Materials Applications

Chapter 13
 Ferrous Materials Steels
Steels are iron-carbon alloys
that may contain other alloying Steels

elements.
There are 1000s of alloys with Low alloy High alloy

different compositions and/or

heat treatments.
Stainless
Low Alloy (<10 wt%)
Low
Carbon
Low Carbon (<0.25 wt%)
Medium Carbon (0.25 to 0.60 wt%)
Tool
Medium
High Carbon (0.60 to 1.4 wt%) Carbon

High Alloy
High
Stainless Steel (> 11 wt% Cr) Carbon
Tool Steel
MatWeb

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 Low Carbon Steel
Plain carbon steels have very little additives
(alloying elements) and small amounts of
manganese.
Most prevalent type of steel is low carbon steel
(greatest quantity produced; least expensive).
Low carbon not responsive to heat treatment; have
to cold work.
Weldable and machinable.
High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steel contains
alloying elements (copper, vanadium, nickel and
molybdenum) up to 10 wt %; they have higher
strengths (than plain LC steels) and may be heat
treated.
 Hot Rolling

Hot rolling is a hot metalworking process where

large pieces of metal (slabs or billets), are heated
above their recrystallization temperature (1/3 Tm< Hot
roll <1/2 Tm) and then deformed between rollers to form
thinner cross sections.
Hot rolling produces thinner cross sections than cold
rolling processes with the same number of stages.
Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will reduce the
average grain size of a metal while maintaining an
equiaxed microstructure where as cold rolling will
produce a hardened microstructure.
 Effect of Carbon content on Steel Hardness
Carbon wt %
10xx Plain Carbon steels
11xx Resulfurized for machinablity
12xx Resulfurized and rephosphorized
Manganese
13xx Mn 1.75
15xx Mn 1.00 - 1.65
Nickel
23xx Ni 3.5
25xx Ni 5.0
Nickel Chromium
31xx Ni 1.25 Cr 0.65-0.80
32xx Ni 1.75 Cr 1.07
33xx Ni 3.50 Cr 1.50-1.57
34xx Ni 3.00 Cr 0.77
Chromium Molybdenum Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)
41xx Cr 0.50-0.95 Mo 0.12-0.30 The first two digits indicate the major alloying
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum metals in a steel, such as manganese, nickel-
43xx Ni 1.82 Cr 0.50-0.80 Mo 0.25 chromium, and chrome-molybdenum.
47xx Ni 1.05 Cr 0.45 Mo 0.20 0.35 xx is wt% C x 100
86xx Ni 0.55 Cr 0.50 Mo 0.20 example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with
Nickel Molybdenum 0.60 wt% C
46xx Ni 0.85-1.82 Mo 0.20 Carbon is the primary hardening element in
48xx Ni 3.50 Mo 0.25 steel. Hardness and tensile strength increase as
Chromium carbon content increases up to about 0.85%
50xx Cr 0.27- 0.65 C. Ductility and weldability decrease with
increasing carbon.
51xx Cr 0.80 1.05
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 Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
Manganese contributes to strength and hardness; dependent upon the carbon
content. Increasing the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability.
Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.
Phosphorus increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch
impact toughness of steel. The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are
greater in quenched and tempered higher-carbon steels.
Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the transverse
direction. Weldability decreases with increasing sulfur content. Sulfur is found
primarily in the form of sulfide inclusions.
Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less
effective than manganese in increasing as-rolled strength and hardness. In low-
carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface quality.
Copper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper can be
detrimental to surface quality. Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion
resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%.
Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It remains
in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel
increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.
Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. It enhances the creep strength
of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures. 9
Medium Carbon Steel
These alloys may be (heat treated)
austenitized, quenched and then tempered to
improve mechanical properties (tempered
martensite).
Cr, Ni, Mo improve the heat treating capacity
of plain medium carbon steels.

High Carbon Steel

These steels alloyed with Cr, V, W, Mo are
used in blade applications and tools.
 Ferrous

Steels Cast iron

Grey
White
Nodular
Malleable
Compacted graphite

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 Grey Cast Iron
Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured
surface that occurs when the graphitic flakes
deflect a passing crack and initiate many new grey
cracks as the material breaks.
graphite flakes surrounded by a-ferrite or

pearlite matrix
weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake grey
tips are sharp; act as stress raisers)
stronger in compression
excellent vibrational dampening
wear resistant
Carbon content: 3.0 4.0 wt%
Silicon content: 1.0 3.0 wt %
Modifying silicon content and cooling rate
affects microstructure.
Casting shrinkage is low 12
 Nodular (Ductile) Cast Iron
Adding Mg and/or Cerium to grey iron
before casting produces a distinctly grey
different microstructure and mechanical nodular
properties.
graphite forms nodules not flakes

Normally a pearlite matrix

Photo (nodular) shows ferrite matrix that

was heat treated for several hours at

700C. nodular
Castings are stronger and much more

ductile than grey iron.

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Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

Graphite
formation
promoted by
Si > 1 wt%
slow cooling

Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C 3 Fe (a) + C (graphite) 14
 Variety of Cast Iron Microstructures

Gf , graphite flake
Gr , graphite rosettes
Gn, graphite nodules
P, pearlite = a + cementite
a, ferrite

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 Ferrous

Steels Cast iron

Low Alloy High Alloy

Stainless steel Tool steel

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 Stainless steel
Stainless steels - A group of ferrous alloys
that contain at least 11% Cr, providing
extraordinary corrosion resistance.
Categories of stainless steels:
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless
Steels
Duplex Stainless Steels
 Ferrous Alloys
Strengths
http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm?ci_id=8&la_id=1
1) Inexpensive stainless steel videos

2) Abundant supply of iron ore

3) Many applications due to wide range of
material properties.

Limitations
1) Relatively high densities
2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance
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 The name Cronidur is derived from the blade itself
which is made from a single piece of Cronidur 30 steel.
Used in the aerospace industry, this steel is designed to
repel corrosion under the most extreme conditions and
retain hardness without being brittle.
Each knife is precision forged using Zwillings
Sigmaforge process resulting in an exceptionally hard
yet flexible blade.
Zwillings Fridour ice-hardening technique results in a
harder, sharper blade that is corrosion resistant and
highly elastic.
Precise lasers are used to ensure each blades edge is
at the optimal cutting angle for maximum sharpness.
Partnered with renowned Italian architect Matteo Thun
to develop the design of the knife.
A curved and recessed bolster provides a seamless
transition from handle to blade and supports the thumb
for better balance and safety.
The ergonomic handle is made of full-linen Micartaa
composite with the grained look of wood and the
longevity of plastic.
Made in Germany by Zwilling J.A. Henckels since 1731.
 Nonferrous Metals
Cu Alloys Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is a substitutional impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid solution or precipitation
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (structural
substitutional impurities aircraft parts
Cu-Be: & packaging)
precipitation hardened NonFerrous Mg Alloys
for strength -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
(bushings, landing gear) Alloys -ignites easily
-aircraft, missiles
Ti Alloys
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3 Refractory metals
-high melting Ts
(7.9 g/cm for steel) Noble metals
3
-Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high Ts -Ag, Au, Pt
-space application -oxidation/corrosion resistant
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 Copper

It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.

Pure copper is soft and malleable making it difficult to machine.
Copper is the standard benchmark for electrical conductivity. It
conducts electrical current better than any other metal except silver.
Copper is routinely refined to 99.98% purity before it is acceptable for
many electrical applications.
Building construction accounts for more than 40% of all copper use.
The average single-family home contains the following amounts of
copper: 195 pounds - building wire
151 pounds - plumbing tube, fillings, valves
24 pounds - plumbers' brass goods
47 pounds - built-in appliances
12 pounds - builders hardware
10 pounds - other wire and tube 24
 Brass
Brass is the most common copper alloy (zinc is the
substitutional impurity).
Brass has higher ductility than copper or zinc. The relatively
low melting point of brass (900 to 940C, depending on
composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively
easy material to cast.
By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the
properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and
soft brasses.
Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval and
cartridge.
Brass is frequently used to make musical instruments (good
ductility and acoustic properties).
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 Copper alloys containing tin, Bronze
(lead), aluminum, silicon and
nickel are classified as
bronzes.
Stronger than brasses with
good corrosion and tensile
properties; can be cast, hot
worked and cold worked.
Wide range of applications:
ancient Chinese cast artifacts,
skateboard ball bearings,
surgical and dental
instruments.

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 Beryllium copper
Beryllium copper is ductile, weldable and machinable. It is resistant to
non-oxidizing acids (hydrochloric acid or carbonic acid), to abrasive
wear and to galling (surface damage caused by sliding solids).
It can be heat-treated to improve its strength, durability and electrical
conductivity.
Beryllium copper is used in springs, load cells and other parts that must
retain their shapes while subjected to repeated stress and strain.
Due to its electrical conductivity, it is used in low-current contacts for
batteries and electrical connectors.
High strength beryllium copper alloys contain up to 2.7% of beryllium
(cast), or 1.6-2% of beryllium with about 0.3% cobalt (wrought). The
high mechanical strength is achieved by precipitation hardening or age
hardening. The thermal conductivity of these alloys lies between steels
and aluminum. The cast alloys are frequently used as material for
injection molds.
Other applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and
bushings and percussion instruments. 27
 Aluminum
Aluminum is a relatively light metal compared to steel, nickel, brass and
copper. Aluminum is easily machinable and can have a wide variety of
surface finishes. It also has good electrical and thermal conductivities
and is highly reflective to heat and light.
Aluminum is a versatile metal and can be cast in many forms. It can be
rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed, hammered and forged. The
metal can be extruded into a variety of shapes, and can be milled, and
bored in the machining process. Aluminum can be riveted, welded,
brazed, or resin bonded. For most applications, aluminum needs no
protective coating as it can be finished to look good, however it is often
anodized to improve color and strength.
Another important characteristic is specific strength; where the specific
strength is a material's strength (force per unit area at failure) divided by
its density. It is also known as the strength-to-weight ratio or
strength/weight ratio. Materials with high specific strengths are widely
used in aerospace applications where weight savings are worth the
higher material cost. Titanium, magnesium and carbon fiber-epoxy
(composites) are widely used in these applications for this reason.
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 Titanium
Titanium is very reactive, and because of this it is often used
for alloying and deoxidizing other metals. Titanium is a more
powerful deoxidizer of steel than silicon or manganese.
Titanium is 40% lighter than steel and 60% heavier than
aluminum. This combination of high strength and low weight
makes titanium a very useful structural metal.
Titanium also features excellent corrosion resistance, which
stems from a thin oxide surface film that protects it from
atmospheric and ocean conditions as well as a wide variety
of chemicals.
Pure titanium melts at 1670oC and has a density of 4.51
g/cm3. Good for use in components that operate at elevated
temperatures, especially where large strength to weight
ratios are required.
Titanium can catch fire and cause severe damage in
circumstances where it rubs against other metals at elevated
temperatures. This is what limits its application in the harsh
environment of aeroengines, to regions where the
temperature does not exceed 400oC.
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http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2004/titanium/titanium.html
 Titanium-2
Titanium is rather difficult to fabricate because of its
susceptibility to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
impurities that cause the titanium to become more brittle.
Elevated temperature processing must be used under
special conditions to avoid diffusion of these gasses into
the titanium.
Commercially produced titanium products are made in
the following mill wrought forms; plate, tubing, sheet,
wire, extrusions, and forgings.
Titanium can also be cast, but must be done in a
vacuum furnace because of titanium's reactive nature.
Because of its high strength to weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance, titanium is used in a variety of
applications: aircraft, sporting equipment, chemical
processing, desalination, power generation equipment,
valve and pump parts, marine hardware and prosthetic
devices.
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