CONTROL SURFACES
Modern aircraft have often particular
configurations, typically as follows:
Elevons on delta wings, for pitch and roll control,
if there is no horizontal tail;
Flaperons, or trailing edge flaps-ailerons
extended along the entire span:
Tailerons, or stabillisers-ailerons (independently
controlled);
Swing Wings, with an articulation that allows
sweep angle variation;
 Canards, with additional pitch control and
stabilization.
Primary flight control capability is essential
for safety, and this aspect is dramatically
emphasized in the modern unstable
(military) airplanes, which could be not
controlled without the continued operation
of the primary flight control surfaces.
 Secondary actuation system failure can
only introduce flight restriction, like a flap
less landing or reduction in the max angle
of attack; therefore it is not necessary to
ensure full operation after failures.
 Conventional Systems/Direct
Mechanical Control
The linkage from cabin to control surface
can be fully mechanical if the aircraft size
and its flight envelop allow.
In this case the hinge moment generated
by the surface deflection is low enough to
be easily contrasted by the muscular effort
of the pilot.
 Two types of mechanical systems are
used: PUSH-PULL rods and Cable Pulley.
In the first case a sequence of rods link
the control surface to the cabin input.
Bell-crank levers are used to change the
direction of the .rod routings
 Push-pull rod system for
elevator control
Fig. sketches the push-pull control rod
system between the elevator and the
cabin control column.
 BELL-CRANK LEVER
The bell-crank lever is necessary to alter
the direction of the transmission and to
obtain the conventional coupling between
stick movement and elevator deflection.
 Vibrations on Control Rods
A modal analysis of the system layout is
necessary, because vibrations of the rods
can introduce oscillating deflections of the
surface;
This problem is important on helicopters,
because vibrations generated by the main
rotor can induce severe resonance of the
flight control rods.
ADVANTAGE OF CABLE-PULLEY
SYSTEM
The same operation described can be
done by a cable-pulley system, where
couples of cables are used in place of the
rods.
In this case pulleys are used to alter the
direction of the lines, equipped with idlers
to reduce any slack due to structure
elasticity, cable strands relaxation or
thermal expansion.
 Often the cable-pulley solution is preferred,
because it is more flexible and allows reaching
more remote areas of the airplane.
An example is shown in Fig., where the cabin
column is linked via a rod to a quadrant, which
the cables are connected to.
For this reason the actuation system in charge of
primary control has a high redundancy and
reliability, and is capable of operating close to
full performance even after one or more failures.
Cables and pulleys system for
elevator control
 Fully powered Flight Controls
To actuate the control Surface the pilot
has to give full effort. This is very tough to
actuate the control surfaces through
simple mechanical linkages.
One can feel the equal toughness when
raising the hand perpendicular to the
airflow on riding a motorbike.
 MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
In this type of flight control system we will have
S.No Item Purpose

1 The cable To transmit the power

2 Cable connector To connect the cable

3 Turnbuckle To adjust the Cable length

4 Fairlead To guide the Cable

5 Pulley To guide the in radial direction

6 Push pull rod To go for and aft as per requirement

7 3 Control stick To make orders for the remaining circuit

MECHANICAL FLIGHT
CONTROL SYSTEM
TURN BUCKLE
BELL CRANK
MECHANICAL FLIGHT
CONTROL SYSTEM
 MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM -
OPERATION
The most basic flight control system
designs are mechanical and date back to
early aircraft.
They operate with a collection of
mechanical parts such as rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit
the forces of the flight deck controls to the
control surfaces.
MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEM - OPERATION
Mechanical flight control systems are still
used today in small general and sport
category aircraft where the aerodynamic
forces are not excessive.
When the pilot pushes the control stick
forward/backward the cable is getting
tensed through the linkages and it causes
the Control surface to move respectively.
 Power actuated systems
Hydraulic control
When the pilots action is not directly
sufficient for actuating the control, the
main option is a powered system that
assists the pilot.
A few control surfaces on board are
operated by electrical motors.
 Hydraulic Control
The hydraulic system has proved to be the more
suitable solution for actuation in terms of
reliability, safety, weight per unit power and
flexibility, with respect to the electrical system,
which is becoming the common tendency on
most modern airplanes.
The Pilot, via the cabin
components, sends a signal, or demand, to a valve
that opens ports through which high pressure
hydraulic fluid flows and operates one or more
actuators.
 Hydraulic Control
The valve, that is located near the
actuators, can be signalled in two different
ways:
Mechanically or Electrically;
Mechanical signalling is obtained by
push-pull rods, or more commonly by
cables and pulleys;
Electrical signalling is a solution of more
modern and sophisticated vehicles.
 Basic Principle of the Hydraulic
Control
Two aspects must be noticed when a powered
control is introduced:
1. The system must control the surface in a
proportional way, i.e. the surface response
(deflection) must be a function of the Pilots
demand (stick deflection, for instance);
2. The pilot with little effort acts on a control
valve must have a feedback on the manoeuvre
intensity.
 The problem is solved by using (hydraulic)
servo-mechanisms, where the components are
linked in hydraulic circuit in such a way to
introduce an actuator stroke proportional to the
pilots demand for a correct operation.
In both cases the control valve housing is
integral with the cylinder and the cabin column
has a mechanical linkage to drive the valve
spool.
Typical Hydraulic Servo -Mechanisms
 In the first case, the cylinder is hinged to the
aircraft and, due to valve spool displacement
and ports opening, the piston is moved in
one direction or the other.
The piston rod is also linked to the valve
spool stick, in such a way that the piston
movement brings the spool back towards its
neutral position. When this is reached, the
actuator stops.
 In the second case, the piston is
constrained to the aircraft; the cabin
column controls the valve spool stick;
this will result in a movement of the
cylinder, and this brings the valve
housing again towards the valve
neutral position, then resulting in a
stroke proportional to the pilots
demand.
 EMERGENCY VALVE
The hydraulic circuit also includes an
emergency valve on the delivery segment
to the control valve; if the delivery
pressure drops, due to a pump or engine
failure, the emergency valve switches to
the other position and links all the control
valve inlets to the tank; this operation
hydraulically unlocks the system, allowing
the pilot for manual actuation of the
cylinder.
 It is clear now that the pilot, in normal
hydraulic operating conditions, is
requested for a very low effort, necessary
to overcome the mechanical frictions of
the linkage and the movement of the
control valve.
The pilot is then no more aware of the load
condition being imposed to the aircraft.
 Artificial Feel
For this reason an artificial feel is
introduced in powered systems, acting
directly on the cabin control stick or pedals
through spring system, then responding to
the Pilots demand with a force
proportional to the stick deflection.
 Q Feel
A more sophisticated artificial feel is the
so-called Q feel.
This system receives data from the
PITOT- STATIC probes, reading the
dynamic pressure, or the difference
between Total (Pt) and Static (Ps)
pressure, that is proportional to the Aircraft
Speed (v) through the Air Density ().
 This signal is used to modulate a hydraulic
cylinder that increases the stiffness in the
artificial feel system, in such a way that the
pilot is given a contrast force in the pedals
or stick that is also proportional to the
aircraft speed.
 Digital fly by wire systems
In the 70s the fly-by-wire architecture was
developed, starting as an analogue technique and
later on, in most cases, transformed into digital.
It was first developed for military aviation.
It is now a common solution.
The supersonic Concorde can be considered a first
and isolated civil aircraft equipped with a (analogue)
fly-by-wire system, but in the 80s the digital
technique was imported from military into civil
aviation by Airbus, first with the A320, then followed
by A319, A321, A330, A340, Boeing 777 and A380.
Fly-by-wire system
 This architecture is based on computer signal
processing and is schematically shown in fig.
The pilots demand is first of all transduced into
electrical signal in the cabin and sent to a group of
independent computers, the computers sample data
concerning the flight conditions and servo-valves
and actuators positions.
The pilots demand is then processed and sent to
the actuator, properly tailored to the actual flight
status.
 The flight data used by the system mainly depend on the
aircraft category.
In general the following data are sampled and
processed:
Pitch, Roll, Yaw rate and linear accelerations.
Angle of attack and Side- Slip;
Airspeed/Mach number, Pressure Altitude and Radio
Altimeter Indications;
Stick and Pedal demands;
Other cabin commands such as landing gear condition,
thrust lever position, etc.
 The full system has high redundancy to
restore the level of reliability of a
mechanical or hydraulic system, in the
form of multiple (triplex or quadruplex)
parallel and independent lanes to generate
and transmit the signals, and independent
computers that process them.
 In many cases both hardware and software are
different, to make the generation of a common
error extremely remote, increase fault tolerance
and isolation.
In some cases the multiplexing of the digital
computing and signal transmission is supported
with an analogue or mechanical back-up
system, to achieve adequate system reliability
between military and civil aircraft.
 BENEFITS
Flight envelope protection (the computers
will reject and tune pilots demands that
might exceed the airframe load factors);
Increase of stability and handling qualities
across the full flight envelope, including
the possibility of flying unstable vehicles;
 Turbulence suppression and consequent
decrease of fatigue loads and increase
passenger comfort;
Use of thrust vectoring to augment or
replace lift aerodynamic control, then
extending the aircraft flight envelope;
Drag reduction by an optimised trim
setting;
 Higher stability during release of tanks and
weapons;
Easier interfacing to auto-pilot and other
automatic flight control systems;
Weight reduction (mechanical linkages are
substituted by wirings);
Maintenance reduction;
Reduction of airlines pilot training costs (flight
handling becomes very similar in an whole
aircraft family).
 Control by Fly By Wire
The flight modes: Ground, Take-off, Flight
and Flare (Landing).
Transition between modes is smooth and
the pilot is not affected in its ability to
control the aircraft.
In ground mode the pilot has control on
the nose wheel steering as a function of
speed,
 After lift-off the envelope protection is gradually
introduced and in flight mode the aircraft is fully
protected by exceeding the maximum negative
and positive load factors (with and without high
lift devices extracted), angle of attack, stall,
Airspeed / Mach number, pitch attitude, roll rate,
bank angle etc;
Finally, when the aircraft approaches to ground
the control is gradually switched to flare mode,
where automatic trim is deactivated and
modified flight laws are used for pitch control.
 Auto Pilot System
An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or
hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle
without assistance from a human being.
An autopilot can refer specifically to
aircraft, self-steering gear for boats, or
auto guidance of space craft and missiles.
The autopilot of an aircraft is sometimes
referred to as George, after one of the
key contributors to its development.
 Auto Pilot System
Today, autopilots are sophisticated
systems that perform the same duties as a
highly trained pilot.
In fact, for some in-flight routines and
procedures, autopilots are even better
than a pair of human hands.
They dont just make flights smoother -
they make them safer and more efficient.
 Autopilots and Avionics
In the world of aircraft, the autopilot is more
accurately described as the Automatic Flight
Control System (AFCS).
An AFCS is part of an aircrafts avionics the
electronic systems, equipment and devices used
to control key systems of the plane and its flight.
In addition to flight control systems, avionics
include electronics for communications,
navigation, collision avoidance and weather.
 Autopilots and Avionics
The original use of an AFCS was to provide pilot
relief during tedious stages of flight, such as
high-altitude cruising.
Advanced autopilots can do much more,
carrying out even highly precise maneuvers,
such as landing an aircraft in conditions of zero
visibility.
Although there is great diversity in autopilot
systems, most can be classified according to the
number of parts, or surfaces, they control.
 Auto Pilot System
Autopilots can control any or all of these three
basic control surfaces that affect an airplanes
attitude.
A single-axis autopilot manages just one set of
controls, usually the ailerons. This simple type of
autopilot is known as a wing leveler because,
by controlling roll, it keeps the aircraft wings on
an even keel.
A two-axis autopilot manages elevators and
ailerons.
Finally, a three-axis autopilot manages all three
basic control systems: ailerons, elevators and
rudder.
 Invention Of Auto Pilot System
Famous inventor and engineer Elmer Sperry
patented the gyro-compass in 1908, but it was
his son, Lawrence Burst Sperry, who first
flight-tested such a device in an aircraft.
The younger Sperrys autopilot used four
gyroscopes to stabilize the airplane and led to
many flying firsts, including the first night flight in
the history of aviation.
In 1932, the Sperry Gyroscope Company
developed the automatic pilot that Wiley Post
used in his first solo flight around the world.
 Autopilot Parts
The heart of a modern automatic flight
control system is a computer with several
high-speed processors.
To gather the intelligence required to
control the plane, the processors
communicate with sensors located on the
major control surfaces.
They can also collect data from other
airplane systems and equipment, including
gyroscopes, accelerometers, altimeters,
compasses and airspeed indicators.
 Autopilot Parts
The processors in the AFCS then take the input data and,
using complex calculations, compare it to a set of control
modes.
A control mode is a setting entered by the pilot that defines
a specific detail of the flight. For example, there is a control
mode that defines how an aircrafts altitude will be
maintained. There are also control modes that maintain
airspeed, heading and flight path.
These calculations determine if the plane is obeying the
commands set up in the control modes. The processors then
send signals to various servomechanism units.
 Autopilot Parts
A servomechanism, or servo is a device that
provides mechanical control at a distance.
One servo exists for each control surface
included in the autopilot system.
The servos take the computers instructions
and use motors or hydraulics to move the
crafts control surfaces, making sure the plane
maintains its proper course and attitude.
Elements of an autopilot Rudder system
 Elements of an autopilot
Rudder system
The basic schematic of an autopilot looks like a
loop, with sensors sending data to the autopilot
computer, which processes the information and
transmits signals to the servo, which moves the
control surface, which changes the attitude of
the plane, which creates a new data set in the
sensors, which starts the whole process again.
This type of feedback loop is central to the
operation of autopilot systems.
Automated flight control
systems
 Operation of Automated flight
control systems Wing Leveller
1.The pilot sets a control mode to maintain
the wings in a level position.
2.However, even in the smoothest air, a
wing will eventually dip.
3.Position sensors on the wing detect this
deflection and send a signal to the autopilot
computer.
4.The autopilot computer processes the
input data and determines that the wings are
no longer level.
 Operation of Automated flight
control systems Wing Leveller
5.The autopilot computer sends a signal to
the servos that control the aircrafts ailerons.
6.The signal is a very specific command
telling the servo to make a precise
adjustment.
7.Each servo has a small electric motor
fitted with a slip clutch that, through a bridle
cable, grips the aileron cable.
 Operation of Automated flight
control systems Wing Leveller
8.When the cable moves, the control surfaces
move accordingly.
9.As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input
data, the wings move back toward level.
10.The autopilot computer removes the command
when the position sensor on the wing detects that
the wings are once again level.
11.The servos cease to apply pressure on the
aileron cables.
 Two- and three-axis autopilots obey the
same principles, employing multiple
processors that control multiple surfaces.
Some airplanes even have auto thrust
computers to control engine thrust.
Autopilot and auto thrust systems can
work together to perform very complex
maneuvers.
 Autopilot Failure
Autopilots can and do fail. A common problem is some
kind of servo failure, either because of a bad motor or a
bad connection. A position sensor can also fail, resulting
in a loss of input data to the autopilot computer.
Fortunately, autopilots for manned aircraft are designed
as a failsafe i.e. no failure in the automatic pilot can
prevent effective employment of manual override.
To override the autopilot, a crew member simply has to
disengage the system, either by flipping a power switch
or, if that doesnt work, by pulling the autopilot circuit
breaker.
 Modern Autopilot Systems
Many modern autopilots can receive data
from a Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver installed on the aircraft.
A GPS receiver can determine airplanes
position in space by calculating its distance
from three or more satellites in the GPS
network.
Armed with such positioning information, an
autopilot can do more than keeping a plane
straight and level it can execute a flight
plan.
 Modern Autopilot Systems
Most commercial jets have had such capabilities for a
while, but even smaller planes are incorporating
sophisticated autopilot systems.
New Cessna 182s and 206s are leaving the factory with
the Garmin G1000 integrated cockpit, which includes a
digital electronic autopilot combined with a flight director.
The Garmin G1000 delivers essentially all the
capabilities and modes of a jet avionics system, bringing
true automatic flight control to a new generation of
general aviation planes.
Wiley Post could have only dreamed of such technology
back in 1933.
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
 Instrument Landing System - ILS
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is an
internationally normalized system for navigation of
aircrafts upon the final approach for landing.
ILS that provides precision guidance for a safe
approach and landing on the runway under conditions
of reduced visibility.
The accurate landing approach is a procedure of
permitted descent with the use of navigational
equipment coaxial with the trajectory and given
information about the angle of descent.
It can also be supplemented with a VOR system by
which means the integrated navigational-landing
complex ILS/VOR/DME is formed.
 Sub Systems Of ILS
The ILS system consists of four
subsystems:
VHF localizer transmitter
UHF glide slope transmitter
Marker beacons
Approach lighting system
 A plane flying approximately along the axis of
approach, however partially turned away to the left
A plane flying nearly in the approach
axis slightly leaned out to the right
A plane flying exactly in the axis of
approach
A plane situated out of reach of the
course beacons signal
 Marker beacons
For the purpose of discontinuous addition of navigation
data with the value of a momentary distance from the
aircraft to the runways threshold, the following marker
beacons are used:
Outer Marker (OM)
The outer marker is located from the runways threshold.
Its beam intersects the glide slopes ray at an altitude of
approximately 1400 ft (426.72 m) above the runway. It
also roughly marks the point at which an aircraft enters
the glide slope under normal circumstances, and
represents the beginning of the final part of the landing
approach.
 The signal is modulated at a frequency of 400
Hz, made up by a Morse code a group of two
dots per second. On the aircraft, the signal is
received by a 75 MHz marker receiver. The pilot
hears a tone from the loudspeaker or
headphones and a blue indicative bulb lights up.
Anywhere an outer marker cannot be placed
due to the terrain, a DME unit can be used as a
part of the ILS to secure the right fixation on the
localizer.
 In some ILS installations the outer marker
is substituted by a Non Directional Beacon
(NDB).
 Middle Marker
The middle marker is used to mark the point of transition
from an approach by instruments to a visual one. When
flying over it, the aircraft is at an altitude of 200 - 250 ft
(60.96-76.2) above it. The audio signal is made up of two
dashes or six dots per second. The frequency of the
identification tone is 1300 Hz. Passing over the middle
marker is visually indicated by a bulb of an amber
(yellow) colour.
 Inner Marker
The inner marker emits an AM wave with a
modulated frequency of 3000 Hz. The
identification signal has a pattern of series
of dots, in frequency of six dots per
second. The beacon is located 60m in
front of the runways threshold.
 VOR - VHF Omnidirectional Range
VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a
type of short-range Radio Navigation system for
aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to
determine their position and stay on course by
receiving radio signals transmitted by a network
of fixed ground radio beacons.
It uses frequencies in the very high frequency
(VHF) band from 108 to 117.95 MHz.
 VOR - VHF Omnidirectional Range
Developed in the United States beginning in
1937 and deployed by 1946, VOR is the
standard air navigational system in the world
used by both commercial and general
aviation.
By 2000 there were about 3000 VOR stations
around the world including 1033 in the US,
reduced to 967 by 2013 with more stations
being decommissioned with the widespread
adoption of GPS.
VOR - VHF Omnidirectional Range
A VOR ground station sends out an omnidirectional
master signal, and a highly directional second signal is
propagated by a phased antenna array and rotates
clockwise in space 30 times a second.
This signal is timed so that its phase (compared to the
master) varies as the secondary signal rotates, and this
phase difference is the same as the angular direction of
the 'spinning' signal, (so that when the signal is being
sent 90 degrees clockwise from north, the signal is 90
degrees out of phase with the master).
VOR - VHF Omnidirectional Range
By comparing the phase of the secondary signal with the
master, the angle (bearing) to the aircraft from the
station can be determined. This bearing is then
displayed in the cockpit of the aircraft, and can be used
to take a fix as in earlier ground-based radio direction
finding (RDF) systems.
This line of position is called the "radial" from the VOR.
The intersection of two radials from different VOR
stations on a chart gives the position of the aircraft. VOR
stations are fairly short range: the signals are useful for
up to 200 miles.
 CCV CONTROL CONFIGURED VEHICLES

Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed (four

independent channels) to prevent loss of signals
in the case of failure of one or even two
channels.
High performance aircraft that have fly-by-wire
controls (also called CCVs or Control-
Configured Vehicles) may be deliberately
designed to have low or even negative stability
in some flight regimes, the rapid-reacting CCV
controls compensating for the lack of natural
stability.
 Pre-flight safety checks of a fly-by-wire system are often
performed using Built-in Test Equipment (BITE). On
programming the system, either by
the Pilot or Groundcrew, a number of control movement
steps are automatically performed. Any failure will be
indicated to the crews.
 FLY-BY-OPTICS
Fly-by-optics is sometimes used instead of
fly-by-wire because it can transfer data at
higher speeds, and it is immune to
electromagnetic interference. In most
cases, the cables are just changed from
electrical to Optical Fiber cables.
Sometimes it is referred to as "fly-by-light"
due to its use of fiber optics. The data
generated by the software and interpreted
by the controller remain the same.
 MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)
A microwave landing system (MLS) is an all-weather, precision
landing system originally intended to replace or supplement
instrument landing systems (ILS).
MLS has a number of operational advantages, including a wide
selection of channels to avoid interference with other nearby
airports, excellent performance in all weather, a small "footprint" at
the airports, and wide vertical and horizontal "capture" angles that
allowed approaches from wider areas around the airport.
Although some MLS systems became operational in the 1990s, the
widespread deployment initially envisioned by its designers never
became a reality. GPS-based systems, allowed the expectation of
the same level of positioning detail with no equipment needed at the
Airport.
GPS dramatically lowers the cost of implementing precision landing
approaches, and since its introduction most existing MLS systems in
North America have been turned off.
 Principle : MLS
MLS employs 5 GHz transmitters at the landing place
which use passive electronically scanned arrays to send
scanning beams towards approaching aircraft. An
aircraft that enters the scanned volume uses a special
receiver that calculates its position by measuring the
arrival times of the beams.
 Operational Functions
The system may be divided into five functions: Approach azimuth,
Back azimuth, Approach elevation, Range and Data
communications.
Approach azimuth guidance
The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and data on one of
200 channels within the frequency range of 5031 to 5091 MHz and is
normally located about 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the stop end of the
runway, but there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites.
Elevation guidance
The elevation station transmits signals on the same frequency
as the azimuth station. A single frequency is time-shared between
angle and data functions and is normally located about 400 feet from
the side of the runway between runway threshold and the touchdown
zone.
Range guidance
The MLS Precision Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME/P) functions in the same way as the
navigation DME, but there are some technical
differences.
The beacon transponder operates in the frequency band
962 to 1105 MHz and responds to an aircraft
interrogator. The MLS DME/P accuracy is improved to
be consistent with the accuracy provided by the MLS
azimuth and elevation stations.
A DME/P channel is paired with the azimuth and
elevation channel.
Data communications
The data transmission can include both the basic and auxiliary data
words. All MLS facilities transmit basic data. Where needed,
auxiliary data can be transmitted.
MLS data are transmitted throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth
when provided) coverage sectors. Representative data include:
Station identification, Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and
DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing functions), Ground
equipment performance level; and DME/P channel and status.
MLS identification is a four-letter designation starting with the letter
M. It is transmitted in International Morse Code at least six times per
minute by the approach azimuth (and back azimuth) ground
equipment.
Basic Airplane Instruments
 Pitot-Static System & Instruments
Airspeed Indicator (Pitot
and Static)
Vertical Speed Indicator
(Static)
Altimeter (Static)

Pitot Heat to prevent/melt

ice
 Altimeter
Wafers sealed at Standard Pressure
of 29.92 Hg
Adjust altimeter setting in Kollsman
Window
1Hg = 1,000 ft
Set to field elevation if no setting
available
Types of Altitude:
1. Indicated Altitude
2. True Altitude (MSL)
3. Pressure Altitude
4. Absolute Altitude (AGL)
5. Density Altitude
 Nonstandard Temp. &
Pressure
High to Low or Hot to Cold,
look out below!
 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Rate of climb or descent in feet
per minute
Static pressure differential
instrument
Wafers at ambient pressure
Diaphragm exposed to
ambient pressure, but with
calibrated leak
VSI lags
Trend and Rate information
 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Dynamic and static pressure
differential
Types of Airspeed:
1. Indicated (IAS)
2. Calibrated (CAS)
3. True (TAS)
4. Groundspeed (GS)
Some V-speeds
Vso -stall w/ flaps (dirty)
Vs1-stall w/o flaps (clean)
Vfe -max flap extend
Vno -max structural cruise
Vne -never exceed
 Blocked Pitot Tube (inlet only)
Ram air exits via drain
Pressure equalizes to static
ASI decreases to zero
 Blocked Pitot System
(inlet and drain)
ASI Frozen at constant altitude
ASI acts as an altimeter:
A climb will show an increased
airspeed
Descent will show decreased airspeed
Potentially very dangerous!!
Why?
What should happen as you climb?
Descend?
Can lead to stall and/or in-flight
breakup
 Blocked Static Port
ASI continues to operate, but
incorrectly
Behaves somewhat as an
altimeter
VSI reads zero
Altimeter frozen at altitude
where blockage occurred
Try alternate static source
Mechanical, or
Break face of VSI
 Gyroscopes & Precession
Rigidity in Space
Precession
Force felt 90 later in direction of
rotation
Air flow from vacuum system
 Vacuum System and Instruments
Monitor vacuum pressure during flight
Some airplanes have back-up vacuum source
 Turn & Slip / Turn Coordinator
Principle of Precession
Turn coordinator shows both rate of roll and rate of
turn (canted gyro)
Turn-and-slip only shows rate of turn
 Turn Coordination
Step on the ball
Coordinated turns will help
prevent spins

Standard rate turn

3 per second
2 minute turn
 Attitude Indicator (ADI)
Principle of Rigidity in Space
Instantaneous indications
Your aircraft rotates around the
gyro
 Reading an Attitude Indicator
Compare miniature airplane to
artificial horizon
Adjust airplane to match
horizon during straight-and-
level flight
 Directional Gyro (DG)
a.k.a. Heading Indicator
Principle of Rigidity in Space
Must set the DG to a known
heading before use
Readjust periodically due to
precession
 Magnetic Compass & Errors
Variation
Magnetic vs. True North
Reference Isogonic lines
Dip: Northern Hemisphere
Turning Error
Undershoot North, Overshoot South
(UNOS)
Accurate indication at 90 & 270
Dip: Acceleration Error
On East or West heading:
Accelerate North, Decelerate South
(ANDS)
Deviation
Local magnetic fields (i.e. from radio)
 Unit IV

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE
STRUCTURES & MATERIALS
 FUSELAGE
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which
contains seats for the occupants and the controls for the
airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also
provide room for cargo and attachment points for the
other major airplane components.
Some aircraft utilize an open truss structure. The
truss-type fuselage is constructed of steel or
aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is
achieved by welding the tubing together into a
series of triangular shapes, called trusses. [Figure
1-2]

Figure 1-2. The Warren truss.

Construction of the Warren truss features longerons,
as well as diagonal and vertical web members. To
reduce weight, small airplanes generally utilize
aluminum alloy tubing, which may be riveted or
bolted into one piece with cross-bracing members.
The main drawback of truss structure is its lack of a streamlined
shape. In this construction method, lengths of tubing, called
longerons, are welded in place to form a well-braced framework.
Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the longerons and give
the structure a square or rectangular shape when viewed from the
end. Additional struts are needed to resist stress that can come
from any direction. Stringers and bulkheads, or formers, are added
to shape the fuselage and support the covering.

Read more http://www.flightlearnings.com/2011/03/20/types-of-

aircraft-construction-truss-structure/
As technology progressed, aircraft designers
began to enclose the truss members to
streamline the airplane and improve
performance. This was originally accomplished
with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to
lightweight metals such as aluminum. In some
cases, the outside skin can support all or a
major portion of the flight loads. Most modern
aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure
known as monocoque or semimonocoque
construction.
 Monocoque
Monocoque construction uses stressed skin to support
almost all loads much like an aluminum beverage can.
Although very strong, Monocoque construction is not
highly tolerant to deformation of the surface. For
example, an aluminum beverage can supports
considerable forces at the ends of the can, but if the
side of the can is deformed slightly while supporting a
load, it collapses easily.
Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the external
skin rather than by an open framework, the need for internal bracing
was eliminated or reduced, saving weight and maximizing space. One
of the notable and innovative methods for using monocoque
construction was employed by Jack Northrop. In 1918, he devised a
new way to construct a monocoque fuselage used for the Lockheed S-1
Racer. The technique utilized two molded plywood half-shells that
were glued together around wooden hoops or stringers. To construct
the half shells, rather than gluing many strips of plywood over a form,
three large sets of spruce strips were soaked with glue and laid in a
semi-circular concrete mold that looked like a bathtub. Then, under a
tightly clamped lid, a rubber balloon was inflated in the cavity to press
the plywood against the mold. Twenty-four hours later, the smooth
half-shell was ready to be joined to another to create the fuselage. The
two halves were each less than a quarter inch thick. Although
employed in the early aviation period, monocoque construction would
not reemerge for several decades due to the complexities involved.
 Semimonocoque
Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a
substructure to which the airplanes skin is attached. The
substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of
various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by
taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage. The main
section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and
a firewall. On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually
attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof partition
between the rear of the engine and the flight deck or cabin to
protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine fires.
This partition is called a firewall and is usually made of heat-
resistant material such as stainless steel. However, a new
emerging process of construction is the integration of
composites or aircraft made entirely of composites.
 Geodesic Construction
A geodesic (or geodetic) airframe is a type of
construction for the airframes of aircraft developed
by British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis in the
1930s. It makes use of a space frame formed from a
spirally crossing basket-weave of load-bearing
members

A section of the rear fuselage

Wings
Most important lift-producing part of the
aircraft Also carries the fuel
Designed so that the outer tips of the wings
are higher than where the wings are
attached to the fuselage
Called the dihedral
Helps keep the airplane from rolling unexpectedly
Wings
Wing Designs
Straight Wing
Found mostly on small, low-speed
airplanes
Good lift at low speeds
Not suited to high speeds
Creates a lot of drag because the
wing is perpendicular to the airflow
Provides good, stable flight
Cheap and can be made lighter
Wing Designs
Sweepback
Used on most high-speed airplanes
Less drag, but more unstable at low
speeds
Amount of sweep depends on the
purpose of the airplane
Commercial airliner has moderate sweep
High speed airplanes (e.g., fighters) have
moderate sweep
No forward sweep wings are in mass
production
Wing Designs
Delta Wings
Looks like a large triangle from above
Can reach high speeds
Landing speeds are very fast
Wing shape found on the supersonic transport Concord
Wing Designs
Swing Wing
This design combines the high lift
characteristics of a straight wing
with the ability of the sweepback
wing to move at high speeds
During landing and takeoff, wing
swings into an almost straight
position
During cruise, wing swings into a
sweepback
Hinges that enable wings to swing
are very heavy
Wing construction
 Components of WING
Skin: The outer surface of the wing. Originally made of fabric, modern aircraft use
aluminum or composite materials due to their lightweight and rust-resistant properties.

Fuel Tank: Commonly located in the wing, fuel can either be housed in its own tank or
allowed to fill the cavities between the ribs.

Flaps: Are a high lift / high drag device. Not only do they improve the lifting ability of
the wing at slower speeds by changing the camber, or curvature of the wing, they also
create more drag, meaning an aircraft can descend, or lose altitude faster, without
gaining airspeed in the process.