Proceduri in Desenul Tehnic Din Institut

PROJECT ENGINEERING SYSTEM
A 2010-10-01 First Issue CBjn/ERtr PNcl PNcl
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DRAUGHTING MANUAL
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2010, ICEPRONAV
Form Code PES-AD-T001 Rev. A / May 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE....................................................................................................................................... 5
1 TECHNICAL DESIGN STANDARDS .................................................................................... 6
1.1 LINEWORK ..................................................................................................................... 6

1.2 LETTERING .................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 SCALES ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 TECHNICAL DRAWING FORMATS ...................................................................................... 8
2 RULES FOR VIEWS AND SECTIONS REPRESENTATION AND NOTATION .................... 9
2.1 GENERAL RULES FOR THE VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS REPRESENTATION .................... 9
2.2 SPECIAL RULES FOR VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS REPRESENTATION .......................... 10
2.3 VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS NOTATION ..................................................................... 13
3 DIMENSIONING PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................ 14
3.1 DIMENSIONING OF FEATURES NOT DRAWN TO SCALE ...................................................... 17

3.2 CHAIN DIMENSIONING AND AUXILIARY DIMENSIONING ...................................................... 17
3.3 PARALLEL DIMENSIONING ............................................................................................. 17
3.4 RUNNING DIMENSIONING ............................................................................................... 18
3.5 DIMENSIONING CIRCLES ................................................................................................ 18
3.6 DIMENSIONING RADII ..................................................................................................... 19
3.7 DIMENSIONING CURVES ................................................................................................ 20
3.8 ANGULAR DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................. 22
3.9 TAPERS ....................................................................................................................... 22
3.10 DIMENSIONING CHAMFERS ............................................................................................ 25
3.11 DIMENSIONING HOLES................................................................................................... 25
3.12 DIMENSIONING COUNTERBORES .................................................................................... 25
3.13 DIMENSIONING COUNTERSUNK HOLES ........................................................................... 27
3.14 DIMENSIONING SPOTFACES ........................................................................................... 27
3.15 DIMENSIONING FOR MANUFACTURE ............................................................................... 28
3.16 GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS TO INDICATE SURFACE TEXTURE .................................................. 30
3.17 MANDATORY POSITIONS FOR COMPLEMENTARY REQUIREMENTS ..................................... 31
4 GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES ......................................................................................... 34
4.1 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................. 34

4.2 ADVANTAGES............................................................................................................... 34
4.3 GENERAL RULES .......................................................................................................... 34
4.4 THEORETICALLY EXACT DIMENSIONS ............................................................................. 36
4.5 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................ 37
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4.6 METHOD OF INDICATING GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES ON DRAWINGS ............................... 38

4.7 METHODS OF APPLYING THE TOLERANCE FRAME TO THE TOLERANCED FEATURE ............. 38
4.8 PROCEDURE FOR POSITIONING REMARKS WHICH ARE RELATED TO TOLERANCE ............... 39
4.9 THE APPLICATION OF TOLERANCES TO A RESTRICTED LENGTH OF A FEATURE.................. 39
4.10 TOLERANCE ZONES ...................................................................................................... 39
4.11 PROJECTED TOLERANCED ZONE.................................................................................... 40
4.12 DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING NON-RIGID PARTS ..................................................... 41
4.13 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................ 41
4.14 POSITIONAL TOLERANCING ........................................................................................... 41
4.15 TRUE-POSITION (THEORETICAL EXACT) DIMENSIONING.................................................... 42
4.16 TYPICAL PRODUCT REQUIREMENT ................................................................................. 43
5 ASSEMBLY DRAWING ...................................................................................................... 48
5.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................. 48

5.2 REPRESENTING RULES ................................................................................................. 48
5.3 POSITIONING RULES ..................................................................................................... 51
5.4 DIMENSION RULES ........................................................................................................ 52
5.5 ITEMS TABLE ................................................................................................................ 52
5.6 WELDING SYMBOLS USED IN TECHNICAL DRAWINGS ....................................................... 52
5.7 SCREWED ASSEMBLIES ................................................................................................ 55
5.8 LIMITS AND FITS ........................................................................................................... 59
6 SPECIFIC DRAWINGS FOR PIPING IN SHIPBUILDING ................................................... 65
6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................. 65

6.2 PIPING ASSEMBLY DRAWING SYMBOLS .......................................................................... 65
6.3 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM ....................................................................... 71
6.4 COORDINATION DRAWING (COMPOSITE DRAWING) .......................................................... 71
6.5 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS .................................................................................................. 74
7 HULL DRAUGHTING .......................................................................................................... 75
7.1 SHIP DIMENSIONS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................. 75

7.2 COORDINATES SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 77
7.3 LINES PLANE AND OFFSET TABLE .................................................................................. 78
7.4 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF SHIP STRUCTURES .............................................. 81
7.5 HULL SAMPLE DRAWINGS ............................................................................................. 88
7.6 LIST OF MAIN HULL DOCUMENTS FOR BASIC DESIGN AND DETAIL DESIGN ......................... 96
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 99
APPENDIX A.1 - TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION ...................................................... 100
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PREFACE
The text which follows covers the basic aspects of engineering drawing practice required by
professional drawing office personnel. This work is addressed to specialists in the
engineering industry and appropriate fields and it is trying to correlate the graphical
representations with the standards already existing when it was elaborated, in accordance
with the theoretical basis of technical Drawing.
The contents of document are basically a graded course of work, consisting of chapters
giving explanations and examples of construction methods, followed by exercises which
allow the reader to practice what has been learned in each chapter.
Applications show how regularly used standards should be applied and interpreted.
Theoretical knowledge covers the principles, methods and conventions practiced in technical
drawing. Imagination is a must to develop the visualization capabilities for better
understanding.
Geometrical constructions are a necessary part of engineering design and analysis and
examples of two and three-dimensional geometry are provided. Practice is invaluable, not
only as a means of understanding principles, but in developing the ability to visualize shape
and form in three dimensions with a high degree of fluency. It is sometimes forgotten that not
only does a draughtsman produce original drawings but is also required to read and absorb
the content of drawings he receives without ambiguity.
The section on engineering diagrams is included to stimulate and broaden technological
interest, further study, and be of value to students engaged on project work. Readers are
invited to redraw a selection of the examples given for experience, also to appreciate the
necessity for the insertion and meaning of every line.
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1 TECHNICAL DESIGN STANDARDS
1.1 LINEWORK
1.1.1 Presentation
Drawing sheets and other documents should be presented in one of the following formats:
(a) Landscape; presented to be viewed with the longest side of the sheet horizontal.
(b) Portrait; presented to be viewed with the longest side of the sheet vertical.
1.1.2 Lines and linework

Two thicknesses of line are recommended for manual and CAD drawings. A wide line and a
narrow line in the ratio of 2:1. Standard lead holders, inking pens for manual use, and those
for CAD plotters are all available in the following millimetre sizes: 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.4
and 2.0. Line thicknesses of 0.7 and 0.35 are generally used and will give good quality, black,
dense and contrasting lines.
Table 1.1, shows applications for different line types which are designed to obtain a good
professional finish to a drawing.
Table 1.1
Example Description Represe Application

ntation
A Continuous wide line Visible edges and outlines
1 Dimension, extension and projection

lines
2 Hatching lines for cross sections
3 Leader and reference lines
4 Outlines of revolved sections
B Continuous narrow line
5 Imaginary lines of intersection
6 Short centre lines
7 Diagonals indicating flat surfaces
8 Bending lines
9 Indication of repetitive features
Continuous narrow Limits of partial views or sections
C
irregular line provided the line is not an axis
Limits of partial or interrupted views;
Continuous straight
D Suitable for CAD drawings provided the
narrow line with zig zags
line is not an axis
Two or more hidden outlines and edges
E Dashed wide line
wich are overlaped
Dashed narrow line
F Hidden outlines and edges
1 Centre lines.
Long dashed dotted
G 2 Lines of symmetry
narrow line
3 Pitch circle for gears
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4 Pitch circle for holes

Long dashed dotted At ends and at changes to indicate
H
narrow line with wide line cutting planes
Long dashed dotted wide Surfaces which have to meet special
I
line requirements
1 Preformed outlines
2 Adjacent parts
Long dashed double 3 Extreme positions of moveable parts
K
dotted narrow line 4 Initial outlines prior to forming
5 Outline of finished parts
6 Projected tolerance zones
Various combinations of line thickness and type are shown on the mechanism in Fig.
1.1(Circled numbers relate to the line types in Table 1.1)
1.2 LETTERING
It has previously been mentioned that technical drawings are prepared using only two line
thicknesses and if reasonable care is taken a pleasing result can easily be obtained.
The following notes will assist the draughtsmans technique of lettering:
- Lettering may be vertical or slanted, according to the style which is customarily used
by the draughtsman. The aim is to produce clear and unambiguous letters, numbers
and symbols.
- Use single stroke characters devoid of serifs and embellishments.
- All strokes should be of consistent density.
- The spacing round each character is important to ensure that filling in will not occur
during reproduction.
- Lettering should not be underlined since this impairs legibility.
- On parts lists or where information is tabulated, the letters or numerals should not be
allowed to touch the spacing lines.
- All drawing notes and dimensions should remain legible on reduced size copies (A3).
- Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on
reduced size copies of drawings. Lower case letters are generally used only where
they are parts of standard symbols, codes or abbreviations.
- The company standard for font type is Arial, however that there may be a contract
specific change to another type(s).
The nominal writing dimension is the capital letters and cipher height h, measured in mm,
and is chose from standard heights: 1,8; 2,5; 3,5; 5; 7; 10; mm, or the height resulted from
n
this standard heights amplified with 10 , where n= 1, 2, , k.
1.3 SCALES
The reason for the application of scales is in order to realistically represent the physical item
in a user-friendly sized drawing. The scale used must be stated within the title block. If more
than one scale is used on a drawing sheet then the major scale should be stated within the
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title block and the other scales should be stated in the views title.
1.4 TECHNICAL DRAWING FORMATS

Technical drawing formats, borders and margin sizes are to be as per the company standard
and are chosen from main A series.
Symbol axb (mm)

A0 841x1189
A1 594x841
A2 420x594
A3 297x420
A4 210x297
Whenever an extra-standard format is necessary it can be used with project management

approval and should be chosen from special lengthened or exceptional lengthened formats.
Special lengthened formats are obtained by a dimension dilation of A series formats, and
lengthened format b dimension must be integral multiple of the basic format a dimension.
Symbol axb (mm)

A3x3 420x891
A3x4 420x1189
A4x3 297x630
A4x4 297x841
A4x5 297x1051
Exceptional lengthened formats can be obtained by a dimension dilation of A series formats,

and lengthened format b dimension must be integral multiple of the basic format a dimension.
Symbol axb (mm) Symbol axb (mm)

A0x2 1189x1682 A3x5 420x1486
A0x3 1189x2523 A3x6 420x1783
A1x3 841x1783 A3x7 420x2080
A1x4 841x2378 A4x6 297x1261
A2x3 594x1261 A4x7 297x1471
A2x4 594x1682 A4x8 297x1682
A2x5 594x2102 A4x9 297x1892
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2 RULES FOR VIEWS AND SECTIONS REPRESENTATION AND NOTATION
These rules are:

- terminology and classification;
- general rules for representation;
- special rules for representation;
- rules for views and sections representation and notation;
Terminology and classification for views and sections are referred in Appendix 1.
2.1 GENERAL RULES FOR THE VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS

REPRESENTATION
2.1.1 The representation of the symmetry axis lines and axis of revolution.
These projection components are marked out with long dashed dotted narrow line (type C)
and complies with the following rules:
- The axis lines exceed the projections contour with 2-3mm.

- The intersection of this kind of lines is realized at the segments level.
- When the projection containing it has the dimensions smaller or equal with 10mm, a
continuous narrow line is used for the axis mark-out.
- The recommended dimension of segment is 68mm and the distance between the
segment and point is 23mm.
In Fig. A.1.11, for left view and section A-A is applied the rule that refers to marking out the
axis lines of the projections with continuous line.
2.1.2 Fictive edges representation.
- The fictive edges are represented with continuous narrow line (type B) (Fig. A.1.4c,
Fig. A.1.10a-c, Fig. A.1.12).
- The fictive edges dont intersects contour lines or real visible lines, breaking at 2-3mm
from these. (Fig. A.1.4c)
- When two parallel fictive edges must be represented on a piece view, placed at a very
small distance between them, just one fictive line will be represented, namely the one
that corresponds to that smallest thickness of the piece. (Fig. A.1.10a-c, Fig. A.1.12).
In Fig. A.1.10 and Fig. A.1.12the fictive edges intersect break lines and the symmetry axis
and so dont need to break them. In Fig. A.1.10 the cornier parts have a leaning face with a
5% bent, and in that way are generated two fictive edges, but represented is just the one with
the part thickness smaller. In Fig. A.1.12 the fictive edge corresponds to intersection between
imaginary extensions of conical surface with level planes of conical bases. The fictive edges
accentuate is necessary for the piece dimensioning.
2.1.3 The representation of elements placed in front of the sectioning plane.
The geometric shapes contours of a piece placed in front of the sectioning plane can be
represented on that section using long dashed double dotted narrow line.
The prismatic bossage on the exterior cylindrical surface of the piece from Fig. A.1.13a. it
couldnt be represented in a regular way on section A-A because it can be found on the piece
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part that is removed imaginary. Appling this rule, its contour can be represented and the
necessary dimensions can be inscribed on section.
Other representation solutions for this piece are presented in Fig. A.1.13c and Fig. A.1.13d.
2.1.4 Broken section representation
The broken sections are used for relieving the inside shapes of a piece when avoiding
leaning sections is intended. For the support from Fig. A.1.14a, no matter the chose position
for representation, two sections are necessary, one of the section being leaning. The
representation of the broken section complies with the following rules:
- The sectioning surface has two semi planes which form between them a 90 o angle.
- The real contours resulted by sectioning the piece with the leaning semi plane are
rotating until will get to appertain to the rest of the section plane.
- The apparent lack of correspondence between the obtained section and the rest of
piece projections shall not be considered representation error.
Fig. A.1.14b shows the spin of the section contours (the vertical segment 1) in the position
notated 1 1 and the projection on the vertical plane of the spun contour (1 1 ).
The auxiliary graphic constructions from Fig. A.1.14b dont have to appear on the drawing
paper.
2.1.5 Step-up section representation
The step-up section is used for accentuate with one section only, inside shapes that cant be
got through with the same sectioning plane. In this way is avoided the representation of more
sections. The step-up sections representation complies with following rules:
- The sectioning surface is formed from an odd number of converse perpendicular
planes. The break points of the route (the intersection points of the converse
perpendicular planes track) are accentuated with continuous wide line segments.
- On the step-up sections the hatches are shifted to accentuate the pass through an
another area of the sectioning surface.
Fig. A.1.15a and b shows an example of the practical rule application. For the relieving of the
inside bares of the plate the following representation solution can be used:
- Three projections: top view, section S1-S1 and section S2-S2;
- Three projections: top view, section S1-S1 and combined projection generated by the
route S3-S3 ( view from left and section);
- Three projections: top view, section S1-S1 and section S4-S4;
- Two projections: top view and step-up section A-A (Fig. A.1.15b).
Obvious, the most efficient representation is the one with step-up section. The hatches shift
is accentuated in Fig. A.1.15b.
2.2 SPECIAL RULES FOR VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS REPRESENTATION

2.2.1 Symmetric objects representation.
The symmetric objects are the one characterized by the symmetry of the outside and inside
geometric shapes towards one or more planes. This kind of object projections can be
represented just half or quarter, to save space format. In this situation the following rules
shall apply:
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- The symmetry symbols ( two continuous narrow parallel line segments); are written on
symmetry axis of the partial represented projection
- The symmetric view representations recommended as follows: on horizontal plane the
part placed under the symmetry axis (Fig. A.1.16), on vertical plane and the lateral part
placed in the left of symmetry vertical axis (Fig. A.1.17, Fig. 2.18).
- Using the symmetry in ratio with a plane, the views obtained after opposite directions
can be grouped.
In Fig. A.1.16 the represented lid has four symmetry planes but the top view can be only 50%
represented because the break sections A-A doesnt result symmetrically.
In Fig. A.1.17 the collar has six symmetry planes, and only two of them are used.
In Fig. 2.1 the represented transition surface has just one symmetry plane, used to represent
the top view 50% and to use on lateral plane a combined projection view from left and
view from right.
Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.2
2.2.2 Repetition elements representation.

The avoidance of the representation of some shape details that are repeating regularly is
permitted, specifying just the first and the last element on view. The other details position is
indicated with axis lines and dimensioning.
In Fig. 2.2 the slits position with 5mm diameter is indicated just on their centers.
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2.2.3 Plane surface representation.

The planes surfaces resulted by processing on cylindrical-conic surfaces or rotary surfaces
are accentuated on the representation in the view marking-out the contour diagonals with
continuous narrow line.
The polyhedral surfaces sides can be accentuated by marking-out the diagonals with
continuous narrow line if the representation understanding is easier in this way.
In Fig. 2.3 the splay extremity of a bar is accentuated on the front view with diagonals help
and a local view is used for dimensioning.
In Fig. 2.4 the regular prism sides that represent an ax extremity are accentuated by
diagonals and the characteristic dimension is inscribed on a local view.
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.3
2.2.4 Simplified representation of the surfaces intersection curves.

The real edge resulted from processing, representing the intersection curve of two cylindrical
surfaces, can be a simplified representation by segments that get through the extreme points
of the curve.
Fig. 2.5 schematically represent a T transition surface. The intersection of the outside
surfaces projection on the vertical plan is accentuated by a fictive edge, and the intersection
curve of the inside surfaces is represented by segment 1.
Fig. 2.5
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2.2.5 Detail representation.

The detail representation on an increase scale has the purpose to ensure the
necessary space for dimensioning. The rules that are applied are the following and are
exemplified in Fig. 2.6 the canal representation of an inside fillet rake:
- The part that will be represented to an increase scale is bounded by a frame (square,
rectangle, circle) marked out with continuous narrow line.
- The detail is identified with a capital letter, placed in frame inside.
- The detail is represented in view or section as it is extracted from a view or section.
- The detail is bounded by the necessary contours or by a break line.
- On the increased scale representation those dimensions that cant be placed on the
source projection are marked.
- The detail is notated with the allocated letter and the increased scale used on its
representation.
Fig. 2.6
2.3 VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS NOTATION

For views, sections and details notation precise rules are necessary because the used
projections for a piece representation or assembly can be numerous and placed on more
formats.
- The views obtained after the projection normal direction and placed as per
recommendations. The normal displacement of the projections must not be notated.
- The views obtained after the projection normal direction but placed in other position
then the standard ones are notated with a capital letter. The direction after the view is
obtained, is indicated with the same letter.
- This rule is applied in Fig. 2.1, where the view from right (direction B) is placed in the
position for the view from left.
- The sections are notated with capital letters where the sectioning routes are indicated.
- Examples in Fig. A.1.6c, d, Fig. A.1.13, Fig. A.1.15. A-A appear on every drawing
because for each of them that section is the first section.
- For the combined projection case of the symmetric piece is allowed to dont notate the
section rout and the projection.
- In Fig. 2.5 this rule is applied, for combined projections view and section on the
vertical and lateral planes.
- The details are notated with a letter and the representation scale.
- A letter can be used just one time for a view, section or detail label. The letters are
used in alphabetic order and complying with the projection development order.
- The projection numbers are with capital letters, with the letter nominal height of 5mm.
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3 DIMENSIONING PRINCIPLES
A drawing should provide a complete specification of the component to ensure that the
design intent can be met at all production stages. Dimensions specifying features of size,
position, location, geometric control and surface texture must be defined and appear on the
drawing only once. It should not be necessary for the craftsman either to scale the drawing or
to deduce dimensions by the subtraction or addition of other dimensions. Double
dimensioning is also not acceptable.
Theoretically any component can be analyzed and divided into a number of standard
common geometrical shapes such as cubes, prisms, cylinders, parts of cones, etc. The
circular hole in Fig. 3.1 can be considered as a cylinder through the plate. Dimensioning a
component is the means of specifying the design intent in the manufacture and verification of
the finished part.
A solid block with a circular hole in it is shown in Fig. 3.1 and to establish the exact shape of
the item we require to know the dimensions which govern its length, height and thickness,
also the diameter and depth of the hole and its position in relation to the surface of the block.
The axis of the hole is shown at the intersection of two centre lines positioned from the left
hand side and the bottom of the block and these two surfaces have been taken as facts. The
length and height have also been measured from these surfaces separately and this is a very
important point as errors may become cumulative and this is discussed later in the chapter.
Dimensioning therefore, should be undertaken with a view to defining the shape or form and
overall size of the component carefully, also the sizes and positions of the various features,
such as holes, countrebores, tapings, etc., from the necessary given planes or axes.
The completed engineering drawing should also include sufficient information for the
manufacture of the part and this involves the addition of notes regarding the materials used,
tolerances of size, limits and fits, surface finishes, the number of parts required and any
further comments which result from a consideration of the use to which the completed
component will be put. For example, the part could be used in sub-assembly and notes would
then make reference to associated drawings or general assemblies.
- Dimension and projection lines are narrow continuous 0.35 mm thick lines, if possible,
clearly placed outside the outline of the drawing. As previously mentioned, the drawing
outline is depicted with wide 0.7 mm thick lines. The drawing outline will then be clearly
defined and in contrast with the dimensioning system.
- The projection lines should not touch the drawing but a small gap should be left, about
2 to 3 mm, depending on the size of the drawing. The projection lines should then
continue for the same distance past the dimension line.
- Arrowheads should be approximately triangular, must be of uniform size and shape
and in every case touch the dimension line to which they refer. Arrowheads drawn
manually should be filled in. Arrowheads drawn by machine need not be filled in.
- Bearing in mind the size of the actual dimensions and the fact that there may be two
numbers together where limits of size are quoted, then adequate space must be left
between rows of dimensions and a spacing of about 12 mm is recommended.
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Fig. 3.1
- Centre lines must never be used as dimension lines but must be left clear and distinct.
They can be extended, however, when used in the role of projection lines.
- Dimensions are quoted in millimetres to the minimum number of significant Figs. For
example, 19 and not 19.0. In the case of a decimal dimension, always use a naught
before the decimal marker, which might not be noticed on a drawing print that has poor
line definition. We write 0,4 and not 4. It should be stated here that on metric drawings
the decimal marker is a comma positioned on the base line between the Figs, for
example, 5,2 but never 52 with a decimal point midway.
- To enable dimensions to be read clearly, Figs are placed so that they can be read from
the bottom of the drawing, or by turning the drawing in a clockwise direction, so that
they can be read from the right hand side.
- Leader lines are used to indicate where specific indications apply. The leader line to
the hole is directed towards the centre point but terminates at the circumference in an
arrow. A leader line for a part number terminates in a dot within the outline of the
component. The gauge plate here is assumed to be part number six of a set of
inspection gauges.
Fig. 3.2 shows a partly completed drawing of a gauge to illustrate the above aspects of
dimensioning.
When components are drawn in orthographic projection, a choice often exists where to place
the dimensions and the following general rules will give assistance.
- Start by dimensioning the view which gives the clearest understanding of the profile or
shape of the component.
- If space permits, and obviously this varies with the size and degree of complexity of the
subject, place the dimensions outside the profile of the component as first choice.
- Where several dimensions are placed on the same side of the drawing, position the
shortest dimension nearest to the component and this will avoid dimension lines
crossing.
- Try to ensure that similar spacing are made between dimension lines as this gives a
neat appearance on the completed drawing.
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- Overall dimensions which are given for surfaces that can be seen in two projected
views are generally best positioned between these two views.
- Remember, that drawings are the media to communicate the design intent used to the
manufacturing and verification units. Therefore always check over your drawing, view it
and question yourself. Is the information complete? Ask yourself whether or not the
machinist or fitter can use or work to the dimension you have quoted to make the item.
Also, can the inspector verify the Fig., in other words, is it a measurable distance?
Fig. 3.3 shows a component which has been partly dimensioned to illustrate some of the
involved principles.
Careless and untidy dimensioning can spoil an otherwise sound drawing and it should be
stated that many marks are lost in examinations due to poor quality work.
Fig. 3.2
Fig. 3.3
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3.1 DIMENSIONING OF FEATURES NOT DRAWN TO SCALE

This method of indication is by underlining a particular dimension with a wide line as
indicated in Fig. 3.4 This practice is very useful where the dimensional change does not
impair the understanding of the drawing.
Fig. 3.4
3.2 CHAIN DIMENSIONING AND AUXILIARY DIMENSIONING

Chains of dimensions should only be used where the possible accumulation of tolerances
does not endanger the function of the part.
A plan view of a twist drill stand is given in Fig. 3.5 to illustrate chain dimensioning. Now each
of the dimensions in the chain would be subject to a manufacturing tolerance since it is not
possible to mark out and drill each of the centre distances exactly. As a test of drawing
accuracy, start at the left hand side and mark out the dimensions shown in turn. Measure the
overall Fig. on your drawing and check with the auxiliary dimension given. Note the
considerable variation in length, which results from small errors in each of the six separate
dimensions in the chain, which clearly accumulate. Imagine the effect of marking out say
twenty holes for rivets in each of two plates, how many holes would eventually line up? The
overall length is shown in parentheses (157) and is known as an auxiliary dimension. This
dimension is not one which is worked to in practice but is given purely for reference
purposes. You will now appreciate that it will depend on the accuracy with which each of the
pitches in the chain is marked out.
Fig. 3.5
3.3 PARALLEL DIMENSIONING

Improved positional accuracy is obtainable by dimensioning more than one feature from a
common datum, and this method is shown in Fig. 3.6. The selected datum is the left hand
side of the stand. Note that the overall length is not an auxiliary dimension, but as a
dimensional length in its own right.
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Fig. 3.6
3.4 RUNNING DIMENSIONING

Is a simplified method of parallel dimensioning having the advantage that the indication
requires less space. The common origin is indicated as shown (Fig. 3.7) with a narrow
continuous circle and the dimensions placed near the respective arrowheads.
Fig. 3.7
Staggered dimensions
For greater clarity a number of parallel dimensions may be indicated as shown in Fig. 3.8 and
Fig. 3.9.
3.5 DIMENSIONING CIRCLES

The symbol preceding the figure is used for specifying diameters and it should be written
as large as the Figs which establish the size, e.g. 65. Alternative methods of dimensioning
diameters are given below. The size of hole and space available on the drawing generally
dictates which method the draughtsman chooses.
Fig. 3.8
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Fig. 3.9
Fig. 3.10
3.6 DIMENSIONING RADII

Alternative methods are shown where the position of the centre of the arc need not be
located. Note that the dimension line is drawn through the arc centre or lies in a line with it in
the case of short distances and the arrowhead touches the arc.
Fig. 3.11
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Dimensioning spherical radii and diameters
Fig. 3.12
3.7 DIMENSIONING CURVES

A curve formed by the blending of several radii must have the radii with their centres of
curvature clearly marked.
Dimensioning irregular curves

Irregular curves may be dimensioned by the use of ordinates. To illustrate the use of
ordinates, a section through the hull of a boat is shown (Fig. 3.14). Since the hull is
symmetrical about the vertical centre line it is not necessary to draw both halves in full and if
the curve is presented in this manner then two short thick parallel lines are drawn at each
end of the profile at right angles to the centre line. The outline is also extended slightly
beyond the centre line to indicate that the shape is to be continued. Ordinates are then
positioned on the drawing and the outline passes through each of the chosen fixed points.
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Fig. 3.13
Fig. 3.14
Fig. 3.15
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Fig. 3.16
3.8 ANGULAR DIMENSIONS

Angular dimensions on engineering drawings are expressed as follows:
- Degrees, e.g. 30.
- Degrees and minutes, e.g. 30 40.
- Degrees, minutes and seconds e.g. 30 40 20.
For clarity a full space is left between the degree symbol and the minute figure also between
the minute symbol and the second figure.
In the case of an angle less than one degree it should be preceded by 0, e.g. 0 25.
Fig. 3.17 shows various methods of dimensioning angles.
3.9 TAPERS
In Fig. 3.18 the difference in magnitude between dimensions X and Y (whether diameters or
widths) divided by the length between them defines a ratio known as a taper.
Fig. 3.17
Fig. 3.18
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X Y
Taper 2 tan
length 2
For example, the conical taper in Fig. 3.19:
20 10 10
Taper 0.25
40 40
and may be expressed as rate of taper 0.25:1 on diameter.
The ISO recommended symbol for taper is , and this symbol can be shown on drawings
accompanying the rate of taper,
i.e. 0.25:1
The arrow indicates the direction of taper.
When a taper is required as a datum, it is enclosed in a box as follows:
Fig. 3.19
Dimensioning tapers
The size, form, and position of a tapered feature can be defined by calling for a suitable
combination of the following:
- the rate of taper, or the included angle;
- the diameter or width at the larger end;
- the diameter or width at the smaller end;
- the length of the tapered feature;
- the diameter or width at a particular cross-section, which may lie within or outside the
feature concerned;
- the locating dimension from the datum to the cross-section referred to above.
Care must be taken to ensure that no more dimensions are quoted on the drawing than are
necessary. If reference dimensions are given to improve communications, then they must be
shown in brackets, e.g. (1:5 taper).
Fig. 3.20 gives four examples of the methods used to specify the size, form, and position of
tapered features.
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Fig. 3.20
Dimensioning two mating tapers
When the fit to a mating part or gauge is necessary, a tried and successful method used in
manufacturing units is to add the following information to the feature(s).
- To FIT PART NO. YYY.
- TO FIT GAUGE (PART NO. GG).
When note 2 is added to the drawing, this implies that a standard rubbing gauge will give an
acceptable even marking when blued. The functional requirement whether the end-wise
location is important or not, will determine the method and choice of dimensioning.
An example of dimensioning two mating tapers when end-wise location is important is shown
in Fig. 3.21.
For more accurate repeatability of location, the use of Geometric Tolerance and a specific
datum is recommended.
Fig. 3.21
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3.10 DIMENSIONING CHAMFERS

Alternative methods of dimensioning internal and external chamfers are shown in Fig. 3.22.
Fig. 3.22
Fig. 3.23 shows a square machined on the end of a shaft so that it can be turned by means
of a spanner.
Fig. 3.23
The narrow diagonal lines are added to indicate the flat surface.
The part of a spindle which carries the chain wheel of a cycle, secured by a cotter pin,
illustrates a flat surface which is not at the end of the shaft (Fig. 3.24).
Fig. 3.24
3.11 DIMENSIONING HOLES
The depth of drilled holes, when stated in note form, refers to the depth of the cylindrical
portion and not to the point left by the drill. If no other indication is given they are assumed to
go through the material.
Holes in flanges or bosses are generally positioned around a pitch circle (PCD) and may be
spaced on the main centre lines of the component (on centres) or as shown below equally
spaced off centres.
Holes are usually drilled off centres to provide for maximum access to fixing bolts in the case
of valves and pipeline fittings. Special flanges need to have each hole positioned individually
and an example is given with three tapped holes (see Fig. 3.25).
3.12 DIMENSIONING COUNTERBORES

A drilling machine is used for this operation, and a typical counterboring tool is shown in Fig.
3.26. The operation involves enlarging existing holes, and the depth of the enlarged hole is
controlled by a stop on the drilling machine.
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The location of the counterbored hole is assisted by a pilot at the tip of the tool which is a
clearance fit in the previously drilled hole. A typical use for a counterbored hole is to provide
a recess for the head of a screw, as shown in Fig. 3.27 or a flat surface for an exposed nut or
bolt, as in Fig. 3.28. The flat surface in Fig. Fig. 3.28 could also be obtained by spotfacing.
Fig. 3.29 shows methods of dimensioning counterbores. Note that, in every case, it is
necessary to specify the size of counterbore required. It is not sufficient to state
COUNTERBORE FOR M10 RD HD SCREW, since obviously the head of the screw will fit
into any counterbore which is larger than the head.
Fig. 3.25
Fig. 3.26
Fig. 3.27
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Fig. 3.28
Fig. 3.29
3.13 DIMENSIONING COUNTERSUNK HOLES

Countersinking is also carried out on a drilling machine, and Fig. 3.30 shows typical tools.
Included angles of 60 and 90 are commonly machined, to accommodate the heads of
screws and rivets to provide a flush finish.
Note. Refer to manufacturers catalogues for dimensions of suitable rivets and screws.
3.14 DIMENSIONING SPOTFACES

Spotfacing is a similar operation to counterboring, but in this case the metal removed by the
tool is much less. The process is regularly used on the surface of castings, to provide a flat
seating for fixing bolts. A spotfacing tool is shown in Fig. 3.32, where a loose cutter is used.
The length of cutter controls the diameter of the spotface. As in the counterboring operation,
the hole must be previously drilled, and the pilot at the tip of the spotfacing tool assists in
location. Fig. 3.33 shows the method of dimensioning. Note that, in both cases, the depth of
spotface is just sufficient to remove the rough surface of the casting over the 40 mm diameter
area.
Fig. 3.30a Fig. 3.30b
Fig. 3.30
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Fig. 3.31
Fig. 3.32
Fig. 3.33
3.15 DIMENSIONING FOR MANUFACTURE

It should be emphasized that dimensioning must be performed with the user of the drawing
very much in mind. In the case of the finished bearing housing shown in Fig. 3.35 two
different production processes are involved in its manufacture: namely casting and machining
of the component. It is sometimes preferable to produce two separate drawings, one to show
the dimensions of the finished casting and the other to show the dimensions which are
applicable to the actual machining operation. Fig. 3.34 shows a suitable drawing for the
casting patternmaker. Allowances are made for machining and also for the fact that the
casting will shrink when it cools. The machinist will take the rough casting and remove metal
to produce the finished component, all other surfaces having a rough finish.
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Fig. 3.35 shows the required dimensions for machining. Note that the bore of the casting is
required to be finished between the two sizes quoted for functional purposes.
Fig. 3.34
Fig. 3.35
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3.16 GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS TO INDICATE SURFACE TEXTURE

The quality and type of surface texture has a direct connection with the manufacturing cost,
function and wear of a component. Each of the symbols shown below has their own special
interpretation. Individual surface texture values and text may be added to the symbols. The
basic graphical symbol is shown in Fig. 3.36. The centre line between the lines of unequal
length is positioned square to the considered surface. The symbol should not be indicated
alone, without complementary information. It may, however be used for collective indication.
Fig. 3.36
Expanded graphical symbols
Fig. 3.37 shows the symbol indicating that removal of material is required. Fig. 3.38 shows
the symbol indicating that removal of material is not permitted.
Fig. 3.37
Fig. 3.38
Complete graphical symbols

Note. If complementary requirements for surface texture characteristics are required, then a
line is added to the longer arm of the symbols, as shown below. Any manufacturing process
permitted, in Fig. 3.39. Material shall be removed, in Fig. 3.40. Material shall not be removed,
in Fig. 3.41.
Fig. 3.39
Fig. 3.40
Fig. 3.41
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All surfaces around a work piece graphical symbol

When the same surface texture is required on every surface around a work piece, then a
small circle is added to the symbol as shown in Fig. 3.42. The texture applies to all eight
sides. If ambiguity is considered likely, then each surface may have its own independent
symbol.
Fig. 3.42
Composition of complete graphical symbols for surface texture

To avoid ambiguity, it may also be necessary to add additional requirements to the surface
texture symbol and its numerical value, i.e. machining allowances, manufacturing process,
sampling length and surface lay.
3.17 MANDATORY POSITIONS FOR COMPLEMENTARY REQUIREMENTS

Fig. 3.43 shows mandatory positions of associated surface texture requirements. Position a
indicates one single surface texture requirement. Positions a and b indicate two or more
surface texture requirements. Position c indicates manufacturing method, treatment, coating
or other process. Position d indicates surface lay. Position e shows machining allowance.
Three principal groups of surface texture parameters have been standardized in connection
with the complete symbol and are defined as R, W and P profiles. The R profile series relates
to roughness parameters. The W profile series relates to waviness parameters. The P profile
series relates to structure parameters. The Ra value is the most commonly specified value
throughout the world and examples follow in this chapter. Fig. 3.44 illustrates an application
with a single Ra requirement. Fig. 3.45 shows an application with an upper and lower call out
requirement. Fig. 3.46 shows examples of position and orientation on various surfaces. Note
that the general rule when reading drawings is to read from the bottom or the right hand side
of the drawing. Fig. 3.47 is a typical application in connection with features of size of mating
parts.
Fig. 3.48 and Fig. 3.49 show examples of typical tolerance frames for geometrical tolerance
applications. The examples in Fig. 3.50 show methods of indicating four typical examples of
surface lay.
(a) The lay is parallel to the plane of projection of the view where the symbol is drawn.
The equals symbol is added to the graphical symbol in the position shown. An arrow is
indicated on the work piece for clarification.
(b) The lay is perpendicular to the plane of projection and the symbol drawn is an
inverted letter T.
(c) The lay crosses the work piece in two oblique directions indicated by the letter X.
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(d) The lay consists of concentric circles and the symbol used is the letter C.
Fig. 3.43
Fig. 3.44
Fig. 3.45
Fig. 3.46
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Fig. 3.47
Fig. 3.48
Fig. 3.49
Fig. 3.50
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4 GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES
The object of this section is to illustrate and interpret in simple terms the advantages of
calling for geometrical tolerances on engineering drawings, and also to show that, when
correctly used, they ensure that communications between the drawing office and the
workshop are complete and incapable of miss-interpretation, regardless of any language
barrier.
4.1 APPLICATIONS
Geometrical tolerances are applied over and above normal dimensional tolerances when it is
necessary to control more precisely the form or shape of some feature of a manufactured
part, because of the particular duty that the part has to perform. In the past, the desired
qualities would have been obtained by adding to drawings such expressions as surfaces to
be true with one another, surfaces to be square with one another, surfaces to be flat and
parallel, etc., and leaving it to workshop tradition to provide a satisfactory interpretation of the
requirements.
4.2 ADVANTAGES
Geometrical tolerances are used to convey in a brief and precise manner complete
geometrical requirements on engineering drawings. They should always be considered for
surfaces which come into contact with other parts, especially when close tolerances are
applied to the features concerned.
Caution. It must be emphasized that geometrical tolerances should be applied only when real
advantages result, when normal methods of dimensioning are considered inadequate to
ensure that the design function is kept, especially where repeatability must be guaranteed.
Indiscriminate use of geometrical tolerances could increase costs in manufacture and
inspection. Tolerances should be as wide as possible, as the satisfactory design function
permits.
4.3 GENERAL RULES

The symbols relating to geometrical characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.1 with additional
symbols used in tolerancing in Fig.5.1A. Examination of the various terms flatness,
straightness, concentricity, etc. used to describe the geometrical characteristics shows that
one type of geometrical tolerance can control another form of geometrical error.
For example, a positional tolerance can control perpendicularity and straightness; parallelism,
perpendicularity, and angularity tolerances can control flatness.
The use of geometrical tolerances does not involve or imply any particular method of
manufacture or inspection. Geometrical tolerances shown in this book, in keeping with
international conventions, must be met regardless of feature size unless modified by one of
the following conditions:
- Maximum material condition, denoted by the symbol M describes a part, which
contains the maximum amount of material, i.e. the minimum size hole or the maximum
size shaft.
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-Least material condition, denoted by the symbol L describes a part, which contains the
minimum amount of material, i.e. the maximum size hole or the minimum size shaft.
Symbols for geometrical characteristics
Fig. 4.1
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Note: If two or more groups of features are shown on the same axis, they shall be considered
to be a single pattern when are not related to a datum.
Fig.5.1A
4.4 THEORETICALLY EXACT DIMENSIONS

These dimensions are identified by enclosure in a rectangular box, e.g.
50 EQUI-SPACED 60 30 and are commonly known as Boxed dimensions (Fig. 4.2).
They define the true position of a hole, slot, boss profile, etc.
Boxed dimensions are never individually toleranced but are always accompanied by a
positional or zone tolerance specified within the tolerance frame referring to the feature.
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Fig. 4.2
4.5 DEFINITIONS
Limits The maximum and minimum dimensions for a given feature are known as the limits.
For example, 20 0.1.
The upper and lower limits of size are 20.1 mm and 19.9 mm respectively.
Tolerance The algebraic difference between the upper and lower limit of size is known as the
tolerance. In the example above, the tolerance is 0.2 mm. The tolerance is the amount of
variation permitted.
Nominal dimension Limits and tolerances are based on nominal dimensions which are
target dimensions. In practice there is no such thing as a nominal dimension, since no part
can be manufactured to a theoretical exact size.
The limits referred to above can be set in two ways:
- unilateral limits limits set wholly above or below the nominal size;
- bilateral limits limits set partly above and partly below the nominal size.
Geometrical tolerance These tolerances specify the maximum error of a components
geometrical characteristic, over its whole dimensioned length or surface. Defining a zone in
which the feature may lie does this.
Tolerance zone A tolerance zone is the space in which any deviation of the feature must be
contained.
- e.g. the space within a circle;
- the space between two concentric circles;
- the space between two equidistant lines or two
- parallel straight lines;
- the space within a cylinder;
- the space between two coaxial cylinders;
- the space between two equidistant surfaces or
- two parallel planes;
- the space within a sphere.
The tolerance applies to the whole extent of the considered feature unless otherwise
specified.
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4.6 METHOD OF INDICATING GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES ON DRAWINGS

Geometrical tolerances are indicated by stating the following details in compartments in a
rectangular frame.
- the characteristic symbol, for single or related features;
- the tolerance value: (i) preceded by if the zone is circular or cylindrical,
(ii) preceded by S if the zone is spherical;
- Letter or letters identifying the datum or datum systems.
Fig. 4.3 shows examples.
Fig. 4.3
4.7 METHODS OF APPLYING THE TOLERANCE FRAME TO THE TOLERANCED

FEATURE
Fig. 4.4 and Fig. 4.5 illustrate alternative methods of referring the tolerance to the surface or
the plane itself. Note that in Fig. 4.5 the dimension line and frame leader line are offset.
The tolerance frame as shown in Fig. 4.6 refers to the axis or median plane only of the
dimensioned feature.
Fig. 4.7 illustrates the method of referring the tolerance to the axis or median plane. Note that
the dimension line and frame leader line are drawn in line.
Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7
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4.8 PROCEDURE FOR POSITIONING REMARKS WHICH ARE RELATED TO

TOLERANCE
Remarks related to the tolerance for example 4 holes, 2 surfaces or 6x should be written
above the frame.
Indications qualifying the feature within the tolerance zone should be written near the
tolerance frame and may be connected by a leader line.
If it is necessary to specify more than one tolerance characteristic for a feature, the tolerance
specification should be given in tolerance frames positioned one under the other as shown.
Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11
4.9 THE APPLICATION OF TOLERANCES TO A RESTRICTED LENGTH OF A

FEATURE
Fig. 4.12 shows the method of applying a tolerance to only a particular part of a feature. The
tolerance frame in Fig. 4.13 shows the method of applying another tolerance, similar in type
but smaller in magnitude, on a shorter length. In this case, the whole flat surface must lie
between parallel planes 0.2 apart, but over any length of 180 mm, in any direction, the
surface must be within 0.05.
Fig. 4.14 shows the method used to apply a tolerance over a given length; it allows the
tolerance to accumulate over a longer length. In this case, straightness tolerance of 0.02 is
applicable over a length of 100 mm. If the total length of the feature was 800 mm, then the
total permitted tolerance would accumulate to 0.16.
Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14
4.10 TOLERANCE ZONES

The width of the tolerance zone is in the direction of the leader line arrow joining the symbol
frame to the toleranced feature unless the tolerance zone is preceded by the symbol . An
example is given in Fig. 4.15a. If two tolerances are given, then they are considered to be
perpendicular to each other, unless otherwise stated. Fig. 4.15b shows an example.
Fig. 4.15c gives an example where a single tolerance zone is applied to several separate
features.
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In the tolerance frame the symbol CZ is added. CZ is the standard abbreviation for
Common Zone.
Fig. 4.15d gives an example where individual tolerance zones of the same valve are applied
to several separate features.
Fig. 4.15a Fig. 4.15b
Fig. 4.15c Fig. 4.15d

Fig. 4.15
4.11 PROJECTED TOLERANCED ZONE

Fig. 4.16 shows a part section through a flange where it is required to limit the variation in
perpendicularity of each hole axis. The method used is to apply a tolerance to a projected
zone. The enlargement shows a possible position for the axis through one hole. Each hole
axis must lie somewhere within a projected cylinder of 0.02 and 30 deep.
Note. Projected tolerance zones are indicated by the symbol .
Fig. 4.16
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Note that the zone is projected from the specified datum.
4.12 DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING NON-RIGID PARTS

The basic consideration is that distortion of a non-rigid part must not exceed that which
permits the part to be brought within the specified tolerances for positioning, at assembly and
verification. For example, by applying pressure or forces not exceeding those which may be
expected under normal assembly conditions.
4.13 DEFINITIONS
- A non-rigid part relates to the condition of that part which deforms in its free state to an
extent beyond the dimensional and geometrical tolerances on the drawing.
- Free-state relates to the condition of a part when subjected only to the force of gravity.
- The symbol used is .
Fig. 4.17 shows a typical application of a buffer detail drawing. In its restrained condition,
datums A and B position the buffer.
Interpretation: the geometrical tolerance followed by symbol is maintained in its free state.
Other geometrical tolerances apply in its assembled situation.
Fig. 4.17
4.14 POSITIONAL TOLERANCING
The essential requirement is to be able to define the limits for location of actual features, e.g.
axes, points, median surfaces and nominally plane surfaces, relative to each other or in
relation to one or more datum.
To accurately achieve this aim, it is essential that the primary constituents, theoretically exact
dimensions, tolerance zones, and datums are utilized. The tolerance zone is symmetrically
disposed about its theoretically exact location.
Utilizing these primary constituents ensures positional tolerances do not accumulate when
dimensions are arranged in a chain, as would be the case if the feature pattern location were
to be specified by coordinate tolerances.
Fig. 4.18 illustrates the advantage of specifying a circular tolerance zone to a feature located
by positional tolerancing. Note that the shaded tolerance area represents an increase of
more than 57%.
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Fig. 4.18
4.15 TRUE-POSITION (THEORETICAL EXACT) DIMENSIONING

True-position dimensioning defines the exact location on a component of features such as
holes, slots, keyways, etc., and also differentiates between ideal and other toleranced
dimensions. True-position dimensions are always shown boxed on engineering drawings;
they are never individually toleranced, and must always be accompanied by a positional or
zone tolerance for the feature to which they are applied.
The positional tolerance is the permitted deviation of a feature from a true position.
The positional-tolerance zone defines the region which contains the extreme limits of position
and can be, for example, rectangular, circular, cylindrical, etc.
Fig. 4.19
Fig. 4.20
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4.16 TYPICAL PRODUCT REQUIREMENT

In the example shown in Fig. 4.19 and Fig. 4.20, the hole axis must lie within the cylindrical
tolerance zone fixed by the true-position dimensions.
Some advantages of using this method are:
- interpretation is easier, since true boxed dimensions fix the exact positions of details;
- there are no cumulative tolerances;
- it permits the use of functional gauges to match the mating part;
- it can ensure interchangeability without resorting to small position tolerances, required
by the coordinate tolerancing system;
- the tolerancing of complicated components is simplified;
- positional-tolerance zones can control squareness and parallelism.
The following examples show some typical cases where positional tolerances are applied to
engineering drawings.
Case 1 (Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22).
The axes of the four fixing holes must be contained within cylindrical tolerance zones 0.03
diameter.
Case 2 (Fig. 4.23 and Fig. 4.24).

The axes of the four fixing holes must be contained within rectangular tolerance zones 0.04
0.02.
In cases 3 and 4, the perpendicularity and co-axial symbols shown, are constituents of the
position characteristic, and could have been indicated with the position symbol equally as
well.
Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.22
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Fig. 4.23 Fig. 4.24
Case 3
Fig. 4.25 shows a component where the outside diameter at the upper end is required to be
square and coaxial within a combined tolerance zone with face A and diameter B as the
primary and secondary datums.
Fig. 4.25
Case 4
In the component illustrated in Fig. 4.26, the three dimensioned features are required to be
perfectly square to the datum face A, and also truly coaxial with each other in the maximum
material condition.
Fig. 4.26
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Case 5 (Fig. 4.27 and Fig. 4.28).

The six bolt holes on the flange in Fig. 4.27 must have their centres positioned within six
tolerance zones of 0.25 when the bolt holes are at their maximum material condition(i.e.
minimum limit of size).
Note in Fig. 4.28 that all the features in the group have the same positional tolerance in
relation to each other. This method also limits in all directions the relative displacement of
each of the features to each other.
Case 6 (Fig. 4.29 and Fig. 4.30).

The group of holes in Fig. 4.29, dimensioned with a positional tolerance, is also required to
be positioned with respect to the datum spigot and the face of the flange.
Note in Fig. 4.30 that the four holes and the spigot are dimensioned at the maximum material
condition.
It follows that, if any hole is larger than 12.00, it will have the effect of increasing the
positional tolerance for that hole. If the spigot is machined to less than 50.05, then the
positional tolerance for the four holes as a group will also increase.
Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.28
Fig. 4.29
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Fig. 4.30
Case 7
Fig. 4.31 shows a drawing instruction where the group of equally spaced holes is required to
be positioned relative to a coaxial datum bore.
Fig. 4.31
Case 8
Fig. 4.32 shows a drawing instruction where a pattern of features is located by positional
tolerancing. Each specific requirement is met independently.
The product requirement in Fig. 4.33 shows that the axis of each of the four holes is required
to lie within a cylindrical tolerance of 0,01.
The positional tolerance zones are located in their theoretically exact positions to each other
and perpendicular to datum A.
Fig. 4.34, the axis of each of the four holes must lie within the cylindrical tolerance zone of
0,2 and the cylindrical tolerance must lie perpendicular to datum A and also located in their
theoretical exact positions to each other and to datums B and C.
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Fig. 4.32
Note that in product requirement drawings, Fig. 4.33 and Fig. 4.34, simulated datums A, B
and C are numbered 1,2 and 3.
Fig. 4.33
Fig. 4.34
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5 ASSEMBLY DRAWING
5.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Machines and mechanisms consist of numerous parts, and a drawing which shows the
complete product with all its components in their correct physical relationship is known as an
assembly drawing. The amount of information given on an assembly drawing will vary
considerably with the product and its size and complexity. The assembly drawing may also
give other information, including overall dimensions of size, details of bolt sizes and centers
where fixings are necessary, weights required for shipping purposes, operating details and
instructions, and also, perhaps, some data regarding the design characteristics.
5.2 REPRESENTING RULES

- Assembly drawing must be accomplished with the minimum number of views but
enough to accentuate all the components and their relative positions, with all their
necessary dimensions;
- In case of the assembling between two parts without clearance the contact surface is
represented by a single contour line, common for both pieces (Fig. 5.1);
- In case of the assembling between two parts with clearance resulted from their
different sizes the contour lines are distinctly represented for each piece (Fig. 5.2);
Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2
- If a section view doesnt contain some elements like screws, nuts, pins which should
exist on the view we will represent them with thin dash double dot line (Fig. 5.3);
- Parts which execute motions during assembly working could be represented on the
same projection with extreme (or intermediate) movement position with thin dash
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double dot line, without hatching these surfaces even if they are represented in the
section view (Fig. 5.3);
- Parts from other near assembly, which make the link with the assembly from our
drawing could be represented with thin dash double dot line, without hatching parts
surfaces, even if the section plan contain them (Fig. 5.3);
- For a more clear representation of some hidden elements, and to simplify the
projection, we can consider those elements removed, but we must put a note about
those removed elements;
- Screwed parts or with sealed assembling are represented fully screwed (Fig. 5.3);
- Nuts and roves are represented only on view, except when it hide an important area
of the element containing them or roves with different bore than the cylindrical one
(square hole, hexagonal, etc);
- Nuts and hexagonal-cap screws are represented with 3 visible sides
-
Fig. 5.3
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Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.5
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Fig. 5.6
- The sealing group with gasket, sealing gland and coupling nut is represented with the
sealing gland inserted 2-3 mm in the sealing box, the coupling nut fully screwed, in
contact with the sealing gland;
- The elements for fluids circulation control like valves are represented in closed
position, excepting tap fitting, which are represented in open position;
- Solid parts like shafts or screws are represented without being splatted even if the
section plan contains their axis.
5.3 POSITIONING RULES

- Each component of assembly must receive a distinct item number which will
correspond with the item from the items list of the drawing;
- The item number must be placed at the extremity of an indication line, and the other
extremity of the indication line will be represented by an arrow on the parts contour, or
by a point on the parts surface;
- Indication lines will be:
-with continuous thin line;
-could be broken only one time;
-mustnt be parallel between them or with edge margins;
-mustnt intersect dimension lines or others indication lines.
- Assembly parts will receive a number in a logical order (assembling or dismounting
order if possible);
- If an element is represented in multiple assembly projections the item number will
appear only in one projection (where the element is more visible).
- Item numbers are normally numeric with nominal writing height equal with the double of
nominal dimensions used in the drawing.
- On each projection item numbers will be inscribed in ascending order, in a single
trigonometric direction for all drawing projections.
- If 2 or more components are coaxial, their item numbers could be inserted by group, to
the extremity of a single indication line, separated by lines.
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5.4 DIMENSION RULES

Assembly drawings contain few dimensions since these will already have been included
within the respective shop drawings. In order to understand the principles of working with
assemblies, mounting, demounting and transport requirements we need the following types
of dimensions:
- overall dimensions;
- dimensions which make the link with other near assembly or components (flanges,
fillets, shafts extremities);
- dimensions to understand assembly running, maximum tolerable clearance, limit of
measuring errors or limiting dimensions;
- dimensions checked at the assembling process;
- nominal dimensions and tolerance zones for all elements which creates adjustments.
- other necessary dimensions for assembling operation, which are missing in the shop
drawing.
5.5 ITEMS TABLE

An items list (sometimes referred to as a parts list or component list) is a table listing all of the
component parts, some of which may be described by standards (e.g. DIN standard).
Form for the item table are established by ISO 7573 standard (see Fig. 5.7).
Fig. 5.7
5.6 WELDING SYMBOLS USED IN TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

Each type of weld is characterized by a symbol given in Table 5.1. Note that the symbol is
representative of the shape of the weld, or the edge preparation, but does not indicate any
particular welding process and does not specify either the number of runs to be deposited or
whether or not a root gap or backing material is to be used. These details would be provided
on a welding procedure schedule for the particular job. It may be necessary to specify the
shape of the weld surface on the drawing as flat, convex or concave and a supplementary
symbol, shown in Table 5.2, is then added to the elementary symbol. An example of each
type of weld surface application is given in Table 5.3.
A joint may also be made with one type of weld on a particular surface and another type of
weld on the back and in this case elementary symbols representing each type of weld used
are added together. The last example in Table 5.3 shows a single-V butt weld with a backing
run where both surfaces are required to have a flat finish. A welding symbol is applied to a
drawing by using a reference line and an arrow line as shown in Fig. 5.8. The reference line
should be drawn parallel to the bottom edge of the drawing sheet and the arrow line forms an
angle with the reference line. The side of the joint nearer the arrow head is known as the
arrow side and the remote side as the other side. The welding symbol should be positioned
on the reference line as indicated in Table 5.4.
Sketch (a) shows the symbol for a single-V butt weld below the reference line because the
external surface of the weld is on the arrow side of the joint.
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Sketch (b) shows the same symbol above the reference line because the external surface of
the weld is on the other side of the joint.
Sketch (c) shows the symbol applied to a double-V butt weld.
Sketch (d) shows fillet welds on a cruciform joint where the top weld is on the arrow side and
the bottom weld is on the other side.
The positioning of the symbol is the same for drawings in first or third angle projection.
Additional symbols can be added to the reference line as shown in Fig. 5.9.
The leg length of welds is often the weld dimension preferred by shipyards as opposed to
throat thickness measurement.
Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.9
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Table 5.1
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Table 5.2
Table 5.3 Table 5.4
Welding can be done in the factory or on site when plant is erected. A site weld is indicated
by a flag.
5.7 SCREWED ASSEMBLIES

The most common application of the helix is in a screw thread which follows the path of the
helix. Screw threads may be either left or right hand and these are shown pictorially in Fig.
5.10. Notice the slope of the thread and the position of the index finger on each hand. The
left hand thread is used for special applications and the right hand thread is the one normally
used on nuts and bolts.
The following terms are associated with screw threads:
The thread pitch is the distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads.
Measurements must be taken parallel to the thread axis.
The major diameter or outside diameter is the diameter over the crests of the thread,
measured at right angles to the thread axis.
The crest is the most prominent part of the thread, internal or external.
The root lies at the bottom of the groove between two adjacent threads.
The flank of the thread is the straight side of the thread between the crest and root.
The minor diameter, root diameter or core diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread
measured at right angles to the thread axis.
The effective diameter is measured at right angles to the thread axis and is the diameter on
which the width of the spaces is equal to the width of the threads.
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The lead of a thread is the axial movement of the screw in one revolution.
The terms are illustrated in Fig. 5.11.
Fig. 5.10
Fig. 5.11
Standards for screw execution:

- STAS 139-79 Screw notation;
- STAS 1450 / 1, 3, 4, 5 Threaded fasteners. Terminology, constructive elements,
dimensioning rules;
- STAS 981 74 - ISO general purpose metric screw threads. Nominal diameters and
pitches.
- SR ISO 6410-1:1995 - Technical drawings. Screw threads and threaded parts. Part 1:
General conventions
Fig. 5.12 shows us the assembly between a screw and a nut.
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Screw geometric elements:

- Screw profile - contours spire vary depending of screw type. Fig. 5.13 is for triangular
screw (metric screw and pipes screw ).Other screw types we can see in Fig. 5.14;
- Screw angle - the angle between spire broadsides (for metric size screw angle is 60);
- Pitch of screw the distance between 2 consecutive points on longitudinal direction;
- Exterior diameter (D, d) ;
- Interior diameter (D1, d1);
- Medium diameter.
Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13
Fig. 5.14
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Screw classification (according to the transversal shape of the rib):

- Equilateral triangle
- Isosceles triangle (Fig. 5.14a);
- Square (Fig. 5.14b);
- Semicircle (Fig. 5.14c);
- Isosceles trapeze (Fig. 5.14d);
- General trapeze (Fig. 5.14e).
Representation rules:
- Top surface of screw must be drown with continuous thick line;
- Bottom surface of screw must be drown with continuous thin line;
- Circles from chamfer of screw extremities arent represented in the drawing (because
the continuous thick line is covering the thin line of screw bottom surface);
- For screws with limited used outlet we must take into account a real edge (drown with
continuous thick line when is visible, and with thin broken line when is invisible).
In Fig. 5.15 we have an exterior screw with output.
In Fig. 5.16 we have an interior screw with output.
In Fig. 5.16 and Fig. 5.17 we have a screw with recess.
In Fig. 5.18 we have a metric conical screw, exterior, with output.
Fig. 5.15
Fig. 5.16
Fig. 5.17 Fig. 5.18
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Fig. 5.19
Fig. 5.20
In view or section view is threaded only the outer surface of the screw (as if her spires is
covering surfaces spires with the exterior screw).
This rule is applied in Fig. 5.20 where, in the left view is the bolt screw and in the longitudinal
section the bolt screw cover the nut screw on the area where the parts are joined.
Dimension rules for screw

- maximum diameter of the screw must be specified ;
- effective length of the screw must be specified, the length of the recess is also included
in case of screw with recess ;
- the complete notation for the screws must be done;
- Nominal diameter for standard conic screws is placed at the middle of the length of
screw
Notation rules for screw

- Screw symbol must be inscribed with capital letter;
- The nominal diameter must be in millimetres;
- The pitch could be in millimetres or inch.
- Ribs number of screw is indicated only if this number is different than 1.If a screw has
multiple ribs the pitch is equal with rib pitch X total number of ribs.
- The sense of the screw is indicated only if is to the left.
5.8 LIMITS AND FITS

To ensure that an assembly will function correctly, its component parts must fit together in a
predictable manner. Now, in practice, no component can be manufactured to an exact size,
and one of the problems facing the designer is to decide the upper and lower limits of size
which are acceptable for each of the dimensions used to define shape and form and which
will ensure satisfactory operation in service. For example, a dimension of 10 0.02 means
that a part will be acceptable if manufactured anywhere between the limits of size of 9.98 mm
and 10.02 mm.
The present system of manufacture of interchangeable parts was brought about by the
advent of and the needs of mass production, and has the following advantages:
- Instead of fitting components together, which requires some adjustment of size and a
high degree of skill, they can be assembled;
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- An assembly can be serviced by replacing defective parts with components

manufactured to within the same range of dimensions.
- Parts can be produced in large quantities, in some cases with less demand on the skill
of the operator. Invariably this requires the use of special-purpose machines, tools,
jigs, fixtures, and gauges: but the final cost of each component will be far less than if
made separately by a skilled craftsman.
A designer should ensure that the drawing conveys clear instructions regarding the upper
and lower limits of size for each dimension, and Fig. 5.21 show typical methods in common
use.
Fig. 5.21
Engineering fits between two mating parts can be divided into three types:
- a clearance fit (Fig. 5.22a), in which the shaft is always smaller than the hole into which
it fits;
- an interference fit (Fig. 5.22b), in which the shaft is always bigger than the hole into
which it fits;
- a transition fit (Fig. 5.22c), in which the shaft may be either bigger or smaller than the
hole into which it fitsit will therefore be possible to get interference or clearance fits in
one group of assemblies.
It will be appreciated that, as the degree of accuracy required for each dimension increases,
the cost of production to maintain this accuracy increases at a sharper rate.
Fig. 5.23 shows the approximate relationship between cost and tolerance. For all
applications, the manufacturing tolerance should be the largest possible which permits
satisfactory operation.
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Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23

Elements of interchangeable systems (Fig. 5.24):
Nominal size is the size by which a component is referred to as a matter of convenience, i.e.
25 mm, 50mm, 60 mm thread.
Actual size is the measured size.
Basic size is the size in relation to which all limits of size are fixed, and will be the same for
both the male and female parts of the fit.
Limits of size These are the maximum and minimum permissible sizes acceptable for a
specific dimension.
Tolerance This is the total permissible variation in the size of a dimension, and is the
difference between the upper and lower acceptable dimensions.
Allowance concerns mating parts, and is the difference between the high limit of size of the
shaft and the low limit of size of its mating hole. An allowance may be positive or negative.
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Grade This is an indication of the tolerance magnitude: the lower the grade, the finer will be
the tolerance.
Deviation This is the difference between the maximum, minimum, or actual size of a shaft or
hole and the basic size.
Maximum metal condition (MMC) This is the maximum limit of an external feature; for
example, a shaft manufactured to its high limits would contain the maximum amount of metal.
It is also the minimum limit on an internal feature; for example, a component which has a hole
bored in it to its lower limit of size would have had the minimum of metal removed and remain
in its maximum metal condition.
Fig. 5.24
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Unilateral and bilateral limits (Fig. 5.25):

Fig. 5.25 shows an example of unilateral limits, where the maximum and minimum limits of
size are disposed on the same side of the basic size. This system is preferred since the basic
size is used for the GO limit gauge; changes in the magnitude of the tolerance affect only the
size of the other gauge dimension, the NOT GO gauge size.
Fig. 5.26 shows an example of bilateral limits, where the limits are disposed above and below
the basic size.
Fig. 5.25
Fig. 5.26
Bases of fits:
- Hole basis (Fig. 5.27) In this system, the basic diameter of the hole is constant while
the shaft size varies according to the type of fit. This system leads to greater economy
of production, as a single drill or reamer size can be used to produce a variety of fits by
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merely altering the shaft limits. The shaft can be accurately produced to size by turning
and grinding. Generally it is usual to recommend hole-base fits, except where
temperature may have a detrimental effect on large sizes.
- Shaft basis (Fig. 5.28) Here the hole size is varied to produce the required class of fit
with a basic size shaft. A series of drills and reamers is required for this system,
therefore it tends to be costly. It may, however, be necessary to use it where different
fits are required along a long shaft. This BSI data sheet 4500A gives a selection of ISO
fits on the hole basis, and data sheet 4500B gives a selection of shaft-basis fits
extracted from BS 45000, the current standard on limits and fits. The ISO system
contained in BS 4500 gives an extensive selection of hole and shaft tolerances to
cover a wide range of applications. It has been found, however, that in the manufacture
of many standard engineering components a limited selection of tolerances is
adequate. These are provided on the data sheets referred to above. Obviously, by
using only a selected range of fits, economic advantages are obtained from the
reduced tooling and gauging facilities involved.
Fig. 5.27
Fig. 5.28
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6 SPECIFIC DRAWINGS FOR PIPING IN SHIPBUILDING
6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The piping components may be grouped up into four large families:
- pipes;
- fittings:
- flanges;
- valves.
The typical nomenclature of every pipe is:
- nominal bore;
- external diameter;
- wall thickness;
- material and type of production;
- end connection.
In case of steel pipes the fittings can be subdivided into two classes:
- butt welding fittings;
- socket welding and threaded fittings and threaded fittings.
Piping specification according to Class Society rules is a list describing the different types of
piping components that are to be used for a particular service and for a particular range of
operating conditions.
There are several stages in piping design. These may typically be as follows:
1. Following preparation of the P&ID it is necessary to define the pipeline classification
(e.g. Class I pipe).
2. Obtain Class approval.
3. Following approval prepare Piping General Assembly drawings. From these drawings
pipe dimensions and appropriate standards are applied to each component in
accordance with Class requirements.
4. Produce isometric drawings and associated material list.
6.2 PIPING ASSEMBLY DRAWING SYMBOLS

The figures shown in the following pages indicate the symbols used at present for the
simplified representation of major piping components. This system is applied on engineering
drawings and its use, in addition to save time when draughting, is to make the drawing more
clear, and of an easier interpretation than it would result if the piping would be drafted with
double line and, as it occurs very often, when several pipes are represented on the same
drawing. The following figures show, in addition to the drawing of the individual components,
(or of a set of pieces), orthographic views as well as isometric views.
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Different branch types for pipes:
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6.3 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM

A piping and instrumentation diagram/drawing (P&ID) is a diagram showing flow processes
as well as installed equipment and instrumentation.
List of P&ID items:
- Instrumentation and description
- Mechanical equipment with names and tag numbers
- All valves and their identifications
- Piping, sizes and tag numbers
- Miscellaneous items - vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers,
increasers, permanent start-up and flushing lines
- Flow directions
- Interconnections references
- Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
- Interfaces for class pipe changes
- Identification of components and subsystems delivered by subcontractors/suppliers
6.4 COORDINATION DRAWING (COMPOSITE DRAWING)
It is a drawing which contains piping, ducting and cable tray arrangements. The coordination
drawing may also contain:
- Hull model (structures)
- Extract from general arrangement
- Ships ruler (frame numbers, CL, longitudinal position numbers, BL)
- Ventilation screens (if any)
General symbols used for the coordination drawing:
- must be used pipe up symbol for the pipe going up, and pipe down symbol for the
pipes going down (Fig. 6.1)
Fig. 6.1
- vertical exchange level of the pipe should be like in Fig. 6.3;

- dimensions will be taken from the nearest suitable hull element. If the hull element has
an inclination the dimension will be placed as below, in Fig. 6.2;
- dimensions for circular and rectangular HVAC ducts will be as below, in Fig. 6.2.
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Fig. 6.2
Fig. 6.3
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Fig. 6.4
Fig. 6.5 - Example of Coordination drawing (Composite drawing)
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6.5 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

The main purpose of the draughting of isometric drawings is to furnish the site with a drawing
suitable for carrying out the shop fabrication of the piping. Draughting can be performed
completely by computer, otherwise partly by hand (for the material part).
Each isometric represents one section of pipe line; if the pipe is too long and complicated
may be represented in two or more sketches.
Usually the Isometric is made only for the lines of a diameter equal to or larger than DN25.
Example of Isometric drawing:
Fig. 6.6
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7 HULL DRAUGHTING
7.1 SHIP DIMENSIONS AND DEFINITIONS
The hullform of a ship may be defined by a number of dimensions and terms that are
important to be properly understood in order to have a common language and a correct
representation of them.
Aft Perpendicular (AP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the point where the aft
side of the rudder post meets the summer load line. Where no rudder post is fitted it is taken
as the centre line of the rudder stock.
Fore Perpendicular (FP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the point where the
foreside of the stem meets the summer load line.
Length between Perpendiculars (LBP): The length between the forward and aft
perpendiculars.
Length Overall (LOA): The length of the vessel taken over all extremities.
Rule Length (L): Used for the scantlings it is the distance between perpendiculars but
should be not less than 96 per cent and need not to be taken more than 97 per cent of the
summer water length.
Amidships: A point midway between the after and forward perpendiculars.
Moulded dimensions are taken to the inside of the plating on a metal ship.
Baseline (BL): A horizontal line drawn at the top of the keel plate. All vertical moulded
dimensions are measured relative to this line.
Moulded Beam (B): Measured at the midship section, is the maximum moulded breadth of
the ship.
Moulded Draft (T): Measured from the base line to the summer load line at the midship
section.
Moulded Depth (D): Measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deck beam at the
ships side amidships.
Extreme Beam: The maximum beam taken over all extremities.
Extreme Draft: Taken from the lowest point of the keel to the summer load line.
Extreme Depth: Depth measured at amidships from the point of intersection of the top of the
upper deck with the ships side to the lowest point of keel.
Half Breadth: Since the ships hull is usually symmetrical about the longitudinal centreline,
often only the half beam or half breadth at any section is given.
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Sheer: Curvature of decks in longitudinal direction. Measured as the height of deck at side at
any point above the height of deck at side amidships.
Camber (or Round of Beam): Curvature of decks in transverse direction. Measured as the
height of deck at centre above the height of deck at side. Note that nowadays a straight line
camber is commonly used.
Half Siding of Keel: The horizontal flat portion of the bottom shell measured to port or
starboard of the ships longitudinal centreline. This is a useful dimension when dry-docking.
Tumblehome: The inward curvature of the side shell above the water line.
Flare: The outward curvature of the side shell above the water line. It promotes dryness and
is therefore associated with the fore end of the ship.
Stem Rake: Inclination of the stem line from the vertical.
Keel Rake: Inclination of the keel line from the horizontal.
Tween deck Height: vertical distance between adjacent decks measured from the tops of
deck beams at ship side.
Fig. 7.1
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7.2 COORDINATES SYSTEM
When the principal dimensions, displacement and line-coefficients are known, one has an
impressive amount of design information, but not yet a clear image of the exact geometrical
shape of the ship. This can be obtained by the use of a lines plane.
The shape of a ship can vary in height, length and breadth of the ships hull. In order to
represent this complex shape on paper, cross-sections of the hull are combined with three
sets of parallel planes, each one perpendicular to the others.
The main ships representations are the ship projections on the main ship planes.
The main planes are:
- Base Plane (a horizontal plan, also called Plan View),

- Plane of Symmetry of the ship (a longitudinal plane, also called Elevation) and
- Midship Plane (a transverse plane at approx. L/2, also called Section).
Fig. 7.2
That coordinate system is a right handed rectangular Cartesian system, situated at the
intersection of the main planes and having the longitudinal axis X positive in forward
direction, the transverse axis Y positive in portside direction and the vertical axis Z positive in
upward direction.
The ship is considered with Fore on the right and Aft on the left, and the principal projection
will be the Profile (longitudinal section in CL).
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7.3 LINES PLANE AND OFFSET TABLE
Lines Plane
A preliminary version of this was, in effect, prepared at the time of the conceptual design to
give the required capacity, displacement and propulsive characteristics. It was subsequently
refined during the preliminary design stage and following any tank testing or other method of
assessing the hulls propulsive and seakeeping characteristics. The lines plane is a drawing,
to a suitable scale, of the moulded lines of the vessel in plan, profile, and section. Traverse
sections of the vessel at equally spaced stations between the after and forward
perpendiculars are drawn to form what is known as the body plan. Usually, ten equally
spaced sections are selected with half ordinates at the ends where a greater change of
shape occurs. A half transverse section only is drawn since the vessel is symmetrical about
the centreline, and forward half sections are drawn to the right of the centreline with aft half
sections to the left. Preliminary body plans are drawn initially to give the correct
displacement, trim, capacity etc., and must be laid off in plan and elevation to ensure fairness
of the hull form. When the final faired body plan is available the full lines plane is completed
showing also the profile or sheer plan of the vessel and the plan of the water-line shapes at
different heights above the base.
A lines plan is illustrated in Fig. 7.3. The lines of the lateral sections in the sheer plan as
indicated are referred to as bow lines forward and buttock lines aft. Bilge diagonals would
be drawn with offset taken along the bilge diagonal to check fairness. When the lines plan
was completed manually the draughtsmen would compile a table of offset, that is a list of
half breadths, heights of decks and stringer etc., at each of the drawn stations. These
offsets and the lines plan were then converted to full size or 10 to 1 scale fairing. Since the
original lines plan was of necessity to a small scale which varied with the size of ship, the
offset tabulated from widely spaced stations and the fairing were not satisfactory for building
purposes. The offsets used for building the ship would subsequently be lifted from the full
size or 10 to 1 scale lines for each frame.
Fig. 7.3
The ships Lines Plan is defined as the totality of moulded lines which materialized the
ships surface form toward representation plans adopted.
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The ships Surface is the surface placed inside of external shell (metallic ships), or the
external surface at the external shell (non-metallic ships).
The Moulded Lines which defined the hull shape are obtained by intersection of the ships
moulded surface with a series of equidistant plans which are parallel with the adopted
representation plans.
Fig. 7.4
Characteristic lines of Lines Plane (see figure above)
The longitudinal sections contour, obtained by the intersection of diametral plan with the
ships theoretical surface, is made of:
- The Line of Keel (LK) the diametral plan intersecting the keels upper face
- The Keel - is the principal element of framing of a ship which is situated in the shells
longitudinal central side of ships bottom. The keel has a greater thickness than the
adjacent plates.
- The line of deck in diametral plan or the decks longitudinal sheer - the diametral
plan intersecting the shells inside face of the deck.
- The line of stem - the diametral plan intersecting the plates inside face of the stem.
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- The stem is the structure element of the shell which closes the plates fores
extremity.
- The line of sternframe - the diametral plan intersecting the plates inside face of the
sternframe.
- The sternframe - is the structure element of the shell which closes the aft extremity of
the ship.
- The transversal sections contour is obtained from the intersection of the ships
surface with a transverse plane amidships (Midship Plan).
- The line of deck in the transversal plan (the decks transversal curve) - is obtained
from the intersection of midship section plan with the decks inside face.
- The boards line midship section plan intersecting the board shells inside face of
the ship. Represents the ships line of side from that point located at the upper turn of
bilge to the underside of the upper deck amidships.
- The bottom line - midship section plan intersecting the bottoms inside face of the
ship.
- The transversal sections symmetry axis - midship section plan intersecting the
diametral plan.
- The Base Line the base plan intersecting the midship section plan.
- The decks border line intersecting the traverses outside deck with the plates
inside face of the board. For the ships which have the plates and the sheerstrake
rounded, is considered the line which results from intersection of above-ground border
lines extension previous defined.
- The knuckles line (edges) are the intersection lines of two adjacent surfaces which
define the theoretical shell of hull. The lines can be bending lines or welded lines,
single or double curvature.
Table of Offsets
When the lines plan was completed manually the draughtsmen would compile a table of
offset, that is a list of half breadths, heights of decks and stringer etc., at each of the drawn
stations. The offsets and the lines plan were then converted to full size or 10 to 1 scale
fairing, Since the original lines plan was of necessity to a small scale which varied with the
size of ship, the offsets tabulated from widely spaced stations and the fairing were not
satisfactory for building purposes. The offsets used for building the ship would subsequently
be lifted from the full size or 10 to 1 scale lines for each frame.
Nowadays the lines plans are being made with the aid of computer-programs that have the
possibility to transform the shape of the vessel automatically when modifications in the ships
design require this. When the lines plan is ready, the programs may be used to calculate,
among other things, the volume and stability of the ship.
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7.4 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF SHIP STRUCTURES

7.4.1 Types of line
1. Continuous thick (wide) line

Visible edges and outlines (intersected plates of bottom,
side, deck, bulkhead, platform on this side).
2. Interrupted thick (wide) line

Non tight floors or bulkheads on the other side.
3. Railway
Watertight longitudinal and transversal bulkhead on the
other side.
4. Thick (wide) point line

Web beams, web frames, web stiffeners, stringers, deck
girders- tweendecks -platforms on the other side.
5. Continuous middle line

Stiffeners are visible (situated on this side of the view).
Butt weldings.
6. Interrupted middle line

Stiffeners are invisible (situated on the other side of the
view).
7. Continuous thin line

Dimension, hatching lines, reference line and imaginary
lines of Intersection
8. Continuous thin irregular line

Limits of partial views or sections.
9. Thin point line
Centre lines and lines of symmetry.
10. Continuous straight thin line with zig zags
Limits of partial or interrupted views.

Suitable for CAD drawings provided the line is not an axis.
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7.4.2 Symbols used for conventional (simplified) representation of the hull

structure.
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2010, ICEPRONAV

7.4.3 The conventional elements position relative to the moulded line.
General rules (best practice):
- Bottom shell (single or double), shell plating (single or double), decks and platforms
plates are placed with theoretical line on their face contact with adjacent framing
system.
- Plates of transversal, longitudinal or sloped bulkheads are placed to have a straight
face in connection with stiffeners.
Corrugated bulkheads are considered as having theoretical lines the same with the
planar walls, assimilating corrugations with structural elements.
- Web transversals are placed to the midship section.
- Web girders (bottom, platforms and decks) are placed to the side.
- Web horizontal stringers on side, longitudinal and transversal bulkhead are placed on
top of theoretical line.
- Web transversals which are located in midship section are considered with theoretical
line on the aft face.
- Web longitudinal girders which are located in diametral plane are placed with axis of
symmetry in this plane.
- Angle profile and bulb are considered with theoretical line on free straight face of the
profile.
- Closed profiles are considered with theoretical line on the axis of symmetry of the
profile.
Fig. 7.5 - Elevation moulded lines
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Fig. 7.6 - Transverse section moulded lines
Fig. 7.7 - Horizontal section (Plan view) moulded lines
Every new project can have a particular elements position relative to the moulded line. These
rules can be identified (explained) in separate drawing or/and every detailed drawings.
2010, ICEPRONAV

7.4.4 Profiles ends

Abutting Profile Ends
When profiles are abutting (normally welded against another part): the following symbols are
used.
Case 1: No snipe and no offset of flange end (Fig. 7.8).
Fig. 7.8
Case 2: Sniped flange ends, no flange end offset (Fig. 7.9).
Fig. 7.9
Case 3: As case 2 but flange end offset (Fig. 7.10)
Fig. 7.10
Case 4: Straight cut in web and flange, flange end offset (Fig. 7.11).
Fig. 7.11
2010, ICEPRONAV

Profiles with Free End or Gap at End

The following cases represent details to be used for unconnected profile members with
square (90 degree) endings as well as for profile member endings where the member is to be
cut clear but has sniped (or tapered) ends.
Case 1: Straight cut in both web and flange (Fig. 7.12).
Fig. 7.12
Case 2: Same as case 1 but with sniped flange (Fig. 7.13)
Fig. 7.13
Case 3: Both web and flange sniped (Fig. 7.14).
Fig. 7.14
Case 4: Like case 3 but flange not sniped (Fig. 7.15).
Fig. 7.15
2010, ICEPRONAV

7.5 HULL SAMPLE DRAWINGS

7.5.1 Basic design - Midship section
Fig. 7.16
The Midship Section is represented looking Forward (Ps on the left and Sb to the right).
2010, ICEPRONAV

Will have indicated the Base Line, Centre line with long dashed dotted narrow line,
longitudinal horizontal and vertical ruler.
1 Keel plate intersected by transversal section continuous wide line,

2 Bottom (bilge) shell plate intersected by transversal section - continuous wide line,
3 Inner bottom plate intersected by transversal section - continuous wide line,
4 Double side intersected by transversal section - continuous wide line,
5 Deck plate intersected by transversal section - continuous wide line,
6 Side girder in double bottom - continuous wide line,
7 Side platform plating - continuous wide line,
8 Bottom longitudinals (bulb profile) oriented to CL,
9 Inner bottom longitudinals (bulb profile) oriented to CL,
10 Side transverses (bulb profile) oriented to this side,
11 Double side transverses (bulb profile) oriented to this side,
12 Plate thickness,
13 Distance between stiffeners (placed on this side they are represented with
continuous narrow line),
14 Distance of the support from CL,
15 Distance between longitudinals,
16 Hole in supports (girders),
17 Stiffener on girder (the bulb is represented with continuous narrow line bulb
profile is oriented to this side),
18 A, B, C - details identifier,
19 Symbol meaning bulb profile is continuous, passing through the platform which
is represented with continuous wide line.
20 The symbol of discontinuity means that the floor is stopped in lateral support,
21 Vertical stiffener on floor this side (continuous narrow line),
22 Butt weld strait cut plates edges,
23 Vertical stiffener on web frame flat bar on this side (continuous narrow line),
24 Hole in web frame dimensions 800x600,
25 Welded flange of web frame in wing tank,
26 Cut out and clip (lug).
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. 7.17
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7.5.2 Detail design

Double bottom plan view
Fig. 7.18
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1. Frame Ruler
2. Longitudinal Ruler
3. Frame Spacing
4. Centre Line
5. Unit Name
6. Adjacent Units
7. Section joint( will be indicated aft and fore limit of the unit and distance to the nearest
frame)
8. Welding seam for connection with aft unit with edge preparation on this side for both
plates
9. Welding seam with edge preparation on this side for one plate
10. Welding seam between two plates inside unit with edge preparation
11. The symbol shows that thickness of profile is orientated to the C.L
12. Excess (in aft part for plates and profiles)
13. Welding seam between two plates inside unit without edge preparation for both plates
14. Longitudinal spacing
15. Longitudinal girders and bulkheads distance to the CL
16. Length of Unit
17. Horizontal Decks area
18. Sloped Decks area
19. Deck Knuckle Line
20. Distance between welding seam
21. Plates position number, thickness and material quality
22. Profiles position number, dimension and material quality
Theoretical line of profiles represented with interrupted middle line that means this
profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is oriented to C.L
23. Theoretical line of longitudinal girders or bulkheads represented with interrupted
middle line that means these are on the other side
24. Theoretical line of transverse webs or bulkheads represented with interrupted middle
line that means these are on the other side
25. Shape of hole and dimensions
26. Profiles thickness orientated to bottom
27. The symbol shows that thickness of bracket is orientated to aft.
28. Horizontal flat bar(thickness orientated to bottom from transverse section)
29. Section joint profile
30. Hole in profile for drainage or air
31. Flats bar position number, dimension and material quality
32. Brackets position number, thickness and material quality
2010, ICEPRONAV

Double bottom - elevation in way of a longitudinal girder
Fig. 7.19
This elevation is of a longitudinal bottom girder (located at 4800 mm off CL to Port).
1. Frame ruler
2. Base Line
3. Double bottom or name of horizontal structure
4. Double bottom height above BL
5. Unit limit distance to the nearest frame
6. Section joint
7. Welding seam for connection with fore unit with edge preparation for both plates on
the other side
8. Excess (in aft part for plate and stiffeners)
9. The symbol shows that thickness of plate is orientated top
10. Welding seam between two plates inside unit without edge preparation
11. The symbol shows that longitudinal girders is continuous and floors are discontinuous
12. Theoretical line of profiles represented with interrupted middle line that means this
profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is orientated to BL
profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is orientated to aft
14. Small hole for drainage
15. Hole dimensions
Double bottom - elevation in way of a bottom longitudinals
Fig. 7.20
2010, ICEPRONAV

The elevation is shown in way of longitudinals between girders (located at 5600 mm off CL to
Port).
1. Frame ruler
2. Section joint
3. Welding seam for connection with aft unit with edge preparation for both plates on the
other side
4. The symbol shows that inner bottom longitudinal is continuous
5. Inner bottom longitudinal
6. Vertical stiffeners on floor (snipped ends)
7. T profile on floor below transverse bulkhead stool
10. Small hole for drainage
11. Thickness of bracket is orientated to bottom
Double bottom section between floors
Fig. 7.21
This section is made at an ordinary section (between floors).
1. Longitudinal ruler
2. Vertical Ruler
3. Longitudinal girders distance from C.L
4. Distance of stiffeners from C.L
5. Horizontal distance between stiffeners on centre floor
6. The symbol shows that thickness of inner bottom longitudinal is orientated to C.L
7. Section joint and excess
8. Position number, dimension and material quality of bracket flange welded on fore side
9. Position number, dimension and material quality of vertical flat bar
10. Brackets position number, thickness and material quality
11. Type of hole and dimensions
profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is orientated to BL
2010, ICEPRONAV

13. Theoretical line of flanged bracket represented with interrupted middle line that
indicates that the flange is orientated forward
14. Transverse section of longitudinal on sloped bulkhead (hopper tank)
15. Bilge keel
16. Clip (lug) position number, thickness and material quality
Double bottom section at one floor
Fig. 7.22
This section shows a transverse bottom web (floor).
1. Longitudinal Ruler
2. Vertical Ruler
3. The symbol shows that girders are continuous and the floor is intermittent
4. Fillet welding
5. Welding seam between two plates inside unit without edge preparation
6. Bilge keel
7. Cut-out for stiffener
8. Transverse section through inner bottom longitudinal (bulbous profile)
9. Clip (lug)
10. Theoretical line of horizontal profiles represented with interrupted middle line that
means this profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is orientated to BL
11. Theoretical line of vertical profiles represented with interrupted middle line that
means this profiles are on the other side. Profiles thickness is orientated to PS
12. Scallop for welding
13. Hole in plane plate
14. Clip (lug) position number, thickness and material quality
15. Flat bar position number
16. Plate position number, thickness and material quality
2010, ICEPRONAV

7.6 LIST OF MAIN HULL DOCUMENTS FOR BASIC DESIGN AND DETAIL DESIGN
7.6.1 Basic Design
MIDSHIP SECTION
Drawing contains transverse sections for an ordinary frame and a web frame, joining nodes,
cut-outs, typical details, technical information, principal dimensions and information pertaining
to classification of the ship, comments, remarks which show the plate thicknesses and
quality, dimensions and quality for beams, girders, webs, longitudinals and stiffeners.
FRAMING PLAN
Drawing contains view of shell, transom, view on main deck, view of double side, view on
double bottom which shows the plate thicknesses and dimensions and quality for beams,
girders, webs, longitudinals and stiffeners for all the ship (ordinary frames and web frames).
SHELL EXPANSION
Drawing contains view of shell, transom, bulwark, joining nodes, typical details which shows
the plate thicknesses and quality for the ship shell.
DOUBLE BOTTOM (CARGO AREA)
Drawing contains plan view on double bottom, plan view on bottom shell and elevations
showing plate thicknesses and dimensions for floors, longitudinal, horizontal and vertical
stiffeners, detail for manholes, holes for air and drain.
PROFILE AND DECKS
Drawing contains CL elevation, plan view on decks, necessary elevations and sections of the
ship showing plate and profile thicknesses, dimensions and qualities.
DEEP TANK AND BALLAST TANK BULKHEADS
Drawing contains layout of double side, including view of double side, elevations, sections
and details including material, thicknesses and qualities.
TRANSVERSE SECTIONS
Upon occasion additional drawings may be required to show sections other than at midship
section.
MACHINERY SPACE STRUCTURE

Drawing contains plan views of all decks and platforms, necessary elevations including
machinery casings and view at CL, and sections and details as necessary.
AFT PART STRUCTURE
Drawing contains plan views of all decks and platforms, necessary elevations including
steering gear flat and view at CL, and sections and details as necessary.
FORE PART STRUCTURE
Drawing contains plan views of all decks and platforms, necessary elevations including chain
locker boundaries, anchor pockets, hawse pipes and view at CL, and sections and details as
necessary.
2010, ICEPRONAV

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Drawing contains plan views of all decks, necessary elevations including machinery casings
and view at CL, and sections and details as necessary.
POOP DECK STRUCTURE
Drawing contains plan views of all decks and platforms, necessary elevations and view at CL,
and sections and details as necessary.
FORECASTLE STRUCTURE
Drawing contains plan views of all decks and platforms, necessary elevations and view at CL,
sections and details as necessary (including details in way of strengthening below mooring
equipment).
CARGO HATCH COAMINGS STRUCTURE ON WEATHER DECK
Drawing contains view on main deck, elevations for hatch coamings, sections for hatch
coamings and details including stays.
OTHER DRAWINGS
Other drawings necessary for Class approval may include for example: rudder, rudder stock,
rudder horn, main engine foundations, crane foundations, sea chests, tank testing plan,
docking plan, deckhouses, masts and welding table.
2010, ICEPRONAV

7.6.2 Detail Design

WORKSHOP DRAWINGS
Drawing contains plan views, part shell expansion, elevations and sections, including
elevation in CL, 3-D view of unit, details for manholes, holes for air and drain, typical details
for edge preparation, sections at each frame, joining nodes, typical details for cut-outs, clips
(lugs), plan view for the unit with diagonal dimensions, etc.
PLATE NESTINGS
Drawing for each piece contains marking lines for the parts to be welded in these position
and number of these parts (plates and profiles), bevels (This Side, Other Side), excess,
orientation information about the positioning in the ship (aft, fore, up, down, CL, PS, SB, roll
axis), principal dimensions and a diagonal for a part (if required) and a table which shows:
length, width, thickness, weight and quality of the plate, ship, section number/name, drawing
number, nesting name and number of parts.
PLATE PARTS LIST
Plate parts list contains a table which shows: position number, quantity in PS and SB, nesting
number, thickness, quality and weight, ID for plate about each nested plate.
PROFILE PARTS LIST
Profile parts list contains a table which shows: position number, quantity in PS and SB,
nesting number, shape, dimensions, quality and weight, sketch number and ID for profile.
PROFILE NESTINGS
Profile nesting list contains a table which shows: nesting, profile type, quality, profile
dimension, length, position number, location and end-cut codes.
BENDING INFORMATION FOR PLATES
Drawing contains the plate with some check points where the bending templates, excess for
the plate, length, width and thickness of plate and will be placed apart the bending templates
with their dimension: height and width that have check points for be placed in right position
on the plate.
CUTTING DOC FOR PROFILES
Drawing contains the profile, orientation information about the positioning on the ship (aft,
fore, up, down, CL, PS, SB, bottom, top, FWD), excess, edge preparation, a scale where
holes in profile will be placed and a table showing: length (minimum and total), width and
thickness, quality of the plate, quantity in PS and SB , part name and name of template.
ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
Drawing contains the plate and the stiffeners that will be placed on the plate and a table
which shows: position number, component name and description, orientation, nesting name
for plate, assembly name, quantity, material quality and weight for the all pieces.
2010, ICEPRONAV

REFERENCES
[1] Colin H. Simmons, Dennis E. Maguire - Manual of Engineering Drawing
[2] Polytechnic University Bucharest - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics

courses
[3] Alexandru Vasile - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering courses from Dunarea de Jos
University Galati
2010, ICEPRONAV

APPENDIX A.1 - TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
A.1.1 Terminology
View is a representation in orthogonal projection on a piece plane without sections.
Fig. A.1.7
In Fig. A.1.1 shows a simple piece. The main geometric shapes are core bar cylinder and
right regular prism of the screw head, the inside forms missing. For a complete geometric
definition just two views (front and left view) are necessary.
Fig. A.1.8
Fig. A.1.2 shows a bearing with simple inside and outside sides, prismatic and cylindrical,
using the front, top and left views. It is easy to see that the views utilization is not enough for
relieving the shape inside sides.
A.1.2 The view classification

The view classification is done according to:
a) projection direction;
b) representation ratio in the view.
According to projection direction the views are classified in:
- regular views;
- particular views.
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According to representation ratio the views are classified in:

- complete views;
- partial views;
- local views.
The regular view is the view realized after one of standard projection directions and located in
format according to the standard rules, standard which is referring to normal location of
projections.
The particular view is the regular view obtained after another projection than the standards
one ore the one that is located to another position than the one regularized by standard
compliant one.
In Fig. A.1.1 and Fig. A.1.2 the projections used for the representation of those two pieces
are regular views. In Fig. A.1.1 a particular view, after direction A, is also represented. This
view is important to specify the real space of the necessary space for the screw mark. Also in
Fig. A.1.1. the view from A is represented in projection correspondence or rotated. The view
rotation is accentuated by the specific symbol, placed near view notation.
The complete view is the view that presents the whole-piece (the entire assemble).
The partial view is the view that presents just a part of a piece (assemble) and is delimitated
with a line.
The local view contains just a piece (assemble) detail, disposed according to method A.
In Fig. A.1.1 and Fig. A.1.2 the bearing views (front, left and top views) are complete views
and A view is a partial view.
In Fig. A.1.3 the slit view of the guide assembly is a local view. It is different from a partial
view because it is not delimitated by a break line and is disposed after method A. The top
view is not a partial view, is a regular one represented 50% because the piece is symmetric
towards a front plane that contains its vertical axis.
Fig. A.1.9
In a view representation of a piece we can see the visible contour and the piece edges.
The edge is the projection on a plane between two surfaces of a piece.
An edge can be a part of a projection visible contour. The same edge can be visible in a view
and invisible in another.
In Fig. A.1.1 m1 is an edge because it represents the common circular base of the truncated
cone and of the cylindrical bar, and m2 is the intersection between plane surfaces which form
the prism sides of the screw head.
2010, ICEPRONAV

The edges can be real or fictive.

The real edge is the edge resulted by processing (cutting, metal cutting).
The fictive edge is the projection on an imaginary intersection plane of a piece two surfaces.
A real edge is evident and is mapped out with line type A if is visible. The invisible outside
edges in a projection are not usually represented because they will be visible in another
piece projection. If necessary, the invisible outside edges is possible to be represented with
type E (dashed narrow line) line or type F (dashed wide line).
Fig. A.1.4 shows the extremity possible shape of a scribe needle. The geometric shapes are
a cylinder and a cone (Fig. A.1.4a) and their intersection is a real edge. If between those two
surfaces a transition surface is made (Fig. A.1.4b), then the representation will contain a
fictive edge, generated by imaginary extension intersection of the cylindrical and conical
surfaces. The fictive edge representation (Fig. A.1.4c) will comply with the rules that shall be
detailed further on.
The invisible fictive edges are not represented.
Fig. A.1.4a Fig. A.1.4b Fig. A.1.4c
Fig. A.1.10
The pieces with insides shapes have contours and inside edges, invisible on its views. For
accentuate are necessary sections.
The section is the representation in orthogonal projection on a plane of the intersection result
between an object and a section surface followed by the imaginary removal of the object part
placed between observer and section surface.
Fig. A.1.5 intuitive shows a section obtained as described in the section definition. For a
longitudinal sectioning of the bushed bearing with cylindrical inside and outside shape (Fig.
A.1.5a) a front plane which contains its axis is used. (Fig. A.1.5b). The imaginary sectioning
result and the removal of the piece part placed between observer and section plane
presented in Fig. A.1.5c.
The obtained section can be represented in two ways: proper section, and section with view,
both presented in Fig. A.1.6.
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.5a Fig. A.1.5b Fig. A.1.5c
Fig. A.1.11
Fig. A.1.6a Fig. A.1.6b Fig. A.1.6c Fig. A.1.6d
Fig. A.1.12
In Fig. A.1.6a the bushed bearing is represented with the views help, in Fig. A.1.6b is
presented the choosing of the sectioning surface showed in section route notation. In Fig.
A.1.6c and Fig. A.1.6d section A-A is represented in two ways: proper section Fig. A.1.6c
and section with view Fig. A.1.6d.
The section route the section plane trace or trace assembly of the section planes which
generates a section.
The section route is represented with line type H and on the segments from extremities have
arrows that indicate the projection direction. Because an object representation can need
more section routes, each route is notated with capital letter, written near the arrows. For the
routes case which generates broken or step-up sections, each route break is accentuated
with continuous wide line segments. (see Fig. A.1.14, Fig. A.1.15 and Fig. A.1.16).
The combined projections view and section dont need notation of the section route.
2010, ICEPRONAV

A.1.3 The sections classification

For a correct section description that intervenes for a piece or assembly representation
section classification knowledge is necessary. For example, the section from Fig. A.1.6d is
correctly described: longitudinal section with plane, total, vertical view.
The section classification is made taking into account the following criteria:
a) representation way;
b) sectioning surface position in ratio with projection plane of trihedral;
c) sectioning surface position in ratio with the piece;
d) sectioning surface shape;
e) sectioning ratio.
a) After the representation way we have:
i) proper section;
ii) section with view.
i) The proper section is the geometric result of the piece sectioning. Fig. A.1.6c shows the
proper section A-A which consists of two rectangles. Such a representation has the
commodity advantage, but doesnt give information about the object part placed behind the
sectioning plane.
ii) The section with view is a complete proper section with the contours and the edges placed
behind sectioning surface becoming visible by the imaginary removal of the object part
placed between sectioning surface and observer. In Fig. A.1.6d the same section A-A is
represented like a section with view.
The difference between the proper section and the one with view is important because the
assisted design programs generate proper sections. These must be completed to become
sections with view.
b) Attend to the position of the sectioning surface in ratio with projection trihedral planes we
have:
i) horizontal section;
ii) vertical section;
iii) leaning section.
i) The horizontal section is the one obtained with a level plane. In Fig. A.1.8 the section A-A
is horizontal.
ii) The vertical section is generated by a normal plane to the horizontal plane of projection (a
vertical plane, a front or a profile plane). In Fig. A.1.6c, Fig. A.1.6d, Fig. A.1.9, Fig. A.1.10
the sections are vertical.
iii) The leaning section is a section realized with a certain plane or, more often, with a simple
particular plane. In Fig. A.1.7 the section realized by a shaft, with the purpose to
accentuate the oil ducts, is a leaning section.
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.13
Fig. A.1.14
Fig. A.1.15
Fig. A.1.9a Fig. A.1.9b
2010, ICEPRONAV

c) After the sectioning surface position in ratio with the piece:

i) longitudinal section;
ii) transversal section.
i) The longitudinal section is realized with a plane which contains the longitudinal axis of the
piece or is parallel with it. In Fig. A.1.6c and Fig. A.1.6d the sections are longitudinal.
ii) The transversal section is generated by a plane that intersects the longitudinal axis of the
o
piece usually to a 90 angle. In Fig. A.1.11 the section is a transversal section.
d) After the sectioning surface shape:
i) plane section;
ii) broken section;
iii) step-up section;
iv) cylindrical section.
i) The plane section is the result of the piece intersection with a plane. Most sections are
plane sections.
ii) The broken section is generated by an assembly of two planes which are intersected to a
o
90 angle. In Fig. A.1.14 and Fig. A.1.16 the broken sections are exemplified.
iii) The step-up section is obtained from a plane sequences, converse perpendicular. In Fig.
A.1.9a and Fig. A.1.15 those sections are exemplified.
iv) The cylindrical section is generated by a cylindrical surface. The sectioning result is
represented with the evolute.
e) After the sectioning ratio:
i) total section;
ii) partial section;
iii) combined projection ( view and section).
i) The total section is the one generated by the complete cut-out of the piece, on
transversal or longitudinal direction. In Fig. A.1.6c, d, and Fig. A.1.7 the sections are total.
ii) The partial section is generated by a surface which intersects just a part of the piece. Fig.
A.1.8 shows a partial section. The partial section must not be confused with the break (Fig.
A.1.9b), the difference being the representation in section which is not bounded by a break
line.
iii) The combined projection is named 1/2 view and section and is used to represent
objects that accept a symmetry plane and is obtained with a step-up plane, the first plane
being placed in front of the object and in that way generating a view instead of a section.
Fig. A.1.9a shows the piece from Fig. A.1.5a with a combined projection help view and
section on vertical plane. In Fig. A.1.9b the same piece, with a transversal cylindrical orifice,
is represented with a combined projection help on vertical plane and the top view is
completed with a break that shows that the orifice permeates the wall. The combined
projection doesnt need the sectioning route representation.
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.16
Fig. A.1.10a
Fig. A.1.10b
Fig. A.1.10c
Fig. A.1.10d
Fig. A.1.17
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.18
Fig. A.1.19
Fig. A.1.13c Fig. A.1.13d
2010, ICEPRONAV


Fig. A.1.20

Fig. A.1.21
Fig. A.1.22
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.23
A.1.4 Proper sections representation and classification

The proper sections are named according to their representation particularities:
i) regular proper section;
ii) shifted proper section;
iii) intercalary proper section;
iv) superimposed proper section.
The proper sections are exemplified in Fig. A.1.10a, b, c, d. The represented piece is an
angle bar part.
i) The regular proper section ( Fig. A.1.10a) has the following characteristics:
- Is accentuated with sectioning route help;
- The resulted section, noted accordingly, can be placed in projection correspondence
or in other position in paperwork format.
ii) The shifted proper section is characterized by:
- Indication of the sectioning route just by its trace (long dashed dotted narrow line);
- The displacement of the resulted section and its spin for right until it reaches in the
projection plane that has indicated the sectioning track.
Fig. A.1.10b shows the vertical trace of the profile plane which sections the piece and the
o
proper section resulted is rotated 90 right until it reaches the projection vertical plane.
iii) The intercalary proper section (Fig. A.1.10c) is characterized by:
- Elimination of the sectioning plane track representation;
- Placement of the section in the space obtained by elimination of a part from the
represented object view.
This representation variant can be used only when the section is transversal and the part of
the eliminated view doesnt contain details.
iv) The superimposed proper section (Fig. A.1.10d) is different from the intercalary one
because it is not necessary to eliminate a part from the represented object view and its
contour is mapped out with continuous narrow line, not to create confusion by
superimposing with the representation in view.
The break is the orthogonal representation on an object plane with an eliminated part
with the purpose:
- Details representation hidden by that part;
- Reducing the necessary space for representation, without compromise the drawing
clarity by the piece representation to a decrease scale.
2010, ICEPRONAV

Fig. A.1.11 shows a bar with a big length in ratio with transversal dimension. The bar cant be
represented to a decrease scale the left view and the section A-A would have too small
dimensions. In this situation the piece is represented with a break, and the cylindrical part
without details is eliminated. The eliminated parts are bounded with a continuous narrow
sinuous line.
Fig. A.1.9b a break is used to avoid the representation of a horizontal section.
The detail is the representation in orthogonal projection of a small piece part, to a increased
scale, with the purpose to specify the part shape and dimensions.
Fig. 3.23 exemplifies the detail representation and notation.
2010, ICEPRONAV

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PROJECT ENGINEERING SYSTEM

A 2010-10-01 First Issue CBjn/ERtr PNcl PNcl

Rev. Date Description Performed Checked Approved

Size: Project No: Rev:

REVISION REVISED CHAPTERS REVISION DESCRIPTION REASON FOR REVISION

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

1 TECHNICAL DESIGN STANDARDS .................................................................................... 6

1.1 LINEWORK ..................................................................................................................... 6

2 RULES FOR VIEWS AND SECTIONS REPRESENTATION AND NOTATION .................... 9

3 DIMENSIONING PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................ 14

3.1 DIMENSIONING OF FEATURES NOT DRAWN TO SCALE ...................................................... 17

4 GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES ......................................................................................... 34

4.1 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................. 34

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

4.6 METHOD OF INDICATING GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES ON DRAWINGS ............................... 38

5 ASSEMBLY DRAWING ...................................................................................................... 48

5.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................. 48

6 SPECIFIC DRAWINGS FOR PIPING IN SHIPBUILDING ................................................... 65

6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................. 65

7 HULL DRAUGHTING .......................................................................................................... 75

7.1 SHIP DIMENSIONS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................. 75

APPENDIX A.1 - TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION ...................................................... 100

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

1 TECHNICAL DESIGN STANDARDS

1.1.2 Lines and linework

Example Description Represe Application

1 Dimension, extension and projection

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

4 Pitch circle for holes

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

1.4 TECHNICAL DRAWING FORMATS

Symbol axb (mm)

Whenever an extra-standard format is necessary it can be used with project management

Symbol axb (mm)

Exceptional lengthened formats can be obtained by a dimension dilation of A series formats,

Symbol axb (mm) Symbol axb (mm)

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

2 RULES FOR VIEWS AND SECTIONS REPRESENTATION AND NOTATION

These rules are:

2.1 GENERAL RULES FOR THE VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS

- The axis lines exceed the projections contour with 2-3mm.

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

2.2 SPECIAL RULES FOR VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS REPRESENTATION

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

2.2.2 Repetition elements representation.

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

2.2.3 Plane surface representation.

2.2.4 Simplified representation of the surfaces intersection curves.

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

2.2.5 Detail representation.

2.3 VIEWS, SECTIONS AND DETAILS NOTATION

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

3.1 DIMENSIONING OF FEATURES NOT DRAWN TO SCALE

3.2 CHAIN DIMENSIONING AND AUXILIARY DIMENSIONING

3.3 PARALLEL DIMENSIONING

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

3.4 RUNNING DIMENSIONING

3.5 DIMENSIONING CIRCLES

File name: PES-MD-G003_A - Draughting Manual.doc

3.6 DIMENSIONING RADII