Electronic stability control

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Electronic stability control (ESC), also referred to as electronic stability program

(ESP) or dynamic stability control (DSC), is a computerized technology [1][2] that
improves the safety of a vehicle's stability by detecting and reducing loss of traction
(skidding).[3] When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically applies the
brakes to help "steer" the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is
automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the outer front wheel to counter
oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also
reduce engine power until control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicle's
cornering performance; instead, it helps to minimize the loss of control. According to
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, one-third of fatal accidents could have been prevented by the
technology.[4][5]

Contents
1 History

2 Introduction

3 Operation

4 Effectiveness

5 Components and design

6 Availability and cost

7 Future

8 Regulation

9 Product names

10 System manufacturers

11 References

12 External links
[edit] History
In 1987, the earliest innovators of ESC, Mercedes-Benz and BMW, introduced their
first traction control systems. Traction control works by applying individual wheel
braking and throttle to keep traction while accelerating but, unlike the ESC, it is not
designed to aid in steering.

Named simply TCL in 1990, the system has since evolved into Mitsubishi's modern
Active Skid and Traction Control (ASTC) system. Developed to help the driver
maintain the intended path through a corner, an onboard computer monitored several
vehicle operating parameters through the use of various sensors. When too much
throttle has been used, while taking a curve, engine output and braking are
automatically regulated to ensure the proper path through a curve and to provide the
proper amount of traction under various road surface conditions. While conventional
traction control systems at the time featured only a slip control function, Mitsubishi
developed a TCL system which had a preventive (active) safety feature. This
improved the course tracing performance by automatically adjusting the traction
force, thereby restraining the development of excessive lateral acceleration, while
turning. Although not a true modern stability control system, trace control monitored
steering angle, throttle position and individual wheel speeds; however, there was no
yaw-rate input. The TCL system's standard wheel slip control function improved
traction on slippery surfaces or during cornering. In addition to the TCL's traction
control feature, it also worked together with the Mitsubishi Diamante's electronically
controlled suspension and four-wheel steering that in order to improve total handling
and performance.[6][7][8][9][10]

BMW, working with Robert Bosch GmbH and Continental Automotive Systems,
developed a system to reduce engine torque to prevent loss of control and applied it to
the entire BMW model line for 1992. From 1987 to 1992, Mercedes-Benz and Robert
Bosch GmbH co-developed a system called Elektronisches Stabilittsprogramm (Ger.
"Electronic Stability Programme" trademarked as ESP) to control lateral slippage.

GM worked with Delphi Corporation and introduced its version of ESC called
"StabiliTrak" in 1997 for select Cadillac models. StabiliTrak was made standard
equipment on all GM SUVs and vans sold in the U.S. and Canada by 2007 except for
certain commercial and fleet vehicles. While the "StabiliTrak" name is used on most
General Motors vehicles for the U.S. market, the "Electronic Stability Control"
identity is used for GM overseas brands, such as Opel, Holden and Saab, except in the
case of Saab's 9-7X which also uses the "StabiliTrak" name. Ford's version of ESC,
called AdvanceTrac, was launched in the year 2000. Ford later added Roll Stability
Control to AdvanceTrac[11][12] which was first introduced in Volvo XC90 in 2003 when
Volvo Cars was fully owned by Ford and it is now being implemented in many Ford
vehicles.

[edit] Introduction
In 1995, automobile manufacturers introduced ESC systems. Mercedes-Benz,
supplied by Bosch, was the first to implement this with their W140 S-Class model.
That same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive (later acquired by
Continental Automotive Systems). Volvo Cars[citation needed] began to offer their version
of ESC called DSTC in 1998 on the new S80. Toyota's Vehicle Stability Control
system (also in 2004, a preventive system called VDIM) appeared on the Crown
Majesta in 1995.[13] Meanwhile others investigated and developed their own systems.

During a moose test (swerving to avoid an obstacle), which became famous in

Germany as "the Elk test", the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Vrld
(World of Technology) in October 1997[14] rolled a Mercedes A-Class (without ESC)
at 78 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled
and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC. This produced a significant reduction
in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today virtually all premium
brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, and the number of models with ESC
continues to increase.[15] The availability of ESC in small cars like the A-Class ignited
a market trend so that ESC became available for all models at least as an option. As a
consequence the European Union decided in 2009 to make ESC mandatory all new
models must be equipped with ESC since 1. November 2011 and by the end of 2013
all old models without ESC may not be sold anymore.[16][17]

Ford and Toyota announced that all their North American vehicles would be equipped
with ESC standard by the end of 2009 (it was standard on Toyota SUVs as of 2004,
and after the 2011 model-year, All Lexus, Toyota, and Scion vehicles have ESC; the
last one to get it was the 2011 model-year Scion tC).[18][19] However, as recent as
November 2010, Ford still sells models in North America without ESC.[20] General
Motors had made a similar announcement for the end of 2010.[21] The NHTSA
requires all passenger vehicles to be equipped with ESC by 2012 and estimates it will
prevent 5,3009,600 annual fatalities once all passenger vehicles are equipped with
the system.[22]

[edit] Operation
Main article: Directional stability

During normal driving, ESC works in the background and continuously monitors
steering and vehicle direction. It compares the driver's intended direction (determined
through the measured steering wheel angle) to the vehicle's actual direction
(determined through measured lateral acceleration, vehicle rotation (yaw), and
individual road wheel speeds).

ESC intervenes only when it detects a probable loss of steering control, i.e. when the
vehicle is not going where the driver is steering.[23] This may happen, for example,
when skidding during emergency evasive swerves, understeer or oversteer during
poorly judged turns on slippery roads, or hydroplaning. ESC may also intervene in an
unwanted way during high-performance driving, because steering input may not
always be directly indicative of the intended direction of travel. ESC estimates the
direction of the skid, and then applies the brakes to individual wheels asymmetrically
in order to create torque about the vehicle's vertical axis, opposing the skid and
bringing the vehicle back in line with the driver's commanded direction. Additionally,
the system may reduce engine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle
down.
ESC can work on any surface, from dry pavement to frozen lakes.[24][25] It reacts to and
corrects skidding much faster and more effectively than the typical human driver,
often before the driver is even aware of any imminent loss of control.[26] In fact, this
led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers to become overconfident in their
vehicle's handling and/or their own driving skills. For this reason, ESC systems
typically inform the driver when they intervene, so that the driver knows that the
vehicle's handling limits have been approached. Most activate a dashboard indicator
light and/or alert tone; some intentionally allow the vehicle's corrected course to
deviate very slightly from the driver-commanded direction, even if it is possible to
more precisely match it.[27]

Indeed, all ESC manufacturers emphasize that the system is not a performance
enhancement nor a replacement for safe driving practices, but rather a safety
technology to assist the driver in recovering from dangerous situations. ESC does not
increase traction, so it does not enable faster cornering (although it can facilitate
better-controlled cornering). More generally, ESC works within inherent limits of the
vehicle's handling and available traction between the tires and road. A reckless
maneuver can still exceed these limits, resulting in loss of control. For example, in a
severe hydroplaning scenario, the wheels that ESC would use to correct a skid may
not even initially be in contact with the road, reducing its effectiveness.

In July 2004, on the Crown Majesta, Toyota offered a Vehicle Dynamics Integrated
Management (VDIM) system that incorporated formerly independent systems,
including ESC. This worked not only after the skid was detected but also to prevent
the skid from occurring in the first place. Using electric variable gear ratio steering
power steering this more advanced system could also alter steering gear ratios and
steering torque levels to assist the driver in evasive maneuvers.

Due to the fact that stability control hinders[citation needed] high-performance driving,
many vehicles have an over-ride control which allows the system to be partially or
fully shut off. In simpler systems, a single button may disable all features, while more
complicated setups may have a multi-position switch or may never be truly turned
fully off.

[edit] Effectiveness
Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping
the driver maintain control of the car, thereby saving lives and reducing the severity of
crashes.[28] In the fall of 2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety
Administration confirmed the international studies, releasing results of a field study in
the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. The NHTSA in United States concluded that ESC
reduces crashes by 35%. Additionally, Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) with stability
control are involved in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the system. The
United States Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study in
June 2006 showing that up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided annually if all
vehicles were equipped with ESC[29] The IIHS study concluded that ESC reduces the
likelihood of all fatal crashes by 43%, fatal single-vehicle crashes by 56%, and fatal
single-vehicle rollovers by 7780%.
ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety by many experts.[30]
including Nicole Nason,[31] Administrator of the NHTSA,[32] Jim Guest and David
Champion[33] of Consumers Union [34] of the Fdration Internationale de l'Automobile
(FIA), E-Safety Aware,[35] Csaba Csere, editor of Car and Driver,[36] and Jim Gill, long
time ESC proponent of Continental Automotive Systems[32] The European New Car
Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that people buy cars fitted
with stability control.

The IIHS requires that a vehicle must have ESC as an available option in order for it
to qualify for their Top Safety Pick award for occupant protection and accident
avoidance.[37][38]

[edit] Components and design

ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is a
rotation around the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable
ESC to brake individual wheels. Many ESC systems also incorporate a traction
control system (TCS or ASR), which senses drive-wheel slip under acceleration and
individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or reduces excess engine power
until control is regained. However, ESC achieves a different purpose than ABS or
Traction Control.[25]

The ESC system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input).
Other sensors indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control algorithm
compares driver input to vehicle response and decides, when necessary, to apply
brakes and/or reduce throttle by the amounts calculated through the state space (set of
equations used to model the dynamics of the vehicle).[39] The ESC controller can also
receive data from and issue commands to other controllers on the vehicle such as an
all wheel drive system or an active suspension system to improve vehicle stability and
controllability.

The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible
defects as soon as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of interference
(rain, holes in the road, etc.). The most important sensors are:

Steering wheel angle sensor: determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e.
where the driver wants to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-
elements.

Yaw rate sensor : measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e. how much the car is
actually turning. The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data from
the steering wheel angle sensor to determine regulating action.

Lateral acceleration sensor: often based on the Hall effect[citation needed]. Measures
the lateral acceleration of the vehicle.

Wheel speed sensor : measures the wheel speed.

Other sensors can include:

 Longitudinal acceleration sensor: similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in
design but can offer additional information about road pitch and also provide
another source of vehicle acceleration and speed.

Roll rate sensor: similar to the yaw rate sensor in design but improves the
fidelity of the controller's vehicle model and correct for errors when estimating
vehicle behavior from the other sensors alone.

ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake
force. A similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during
braking, only. ESC additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an
active vacuum brake booster unit may be utilized in addition to the hydraulic pump to
meet these demanding pressure gradients.

The brain of the ESC system is the electronic control unit (ECU). The various control
techniques are embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse systems at the
same time (ABS, Traction control system, climate control, etc.). The input signals are
sent through the input-circuit to the digital controller. The desired vehicle state is
determined based upon the steering wheel angle, its gradient and the wheel speed.
Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state. The controller computes the
needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the driver circuits
the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a Controller Area Network interface the
ECU is connected with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid giving
contradictory commands.

Many ESC systems have an "off" override switch so the driver can disable ESC,
which may be desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach, or if
using a smaller-sized spare tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some systems
also offer an additional mode with raised thresholds so that a driver can utilize the
limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention. However, ESC defaults to "On"
when the ignition is re-started. Some ESC systems that lack an "off switch", such as
on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily disabled through an
undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake operations.[40] Furthermore,
unplugging a wheel speed sensor is another method of disabling most ESC systems.
The ESC implementation on newer Ford vehicles cannot be completely disabled even
through the use of the "off switch". The ESC will automatically reactivate at highway
speeds, and below that if it detects a skid with the brake pedal depressed.

[edit] Availability and cost

ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake (ABS) system, and all ESC-equipped
vehicles are fitted with traction control. The ESC components include a yaw rate
sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, a steering wheel sensor, and an upgraded
integrated control unit. According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) research, ABS in 2005 cost an estimated US$368; ESC cost a further
US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a stand-alone option it retails for as little as
$250 USD.[41] However, ESC is rarely offered as a sole option, and is generally not
available for aftermarket installation. Instead, it is frequently bundled it with other
features or more expensive trims, so the cost of a package that includes ESC could be
several thousand dollars. Nonetheless, ESC is considered highly cost-effective[42] and
it might pay for itself in reduced insurance premiums.[43] Federal regulations will
require that ESC be installed as a standard feature on all passenger cars and light
trucks beginning in 2012.[44]

Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and

countries. In 2007, ESC was available in roughly 50% of new North American models
compared to about 75% in Sweden. However, consumer awareness affects buying
patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles sold in North America and the UK are
purchased with ESC,[45] contrasting with 7896% in other European countries such as
Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC prior to 2004,
increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on the used car
market.

ESC is available on cars, SUVs and pickup trucks from all major auto makers. Luxury
cars, sports cars, SUVs, and crossovers are usually equipped with ESC. Midsize cars
are also gradually catching on, though the 2008 model years of the Nissan Altima and
Ford Fusion only offered ESC on their V6 engine-equipped cars. While ESC includes
traction control, there are vehicles such as the 2008 Chevrolet Malibu LS and 2008
Mazda6 that have traction control but not ESC. ESC is rare among subcompact cars
as of 2008. The 2009 Toyota Corolla in the United States (but not Canada) has
stability control as a $250 option on all trims below that of the XRS which has it as
standard.[41] In Canada, for the 2010 Mazda3, ESC is as an option on the midrange GS
trim as part of the moonroof package, and is standard on the top-of-the-line GT
version.[46] The 2009 Ford Focus has ESC as an option for the S and SE models, and
standard on the SEL and SES models[47]

ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems
(including Roll Stability Control (RSC)[48]) are available for many commercial
vehicles,[49] including transport trucks, trailers, and buses from manufacturers such as
Bendix Corporation,[50] WABCO [51] Daimler, Scania AB,[52] and Prevost,[53] and light
passenger vehicles.[12][54]

The ChooseESC! campaign, run by the EU's eSafetyAware! project, provides a global
perspective on ESC. One ChooseESC! publication shows the availability of ESC in
EU member countries.

In the US, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) website[55] shows
availability of ESC in individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA website)[15] lists US models with ESC.

In Australia, the National Roads and Motorists' Association NRMA shows the
availability of ESC in Australian models.[56]

[edit] Future
The market for ESC is growing quickly, especially in European countries such as
Sweden, Denmark, and Germany. For example, in 2003 in Sweden the purchase rate
on new cars with ESC was 15%. The Swedish road safety administration issued a
strong ESC recommendation and in September 2004, 16 months later, the purchase
rate was 58%. A stronger ESC recommendation was then given and in December
2004, the purchase rate on new cars had reached 69%[57] and by 2008 it had grown to
96%. ESC advocates around the world are promoting increased ESC use through
legislation and public awareness campaigns and by 2012, most new vehicles should
be equipped with ESC.

Just as ESC is founded on the Anti-lock braking system (ABS), ESC is the foundation
for new advances such as Roll Stability Control (RSC) [12][54] that works in the vertical
plane much like ESC works in the horizontal plane. When RSC detects impending
rollover (usually on transport trucks[51] or SUVs[58]), RSC applies brakes, reduces
throttle, induces understeer, and/or slows down the vehicle.

The computing power of ESC facilitates the networking of active and passive safety
systems, addressing other causes of crashes. For example, sensors may detect when a
vehicle is following too closely and slow down the vehicle, straighten up seat backs,
and tighten seat belts, avoiding and/or preparing for a crash.

[edit] Regulation
While Sweden used public awareness campaigns to promote ESC use,[59] others
implemented or proposed legislation.

The Canadian province of Quebec was the first jurisdiction to implement an ESC law,
making it compulsory for carriers of dangerous goods (without data recorders) in
2005.[60]

The United States was next, requiring ESC for all passenger vehicles under 10,000
pounds (4536 kg), phasing in the regulation starting with 55% of 2009 models
(effective 1 September 2008), 75% of 2010 models, 95% of 2011 models, and all
2012 models.[15]

Canada[61][62] will require all new passenger vehicles to have ESC from 1 September
2011.[63]

The Australian Government announced on 23 June 2009 that ESC would be

compulsory from 1 November 2011 for all new passenger vehicles sold in Australia,
and for all new vehicles from November 2013.[64]

The European Parliament has also called for the accelerated introduction of ESC.[65]
The European Commission has confirmed a proposal for the mandatory introduction
of ESC on all new cars and commercial vehicle models sold in the EU from 2012,
with all new cars being equipped by 2014.[66]

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has passed a Global Technical
Regulation to harmonize ESC standards.[67]

[edit] Product names

 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)

Electronic stability control (ESC) is the generic term recognised by the European
Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), the North American Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, and
other worldwide authorities. However, vehicle manufacturers may use a variety of
different trade names for ESC:

Acura: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)' (formerly CSL 4-Drive TCS)

Alfa Romeo: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)

Audi: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Bentley: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

BMW: Co engineering partner and inventor with Robert BOSCH GmbH and
Continental (TEVES) Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic
Traction Control)

Bugatti: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Buick: StabiliTrak

Cadillac: StabiliTrak & Active Front Steering (AFS)

Chery Automobile: Electronic Stability Program

Chevrolet: StabiliTrak; Active Handling (Corvette only)

Chrysler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Citron: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Dodge: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Daimler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Fiat: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and Vehicle Dynamic Control

(VDC)

Ferrari: Controllo Stabilit (CST)

 Ford: AdvanceTrac with Roll Stability Control (RSC) and Interactive
Vehicle Dynamics (IVD) and Electronic Stability Program (ESP);
Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (Australia only)

General Motors: StabiliTrak

Honda: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA) (formerly CSL 4-Drive TCS)

Holden: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Hyundai: Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Electronic Stability Control

(ESC) and Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)

Infiniti: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)

Jaguar: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)

Jeep: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Kia: Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Electronic Stability Program

(ESP)

Lamborghini: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Land Rover: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)

Lexus: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle

Stability Control (VSC)

Lincoln: AdvanceTrac

Maserati: Maserati Stability Program (MSP)

Mazda: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction

Control)

Mercedes-Benz (co-inventor): Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Mercury: AdvanceTrac

MINI: Dynamic Stability Control

Mitsubishi: Active Skid and Traction Control MULTIMODE and Active

Stability Control (ASC)

Nissan: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)

 Oldsmobile: Precision Control System (PCS)

Opel: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Peugeot: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Pontiac: StabiliTrak

Porsche: Porsche Stability Management (PSM)

Proton: Electronic Stability Program

Renault: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Rover Group: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)

Saab: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Saturn: StabiliTrak

Scania: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)[68]

SEAT: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

koda: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Smart: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Subaru: Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)

Suzuki: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Toyota: Either Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) or Vehicle Dynamics

Integrated Management (VDIM)

Vauxhall: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Volvo: Dynamic Stability and Traction Control (DSTC)

Volkswagen: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

Opel: Trailer Stability Program (TSP)[69]

[edit] System manufacturers

ESC system manufacturers include:
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Aisin Advics[70]

Bendix Corporation

Continental Automotive Systems

BeijingWest Industries

Hitachi

ITT Automotive, since 1982 part of Continental AG

Johnson Electric[71]

Mando Corporation

Nissin Kogyo

Teves, now part of Continental AG

TRW

WABCO

Hyundai Mobis

Knorr-Bremse[72]

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[edit] External links
Bosch ESC Information

ChooseESC! a combined initiative from the European Commission,

eSafetyAware, and Euro NCAP

E-Safety list of ESC Media Articles from eSafety Support

NHTSA on ESC including US Regulation and list of US vehicles with ESC

Canadian Association of Road Safety Professionals on ESC

Transport Canada on ESC

Australia (Victoria) on ESC

NHTSA announces mandatory ESC all light US vehicles by 2012

Proposed Canadian ESC Law

European ESC Mandate for Trucks and Coaches

European ESC Campaign

Glen Nicholson, "ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL (ESC),"ISSUE

2007, Number 3, The Official Newsletter of the Canadian Association of Road
Safety Professionals

Anders Lie, Claes Tingvall, Maria Krafft, and Anders Kullgren, "The
Effectiveness of ESC (Electronic Stability Control) in Reducing Real Life
Crashes and Injuries," of the 19th Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference,
2005

Australian (Monash) ESC Study

G. Bahouth, "REAL WORLD CRASH EVALUATION OF VEHICLE

STABILITY CONTROL (VSC) TECHNOLOGY,"

Michael Paine,"ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL: REVIEW OF

RESEARCH AND REGULATIONS," Prepared for ROADS AND TRAFFIC
AUTHORITY OF NSW, 2005

UK ESC Video by What Car

Four Little Words: "Does it have ESC?"

 ABC News ESC Video