Abstract

Algebra I
MATHEMATICS AND PROOFS

Mathematical logic
Different logical connectives
Valid reasoning (truth values)

Objectives: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

To define mathematical logic.

Define proposition and its type such as simple and compound statement.
Define connectives.
Determine the different logical connectives.

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Symbolic logic

A kind of logic which uses mathematical symbol to represent statement in

ordinary language.

Proposition

A statement which affirms or denies something about a certain reality

object.

A declarative sentence which is either true or false, but not true or false at
the same time.

Remark:

1. A statement may either be simple or compound.

Simple or Compound Statement

Simple is a statement that has one thought.

 Compound is the combination of two or more simple statements and it
uses conjunctions.

DIFFERENT LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

Connectives

A special symbol which determine not only the status of logical units but
also the relation of the logical units to each other in an argument.
A constant for they have fixed meanings and function in whatever
argument they are used.

5 Basic operators to be used:

SYMBOL MEANING NAME

^ and Conjunction

or Disjunction

~ not Negation

If,then Implication/conditional

If and only if(iff) biconditional

Truth Value

The truthfulness of falsity of the statement.

Truth Table

It is used to display or show the possible truth values of the statements.

Remarks:

Two rows of truth value are needed when only simple statement is
involved.

Example:

T
F

p: Today is Tuesday. T
~p: F

Four rows or truth value are needed when there are two simple
statements.

p q

T T

T F

F T
F F
Example:

q: He is tall and handsome.

p1: He is tall.

q1: He is handsome.
 Eight rows of truth value are needed when a compound statement involves
three simple statements.

p q r
P q p^q
T T T
T T T
T T F
T F F
T F T
F T F
T F F
F F F
F T T

F T F

F F T

F F F

Example:

r: She is beautiful and sexy but lazy.

p1: She is beautiful.

q2: She is sexy.

r3: She is lazy.

VALID REASONING (TRUTH TABLE)

Different rules in evaluating the truth value of a given statement:

1. CONJUNCTION

p^q

The conjunction of the statement is defined to be true when both

statements are true and to be false in all case.

Example: Jane is a girl and Lara is a boy.

Let p be the preposition of the sentence Jane is a girl and let q be the
preposition of Lara is a boy.

p: Jane is a girl. T

q: Lara is a boy. F

Find the truth value of the two statement using conjunction:

p^q

T^F

F ---------truth value

CONJUNCTION TABLE

2. DISJUNCTION

pvq

The disjunction of a statement is defined to be true when at least one of

the two statements is true and to be false when both statements are false.

Example: Paris is in England or 2+2=5.

Let p be the preposition of Paris is in England and qbe the preposition of 2

+ 2 = 5.

p: Paris is in England. F
 q:2+2=5. F

Find the truth value by disjunction of the two statements:

p q
FF
F--------truth value

DISJUNCTION TABLE (INCLUSIVE)

P Q pvq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

3. NEGATION

The negation of the statements is always the opposite of the true value of
the original statement.
 Example: Let q be the preposition of the statement.

q: It is false that Paris is in France. T

Find the negation of the statement:

~q: It is not false that Paris is in France.F

qT ~qF

NEGATION TABLE

p ~p

T F

F T

4. IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL

p q

p if then q is true, unless p is true and q is false, a true statement can not
imply a false statement.

Example: If 1+1=2, then 2+2=5.

Let p be the preposition of first statement and q represent the second

statement.

p: 1+1=2. T

q: 2+2=5. F

We can now find the truth value of the two statements:

p q

TF

F-----------truth value
 IMPLICATION TABLE

Q p q
p

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. BICONDITIONAL/EQUIVALENT
pq

p if and only q is true if both statements have the same truth value.

Example: Paris is in England if and only if London is in France.

Let the preposition p for the first statement and preposition q for the other
one.

P: Paris is in England. F

Q: London is in France. F

Find what the truth value is:

pq

FF

T----------truth value

BICONDITIONAL TABLE

Q p q
p

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Evaluation

Find the truth table of each proposition:

1. ~p ^ q

p q ~p ~p ^ q

T T F F

T F F F

F T T T

F F T F

2. ~ (p ^ q) ~ (q p)

p q P ^q ~ (p ^ q) qp ~ (qp) ~ (p^q)
~(qp)
T T T F T F T
T F F T F T T
F T F T F T T
F F F T T F T
SEMI EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

Sets
Representation of a set
Classifications of sets
Sub-sets
Universal set
Difference of sets
Complement of a set
Intersection of a set
Union of set
Cartesian product of a set

OBJECTIVES: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

Define a set and represent the same in different forms.

Define different type of sets such as, finite and infinite sets, empty set,
singleton set, equivalent sets, equal sets, sub sets, and cite example
thereof.
Define and cite examples of universal set, complement of a set and
difference between two sets.
Define union and intersection of two sets.
Represent union and intersection of two sets, universal sets, complement
of set difference between two sets by Venn diagram.
Solve real life problem using Venn diagram.
Define Cartesian product of two sets.
SETS

is a collection of objects {}

Some standard notation to represent sets:

N: the set of natural numbers

W: the set of whole numbers

Z or I: the set of integers

Z+: set of positive numbers

Z-: set of negative numbers

Q: the set of rational numbers

R: set of real numbers

C: set of complex numbers

Other frequently used symbols are:

: belongs to

: does not belong to

: There exist, /: there does not exist

REPRESENTATION OF A SET

There are two methods to represent a set.

1. Roster method (Tabular form)

In this method a set is representing by listing its entire element, separating this
by commas and enclosing these in curly bracket.

(i) If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be written in Roster

form as:

V = {a, e, i, o, u}

(ii) If A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.

Then A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, is in roster form.

NOTE:

To write a set in roster form elements are not be repeated i. e. all elements are
taken as distinct. For example, if A be the set of letters used in the word
mathematics, then

A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}

2. Set builder form (infinite set)

In this form elements of the set are not listed but these are represented by some
common property.

(i) Let V be the set of vowels of English alphabet then V can be written in the
set builder form as:

V = {x: x is a vowel of English alphabet}

 (ii) Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7, then

A = {x: x N and 1 x < 7}

NOTE: symbol : read as such that

Example:

Write the following in set-builder form:

a. A= {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}

b. B= {3, 6, 9, 12}

Solution:

a. A= {x: x Z and -3 x 3}

b. B= {x: x = 3n and n N, n 4}

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SETS

FINITE SET

The element can be counted

INFINITE SET

Not possible to count up to its last element

 Example:

A= {x: x N and 1 x 5}

A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

NULL SET/EMPTY SET

.
A set which has no element and denoted by { } or

Example:

A= {x: x R and x2 + 1 = 0}

B= {x: x is number which is greater than 7 and less than 5}

Solution:

Set A is consist of real numbers but there is no real number whose square
is -1.

Set B is no such number which is less than 5 and greater than 7.

SINGLETON SET

A set which has only one element.

Example:

A= {x: x is an even prime number}

As there is only one even prime number namely 2, so that set A will
have only one element.

EQUAL AND EQ UIVALENT SET

Equal set

If they have the same element denoted as =.

Equivalence set

If they have the same number of element.

Example:

a. A= {1, 2, 3}, B= {2, 1, 3}

b. D= {1, 2, 3}, E= {a, b, c}

Solution:

a. set A and B have the same element. Such sets are said to be equal and
it is written as A =B.

b. set D and E have the same number of elements but element is different.
Such sets are said to be equivalent sets.

DISJOINT SETS

Two sets are said to be disjoint if they do not have any common element

Example:

Sets A= {1, 3, 5} and B= {2, 4, 6} are disjoint sets

-SETS

If A and B are any two sets such that each element of the set A is an
element of the set B also, then A is said to be the subset of B.

Example:

Let set A be a set containing all student of your school and B be a set containing
all student of BSMath IV of the school. The element of set B is also the element
of set A. therefore, set B is the subset of set A and written as B A.
Remarks:

i. Each set is a subset of itself. A A

ii. Null set has no element so the condition of becoming a subset is automatically
satisfied. Therefore, null set is a subset of every set.

iii. If A B and B A then A = B.

iv. If A B and A B then A is said to be proper subset of B and B is said to
be a super set of A. A B or BA

Examples:

1. If A = {x: x is a prime number less than 5}

B = {y: y is an even prime number} then, is B a proper subset of A?

Solution:

It is given that A = {2, 3}, B = {2}. Clearly that B A but B A.

2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Is A B or B A?

Solution:

Here 1 A but 1 B A B.

Also 5 B but 5 A B BA.

Hence, neither A is a subset of B nor B is a subset of A.

POWER SET

Notation:

Power set of A is denoted by P (A).

 Power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of the given set.

Example:

Write the power set of each of the following sets:

i. A = {x: x R and x + 7 = 0}.

ii. B = {y: y N and 1 y 3}.

Solution:

i. Clearly A is a null set therefore; it is the only subset of given set.

ii. The set B can be written as {1, 2, 3}

, {1},{2},{3},{1, 2},{1, 3},{2, 3},{1, 2, 3}.

subset of B is

Therefore, P(B) = {{},{1},{2},{3},{1, 2},{1, 3},{2, 3},{1, 2, 3} }.

UNIVERSAL SET

Universal set is generally denoted by U.

In a particular problem, a set U is said to be a universal set if all the sets
in that problem are subsets of U.

Remarks:

i. universal set does not mean a set containing all objects in the universe.

ii. A set which is a universal set for one problem may not be a universal set for
another problem.

Example:

Which is the following set can be considered as a universal set?

X = {x: x is a real number}.

 Y = {y: y is a negative integer}.

Z = {z: z is a natural number}.

Solution: as it is clear that both sets Y and Z are subset of X.

Therefore, X is the universal set for this problem.

VENN DIAGRAM

British mathematician john Venn (1834-1883 AD) introduced the concept

of diagrams to represent sets. According to him, universal set is
represented by the interior of a rectangle and other sets are represented
by interior of circles.

For example, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {2, 4}, B = {1, 3}, then this sets can be
represented as

B A

1 2

3 4 5

Diagramatical representation of sets is known as a Venn diagram.

DIFFERENCES OF SETS

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}

A new set having that element which are in A but not B is said to be the
difference of sets A and B, and it is denoted by A B.

A B = {1, 3, 5}

Similarly, a set of those elements which are in B but not in A is said to be

the difference of B and A, and it is denoted by B A.

B A = {6}

In general, if A and B are two sets then

A B = {x: x A and x B}

B A= {x: x B and x A}

Difference of two sets can be represented using Venn diagram as:

U U

A B A B

Not Disjoint Disjoint

COMPLEMENT OF A SET

If U is the universal set and A is its subset then the complement of A is a

set of those elements which are in U which are not in A. it is denoted by A
or AC.
 The complement of a set can be represented using Venn diagram as:

Or AC

Example:

Let X denote the universal set and Y, Z its subset where

X = {x: x is any member of the family}

Y = {x: x is a male member of the family}

Z = {x: x is a female member of the family}

X Y is a set of having female member of the family.

X Z is a set of having male member of the family.

X Y is said to be the complement of Y and is usually denoted by Y or

C
Y .

X Z is said to be complement of Z and denoted by Z or Zc.

Remarks:

i. difference of two set s can be found even if none is a subset of the other but
complement of a set can be found only when the set is a subset of some universal
set.

ii. c = U.

iii. UC = .
 Example 1: Given that

A = {x: x is an even natural number less than or equal to 10}. And

B = {x: x is an odd natural number less than or equal to 10}.

Find (i) A B (ii) B A (iii) is A B = B A?

Solution:It is given that

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

Therefore,

(i) A B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

(ii) B A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

(iii) Clearly from (i) and (ii) A B B A.

Example 2: Let U be the universal set and A its subset where

U = {x: x N and x 10}

A = {y: y is a prime number less than 10}

Find (i) Ac (ii) represent Ac in Venn diagram

Solution: it is given

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {2, 3, 5, 7}

(i) Ac = U A = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}

(ii)
 1 6 9 AC

2 3

5 7

4 8 10.

INTERSECTIONS OF SETS

If A and B are two sets then the set of those elements which belong to both
the sets is said to be the intersection of A and B. it is devoted by A B.

A B can be represented using Venn diagram:

AB

Remarks:

i. if A B = then A and B are said to be disjoint sets. In Venn diagram, disjoint

sets can represented as

A B
 Example: given that

A = {x: x is a king out of 52 playing cards} and

B = {y: y is a spade out of 52 playing cards}

Find (i) A B (ii) represent A B by using Venn diagram

Solution:

(i) As there are only four kings out of 52 playing cards, therefore the set
A has only four elements. The set B has 13 elements as there are 13 spade cards
but out of these 13 spade cards, there is one king also. Therefore, there is one
common element in A and B.

(ii)

AB A B
UNION OF SETS

If A and B are only two sets then union of A and B is the set of those
elements which belongs to A or B.

In set builder form:

A and x B}
AB = {x: x

OR

AB = {x: x A B or x B A or x A B}

Using Venn diagram:

U U

A B A B AB

AB

Example 1:

A is a set having all players of Indian men cricket team and B is a set
having all players of Indian women cricket team. Clearly A and B are
disjoint sets. Union of these two sets is a set having all players of other
team and it is denoted by AB.
 Z+ and 5} and
Example 2: A = {x: x

B = {y: y is a prime number less than 10}

Find (i) AB (ii) represent AB using Venn diagram

Solution: we have,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 3, 5, 7}

Therefore, AB = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

(ii)

A B

AB 1 2 7

4 3

CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS

Consider two sets A and B where

 A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4, 5}

Sets of all ordered pairs of elements of A and B is

{(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}

This set is denoted by A B and is called the Cartesian product of sets A

and B.

i. e. A B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}

Cartesian product of B sets and A is denoted by B A.

In the present example, it is given by

B A = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 2)}

Clearly A B B A.

In the set builder form:

A and b B}
A B = {(a, b): a

B A = {(b, a): b B and a A}

Note: if A = or B = or A, B = then, A B = B A = .

Example:

Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {d, e}, C = {a, d}

Find (i) A B (ii) B A (iii) A (B C)

(iv) (A C) B (v) (A B) C (vi) A (B C)

Solution:

(i) A B = {(a, d), (a, e), (b, d), (b, e), (c, d), (c, e)}

(ii) B A = {(d, a), (e, a), (d, b), (e, b), (d, c), (e, c)}

(iii) A = {a, b, c}, B C = {a, d, e}

Therefore, A (B C) = {(a, a), (a, d), (a, e), (b, a), b, d), (b, e), (c, a), (c, d),
(c, e)

(iv) A C = {a}, B = {d, e}

Therefore, (A C) B = {(a, d), (a, e)

(v) A B = , B = {d, e}

Therefore, (A B) C =

(vi) A = {a, b, c}, B C = {e}

Therefore, A (B C) = {(a, e), (b, e), (c, e)}

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Let P(n)be the statement concerning the positive integer n. Suppose that

1. If P (k) is true, and

2. If P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is true.

Then, P (n) is true for all n Z +

Example:

Prove the formula 1+ 2 + + n = n (n + 1)

2
For the sum of the arithmetic progression, using mathematical induction.

Solution:

`We let P (n) be the statement that Formula (1) is true. For n= 1 we obtain

n (n + 1) = 1(2 =1
2 2
So P (1) is true.

Suppose k 1 and P (k) is true (our induction hypothesis, so

1 + 2 + + k = k (k +1)
2
To show that P (k + 1) is true we compute

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)

= k (k + 1) + (k + 1) = k2+ k + 2k + 2
2 2
2
=k + 3k + 2 = (k + 1) (k + 2)
2 2

Z +
Thus P (k + 1) holds and Formula (1) is true for all n .
 CHAPTER II

INTRODUCTION TO GROUP

BINARY OPERATION
GROUPS
Groups: definition and properties
Abelian group
SUBGROUPS
Cyclic Subgroup
Lattice Diagram
CYCLIC GROUPS
COSETS
THEOREMS OF LAGRANGE

OBJECTIVES:

After studying the lesson, you will be able to:

Define the binary operation and the different properties

Define binary operation on finite set
Define group and their properties
Define abelian group, subgroup, cyclic subgroup with lattice diagram,
cyclic group, cosets, theorem of lagrange, and their each additional topics.
Give examples of each topic.

BINARY OPERATION

Definition: A binary operation * on a non-empty set G is a function f: G

x G G, i.e. for every pair (a, b) of element of G, there is exactly one element a *
b G, that is,

1. a * b is well defined in G.
 2. G is closed under *.

* called a star.

: G * G G read as function mapping of G by G into G.

Example: which is the following are binary operation in P (throughout

i,j) p?

a.*: (i, j) i + j binary operation

b. *: (i, j) i j not binary

ex. (1, 2) 1 2 = -1

-1 is not element of p2.

c. *: (i, j) i j not binary

ex. (1, 2) 1 2 =

is not element of p.

d. *: (i, j) i + j + i binary

e. *: (i, j j binary

Finite sets:

The binary operation of finite sets can be defined using tables.

Tables

Convenient way of either a defining a binary operation for finite sets or

tabulating the effect of a binary operation.

Examples:

1. Suppose S = {1, 2, 3}

Let u be the binary operation in S defined by:

 u: (1, 1) 1, (1, 2) 1, (1, 3) 2

(2, 1) 2, (2, 2) 3, (2, 3) 3

(3, 1) 1, (3, 2) 3, (3, 3) 2

u 1 2 3

1 1 1 2

2 2 3 3

3 1 3 2

2. Does the table define a binary operation in S = {0, 1, 2}?

* 0 1 2

0 0 1 2

1 1 2 0

2 2 0 1

* is a binary operation in S since (a, b) S, a * b S.

GROUPS

GROUPS: Definition and Properties

Definition: A group (G, *) is a non empty set G, together with a binary

operation * satisfying the following properties:

G1: * is associative in G, i.e.

a, b, c G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

G2: G contains an identity element e, i.e.

a G, a * e = e * a = a

G3: Every element of G has a inverse

 a G, a-1 G ., a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e

Remarks:

If (G, *) satisfies G1 only, then it is called a SEMIGROUP.

(ii) If (G, *) satisfies G1 and G2 only, then it is called a MONOID.

Examples:

1. (Z, +)

+ is associative
O Z is the identity
a Z, -a Z, . a+(-a)=0.

Therefore, (Z, +) is a group

2. (Z*,): the set of nonzero integers under the usual multiplication

is associative Z*
1 Z is the identity
only 1 and -1 have inverse in Z

Note:

Need to show: a-1 a = e Z*

Let a = 1 a-1 = 1/3 Z*
Hence, G3 is not satisfied on Z*.
Therefore, (Z*,) is a Monoid.

3. (Z, *) where * is defined as m* n = 0 m, n Z.

* is associative Z

i.e. (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

0*c=a*0

0=0

It has no identity element since m * n = 0.

Therefore, (Z, *) is a Semigroup.

The integers {0, 1, 2, n 1} for addition modulo n, Zn is defined as a * b =
remainder when a + b is divided by n.

Example: Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

* 0 1 2 3 4

0 0 1 2 3 4

1 1 2 3 4 0

2 2 3 4 0 1

3 3 4 0 1 2

4 4 0 1 2 3

G1: associative (a*b) * c = a * (b*c)

G2: identity 1

G3: inverse

00 32

14 41

23

Therefore, Zn is a group.

Abelian group

A group G is abelian if its binary operation * is commutative.

a, b G , a * b = b * a

Example 1:

The familiar additive properties of integers and of rational, real, and complex
numbers show that Z, Q, R, and C under addition are abelian group.
Example 2:

The set Z+ under addition is not a group. There is no identity element for + in
Z+.

Example 3:

The set of all nonnegative integers (including 0) under addition is still not a
group. There is an identity element 0, but no inverse for 2.

Example 4:

The familiar multiplicative properties of rational, real, and complex numbers

show that the sets Q+ and R+ of positive numbers and the sets Q*, R* and C* of
nonzero numbers under multiplication are abelian groups.

Example 5:

The set of all real-valued functions with domain R under function addition is a
group, this group is abelian.

SUBGROUPS

Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G that is closed under the same

binary operation in G. if H is itself a group under the binary operation in
G, the H is said to be a subgroup of G and it is written as H G.

Example: recall.

Let S = {1, -1, i, -i}

* 1 -1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i

-1 -1 1 -i i

i i -i -1 1

-i -i i 1 -1

Subset:

{1} {1, -1} {-1, -i} {-1, i, -i}

{-1} {1, i} {i, -i} {i, -i, 1}

{i} {1, -i} {-i, 1, -1} {1, -1, i, -i}

{-i} {-1, i} {1, -1, i} {}

To determine the subgroup, know first if it is a group and check it.

{1} {1, -1} {-1, -i} {-1, i, -i}

{-1} {1, i} {i, -i} {i, -i, 1}

{i} {1, -i} {-i, 1, -1} {1, -1, i, -i}

{-i} {-1, i} {1, -1, i} {}

There are only 3 subgroup satisfied the properties of a group.

Therefore, the subgroups are:

{1} S

{1, -1} S

{1, -1, i, -i} S

Cyclic Subgroup
 G. Then the set H= {an/ n Z} is a
Let G be a group and a
subgroup G and it is the smallest group of G containing a.
The set H is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a written as

H= <a>.

Lattice Diagram

Graph / illustration showing the different cyclic.

Example:

1. Z12= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

=<0>,<1>,<2>,<3>,<4>,<5>,<6>,<7>,<8>,<9>,<10>,<11>

Factors of 12: 1 and 12

2 and 6

3 and 4

Generators:

<1>: 12= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 0}

#s relatively prime to 12: 1, 5, 7, and 11

<1>= <5>= <7>= <11>

<2>: 6= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 0}

#s relatively prime to 6: 1, 5

<2>= <10>

<3>: 4= {3, 6, 9, 0}
LATTICE DIAGRAM

2. Z18= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}

=<0>,<1>,<2>,<3>,<4>,<5>,<6>,<7>,<8>,<9>,<10>,<11>,<12>,
<13>,<14>,<15>,<16>,<17>

Factors of 18: 1 and 18, 2 and 9, 3 and 6

CYCLIC GROUPS

A group G is cyclic if there is some element a in G that located in G.

Example

The group Z under addition is a cyclic group. Both 1 and 1 are generators for
the group.

Cyclic groups are fundamentals to the understanding of abelian groups.

Elementary properties of cyclic groups

Theorem 1 every cyclic group is abelian.

Division algorithm is a seemingly trivial, but very fundamental tool for the
study of cyclic group.

Division algorithm for Z

If mis a positive integer and n is any integer, then there exist unique
integers q and r such that

n = mq + r and 0 r< m.

In the notation of division algorithm, we regard q as the quotient and r as the

nonnegative remainder when n is divided by m.

Example Finds the quotientq and remainder rwhen 38 is divided by 7

according to division algorithm.

Solution The positive multiples of 7 are 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, .
Choosing the multiple to leave a nonnegative remainder less than 7, we write

38 = 35 + 3 = 7 (5) + 3
so the quotient is q = 5 and remainder is r = 3.

Theorem 2 A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

COSETS

Let H be a subgroup of G. the subset aH = {ah|h H} of G is the left

coset of H containing a, while the subset Ha = {ha |h H} is the right

coset of H containing a.

Example:

Exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the subgroup 3Z of Z.

Solution
 Our notation is additive, so the coset of 3Z containing m is m + 3Z.

Let m = (0, 1, 2)

Z = {- , 0, +}

Substitute m to the equation m + 3Z.

0 + 3Z = {, - 9, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9,}

1 + 3Z = {, -8, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, 10, }

2 + 3Z = {, -7, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, 11,}

Since, Z is abelian, the left cosetsm + 3Z and right cosets 3Z + m

Therefore, m + 3Z = 3Z + m

Observation:

For a subgroup H of an abelian group G, the partition of G into left cosets of H

and the partition into right cosets are the same.

THEOREM OF LAGRANGE

Every coset (left or right) of a subgroup of H of a group G has the same

number of elements as H.

Theorem 1 (Theorem of lagrange) Let H is the subgroup of a finite group G.

then the order of H is a divisor of the order of G.

Let n be the order of G, and let H have order m. in the first statement, it
shows that every coset of H also has m elements. Let r be the number of cells in
the partition of G into left cosets of H. then, n = rm, so m is indeed a divisor of n.

Theorem 2 The order of an element of a finite group divides the order of the
group.
Definition (Index of H in G) Let H be the subgroup of a group G. the number of
left cosets of H in G is the index (G : H) of H in G.

Theorem 3 Suppose H and K are subgroup of group G such that

K H G , and suppose (H : K) and (G : H) are both finite. Then

(G : K) is finite, and (G : K) = (G : H) (H : K)

CHAPTER III

FIELDS; ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS

Fields; Roots of Polynomials

Polynomials with Integer Coefficients
Existence of Roots
Objectives: after studying the lesson, you will be able to:

Define roots of polynomials with field.

Define polynomials with integer coefficients including theorem.
Define existence of roots

FIELDS; ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS

Definition 3.1.1. Let F be a set on which two binary operations are defined,
called addition and multiplication, and denoted by + and respectively. Then F is
called a field with respect to these operations if the following properties hold:
(i) Closure: For all a,b in F the sum a + b and the product ab are uniquely
defined and belong to F.
(ii) Associative laws: For all a,b,c in F,
a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c and a(bc) = (ab)c.
(iii) Commutative laws: For all a,b in F,
a+b = b+a and ab = ba.
(iv) Distributive laws: For all a,b,c in F,
a(b+c) = (ab) + (ac) and (a+b)c = (ac) + (bc).

(v) Identity elements: The set F contains an additive identity element,

denoted by 0, such that for all a in F,
a+0 = a and 0+a = a.
The set F also contains a multiplicative identity element, denoted by 1
(and assumed to be different from 0) such that for all a in F,
a1 = a and 1a = a.

(vi) Inverse elements: For each a in F, the equations

a+x = 0 and x+a = 0
have a solution x in F, called an additive inverse of a, and denoted by -a.
For each nonzero element a in F, the equations
 ax = 1 and xa = 1
have a solution x in F, called a multiplicative inverse of a, and denoted
by a-1.

Definition 3.1.2. Let F be a field. For am, am-1 , . . . , a1, a0 in F, an expression of

the form
amxm + am-1xm-1 + + a1x + a0
is called a polynomial over F in the indeterminate x with coefficients am, am-1,
. . . , a0. The set of all polynomials with coefficients in F is denoted by F[x].
If n is the largest nonnegative integer such that an 0, then we say that the
polynomial
f(x) = anxn + + a0
has degree n, written deg(f(x)) = n, and an is called the leading coefficient of f(x).
If the leading coefficient is 1, then f(x) is said to be monic.

POLYNOMIALS WITH INTEGER COEFFICIENTS

Proposition 3.2.1. Let f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x + a0 be a polynomial with

integer coefficients. If r/s is a rational root of f(x), with (r,s)=1, then r | a 0 and s | an.

Definition 3.2.2. A polynomial with integer coefficients is called primitive if the

greatest common divisor of all of its coefficients is 1.
Lemma 3.2.3. Let p be a prime number, and let f(x) = g(x)h(x), where
f(x) = amxm + + a1x + a0,

g(x) = bnxn + + b1x + b0, and

h(x) = ckxk + + c1x + c0.

If bs and ct are the coefficients of g(x) and h(x) of least index not divisible by p,
then as+t is the coefficient of f(x) of least index not divisible by p.

Theorem 3.2.4. [Gauss's Lemma] The product of two primitive polynomials is

itself primitive.
Theorem 3.2.5. A polynomial with integer coefficients that can be factored into
polynomials with rational coefficients can also be factored into polynomials of the
same degree with integer coefficients.
Theorem 3.2.6. [Eisenstein's Irreducibility Criterion] Let
f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a0
be a polynomial with integer coefficients. If there exists a prime number p such
that

an-1 an-2 ... a0 0 (mod p) but

an 0 (mod p) and a0 0 (mod p2),
then f(x) is irreducible over the field of rational numbers.

Corollary 3.2.7. If p is prime, then the polynomial

(x) = xp-1 + + x + 1
is irreducible over the field of rational numbers.

EXISTENCE OF ROOTS

Definition 3.3.1Let E and F be fields. If F is a subset of E and has the

operations of addition and multiplication induced by E, then F is called
a subfield of E, and E is called an extension field of F.

Definition 3.3.2Let F be a field, and let p(x) be a fixed polynomial over F. If

a(x), b(x) belong to F[x], then we say that a(x) and b(x) are congruent
modulo p(x), if p(x) | (a(x)-b(x)), written
a(x) b(x) (mod p(x)) .
The set{ b(x) in F[x] | a(x) b(x) (mod p(x)) }

is called the congruence class of a(x), and will be denoted by [a(x)].

The set of all congruence classes modulo p(x) will be denoted by

F[x] / <p(x)> .
Proposition 3.3.3 Let F be a field, and let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial in F[x].
For any polynomial a(x) in F[x], the congruence class [a(x)] modulo p(x) contains
a unique representative r(x) with deg(r(x))<deg(p(x)) or r(x)=0.
Proposition 3.3.4 Let F be a field, and let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial in F[x].
For any polynomials a(x),b(x),c(x), and d(x) in F[x], the following conditions hold:
(a) If a(x) c(x) (mod p(x)) and b(x) d(x) (mod p(x)), then

a(x)+b(x) c(x)+d(x) (mod p(x))

and
 a(x)b(x) c(x)d(x) (mod p(x)).

(b) If gcd(a(x),p(x))=1, then

a(x)b(x) a(x)c(x) (mod p(x))

implies

b(x) c(x) (mod p(x)).

Proposition 3.3.5 Let F be a field, and let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial in F[x].
For any polynomial a(x) in> F[x], the congruence class [a(x)] has a multiplicative
inverse in F[x]/<p(x)> if and only if gcd(a(x),p(x))=1.
Theorem 3.3.6Let F be a field, and let p(x) be a nonconstant polynomial over F.
Then F[x]/<p(x)> is a field if and only if p(x) is irreducible over F.
Definition 3.3.7 Let F1 and F2 be fields. A function : F1 -> F2 is called
an isomorphism of fields if
(i) is one-to-one and onto,

(ii) (a+b) = (a) + (b), for all a,b in F1, and

<dd(iii) (ab) = (a) (b), for all a,b in F1.</dd

Theorem 3.3.8 [Kronecker] Let F be a field, and let f(x) be any nonconstant
polynomial in F[x]. Then there exists an extension field E of F and an element u
in E such that f(u)=0.
Corollary 3.3.9. Let F be a field, and let f(x) be any nonconstant polynomial in
F[x]. Then there exists an extension field E of F over which f(x) can be factored
into a product of linear factors.
Exercise 3.1
Abstract Algebra
1.
(a) Express x4 + x as a product of polynomials irreducible over Z5.
(b) Show that x3 + 2x2 +3 is irreducible over Z5.
(c) Express 2x3+x2+2x+2 as a product of polynomials irreducible over Z5.
2. Are the following polynomials irreducible over Q?
(a) 3 x5 + 18 x2 + 24 x + 6
(b) 7 x3 + 12 x2 + 3 x + 45
(c) 2 x10 + 25 x3 + 10 x2 - 30
3. Factor x5-10x4+24x3+9x2-33x-12 over Q.
Solution: The possible rational roots of f(x) = x5-10x4+24x3+9x2-33x-12 are 1,
2, 3, 4, 6, 12. We have f(1) = 21, so for any root we must have (r-1) | 21, so
this eliminates all but 2, 4, -6 as possibilities. Then f(2) = 32, f(-2) = -294, and
finally we obtain the factorization f(x) = (x-4)(x 4-6x3+9x+3). The second factor is
irreducible over Q since it satisfies Eisenstein's criterion for p = 3.
 CHAPTER IV
RING
RINGS
Characteristics of ring
SUBRINGS AND IDEALS
INTEGRAL DOMAINS
FIELDS

OBJECTIVES: after studying the lesson, we will be able to

Define ring, characteristics of ring, subring and ideals, integral domain,
and fields.

RINGS
A ring<R, +, > is a set of R together the two binary operations + and ,
which we call addition and multiplication, defined on R such that the
following consideration as satisfied:
R1: <R, +> is an abelian group.
R2: multiplication is associative.

R3: for all a, b, c R, the left distribution law, a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c)

and the right distribution law, (a + b) c = (a c) + (a b) hold.

Example:

We are aware that the 3 conditions of the ring hold for any subset of the
complex numbers that is a group under addition and that is closed under
multiplication.
i. e <Z, +, > , <Q, +, >, <R, +, >, and <C, +, > are rings.

If R is a ring with additive identity 0

a, b R, we have

1. 0a = a0 = 0

2. a (- b) = (- a) b = - (ab)

3. (- a) (- b) = ab

Characteristics of Ring

If for a ring R a positive integer n exists such that n . a = 0, then the least
such possible integer is the characteristics of ring R. If no such positive
integer exists, then R is of characteristics 0.
Example 1:
The ring Zn is of characteristics n, while Z, Q, R, and C all have characteristics 0.

SUBRINGS AND IDEALS

Definition Let S be a commutative ring. A nonempty subset R of S is called
a subring of S if it is a commutative ring under the addition and multiplication of
S.
Let S be a commutative ring, and let R be a nonempty subset of S. Then R is a
subring of S if and only if
(i) R is closed under addition and multiplication; and
(ii) if a R, then -a R.
Let R be a commutative ring. A nonempty subset I of R is called an ideal of R if
(i) a b I for all a,b I, and
(ii) ra I, for all a I and r R.
Definition 4.2.1 Let R be a commutative ring. A nonempty subset I of R is
called an ideal of R if

(i) a b belongs to I for all a,b in I, and

(ii) ra belongs to I, for all a in I and r in R.

Proposition 4.2.2. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Then R is a field
if and only if it has no proper nontrivial ideals.

Definition 4.2.3. Let R be a commutative ring with identity, and let a be an

element of R. The ideal

Ra = { x in R | x = ra for some r in R }

is called the principal ideal generated by a. An integral domain in which every

ideal is a principal ideal is called a principal ideal domain.

Example 4.2.4. (Z is a principal ideal domain) Theorem 1.1.4 shows that the
ring of integers Z is a principal ideal domain. Moreover, given any nonzero ideal I
of Z, the smallest positive integer in I is a generator for the ideal.

For an ideal I of a commutative ring R, the set { a+I | a in R } of cosets of I in R

(under addition) is denoted by R/I. By Theorem 3.8.4, the set forms a group under
addition. The next theorem justifies calling R/I the factor ring of R modulo I.

Theorem 4.2.5. If I is an ideal of the commutative ring R, then R/I is a

commutative ring, under the operations

(a+I) + (b+I) = (a+b) + I and (a+I)(b+I) = ab + I,

for all a,b in R.

Proposition 4.2.6. Let I be an ideal of the commutative ring R.

(a) The natural projection mapping : R -> R/I defined by (a) = a+I for all a in R
is a ring homomorphism, and ker( ) = I.

(b) There is a one-to-one correspondence between the ideals of R/I and the ideals
of R that contain I.

Definition 4.2.7. Let I be a proper ideal of the commutative ring R. Then I is

said to be a prime ideal of R if for all a,b in R it is true that if ab is in I then a is
in I or b is in I.
The ideal I is said to be a maximal ideal of R if for all ideals J of R such that
I J R, either J = I or J = R.

Proposition 4.2.8. Let I be a proper ideal of the commutative ring R with

identity.

(a) The factor ring R/I is a field if and only if I is a maximal ideal of R.

(b) The factor ring R/I is a integral domain if and only if I is a prime ideal of R.

(c) If I is maximal, then it is a prime ideal.

INTEGRAL DOMAINS

4.3.1. Definition A commutative ring R with identity is called an integral

domain if for all a,b R, ab = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0.

The ring of integers Z is the most fundamental example of an integral

domain. The ring of all polynomials with real coefficients is also an
integral domain, but the larger ring of all real valued functions is not an
integral domain.
The cancellation law for multiplication holds in R if and only if R has no nonzero
divisors of zero. One way in which the cancellation law holds in R is if nonzero
elements have inverses in a larger ring; the next two results characterize integral
domains as subrings of fields (that contain the identity 1).
4.3.2. Theorem Let F be a field with identity 1. Any subring of F that contains 1
is an integral domain.
4.3.3. Theorem Let D be an integral domain. Then there exists a field F that
contains a subring isomorphic to D.
4.3.4. Theorem Any finite integral domain must be a field.
4.3.5. Proposition An integral domain has characteristic 0 or p, for some prime
number p.
4.3.6. Proposition Let I be a proper ideal of the commutative ring R with
identity.
(a) The factor ring R/I is a field if and only if I is a maximal ideal of R.

(b) The factor ring R/I is a integral domain if and only if I is a prime
ideal of R.
 (c) If I is maximal, then it is a prime ideal.

4.3.7. Definition Let R be a commutative ring with identity, and let a R. The
ideal

Ra = { x R | x = ra for some r R}
is called the principal ideal generated by a.
An integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal is called a principal
ideal domain.

FIELDS

FIELD is a nonzero commutative ring that contains a multiplicative

inverse for every nonzero element, or equivalently a ring whose nonzero
elements form an group under multiplication. As such it is an algebraic
structure with notions of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division satisfying the appropriate abelian group equations
and distributive law. The most commonly used fields are the field of real
numbers, the field of complex numbers, and the field of rational numbers,
but there are also finite fields, fields of functions, algebraic number
fields,p-adic fields, and so forth.

Finite field or Galois field (so named in honor of variste Galois)

is a field that contains a finite number of elements, called its size.

Quotient Fields

Lemma 4.4.1. Let D be an integral domain, and let

W = { (a,b) | a,b belong to D and b 0}.

The relation ~ defined on W by (a,b) ~ (c,d) if ad = bc is an equivalence relation.

Definition 4.4.2. Let D be an integral domain. The equivalence classes of the

set

W = { (a,b) | a,b belong to D and b 0}

under the equivalence relation defined by (a,b) ~ (c,d) if ad = bc will be denoted

by [a,b].
The set of all such equivalence classes will be denoted by Q(D).

Lemma 4.4.3. For any integral domain D, the following operations are well-
defined on Q(D). For [a,b], [c,d] in Q(D),

[a,b] + [c,d] = [ad+bc,bd] and [a,b] [c,d] = [ac,bd] .

Theorem 4.4.4. Let D be an integral domain. Then there exists a field F that
contains a subring isomorphic to D.

Definition 4.4.5. Let D be an integral domain. The field Q(D) defined in

Definitino 4.4.2 is called the field of quotients or field of fractions of D.

Theorem 4.4.6. Let D be an integral domain, and let : D -> F be a one-to-one

ring homomorphism from D into a field F. Then there exists a unique extension
: Q(D) -> F that is one-to-one and satisfies

(d) = (d) for all d in D.

Corollary 4.4.7. Let D be an integral domain that is a subring of a field F. If

each element of F has the form ab-1 for some a, b in D, the F is isomorphic to the
field of quotients Q(D) of D.