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Experiment 5: Ionization 19
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EXPERIMENT 1
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
A solution is made up of two components, namely, the solvent (dispersing medium or outer
phase), and the solute (dispersed component, or inner phase). Colligative properties of solutions
depend on the amount of solute particles.
Compared to pure solvents, a solution has lower vapor pressure, lower freezing point, and
higher boiling point. Boiling point is the temperature, at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
to the atmospheric pressure. Since the equilibrium vapor pressure of a solution is less than that of the
pure solvent at the same temperature, the solution must be supplied with more heat (higher
temperature than the pure solvent) to equal atmospheric pressure.
The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which the liquid and the solid phase
are at equilibrium. A pure compound would always freeze at the same temperature. If another
substance is added to the pure compound to make a solution, the freezing point is lowered.
Osmosis is the passage of water through a porous, elastic membrane known as a semi-
permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure of a solution is the difference in the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent and the solution of the solute in that solvent separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
Osmosis is a very important process in living systems.
Vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic
pressure are effects known as colligative properties because they depend on the amount of solute
particles and not on the kind of solute particles present in the solution. One of the major uses of
colligative properties is finding the molecular weight of unknown substances. The change in freezing
and boiling point are computed as follows:
where kf and kb are the freezing point lowering constant and the
boiling point elevation constant, respectively, of the solvent; m is
Tf = - kfm and Tb= kbm the molal concentration of the solvent; Tf and Tb are the
freezing point lowering and the boiling point elevation
MW = or MW =
OBJECTIVES
MATERIALS
2
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare 3 clean test tubes and place them side by side in a test tube rack.
2. Label each test tube from one to three.
3. Pour 25 mL of filtered NaCl solution in test tube 1; 25 mL of the cooked starch solution in test
tube 2; and 25 mL of uncooked starch solution in test tube 3.
4. Focus the beam of the pen light on each of the test tubes and note the appearance, the effect
of the beam of light, and the visibility of the particles. Do this by viewing the test tubes
perpendicular to the beam of light. (Take note the particle size)
5. Complete Table 1.1
Urea
NaCl
CaCl2
MATERIALS
PROCEDURE
Note: Avoid using a very big flame in boiling the liquids. This may cause superheating which could
lead to unnecessary loss of water through steam and may cause errors in the experiment.
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C. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
Crushed ice
1.0 m sucrose solution
1.0 m NaCl solution
Rock salt
Distilled water
MATERIALS
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain three test tubes and label them 1, 2, and 3. Place them in the test tube rack.
2. Add distilled water to test tube 1, 1.0 m sucrose to test tube 2, and 1.0 m NaCl solution to test
tube 3 until about it is one-third full.
3. Obtain approximately 50 g salt and add it to the 500 mL beaker half-filled with crushed ice. Stir
to mix the contents.
4. Measure the temperature of the ice/salt bath, and proceed to step 5 when the temperature is
about -10C or even lower.
5. Insert a thermometer to test tube 1 and place it in the ice/salt bath. Stir constantly and
periodically lift the test tube to observe. When ice crystals are beginning to form, take the
temperature reading of the test tube contents to obtain the freezing point of water.
6. Repeat using test tube 2 and test tube 3. Record your data accordingly.
Note: When necessary, add more ice and more rock salt to your ice/ salt bath.
D. OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Distilled water
Rock salt
MATERIALS
250 mL beakers
Potato or carrot
PROCEDURE
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BONUS EXPERIMENT
ICE CREAM MAKING
OBJECTIVE:
PROCEDURE
1. Mix the all-purpose cream, milk or sugar, vanilla extract and gelatin extract. When the mixture
is well dispersed, add the desired flavorings.
2. Pour into each cup. Place the cup into the ice contained in metal cans. Make sure that the cup
is well submerged in the ice taking care not to contaminate the ice cream mixture.
3. Place several spoonfuls of salt into the ice, taking care not to put some in the ice cream
mixture.
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EXPERIMENT 2
HEAT EFFECTS AND CALORIMETRY
Heat flows from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature. If
two objects are in contact, they will both reach the same temperature, given sufficient time.
Heat flow is measured with the use of a calorimeter. Calorimetry is the process of measuring
heat flow, q, which involves trapping the heat, evolved (or absorbed), producing a measurable
change in temperature.
OBJECTIVES
1. To understand concepts of heat and heat capacity and their application to calorimetry.
2. To be able to calibrate and use a calorimeter to measure thermodynamic data from actual
chemical systems.
3. To differentiate exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions.
Tap water
Beaker
Bunsen Burner
Thermometer
Wire gauze
Styrofoam cups with covers
PROCEDURE
6
Figure 1. Constant pressure calorimetry apparatus.
CALCULATIONS:
o
where cwater is the specific heat of water which is equal to 4.18 J/g/ C
Notes:
1. Alternatively, you may assume that the density of tap water = 1 g/mL and solve the mass of
tap water from its volume.
2. Again, you may assume that the density of the heated tap water = 1 g/mL and that there was
no significant loss during heating.
3. Check the sign of calculated q. Apply the sign convention for heat flow from the perspective of
the system, i.e. (+) for heat absorbed and () for heat released by the system.
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B. HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION
1.0 M HCl
1.0 M NaOH
Phenolphthalein indicator
PROCEDURE
1. Measure 30 mL of 1.0 M NaOH into the improvised calorimeter. Prepare 25 mL of 1.0 M HCl
in a clean beaker. Let the solutions cool down to room temperature.
2. Monitor the temperature to the nearest 0.1C for five minutes at 1 minute intervals for 5 min.
th
Record the temperature at the 5 min as the constant initial temperature.
3. Add the 25 mL 1.0M HCl into the calorimeter, noting the time of mixing as zero. Stir the
contents of the calorimeter and continue taking readings to the nearest 0.1 C every 15 s for 4
min until the temperature remains constant.
4. Draw a graph of the data gathered showing temperature on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
Extrapolate the data to time = 0, this temperature will be the final temperature.
5. The change in temperature is the difference between the initial and final temperature.
6. Calculate the heat capacity of the solution (Calculation 1). Then, calculate the heat evolved
from the reaction and the heat of neutralization per mole of water formed (Calculations 2 and
3). Compare your value with the theoretical value.
CALCULATIONS
1. The heat capacity of solution (NaOH(aq) (excess) and NaCl(aq) (the product)) is given by:
where and are the mass and specific heat of a solution, respectively(Note 1).
3. The enthalpy of neutralization of HCl and NaOH can be determined by using the following
equation:
Notes:
1. Assume that the densities of 0.50 M NaCl and 0.10M NaOH are 1.0 g/mL, and their specific
o
heats 4.18 J/g/ C.
2. Apply the sign convention mentioned previously.
3. The limiting reagent in this case is the acid.
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C. HEAT OF SOLUTION
NaOH flakes
Na2S2O3 flakes
Improvised Calorimeter
Thermometer
Stirrer
PROCEDURE
1. Measure 50.0 mL distilled water in the calorimeter and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g.
2. Record the temperature of the water to the nearest 0.1C. The temperature should be within 1
or 2 degrees of room temperature.
3. Weigh out 5.0 g of solid NaOH flakes (Note 1) in a small beaker to the nearest 0.1 g.
4. Add the solid NaOH flakes to the calorimeter and stir continuously to dissolve the solid.
5. Determine the maximum temperature reached as the solid dissolves (note 1).
6. Clean the calorimeter and repeat steps 1-5 using 5.0 g Na2S2O3 flakes. This time, note the
minimum temperature reached (Note 2).
7. Calculate the heat of solution for both solutes in water (Calculations). The highest or lowest
temperature obtained is the final temperature.
CALCULATIONS
1. Use the following data and equations to solve the heat changes:
o
Substance Specific heat (J/g/ C)
NaOH 1.49
Na2S2O35H2O 1.45
H2O 4.18
Notes:
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QUESTIONS
4. Explain why the extrapolated temperature is used to determine the maximum temperature of the
mixture rather than the highest recorded temperature in the experiment.
5. If 150 g of lead at 100 C were placed in a calorimeter with 50 g of water at 28.8 C and the
resulting temperature of the mixture was 22 C, what are the values of qlead, qwater and qcal? The
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/gC and the specific heat of lead is 0.128 J/gC.
6. Experimental Procedure, Part B. Three student chemists measured 50.0 mL of 1.00 M NaOH in
separate Styrofoam coffee cup calorimeters (Part B). Brett added 50.0 mL of 1.10 M HCl to his
solution of NaOH; Dale added 45.5 mL of 1.10 M HCl to his NaOH solution. Lyndsay added 50.0 mL
of 1.00 M HCl to her NaOH solution. Each student recorded the temperature change and calculated
the enthalpy of neutralization. Identify the student who observes a temperature change that will be
different from that observed by the other two chemists. Explain why and how (higher or lower) the
temperature will be different.
7. The enthalpy of solution for the dissolving of a KBr sample was determined following Part C of this
experiment. Complete the following data sheet for determining the enthalpy of solution of KBr. Show
calculations.
Experimental data:
1. Mass of salt (g) __5.00___
2. Moles of salt (mol) _______
5. Mass of water (g) ___25.0__
6. Initial temperature of water (C) __25.0__
7. Final temperature of mixture (C) __18.1__
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EXPERIMENT 3
CHEMICAL KINETICS
The study of rates and mechanisms of chemical reactions is the domain of chemical kinetics.
The rate of reaction is measured by the change in concentration per unit time of a substance,
reactant, or product.
Given a hypothetical reaction X + Y 2Z, the rate can be expressed in terms of the rate of
disappearance of X, rate of disappearance of Y, or rate of appearance of Z. In mathematical equation,
these can be expressed as
[ ] [ ] [ ]
Rate = = =
The relationship between the concentration of the reactants and the rate of a chemical
reaction is given by a simple mathematical equation known as the rate law or rate expression.
The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentration(s) of the
reactant(s), each raised to a power which may or may not be equal to its coefficient in a balanced
chemical equation and which is experimentally determined. Thus, for a hypothetical reaction given
above, we have
[ ]
Rate = [X]a[Y]b or Rate= k[X]a[Y]b
where (a) is the order with respect to reactant (X) and (b) is the order with respect to reactant (Y). The
sum of a and b, or the exponents of the reactants, determine the overall order of the reaction. The
proportionality constant k, is the rate constant.
Two theories, namely, the Collision Theory and the Transition State Theory are used to explain
how these factors affect reaction rates.
OBJECTIVES
A. NATURE OF REACTANTS
3 M HCl
3 M Acetic Acid
Iron filings
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MATERIALS AND APPARATUS
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare two 15-mL test tubes. Place enough 3M Acetic acid to fill 1/3 of one test tube, and
3M HCl to the other test tube.
2. Place one spatula-full of iron fillings to test tube with HCl. Immediately, test the gas evolved
using lighted splinter.
3. Do the same to test tube containing Acetic Acid.
4. Compare the reaction rates and record your observations.
B. EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION
6 M NaOH
5 Test tubes
Dropper
Aluminum foil
Stopwatch
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare five test tubes and label each A, B, C, D, and E, respectively. Place the test tubes in
a firm support. (e.g. test tube rack).
2. Lay a small piece of aluminum foil across the mouth of each test tube and create a basin-like
depression by forcing the foil into the test tubes using the bottom of a similar-sized test tube.
3. Prepare series of NaOH solutions of different concentrations by mixing 6 M NaOH and
distilled water (Table 3.1).
4. Having your stopwatch ready, pour 1mL of Solution A into the depression in the foil and start
timing when the solution hits the foil.
5. Note the time when a hole in the foil has been formed. Either the solution will drop into the
test tube or a drop may form below the hole (note 2).
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6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 on the remaining solutions B, C, D, and E, respectively.
7. Get 1/t for each of the test solutions.
C. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
0.0050 M KMnO4
Saturated Oxalic Acid
PROCEDURE
3 M HCl
Mossy Zinc
Zinc dust
PROCEDURE
1. Place 2.5 mL of 3 M HCl to two test tubes and label them A and B.
2. To one test tube, drop a piece of mossy zinc and a pinch of zinc dust to the other test tube.
3. Observe the reactions and write the balanced equation.
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E. EFFECT OF PRESENCE OF CATALYST
H2O2 Solution
Detergent
Manganese oxide
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare two clean beakers and label them accordingly. Place about 1 mL of detergent
solution to each beaker.
2. Place 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to each of the beaker.
3. Add about 1.0 g MnO2 to one of the two beakers and mix the contents. Compare the
reactions taking place in both beakers.
4. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
- - + -
6I (aq) + BrO3 (aq) + 6H (aq) 3I2 (aq) + Br (aq) + 3H2O
- x - y + z
Rate= k[I ] [BrO3 ] [H ]
- - +
where the order with respect to [I ], [BrO3 ], and [H ] are x, y, and z, respectively.
The order of the over-all reaction is equal to x + y + z. The time it takes to produce I 2 is measured
when a deep blue color with starch is produced.
0.50 M KI
0.001 M Na2S2O3
0.50 M KBrO3
0.10 M HCl
Starch Indicator Solution
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PROCEDURE
1. Put some reagents to flask A and another set of reagents to flask B (Table 3.2). Add drops of
starch indicator to flask B.
2. Pour the contents to flask B into flask A and swirl to mix them thoroughly. Note the time at
which the solution have been mixed and continue swirling until the solution turns blue.
3. Take the time at the instant the blue color appears, and also note the temperature of the blue
solution. Also, record the 1/time.
4. Repeat the procedure with the other reaction mixtures 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Table 3.2). Wash the
flasks thoroughly and rinse with distilled water every after reaction.
5. Determine the order of the reaction with respect to the reactants and the over-all order of the
reaction.
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EXPERIMENT 4
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM: LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE
Some reactions proceed to completion while others do not. Precipitation reactions and those
that form gaseous products are examples of reactions that tend to go to completion. A reversible
reaction does not go to completion. The products react to reform the original reactants. Equilibrium is
reached when the rate of the formation of products is equal to the rate of the reformation of the
reactants, that is, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. Any
change in conditions of concentration, pressure, or temperature produces a corresponding change in
the system that is in equilibrium. This is explained by Le Chatelier's Principle that states if a system
at chemical equilibrium is disturbed by some stress, the system goes to a new equilibrium condition in
such a way as to relieve the stress.
OBJECTIVES
A. GASEOUS EQUILIBRIUM
Copper wire
16 M HNO3
Erlenmeyer flask
One-hole rubber stopper
10 mL glass syringe
PROCEDURE
16
B. COMMON ION-EFFECT
1 M CH3COOH
Methyl red indicator
Sodium acetate
PROCEDURE
C. COMPLEX-ION EQUILIBRIUM
250 mL Beaker
4 Test tubes
Pipet
PROCEDURE
1. Mix approximately 1 mL of 0.1 M FeCl3 and 0.1 M KSCN solutions to 250-mL beaker, and
dilute the mixture to 100 mL with distilled water. Divide the resulting solution into four test
tubes.
2. Place a pinch of ferric nitrate into the first test tubes, ammonium thiocyanate into the second,
KCl into the third test tube, and, disodium hydrogen phosphate to the last test tube.
3. Write down the observations in each test tube.
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D. CHROMATE-DICHROMATE EQUILIBRIUM
0.1 M K2CrO4
0.1 M K2Cr2O7
1.0 M HCl
1.0 M NaOH
4 Test tubes
Droppers
PROCEDURE
1. Observe the colors of K2Cr2O7 and K2CrO4 solutions.
2. Put approximately 1 mL of 0.1 M K2CrO4 into two test tubes (1 and 2), and the same amount
of 0.1 M K2Cr2O7 into another pair of test tubes (3 and 4).
3. Add 1 M NaOH dropwise to test tubes 1 and 3 and continue adding until an obvious change in
color is noticed. Set these solutions aside for comparison.
4. Repeat the previous step with test tubes 2 and 4, but using HCl instead of NaOH. Record
your observations.
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EXPERIMENT 5
IONIZATION
Electrolytes have aqueous solutions that conduct electricity. They produce cations (positively
charged) and anions (negatively charged) particles in solution. Weak electrolytes produce fewer ions
in the solution compared to strong electrolytes.
The extent of ionization is measured by the power of various solutions to conduct electricity.
The lamp of the conductivity apparatus will glow brightly if a strong electrolyte (or a conductor) is
tested. The lamp will not glow if the substance tested is a non-electrolyte (or a non-conductor).
OBJECTIVES
A. EXTENT OF IONIZATION
Conductivity apparatus
PROCEDURE
1. Test the conductivity of the materials listed above using the conductivity apparatus.
2. The apparatus uses light bulb that lights up when the circuit is closed using an electrolyte.
3. Remember to wash the electrodes before dipping in another solution/ substance to be tested.
4. List all your observations, and classify the substances as weak, strong electrolyte, or non-
electrolyte.
B. IDENTIFICATION OF IONS
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PROCEDURE
Try to deduce the colors of the ions listed in the table below from the actual colors of the
solutions studied.
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EXPERIMENT 6
ACIDS AND BASES
According to Svante Arrhenius, the only recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903, an
acid is an electrolyte that yields hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions while the base yields the hydroxyl
ions. His theory was further refined and modified until at about the same time in the early 1920's, J. N.
Bronsted, a chemist from Denmark, and TM Lowry, a chemist from England, proposed the idea that
acids were proton donors, while bases were proton acceptors.
The German chemist Friedrich Mohr coined the term titration in 1855 to mean weighing
without the use of a scale. This laboratory method is used to determine the concentration of a known
reactant.
Titration is a process by which a standard solution is gradually added to a volume of a
solution whose concentration is being determined. An indicator that changes color in the pH region of
the equivalence point of the reactants is selected. Acid-base neutralization occurs when equivalent
quantities of an acid and a base are mixed (equivalents acid equals equivalents base).
OBJECTIVES
A. PLANT INDICATOR
Leaves of red kamote, baston ni San Jose, crotons, labog or gumamela flowers, or any
other plants with highly-colored leaves or flower
Amber colored bottles
test tubes
pH paper
PROCEDURE
1. Soak the chopped leaves (or flower) of your choice in methanol overnight.
2. Decant the chopped leaves, transferring the liquid inside the amber bottle.
3. A set of solutions with pH ranging from 1 to 13 will be used to observe the color range of the
plant indicator.
4. To determine the color of the plant indicator, place 10 drops of the solution in a test tube, and
add one or two drops of the indicator. Look for any change in color by looking down the mouth
of the test tube. You may also want to take a picture for more convenient comparison.
5. Tabulate the colors of the plant indicators with their corresponding pH values.
6. Prepare solutions you want to test using your plant indicator (e.g. listed in materials section),
as well as 0.1 M HCl and 0.1 M NaOH.
7. Determine the approximate pH of the solutions using your plant indicator.
8. Compare your results with values obtained using a pH paper.
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B. ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL VINEGAR
1.0 M NaOH
Commercial Vinegar
Phenolphthalein indicator
pH paper
(2) 250-mL Erlenmeyer flasks
Top loading balance
Buret
PROCEDURE
1. Mark 2 pre-weighed, 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask 1 and 2, and pour 20 mL commercial vinegar
into each flask.
2. Determine the new masses of the flasks and derive the mass of the vinegar added.
3. Add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator into each flask.
4. Fill the buret with 1.0 M NaOH up to the mark slightly below zero. Note the initial volume of
NaOH in the buret. Then, slowly add the NaOH from the buret into the flasks with vinegar,
gently swirling the flask during addition. Continue adding until the faintest pink color of
solution is obtained.
5. Record the final volume of the NaOH, and calculate the total volume of NaOH used. Perform
another trial.
6. Calculate the amount (in g) of acid as acetic acid in the vinegar.
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EXPERIMENT 7
HYDROLYSIS AND BUFFERS
The following are the four types of salts produced by the neutralization of an acid with a base and
their reactions with each other:
1. Strong acid and Strong base: Neutral, no hydrolysis
2. Strong acid and Weak Acid: Acidic, only cations hydrolyze
3. Weak acid and Weak Base: Both ions hydrolyze, the pH depending on the extent of
hydrolysis of each ion
4. Weak acid and Strong Base: Basic, only anions hydrolyze
A buffer solution contains a weak acid or a weak base and their respective ions. They are able to
resist large changes in pH upon addition of small amounts of strong acids or bases. Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation shows the following relations:
-
pH = pKa + log [A ]/[HA]
In order for a buffer to have maximum buffering capacity, the ratio of the concentrations of
conjugate acid to conjugate base should be close to 1.0 and the pH of the solution will be close to the
pKa of the weak acid.
OBJECTIVES
A. DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY
Test tubes
pH paper strips
droppers
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the pH of the solutions listed on Table 7.1 below using a pH paper. Also, predict the
hydrolysis reaction of each salt (if there's any).
2. Add, to 1 mL of each solution listed on Table 7.2, one to two drops of methyl orange and
phenolphthalein indicator in separate test tubes. Note the color of the solutions, and record in
Table.
3. To the solutions in step 2, add two drops of the HCl solution and note the color of the
solutions. Record your observations accordingly in Table.
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4. Repeat steps 2-3 with another set of solutions. This time, add two drops of NaOH solution
instead of HCl. Record your observations accordingly in Table 7.3.
0.1 M NH4OAc
0.1 M NaCl
0.1 M NaOAc
0.1 M NH4Cl
0.1 M NaHCO3
0.1 M Na2CO3
0.1 M CH3COOH
0.1 M NH3
TABLE 7.3 Color changes upon addition of strong acid and base
Color with 1 Drop Color with 1 Drop
Solutions
Methyl Orange Phenolphthalein
0.1 M CH3COOH
0.1 M NH3
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EXPERIMENT 8
ELECTROCHEMISTRY: HOW TO MAKE A GALVANIC CELL
Electrochemistry is the science of reactions that can take place at the interface of an
electronic conductor (the electrode, which can be a metal or a semiconductor including graphite) and
an ionic conductor (the electrolyte). There are two types of electrochemical cells, the galvanic or
voltaic cells, where spontaneous reactions occur, and the electrolytic cell where the reactions are non-
spontaneous.
To produce electricity, galvanic cells use redox reaction; hence galvanic cells are referred to
as primary cells. Electrolytic cells, on the other hand, use electricity to cause decomposition reaction
and therefore referred to as secondary cells.
Both types of electrochemical cells have electrodes, namely the anode where oxidation
occurs, and cathode where reduction occurs. Electrons of the more active metal, which forms the
anode, are led through an external circuit to the less active metal, the cathode, where cations are
deposited as a plating. In this way, the anode is consumed or corroded and loses weight while
cathode gains weight when the cell is allowed to operate for some time.
Electricity is harnessed by situating the oxidation and reduction reactions in separate
containers, joined by a salt bridge. A common galvanic cell, is the Daniel cell (see illustration below).
OBJECTIVES
Digital voltmeters
2 25-mL Beakers
Alligator clips
U-shaped tubes
PROCEDURE
1. Take two clean and dry 25-mL beakers. Pour 20 mL of 0.10M CuSO4 into one, and 20mL of
Zn(NO3)2 into the other.
2. Prepare strips of copper and zinc. Make sure to clean them with sandpaper first. Place the
copper strip to the beaker with the copper solution and the zinc strip to the zinc solution. Make
sure the entire length of the strip is submerged in the solution.
25
3. Fill a U-shaped glass tubing with saturated KNO3 and plug both ends with cotton plug. This
will serve as the salt bridge.
4. Connect the solutions in the two beakers with the salt bridge. Clip the red test lead from the
voltmeter to the copper strip, and the black test lead to the zinc strip. Take the voltage reading
as soon as it gets stable. If the reading is negative, reverse the connection.
5. Disconnect the voltmeter and remove the electrodes and rinse with distilled water. Discard the
solutions in the beakers into proper waste containers and rinse the beakers with distilled
water.
6. The cell you have just made is: Zn 0.10M Zn(NO3)2 0.10M CuSO4 | Cu
7. Repeat the same procedure but change the cotton plugs of the salt bridge with fresh ones.
Replace the strips and solutions to construct the following cells:
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BONUS EXPERIMENT
BLUE PRINTING
FeCl3 solution
H2C2O4 solution
K3[Fe[CN]6]2 solution
Filter paper
Drawing or design to be produced
Latex gloves
PROCEDURE
2. Wet all parts of the filter paper with the resulting mixture, and drain off the excess solution.
3. Put the design to be reproduced over the filter paper and expose to strong sunlight until the
exposed area of the filter paper turns blue.
4. Remove the design and wash the filter paper with ample amount of running water.
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EXPERIMENT 9
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CATIONS AND ANIONS
OBJECTIVES
1. To apply various concepts on chemical equilibrium to the analysis of cations and anions.
2. To elucidate the ionic composition of unknown salts.
10 mL Test tubes
Red Litmus paper
PROCEDURE:
1. Before the laboratory period, construct flow diagrams for the separation and identification of
common anions and Group I, Group II, Group III, and Group IV cations (Note). Indicate the
references of your flow diagrams.
2. Obtain an unknown salt from the instructor and carry out the procedures in the flow diagrams
that you prepared to identify the cations and anions composing the salt. Record the results of
all the tests that you performed.
Note:
The grouping here refers to classification of cations based on their qualitative analysis, not to
the group numbers of their corresponding element in the periodic table.
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