How does phone number spoong work?

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Contents

1 Analog Display Services Interface 1

1.1 Compatible equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Analog telephone adapter 3

2.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Anonymity 4
3.1 Pseudonymity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Psychological eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Anonymity, commerce, and crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Anonymity in charity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5 Issues facing the anonymous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.6 Referring to the anonymous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.7 Anonymity and the press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.8 Anonymity on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.9 Legal protection of anonymity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.9.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.9.2 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.9.3 International legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.10 Anonymity and politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.11 Anonymity and pseudonymity in art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.12 Mathematics of anonymity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.14 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 AskoziaPBX 12
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Major Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Moving from FreeBSD to Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Asterisk (PBX) 14
5.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 Internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.3 Derived products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

6 Asterisk Gateway Interface 17

6.1 Software Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.2 Usage examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

7 Automatic call distributor 18

7.1 Distribution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

8 Automatic number identication 19

8.1 Toll-free numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.2 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.3 Automatic number announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.4 DNIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.5 Similar services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

9 Business telephone system 21

9.1 Key telephone system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.1.1 Electromechanical shared-control key system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.1.2 Electronic shared-control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.2 Hybrid key telephone system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.3 Private branch exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.3.2 System components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.3.3 Current trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.3.4 Home and small-business usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.3.5 PBX functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.3.6 Interface standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.3.7 Hosted PBX systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.4 Hosted PBX providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.4.1 Mobile PBX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
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9.4.2 IP-PBX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

10 Call capture 28
10.1 Sample service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
10.2 Levels of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

11 Call waiting 29
11.1 Star codes*43# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11.2 Line sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
11.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

12 Called party 31
12.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

13 Caller ID 32
13.1 Calling-line identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
13.2 CLI localisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
13.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
13.4 Type II Caller ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
13.5 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
13.6 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.6.1 Telemarketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.6.2 ISPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.6.3 Mobile providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.7 Regional dierences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.7.1 UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.8 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.8.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13.9 Getting around caller ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
13.9.1 Blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
13.9.2 Spoong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
13.9.3 Disabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
13.9.4 Enabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
13.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
13.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
13.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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14 Caller ID spoong 39
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
14.2 Technology and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
14.2.1 Voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
14.2.2 Service providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
14.2.3 Orange box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
14.3 Caller name display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.4 Legal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.4.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.4.2 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.4.3 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.4.4 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

15 Cellular frequencies 43
15.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

16 Cellular network 45
16.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
16.2 Cell signal encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
16.3 Frequency reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
16.4 Directional antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
16.5 Broadcast messages and paging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
16.6 Movement from cell to cell and handing over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
16.7 Mobile phone network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
16.7.1 Structure of the mobile phone cellular network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
16.7.2 Small cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.7.3 Cellular handover in mobile phone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.7.4 Cellular frequency choice in mobile phone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.7.5 Coverage comparison of dierent frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
16.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
16.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

17 Circuit switching 51
17.1 The call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
17.2 Compared with datagram packet switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
17.3 Examples of circuit-switched networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
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17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

17.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

18 Code division multiple access 53

18.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
18.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
18.3 Steps in CDMA modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
18.4 Code division multiplexing (synchronous CDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
18.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
18.5 Asynchronous CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
18.5.1 Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
18.5.2 Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
18.6 Collaborative CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
18.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
18.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
18.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
18.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

19 Conference call 59
19.1 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
19.1.1 Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
19.1.2 Flat-rate conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
19.1.3 Prepaid conference calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
19.1.4 Free conference calling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
19.1.5 Premium conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
19.2 Conferencing in IMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
19.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

20 Digital AMPS 63
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
20.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
20.3 Technology specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
20.4 Call processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
20.5 System example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
20.6 Successor technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
20.6.1 IS-136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
20.7 Sunset for D-AMPS in the US and Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
20.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
20.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

21 Direct inward dial 67

21.1 Plain old telephone service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
vi CONTENTS

21.2 Use in fax services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

21.3 Voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
21.4 Sellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
21.5 Direct outward dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
21.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
21.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

22 Disruptive innovation 69
22.1 History and usage of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
22.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
22.3 Disruptive technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
22.4 High-technology eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
22.5 Practical example of disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
22.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
22.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
22.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
22.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

23 E.164 76
23.1 Telephone number categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.1.1 Number structure for geographic area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.1.2 Number structure for global services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.1.3 Number structure for networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.1.4 Number structure for groups of countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.2.1 E.163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.2.2 E.164.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23.2.3 E.164.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
23.2.4 E.164.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
23.3 DNS mapping of E.164 numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
23.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
23.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

24 Elastix 78
24.1 Support for telephony hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.2 Call center module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.3 History of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.4 Similar software distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
CONTENTS vii

24.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

25 Emergency service 80
25.1 Main emergency service functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
25.2 Other emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
25.3 Civil emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
25.4 Location-specic emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
25.5 Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
25.5.1 Disaster response technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
25.6 Response time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
25.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
25.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

26 Federated VoIP 83
26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
26.2 Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
26.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
26.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
26.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

27 FreePBX 85
27.1 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
27.2 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
27.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
27.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

28 FreeSWITCH 87
28.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
28.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
28.3 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
28.4 Codec Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
28.5 Operating and build system support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
28.6 Comparison with other telephony software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
28.7 Derived products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
28.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
28.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
28.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

29 GSM 90
29.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
29.2 Technical details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
29.2.1 Network structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
29.2.2 Base station subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
viii CONTENTS

29.2.3 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

29.2.4 Phone locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
29.3 GSM security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
29.4 Standards information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
29.5 GSM open-source software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
29.5.1 Issues with patents and open source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
29.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
29.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
29.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
29.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

30 Integrated Services Digital Network 96

30.1 ISDN elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
30.2 Basic Rate Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
30.3 Primary Rate Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.4 Bearer channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.5 Signaling channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.6 X.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.7 Frame Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.8 Consumer and industry perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.8.1 ISDN and broadcast industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.8.2 Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.8.3 International deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
30.9 Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
30.10Reference points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
30.11Types of communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
30.12Sample call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
30.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
30.13.1 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
30.13.2 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
30.14Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
30.15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
30.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

31 Interactive voice response 104

31.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.3 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
31.3.1 Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.3.2 Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.3.3 Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.4 Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CONTENTS ix

31.4.1 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

31.4.2 SIP contact center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.4.3 Interactive messaging response (IMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.4.4 Hosted vs. on-premises IVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.5 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
31.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
31.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
31.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

32 LinuxMCE 108
32.1 Levels of implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.3 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.4 Software components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.5 User interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
32.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
32.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
32.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

33 Media Gateway Control Protocol 110

33.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
33.1.1 Multiple call agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
33.2 Protocol overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
33.3 Standards documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
33.4 Megaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
33.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
33.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
33.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

34 Media gateway control protocol architecture 113

34.1 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
34.2 Network elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
34.2.1 Media gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
34.2.2 Media gateway controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
34.3 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
34.4 Standards documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
34.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
34.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

35 Message Session Relay Protocol 116

35.1 Protocol design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
35.2 Usage in SIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
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35.3 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

35.3.1 Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
35.3.2 Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
35.3.3 Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
35.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
35.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

36 Mobile network operator 118

36.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

37 Mobile phone operator 119

37.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
37.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
37.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

38 Mobile telephony 121

38.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
38.2 Cellular systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
38.3 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
38.3.1 By civilians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
38.3.2 Trac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
38.3.3 By government agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
38.4 Impact on Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
38.4.1 Human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
38.4.2 Human behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
38.4.3 Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
38.5 Tari models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
38.5.1 Payment methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
38.5.2 Incoming call charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
38.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
38.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

39 Mobile VoIP 131

39.1 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
39.2 Industry history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.1 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.2 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.3 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.4 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.5 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
39.2.6 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
39.2.7 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
39.2.8 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
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39.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

39.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

40 Modem 135
40.1 Dialup modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
40.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
40.1.2 Popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
40.2 Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
40.3 Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
40.3.1 WiFi and WiMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
40.3.2 Mobile broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
40.3.3 Residential gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.4 Optical modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.4.1 QAM16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.4.2 QAM64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.5 Home networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.6 Voice modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.7 Brands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
40.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
40.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
40.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

41 Multi-frequency signaling 146

41.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
41.2 Demise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
41.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
41.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
41.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

42 Orange box 148

42.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
42.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
42.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

43 Packet switching 149

43.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
43.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
43.3 Connectionless and connection-oriented modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
43.4 Packet switching in networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
43.5 X.25 vs. Frame Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
43.6 Packet-switched networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
43.6.1 Early networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
43.6.2 X.25 era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
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43.6.3 Internet era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

43.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
43.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
43.8.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
43.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
43.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

44 Peer-to-peer SIP 161

44.1 SIP in a P2P architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
44.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
44.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
44.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
44.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

45 Personal identication number 163

45.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
45.2 PIN length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
45.3 PIN validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
45.3.1 IBM 3624 method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
45.3.2 IBM 3624 + oset method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
45.3.3 VISA method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
45.4 PIN security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
45.4.1 Implementation aws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
45.5 Reverse PIN hoax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
45.6 Mobile phone passcodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
45.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
45.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

46 Primary Rate Interface 166

46.1 Fractional T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
46.2 PRI and BRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
46.3 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
46.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
46.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

47 Public switched telephone network 168

47.1 History (USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
47.2 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
47.3 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
47.4 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
47.4.1 Network topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
47.4.2 Digital channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
47.4.3 Impact on IP standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
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47.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

47.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
47.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

48 Public-safety answering point 171

48.1 NENA i3 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
48.1.1 Legacy PSAP Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
48.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
48.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
48.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

49 Pulse dialing 173

49.1 Early automatic exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
49.2 Rotary dial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
49.3 Pulse rate and coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
49.4 Switch-hook dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
49.5 Successors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
49.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
49.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

50 Pulse-code modulation 176

50.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
50.2 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
50.3 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
50.4 Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
50.5 Standard sampling precision and rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
50.6 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
50.7 Digitization as part of the PCM process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
50.8 Encoding for serial transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
50.9 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
50.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
50.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
50.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
50.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
50.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

51 Quality of service 182

51.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
51.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
51.3 Qualities of trac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
51.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
51.5 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
51.5.1 Over-provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
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51.5.2 IP and Ethernet eorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

51.5.3 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
51.6 End-to-end quality of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
51.7 Circumvention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
51.8 Doubts about quality of service over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
51.9 Mobile (cellular) QoS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
51.10Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
51.11Open source software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
51.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
51.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
51.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
51.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

52 Real-time Transport Protocol 190

52.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
52.1.1 Protocol components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
52.1.2 Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
52.2 Proles and payload formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
52.3 Packet header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
52.4 RTP-based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
52.5 Standards documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
52.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
52.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
52.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
52.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

53 Sampling (signal processing) 194

53.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
53.2 Practical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
53.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
53.3.1 Audio sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
53.3.2 Video sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
53.3.3 3D sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
53.4 Undersampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
53.5 Oversampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
53.6 Complex sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
53.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
53.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
53.9 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
53.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
53.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
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54 Satellite phone 199

54.1 Satellite phone network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
54.1.1 Geosynchronous satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
54.1.2 Low Earth orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
54.2 Countries with restrictions on use of satellite phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
54.3 Security concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
54.4 One-way services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
54.5 Cost of a satellite phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
54.6 Virtual country codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
54.7 Calling cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
54.8 Use in disaster response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
54.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
54.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
54.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

55 Session Initiation Protocol 204

55.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
55.2 Protocol operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
55.3 Network elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
55.3.1 User agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
55.3.2 Proxy server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
55.3.3 Registrar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.3.4 Redirect server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.3.5 Session border controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.3.6 Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.4 SIP messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.4.1 Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.4.2 Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
55.5 Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
55.6 Instant messaging and presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
55.7 Conformance testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
55.8 Performance testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
55.9 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
55.10Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
55.11SIP-ISUP interworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
55.12Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
55.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
55.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
55.15Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
55.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

56 Short Message Service 210

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56.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

56.1.1 Initial concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
56.1.2 Early development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
56.1.3 Support in other architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
56.1.4 Early implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
56.1.5 Text messaging outside GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
56.1.6 SMS today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
56.2 Technical details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
56.2.1 GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
56.2.2 Message size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
56.2.3 Gateway providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
56.2.4 Interconnectivity with other networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
56.2.5 AT commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
56.2.6 Premium-rated short messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
56.2.7 Threaded SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
56.2.8 Application-to-person (A2P) SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
56.2.9 Satellite phone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
56.2.10 Unreliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
56.2.11 Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
56.2.12 Flash SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
56.2.13 Silent SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
56.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
56.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
56.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

57 Signaling gateway 219

57.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

58 Signalling System No. 7 220

58.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
58.2 Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
58.2.1 Signaling modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
58.3 Physical network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
58.4 SS7 protocol suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
58.5 Protocol security vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
58.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
58.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
58.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
58.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

59 SIP provider 224

59.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
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60 SIP trunking 225

60.1 Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
60.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
60.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
60.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

61 Skinny Call Control Protocol 227

61.1 Protocol components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
61.2 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
61.3 Other implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
61.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
61.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
61.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

62 Skype 229
62.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
62.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
62.2.1 Microsoft acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
62.3 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
62.4 Usage and trac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
62.5 System and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
62.5.1 Client applications and devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
62.5.2 Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
62.5.3 Protocol detection and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
62.5.4 Audio codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
62.5.5 Video codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
62.5.6 Skype Qik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
62.6 Security and privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
62.6.1 Service in the Peoples Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
62.6.2 No Skype calls to India landline and mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
62.7 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
62.8 URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
62.9 Customer service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
62.10Educational use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
62.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
62.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
62.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
62.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

63 Social engineering (security) 241

63.1 Techniques and terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
63.1.1 Pretexting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
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63.1.2 Diversion theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

63.1.3 Phishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
63.1.4 Spear phishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
63.1.5 Baiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
63.1.6 Quid pro quo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
63.1.7 Tailgating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.1.8 Other types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.1.9 Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.2 Notable social engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.2.1 Kevin Mitnick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.2.2 Christopher Hadnagy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
63.2.3 Mike Ridpath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.2.4 Badir Brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.3 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.3.1 Pretexting of telephone records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.3.2 Federal legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.3.3 1st Source Information Specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
63.3.4 HP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
63.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
63.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
63.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
63.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
63.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

64 Softphone 248
64.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
64.2 Communication protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
64.3 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
64.4 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
64.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
64.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

65 Softswitch 249
65.1 Feature server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
65.2 Class 4 and Class 5 softswitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
65.3 Hosted switch services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
65.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
65.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

66 Telephone 251
66.1 Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
66.2 Details of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
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66.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

66.3.1 Early development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
66.3.2 Early commercial instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
66.4 Digital telephones and voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
66.5 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
66.6 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
66.7 Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
66.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
66.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
66.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
66.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

67 Telephone card 261

67.1 Stored-value phone cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
67.2 Remote memory systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
67.2.1 Telephone accounts symbolized by a card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
67.2.2 Accounts without a card (Virtual phonecards) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
67.3 Phonecard as an artifact or collectible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
67.4 Support in telephones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
67.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
67.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

68 Telephone company 264

68.1 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
68.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
68.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
68.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

69 Telephone exchange 266

69.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
69.2 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
69.2.1 Manual service exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
69.2.2 Early automatic exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
69.2.3 Digital switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
69.2.4 The switchs place in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
69.3 Switch design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
69.4 Switch control algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.4.1 Fully connected mesh network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.4.2 Closs nonblocking switch algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.5 Fault tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.6 Fire and disaster recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
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69.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

69.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

70 Telephone hook 278

70.1 Example usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
70.2 Additional usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
70.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

71 Telephone number mapping 279

71.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
71.2 System details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
71.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
71.3.1 Call forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
71.3.2 Called party facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
71.4 ENUM varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
71.5 Parties having a direct interest in ENUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
71.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
71.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
71.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

72 Telephone numbering plan 283

72.1 North American Numbering Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
72.2 Number structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
72.3 Country code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
72.4 Area code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
72.5 Call pricing based on area codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
72.6 Subscriber dialing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
72.6.1 Variable-length dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
72.6.2 Full-number dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
72.7 International numbering plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
72.7.1 Satellite telephone systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
72.7.2 Special services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
72.8 Numbering plan indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
72.9 Private numbering plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
72.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
72.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
72.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

73 Teletrac engineering 291

73.1 In PSTN architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
73.2 In call centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
73.3 In broadband networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
73.4 Long-tail trac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
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73.5 Teletrac economics and forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

73.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
73.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

74 Time-division multiplexing 293

74.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
74.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
74.3 Application examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
74.4 Multiplexed digital transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
74.5 Telecommunications systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
74.6 Statistical time-division multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
74.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
74.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

75 Unlisted number 296

75.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

76 Vertical service code 297

76.1 List of vertical service codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
76.1.1 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
76.1.2 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
76.1.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
76.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
76.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

77 Voice over IP 299

77.1 Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
77.2 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
77.3 Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
77.3.1 Consumer market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
77.3.2 PSTN and mobile network providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
77.3.3 Corporate use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
77.4 Quality of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
77.4.1 DSL and ATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
77.4.2 Layer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
77.5 VoIP performance metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
77.6 PSTN integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
77.6.1 Number portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
77.6.2 Emergency calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
77.7 Fax support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
77.8 Power requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
77.9 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
77.10Caller ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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77.11Compatibility with traditional analog telephone sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

77.12Support for other telephony devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
77.13Operational cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
77.14Regulatory and legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
77.14.1 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
77.14.2 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
77.14.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
77.14.4 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
77.14.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
77.15History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
77.15.1 Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
77.16See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
77.17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
77.18External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

78 Voicemail 311
78.1 History of voicemail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
78.2 Voicemail features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
78.3 Message centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
78.4 Voicemail invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
78.5 Invention of voicemail controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
78.6 Pioneering applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
78.6.1 IBM Audio Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
78.6.2 Delta 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
78.6.3 VMX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
78.6.4 IVR Voice Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
78.7 International Voicemail Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
78.8 Corporate voicemail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
78.9 Public telephone services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
78.10Unied messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
78.11Virtual telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
78.12Instant messaging in voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
78.13Unied messaging with VoIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
78.14Voicemail benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
78.15How voicemail works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
78.16See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
78.17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
78.18Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

79 VoIP phone 322

79.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
79.2 Components and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
CONTENTS xxiii

79.2.1 STUN client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

79.2.2 DHCP client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
79.3 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
79.3.1 Other devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
79.4 Common functionality and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
79.5 Technology issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
79.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
79.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

80 X.25 326
80.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
80.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
80.2.1 Relation to the OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
80.2.2 User device support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
80.2.3 Error control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
80.3 Addressing and virtual circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
80.4 Billing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
80.5 X.25 packet types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
80.6 X.25 details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
80.6.1 X.25 facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
80.6.2 X.25 protocol versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
80.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
80.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
80.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
80.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
80.11Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
80.11.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
80.11.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
80.11.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Chapter 1
Analog Display Services Interface
Analog Display Services Interface (ADSI) is a
telephony technology that is used in plain old telephone
service (POTS) or computer-based private branch ex-
change (PBX) telephone service. It works in conjunction
with a screen-based telephone (screenphone) or other
compatible customer-premises equipment (CPE) to pro-
vide the user with softkey access to telephone company or
internal PBX custom calling features. It is an analog ser-
vice because it uses analog frequency-shift keying (FSK)
technology to interact with an LCD screen via short, low-
baud rate, downloads to refresh and re-program softkeys
in real-time.
The technology introduced in the United States and rolled
out to Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs)
from Bellcore in April 1995, (very soon after the in-
troduction of CLASS-based services through electronic
switching system (ESS)), was marketed by the RBOCs
who implemented it, as a way to streamline all avail-
able custom calling options through the use of a screen-
based telephone; giving Residential and Small Business
telephone subscribers PBX-like functionality at home or
in small oce/home oce (SOHO) locations at a sig-
nicantly lower cost. The service debuted before the
onslaught of Personal Communications Service (PCS)
and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)-based telephony
technologies became available and was originally slated
to also work in conjunction with other types of services
such as Enhanced Directory Assistance, telephone bank-
ing, movie theatre ticket sales, and other services that
could interact with an LCD-screen.
Some of those services did become available later, through various channels.
though, not at the dramatic increase the US-based tele-
phone companies had hoped. Canadian telephone com- Philips Austria manufactured a Screen Phone model
panies such as Telus and Bell Canada, however, had much called the P100. It was sold throughout the US and sev-
better luck implementing more ADSI-based services with eral European countries.
other industries such as banking, and still markets the ser-
vice actively (as of 2005).
The service is marketed at telephone customers who sub-
scribe to the majority of Custom Local Area Signaling
Services (CLASS)-based services oered by their local
telephone company (such as caller ID, Call Return, etc.)
by the customization of a telephone capable of providing
one-touch access to these features. This greatly increases
customer usability by alleviating the need to memorize
dialing codes such as *69.
Additionally, a few RBOCs introduced new features such
as Call Waiting Deluxe and Message Waiting Indicator
to work exclusively with ADSI telephones. The former
being perhaps the most involved example of ADSI capa-
bilities and the latter being an example of Visual FSK;
another new technology available through CLASS.
The RBOCs who oer this service also restructured their
billing of these services into value-based packages to
stimulate customer interest.
1.1 Compatible equipment
U S West Communications, the rst local RBOC to of-
fer this service, marketed it as Home Receptionist ser-
vice. Home Receptionist service included a Nortel Pow-
ertouch (or Vista) 350 screen-based telephone and line-
provisioning service to make it work. This service is still
oered by Qwest Communications (the successor to US
West), BellSouth and SBC Communications; though the
service has dierent marketing names.
Nortel discontinued the x5x telephone line and intro-
duced a more streamlined version called the 39x-line and
then later the 48x-line in 1998. CIDCo and Cybiotronics
later introduced their own lines of screenphones after the
original Nortel Patent expired.
Nortel sold o its CPE line to Aastra Technologies in
1999 and Aastra continues to market these telephones
1.2 External links
ADSI Technical Information by Telcordia
Aastra Telecom
ETSI ADSI Data link message and parameter cod-
ings
1
2 CHAPTER 1. ANALOG DISPLAY SERVICES INTERFACE

P100 Screenphone (Swedish version)

Chapter 2

Analog telephone adapter

computer or any software such as a softphone. It uses

approximately 3 to 5 watts of electricity, depending on
model and brand.

2.1 Purpose
An ATA is connected between an IP network (such as
a broadband connection) and an existing telephone jack
in order to provide service nearly indistinguishable from
public switched telephone network (PSTN) providers on
all the other telephone jacks in the residence. ATAs are
used by many VoIP companies selling a telco-alternative
VoIP service, where the device is used to replace a users
connection to a traditional telephone company. When
A typical analog telephone adapter for connecting an analog
phone to a VoIP provider sold in connection with a VoIP service, the ATA is of-
ten locked so it cannot be used with a competing ser-
vice, and the user can only partly change its conguration.
An analog telephone adapter (ATA) is a device for con- Some providers do sell devices that are not locked and can
necting traditional analog telephones, fax machines, and be used with any compatible provider. This type of ser-
similar customer-premises devices to a digital telephone vice, which is xed to one location, is generally oered
system or a voice over IP telephony network. by broadband Internet providers such as cable companies
and telephone companies as a cheaper at-rate traditional
An ATA is often built into a small enclosure with an in-
phone service.
ternal or external power adapter, an Ethernet port, one
or more foreign exchange station (FXS) telephone ports.
Such devices may also have a foreign exchange oce
(FXO) interface for providing alternative access to tra- 2.2 References
ditional land line telephone service.
The ATA provides dial tone, ringing generator, DC
power, caller ID data and other standard telephone
line signaling (known collectively as BORSCHT) to the
telephone connected to a modular jack.
The digital interface of the ATA typically consists of an
Ethernet port to connect to an Internet Protocol (IP) net-
work, but may also be a USB port for connecting the de-
vice to a personal computer.
Using such an ATA, it is possible to connect a conven-
tional telephone to a remote VoIP server. The ATA com-
municates with the server using a protocol such as H.323,
SIP, MGCP, SCCP or IAX, and encodes and decodes the
voice signal using a voice codec such as G.711, G.729,
GSM, iLBC or others. Since the ATA communicates di-
rectly with the VoIP server, it does not require a personal

3
Chapter 3

Anonymity

This article is about identication. For anonymity In mathematics, in reference to an arbitrary element (e.g.,
in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Anonymity. For other a human, an object, a computer), within a well-dened set
uses, see Anonymous (disambiguation) and Anonymus (called the anonymity set), anonymity of that element
(disambiguation). refers to the property of that element of not being iden-
tiable within this set. If it is not identiable, then the
element is said to be anonymous.
Anonymity, adjective anonymous, is derived from the
Greek word , anonymia, meaning without a
name" or namelessness. In colloquial use, anony-
mous is used to describe situations where the acting 3.1 Pseudonymity
persons name is unknown. Some writers have argued
that namelessness, though technically correct, does not Sometimes it is desired that a person can establish a long-
capture what is more centrally at stake in contexts of term relationship (such as a reputation) with some other
anonymity. The important idea here is that a per- entity, without necessarily disclosing personally identi-
son be non-identiable, unreachable, or untrackable.[1] fying information to that entity. In this case, it may
Anonymity is seen as a technique, or a way of realizing, be useful for the person to establish a unique identier,
certain other values, such as privacy, or liberty. called a pseudonym, with the other entity. Examples
An important example for anonymity being not only pro- of pseudonyms are pen names, nicknames, credit card
tected, but enforced by law is probably the vote in free numbers, student numbers, bank account numbers, etc.
elections. In many other situations (like conversation A pseudonym enables the other entity to link dierent
between strangers, buying some product or service in messages from the same person and, thereby, to estab-
a shop), anonymity is traditionally accepted as natural. lish a long-term relationship. Pseudonyms are widely
There are also various situations in which a person might used in social networks and other virtual communication,
choose to withhold their identity. Acts of charity have although recently some important service providers like
been performed anonymously when benefactors do not Google try to discourage pseudonymity.
wish to be acknowledged. A person who feels threatened Someone using a pseudonym would be strictly considered
might attempt to mitigate that threat through anonymity. to be using pseudonymity not anonymity, but some-
A witness to a crime might seek to avoid retribution, for times the latter is used to refer to both (in general, a situ-
example, by anonymously calling a crime tipline. Crimi- ation where the legal identity of the person is disguised)
nals might proceed anonymously to conceal their partic-
ipation in a crime. Anonymity may also be created un-
intentionally, through the loss of identifying information
due to the passage of time or a destructive event. 3.2 Psychological eects
In certain situations, however, it may be illegal to remain
anonymous. In the United States, 24 states have stop andAnonymity may reduce the accountability one perceives
to have for their actions, and removes the impact these
identify statutes that requires persons detained to self-
identify when requested by a law enforcement ocer. In actions might otherwise have on their reputation. This can
Germany, people have to indicate their names at the door have dramatic eects, both useful and harmful to various
of their homes. parties and/or entities involved, relatively. Thus, it may
be used for psychological tactics involving any respective
The term anonymous message typically refers to a mes- party to purport and/or support and/or discredit any sort
sage that does not reveal its sender. In many countries, of activity or belief.
anonymous letters are protected by law and must be de-
livered as regular letters. In conversational settings, anonymity may allow people
to reveal personal history and feelings without fear of
later embarrassment. Electronic conversational media

4
3.3. ANONYMITY, COMMERCE, AND CRIME 5

can provide physical isolation, in addition to anonymity. 3.3 Anonymity, commerce, and
This prevents physical retaliation for remarks, and pre-
vents negative or taboo behavior or discussion from tar-
crime
nishing the reputation of the speaker. This can be bene-
cial when discussing very private matters, or taboo sub-
Anonymous commercial transactions can protect the pri-
jects or expressing views or revealing facts that may put
vacy of consumers. Some consumers prefer to use cash
someone in physical, nancial, or legal danger (such as
when buying everyday goods (like groceries or tools), to
illegal activity, or unpopular, or outlawed political views).
prevent sellers from aggregating information or soliciting
In work settings, the three most common forms of anony- them in the future. Credit cards are linked to a persons
mous communication are traditional suggestion boxes, name, and can be used to discover other information, such
written feedback, and Caller ID blocking. Additionally, as postal address, phone number, etc. The ecash sys-
the appropriateness of anonymous organizational com- tem was developed to allow secure anonymous transac-
munication varies depending on the use, with organiza- tions. Another example would be Enymity, which actu-
tional surveys and/or assessments typically perceived as ally makes a purchase on a customers behalf. When pur-
highly appropriate and ring perceived as highly inap- chasing taboo goods and services, anonymity makes many
propriate. Anonymity use and appropriateness have also potential consumers more comfortable with or more will-
been found to be signicantly related to the quality of ing to engage in the transaction. Many loyalty programs
relationships with key others at work.[2] use cards that personally identify the consumer engaging
in each transaction (possibly for later solicitation, or for
redemption or security purposes), or that act as a numer-
ical pseudonym, for use in data mining.
Anonymity can also be used as a protection against le-
gal prosecution. For example, when committing unlaw-
ful actions, many criminals attempt to avoid identica-
tion by the means of obscuring/covering their faces with
scarves or masks, and wear gloves or other hand coverings
in order to not leave any ngerprints. In organized crime,
groups of criminals may collaborate on a certain project
without revealing to each other their names or other per-
sonally identiable information. The movie The Thomas
Crown Aair depicted a ctional collaboration by peo-
ple who had never previously met and did not know who
had recruited them. The anonymous purchase of a gun
or knife to be used in a crime helps prevent linking an
abandoned weapon to the identity of the perpetrator.
Protesters outside a Scientology center on February 10, 2008,
donning masks, scarves, hoods, and sunglasses to obscure their
faces, and gloves and long sleeves to protect them from leaving
ngerprints.

3.4 Anonymity in charity

With few perceived negative consequences, anonymous
or semi-anonymous forums often provide a soapbox for
disruptive conversational behavior. The term "troll" is There are two aspects, one, giving to a large charitable or-
sometimes used to refer to those who do this online. ganization obscures the beneciary of a donation from the
benefactor, the other is giving anonymously to obscure
Relative anonymity is often enjoyed in large crowds. Dif- the benefactor both from the beneciary and from every-
ferent people have dierent psychological and philosoph- one else. There are many reasons this is done. Anony-
ical reactions to this development, especially as a modern mous charity has long been a widespread and durable
phenomenon. This anonymity is an important factor in moral precept of many ethical and religious systems, as
crowd psychology, and behavior in situations such as a well as being in practice a widespread human activity. A
riot. This perceived anonymity can be compromised by benefactor may not wish to establish any relationship with
technologies such as photography. the beneciary, particularly if the beneciary is perceived
Anonymity has also permitted highly trained profession- as being unsavory. Benefactors may not wish to identify
als such as judges to freely express themselves regard- themselves as capable of giving. A benefactor may wish
ing the strategies they employ to perform their jobs to improve the world, as long as no one knows who did it,
objectively.[3] out of modesty, wishing to avoid publicity.[4]
6 CHAPTER 3. ANONYMITY

3.5 Issues facing the anonymous Subject of an Investigation.

The military often feels a need to honor the remains of
Attempts at anonymity are not always met with support soldiers for whom identication is impossible. In many
from society. countries, such a memorial is named the Tomb of the Un-
Anonymity sometimes clashes with the policies and pro- known Soldier.
cedures of governments or private organizations. In the
United States, disclosure of identity is required to be able
to vote, though the secret ballot prevents disclosure of 3.7 Anonymity and the press
how individuals voted. In airports in most countries, pas-
sengers are not allowed to board ights unless they have
Most modern newspapers and magazines attribute their
identied themselves to some sort of airline or transporta-
articles to individual editors, or to news agencies. An ex-
tion security personnel, typically in the form of the pre-
ception is the British weekly The Economist. All British
sentation of an identication card.
newspapers run their leaders, or editorials, anonymously.
On the other hand, some policies and procedures require The Economist fully adopt this policy, saying Many
anonymity. hands write The Economist, but it speaks with a collec-
tive voice.[5] Guardian considers that people will often
speak more honestly if they are allowed to speak anony-
mously.[6][7] According to Ross Eaman, in his book The
3.6 Referring to the anonymous A to Z of Journalism, until the mid-19th century, most
writers in Great Britain, especially the less well known,
When it is necessary to refer to someone who is anony- did not sign their names to their work in newspapers, mag-
mous, it is typically necessary to create a type of pseudo- azines and reviews.[8]
identication for that person. In literature, the most com-
mon way to state that the identity of an author is un-
known is to refer to them as simply Anonymous. This
is usually the case with older texts in which the author 3.8 Anonymity on the Internet
is long dead and unable to claim authorship of a work.
When the work claims to be that of some famous author Further information: Anonymous post
the pseudonymous author is identied as Pseudo-", as in
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, an author claiming Most commentary on the Internet is essentially done
and long believedto be Dionysius the Areopagite, an anonymously, using unidentiable pseudonyms. While
early Christian convert. these usernames can take on an identity of their own,
Anonymus, in its Latin spelling, generally with a specic they are frequently separated and anonymous from the
city designation, is traditionally used by scholars in the actual author. According to the University of Stock-
humanities to refer to an ancient writer whose name is holm this is creating more freedom of expression, and
not known, or to a manuscript of their work. Many such less accountability.[9] Wikipedia is collaboratively written
writers have left valuable historical or literary records: an mostly by authors using either unidentiable pseudonyms
incomplete list of such Anonymi is at Anonymus. or IP address identiers, although a few have used iden-
In the history of art, many painting workshops can be tied pseudonyms or their real names.
However, the Internet was not designed for anonymity: IP
identied by their characteristic style and discussed and
the workshops output set in chronological order. Some-addresses serve as virtual mailing addresses, which means
times archival research later identies the name, as when
that any time any resource on the Internet is accessed, it
the Master of Flmalledened by three paintings in is accessed from a particular IP address. This address
the Stdelsches Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt was iden- can be mapped to a particular Internet Service Provider
tied as Robert Campin. The 20th-century art histo- (ISP), and this ISP can then provide information about
rian Bernard Berenson methodically identied numerous what customer that IP address was leased to. This does
early Renaissance Florentine and Sienese workshops un- not necessarily implicate a specic individual (because
der such sobriquets as Amico di Sandro for an anony- other people could be using that customers connection,
mous painter in the immediate circle of Sandro Botticelli.
especially if the customer is a public resource, such as a
In legal cases, a popularly accepted name to use when library), but it provides regional information and serves
it is determined that an individual needs to maintain as powerful circumstantial evidence.
anonymity is "John Doe". This name is often modied Anonymizing services such as I2P and Tor address the
to Jane Doe when the anonymity-seeker is female. The issue of IP tracking. In short, they work by encrypting
same names are also commonly used when the identica- packets within multiple layers of encryption. The packet
tion of a dead person is not known. The semi-acronym follows a predetermined route through the anonymizing
Unsub is used as law enforcement slang for Unknown network. Each router sees the immediate previous router
3.8. ANONYMITY ON THE INTERNET
as the origin and the immediate next router as the des-
tination. Thus, no router ever knows both the true ori-
gin and destination of the packet. This makes these ser-
vices more secure than centralized anonymizing services
(where a central point of knowledge exists).[10]
Sites such as Chatroulette, Omegle, and Tinder (which
pair up random users for a conversation) capitalized on a
fascination with anonymity. Apps like Yik Yak, Secret
and Whisper let people share things anonymously or
quasi-anonymously whereas Random lets the user to ex-
plore the web anonymously. Other sites, however, includ-
ing Facebook and Google+, ask users to sign in with their
legal names. In the case of Google+, this requirement led
to a controversy known as the nymwars.[11]
The prevalence of cyberbullying is often attributed to
relative Internet anonymity, due to the fact that poten-
tial oenders are able to mask their identities and pre-
vent themselves from being caught. A principal in a
high school stated that comments made on these anony-
mous site are especially vicious and hurtful since there
is no way to trace their source and it can be disseminated
widely.[12] Cyberbullying, as opposed to general bully-
ing, is still a widely-debated area of Internet freedom in
several states.[13]
As A. Michael Froomkin says: "The regulation of anony-
mous and pseudonymous communications promises to be
one of the most important and contentious Internet-related
issues of the next decade.[14][15]
David Chaum is called the Godfathers of anonymity and
he has a claim to be one of the great visionaries of con-
temporary science. In the early 1980s, while a com-
puter scientist at Berkeley, Chaum predicted the world in
which computer networks would make mass surveillance
a possibility. As Dr Wright explains: David Chaum was
very ahead of his time. He predicted in the early 1980s
concerns that would arise on the internet 15 or 20 years
later..[16] There are some people though that consider
anonymity in internet being a danger for our society as
a whole. David Davenport, an assistant professor in the
Computer Engineering Department of Bilkent University
in Ankara, Turkey, considers that by allowing anonymous
Net communication, the fabric of our society is at risk.[17]
Accountability requires those responsible for any miscon-
duct be identied and brought to justice. However, if peo-
ple remain anonymous, by denition, they cannot be iden-
tied, making it impossible to hold them accountable." he
says.
Is Anonymity Good or Bad?[18]
Anonymity and pseudonymity can be used for good and
bad purposes. And anonymity can in many cases be desir-
able for one person and not desirable for another person. There has always, however, also been a dark side of
A company may, for example, not like an employee to anonymity:
divulge information about improper practices within the
company, but society as a whole may nd it important
that such improper practices are publicly exposed. Good
purposes of anonymity and pseudonymity:
7
People dependent on an organization, or afraid of
revenge, may divulge serious misuse, which should
be revealed. Anonymous tips can be used as an in-
formation source by newspapers, as well as by po-
lice departments, soliciting tips aimed at catching
criminals. Everyone will not regard such anony-
mous communication as good. For example, mes-
sage boards established outside companies, but for
employees of such companies to vent their opin-
ions on their employer, have sometimes been used
in ways that at least the companies themselves were
not happy about [Abelson 2001].[19] Police use of
anonymity is a complex issue, since the police often
will want to know the identity of the tipper in order
to get more information, evaluate the reliability or
get the tipper as a witness. Is it ethical for police to
identify the tipper if it has opened up an anonymous
tipping hotline?
People in a country with a repressive political regime
may use anonymity (for example Internet-based
anonymity servers in other countries) to avoid per-
secution for their political opinions. Note that even
in democratic countries, some people claim, rightly
or wrongly, that certain political opinions are perse-
cuted. [Wallace 1999][20][21] gives an overview of
uses of anonymity to protect political speech. Ev-
ery country has a limit on which political opinions
are allowed, and there are always people who want
to express forbidden opinions, like racial agitation in
most democratic countries.
People may openly discuss personal stu which
would be embarrassing to tell many people about,
such as sexual problems. Research shows that
anonymous participants disclose signicantly more
information about themselves [Joinson 2001].[22]
People may get more objective evaluation of their
messages, by not showing their real name.
People are more equal in anonymous discussions,
factors like status, gender, etc., will not inuence the
evaluation of what they say.
Pseudonymity can be used to experiment with role
playing, for example a man posing as a woman in or-
der to understand the feelings of people of dierent
gender.
Pseudonymity can be a tool for timid people to dare
establish contacts which can be of value for them
and others, e.g. through contact advertisements.
Anonymity can be used to protect a criminal per-
forming many dierent crimes, for example slander,
distribution of child pornography, illegal threats,
8 CHAPTER 3. ANONYMITY

racial agitation, fraud, intentional damage such as the Bill of Rights, and of the First Amendment in
distribution of computer viruses, etc. The exact set particular: to protect unpopular individuals from
of illegal acts varies from country to country, but retaliationand their ideas from suppressionat
most countries have many laws forbidding certain the hand of an intolerant society.[30] The Supreme
informational acts, everything from high treason court explained that protecting anonymous political
to instigation of rebellion, etc., to swindling. speech receives the highest protection however, this
priority takes on new dimensions in the digital age.
Anonymity can be used to seek contacts for per-
forming illegal acts, like a pedophile searching for
children to abuse or a swindler searching for people
The right of individuals for anonymous commu-
to rip o.
nication was established by the decision in case
Even when the act is not illegal, anonymity can be Columbia Insurance Company v. Seescandy.com, et
used for oensive or disruptive communication. For al. (1999) of the United States District Court for
example, some people use anonymity in order to say the Northern District of California: People are per-
nasty things about other people. mitted to interact pseudonymously and anonymously
with each other so long as those acts are not in vio-
lation of the law.[31]
The border between illegal and legal but oensive use is
not very sharp, and varies depending on the law in each
country.[23]
The right of individuals for anonymous reading
Anonymous (group).[24] was established in the U.S. Supreme Court decision
Anonymous (used as a mass noun) is a loosely associated in United States v. Rumely (1953): Once the gov-
international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A ernment can demand of a publisher the names of the
website nominally associated with the group describes it purchasers of his publications, the free press as we
as an internet gathering with a very loose and decen- know it disappears. Then the spectre of a govern-
tralized command structure that operates on ideas rather ment agent will look over the shoulder of everyone
than directives.[25] The group became known for a series who reads.[32]
of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-
of-service (DDoS) attacks on government, religious, and
corporate websites. An image commonly associated with
The pressure on anonymous communication has grown
Anonymous is the man without a head represents lead-
substantially after the 2001 terrorist attack on the World
erless organization and anonymity.[26]
Trade Center and the subsequent new political climate.
Although it is still dicult to oversee their exact implica-
tions, measures such as the US Patriot Act, the European
3.9 Legal protection of anonymity Cybercrime Convention and the European Union rules on
data retention are only few of the signs that the exercise
Anonymity is perceived as a right by many, especially the of the right to the anonymous exchange of information is
[33]
anonymity in the internet communications. The partial under substantial pressure.
right for anonymity is legally protected to various degrees A above-mentioned 1995 Supreme Court ruling in McIn-
in dierent jurisdictions. tyre v. Ohio Elections Commission reads:[34] "(...) rotec-
tions for anonymous speech are vital to democratic dis-
course. Allowing dissenters to shield their identities frees
3.9.1 United States them to express critical minority views . . . Anonymity is
a shield from the tyranny of the majority. . . . It thus
The tradition of anonymous speech is older than the exemplies the purpose behind the Bill of Rights and of
United States. Founders Alexander Hamilton, James the First Amendment in particular: to protect unpopular
Madison, and John Jay wrote The Federalist Papers un- individuals from retaliation . . . at the hand of an intol-
der the pseudonym Publius " and the Federal Farmer erant society. However, anonymous online speech is not
spoke up in rebuttal. The US Supreme Court has without limits. It is clearly demonstrated in a case from
repeatedly[27][28][29] recognized rights to speak anony- 2008, one in which the defendant stated on a law-school
mously derived from the First Amendment. discussion board that two women should be raped, an
anonymous posters comments may extend beyond free
The right for anonymous political campaigning was speech protections.[35] In the case, a Connecticut federal
established in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in court must apply a standard to decide whether the posters
McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995) case: identity should be revealed. There are several tests, how-
Anonymity is a shield from the tyranny of the ever, that the court could apply when considering this
majority...It thus exemplies the purpose behind issue.[36][37]
3.11. ANONYMITY AND PSEUDONYMITY IN ART
3.9.2 European Union
The right to internet anonymity is also covered by Euro-
pean legislation that recognizes the fundamental right to
data protection, freedom of expression, freedom of im-
pression. The European Union Charter of Fundamental
Rights recognizes in Article. 8 (Title II: Freedoms)[38]
the right of everyone to protection of personal data con-
cerning him.[39] The right to privacy is now essentially
the individuals right to have and to maintain control over
information about him.
3.9.3 International legislation
One of the most controversial international legal acts, re-
garding this subject is Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agree-
ment (ACTA). As of February 2015, the treaty was
signed -but not all ratied- by 31 states as well as the Eu-
ropean Union. Japan was on 4 October 2012 the rst to
ratify the treaty. It creates an international regime for
imposing civil and criminal penalties on Internet coun-
terfeiting and copyright infringement. Although ACTA
is intentionally vague, leaving signatories to draw precise
rules themselves, critics say it could mean innocent trav-
ellers having their laptops searched for unlicensed mu-
sic, or being jailed for carrying a generic drug. Infringers
could be liable for the total loss of potential sales (imply-
ing that everyone who buys a counterfeit product would
have bought the real thing). It applies to unintentional use
of copyright material. It puts the onus on website owners
to ensure they comply with laws across several territories.
It has been negotiated secretively and outside established
international trade bodies, despite EU criticisms.[40]
3.10 Anonymity and politics
Modern pasquinades glued to the base of Pasquino, one of the
Talking Statues of Rome
The history of anonymous expression in political dis- Anonymity is not an absolute the degree of anonymity
sent is both long and with important eect, as in the one enjoys may vary. If Carol has a denite alibi at the
9
Letters of Junius or Voltaire's Candide, or scurrilous as
in pasquinades. In the tradition of anonymous British po-
litical criticism, The Federalist Papers were anonymously
authored by three of Americas Founding Fathers. With-
out the public discourse on the controversial contents of
the U.S. Constitution, ratication would likely have taken
much longer as individuals worked through the issues.
The United States Declaration of Independence, how-
ever, was not anonymous. If it had been unsigned, it
might well have been less eective. John Perry Barlow,
Joichi Ito, and other U.S. bloggers express a very strong
support for anonymous editing as one of the basic require-
ments of open politics as conducted on the Internet.[41]
3.11 Anonymity and pseudonymity
in art
Anonymity is directly related to the concept of
obscurantism or pseudonymity, where an artist or group
attempts to remain anonymous, for various reasons, not
limited to: adding an element of mystique to themselves
and/or their work, attempting to avoid what is known
as the "cult of personality" or hero worship, where the
charisma, good looks, wealth and/or other unrelated or
mildly related aspects of the person(s) is the main rea-
son for interest in their work, rather than the work itself;
also the ability to break into a eld or area of interest nor-
mally dominated by males, such as James Tiptree, Jr, the
famous science ction author who was actually a woman
named Alice Bradley Sheldon, as seems to also be the
case with JT LeRoy. The reasons for choosing this ap-
proach vary. Some, such as Thomas Pynchon, and J. D.
Salinger who seem to want to avoid the limelight of
popularity, simply want to live private lives. Some others
include avant-garde ensemble The Residents, costumed
comedy rock band The Radioactive Chicken Heads, and
until 2004, musician Jandek.
This is frequently applied in ction, from The Lone
Ranger, Superman, and Batman, where a hidden identity
is assumed.
3.12 Mathematics of anonymity
Suppose that only Alice, Bob, and Carol have keys to a
bank safe and that, one day, contents of the safe go miss-
ing (lock not violated). Without additional information,
we cannot know for sure whether it was Alice, Bob or
Carol who emptied the safe. Notably, each element in
{Alice, Bob, Carol} has chance of being the perpe-
trator. However, as long as none of them was convicted
with 100% certainty, we must hold that real perpetrator
remains anonymous.
10 CHAPTER 3. ANONYMITY

time of perpetration, then we may deduce that it must
have been either Alice or Bob who emptied the safe. That
is, perpetrator probabilities for {Alice, Bob, Carol} now
are , , and 0, respectively. Therefore, anonymity is
reduced: we still do not know who did it (for us, real
perpetrator remains anonymous), but our suspicions for
Alice and Bob increase (<). Also, at this particular
case, the perpetrator is not completely anonymous any-
more, as both Alice and Bob now know who did it.
3.13 See also
3.14 Notes and references
[1] Wallace, Kathleen A. 1999. Anonymity, Ethics and
Information Technology 1, 23-35; Nissenbaum, Helen.
1999. The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information
Age, The Information Society, 15, 141-144; Matthews,
Steve, 2010, Anonymity and the Social Self, American
Philosophical Quarterly, 47, 351-363.
[2] Scott, Craig R. (2005). Anonymous Communication
in Organizations: Assessing Use and Appropriateness.
Management Communication Quarterly. 19 (2): 157.
doi:10.1177/0893318905279191.

[3] Carbonell, Rachel (2016-09-28). Print Email Facebook

Anonymity Twitter More Judges admit to emotion in court but say
they avoid bias in judgments. Australian Broadcasting
Anonymity application
Corporation. Retrieved 2016-09-28.
Anonymous blogging
Anonymous P2P [4] Donors Increasingly Make Their Big Gifts Anonymously,
Chronicle Analysis Finds By Sam Kean (January 09,
Anonymous remailer 2008) The Chronicle of Philanthropy
Anonymous web browsing
[5] About us. The Economist. Retrieved July 3, 2015.
Anonymous work
Financial secrecy [6] http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/
List of anonymously published works documents/2011/08/08/EditorialGuidelinesAug2011.
pdf
List of anonymous masters
Notname [7] Eaman, Ross. The A to Z of Journalism. Scarecrow Press,
2009. p. 73. ISBN 9780810870673.
Anonymous (group)
[8] Anonymous Online Comments:The Law and Best Media
Data privacy Practices from Around the World, by Kyle A. Heatherly,*
Anthony L. Fargo,** and Jason A. Martin***, October
Data anonymization
2014
Friend-to-friend
[9] Jacob Palme and Mikael Berglund, Anonymity on the In-
Identity theft ternet, Jacob Palmes Home Page

Internet privacy [10] Ohm, Paul (13 August 2009). Broken Promises
of Privacy: Responding to the Surprising Failure of
John Doe Anonymization. UCLA Law Review. 57: 1701, 2010.
Online disinhibition eect Retrieved 12 February 2013.

Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory [11] Tynan, Dan. "Real names, real problems: Pseudonymity
under siege. ITWorld. September 17, 2013. Retrieved
Personally identiable information on September 22, 2013.
Politics [12] Armerding, Taylor. Teen cyberbullying grows with
'anonymous social chat apps. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
Crypto-anarchism
Privacy software and Privacy-enhancing technolo- [13] King, Alison (April 2010). Constitutionality of Cyber-
bullying Laws: Keeping the Online Playground Safe for
gies
Both Teens and Free Speech. Vanderbilt Law Review.
FLAIM 63 (3): 845884. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
I2P [14] The Information Society: An International Journal, Vol-
I2P-Bote ume 15, Issue 2, 1999, Legal Issues in Anonymity and
Java Anon Proxy Pseudonymity, by A. Michael Froomkin, pages 113-127
Onion routing [15] Privacy protection and anonymity services for the World
Tor (anonymity network) Wide Web (WWW), by Rolf Oppliger, Original Research
Private P2P Article, Future Generation Computer Systems Volume
16, Issue 4, (February 2000), pages 379-391
Pseudonymity, Pseudonymization
[16] Horizon: The defenders of anonymity on the internet, by
Top-coded data (in statistics) Mike Radford, Director, Horizon: Inside the Dark Web
3.14. NOTES AND REFERENCES 11

[17] Anonymity on the Internet: Why the Price May Be Too
High, by David Davenport, COMMUNICATIONS OF
THE ACM April 2002/Vol. 45, No. 4
[18] Anonymity on the Internet. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
[19] By the Water Cooler in Cyberspace, the Talk Turns Ugly,
by Reed Abelson, New York times, 29 April 2001
[20] Nameless in Cyberspace, anonymity on the Internet, by
Jonathan D. Wallace, CATO Institute Brieng Papers,
December 8, 1999.
[21] Nameless in Cyberspace: Anonymity on the Internet.
Retrieved 13 June 2016.
[22] Joinson, A. N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-
mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and
visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychol-
ogy, 31, 177-192.
[23] Anonymity on the Internet, by Jacob Palme, using much
material from the paper Usenet news and anon.penet.
by Mikael Berglund
[37] Kristina Ringland, Internet User Anonymity, First
Amendment Protections and Mobilisa: Changing The
Cahill Test, 5 SHIDLER J. L. COM. & TECH. 16 (2009),
available at <Archived copy. Archived from the original
on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2015-02-08.>
[38] Serge Gutwirth; Ronald Leenes; Paul de Hert Springer
(September 11, 2014). Reforming European Data Pro-
tection Law. Springer, 2014. p. 406. ISBN
9789401793858.
[39] EUR-Lex - 12012P/TXT - EN - EUR-Lex. Retrieved
13 June 2016.
[40] ACTA up. Retrieved 13 June 2016 via The
Economist.
[41] The Infrastructure of Democracy. Web.archive.org.
2006-05-11. Archived from the original on May 11, 2006.
Retrieved 2012-11-22.

[24] Anonymous (group)

[25] Kelly, Brian (2012). Investing in a Centralized Cyber-

security Infrastructure: Why 'Hacktivism' can and should
inuence cybersecurity reform. Boston University Law
Review 92 (5): 16631710. Retrieved May 2, 2013.

[26] Gabriella Coleman on Anonymous. Brian Lehrer Live.

Vimeo. February 9, 2011. Retrieved March 24, 2011.

[27] McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Comm'n, 514 U.S. 334, 342

(1995)

[28] Talley v. California, 362 U.S. 60, 64 (1960)

[29] See TOMAS A. LIPINSKI, TO SPEAK OR NOT TO

SPEAK: DEVELOPING LEGAL STANDARDS FOR
ANONYMOUS SPEECH ON THE INTERNET 942
(2002)

[30] U.S. Supreme Court decision "McIntyre v. Ohio

Elections Comm'n" (93-986), 514 U.S. 334 (1995)".
Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-22.

[31] Decision Columbia Insurance Company v. Sees-

candy.com, et al. of the U.S. District Court in the North-
ern District of California. Legal.web.aol.com. Retrieved
2012-11-22.

[32] U.S. Supreme Court decision United States v. Rumely

345 U.S. 41 (73 S.Ct. 543, 97 L.Ed. 770) (1953)".
Law.cornell.edu. 1953-03-09. Retrieved 2012-11-22.

[33] Digital Anonymity and the Law. Tensions and Dimen-

sions, by Nicoll, C.; Prins, Corien; van Dellen, M.J.M,
2003, Tilburg University

[34] http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-986.ZO.html

[35] A mir Efrati, AutoAdmit Suit Update: Defendant AK47

Responds, WALL ST. J.: LAW BLOG, Feb. 28, 2008,

[36] Archived copy (PDF). Archived from the original

(PDF) on 2015-02-09. Retrieved 2015-02-08.
Chapter 4

AskoziaPBX

AskoziaPBX is an open source telephone system (or 4.2 Major Features

"PBX") rmware. It is a fork of the m0n0wall project and
uses the Asterisk private branch exchange (PBX) soft- AskoziaPBX is congured via a web-based conguration
ware to realize all telephony functions. interface. It allows the conguration and interconnection
AskoziaPBX is released under a restricted BSD license. of Analog, ISDN and VoIP telephones and of provider
It permits all forms of Open Source modication and dis- lines. Telephone system features such as voicemail,
tribution but requires licensing if AskoziaPBX is to be conference rooms, call parking, call transfers, fax-to-e-
sold on commercial products.[2][3] mail and text-to-speech are supported. More functional-
ity can be implemented with custom applications [12] or
Since 2.1 version, it has been released under Commercial
the Call Flow Editor. This is an additional software mod-
license only. Askozia also provides a diet version for
ule for AskoziaPBX, which allows to create call queues,
testing. It has the full feature set, but is limited to two
IVRs and other complex scenarios .[13]
simultaneous calls.
The rmware stores its entire conguration in a single
Originally based on FreeBSD, AskoziaPBX was modied
XML le. This simplies backing up and restoring in-
to run on Linux creating a new Linux distribution for this
stallations. It takes care to only write to its internal stor-
purpose. Running on Linux it has also been expanded
age when absolutely necessary. This is done to preserve
to run on Blackn and PowerPC CPU architectures in
write cycles on ash media, a typical installation media
addition to the original x86.
for embedded devices.[14]
AskoziaPBX can run on systems with as little as 200
MHz and 64 MB of RAM. It runs on x86 and PowerPC
architectures.[14] Blackn is only supported until software
version 2.0.4.[1]

4.1 History
4.3 Internationalization
AskoziaPBX was started as a proof-of-concept project by
Michael Iedema at the Ostfalia - School of Applied Sci- Created in Germany and initially only available in the
ences in Wolfenbttel Germany in January 2007.[4][5] The English language, the rmware and project have now
project focus was to demonstrate the feasibility of build- been internationalized. The conguration interface, voice
ing an embedded telephone system rmware upon Open prompts and notication messages have all been trans-
Source software while providing a consumer usability lated into many languages. German, Italian, Spanish,
experience.[6][7] French and Dutch are the most complete with less com-
After six months of private development, the rmware plete translations including [15]
Chinese, Japanese, Polish,
[8]
was released to the public on the 1 June 2007. During Danish and Swedish.
the next 14 months after the initial release, 24 public beta AskoziaPBX is in use in over 175 countries.[15]
versions were released. At the end of this cycle, version
1.0 was published in September 2008.[9] Minor xes and
language updates continued on the 1.0 branch until 1.0.3
was released in May 2009.[10] At this point, work had al- 4.4 Moving from FreeBSD to
ready begun on what was to become the 2.0 branch of the Linux
rmware, the current development series.[11]
Since 2011, AskoziaPBX is developed by Benjamin- From late 2008 until mid 2009 the rmware was
Nicola Lken and Sebastian Kaiser. changed to use Linux as its operating system, re-

12
4.6. REFERENCES 13

placing FreeBSD.[11][16] This process was contracted [9] Site News 1.0 Release Announcement, Site News (news
by Auerswald, a German telecommunications hardware entry), 12 September 2008. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
manufacturer and was done for several reasons: Aster-
[10] Site News 1.0.3 Release Announcement, Site News
isk was, at the time, only ocially supported on Linux. (news entry), 29 May 2009. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
Also, FreeBSD does not support the Blackn CPU ar-
chitecture, the architecture used in Auerswalds target [11] Site News Upcoming Linux Port, Site News (news en-
platform.[17] try), 14 October 2008. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
Another Open Source project was forked and incorpo- [12] Open Source Meets Business Presentation AskoziaPBX
rated into the project to accomplish the dicult task - Compact, Easily Congurable Open Source Hybrid Soft
of compiling, patching and assembling rmware im- PBX for VoIP, Open Source Meets Business (conference
ages across multiple CPU architectures and target plat- presentation), Nuremberg Germany, 27 January 2009.
forms. The T2 SDE project was stripped down to only Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
include the software packages used in AskoziaPBX and [13] Site Documentation AskoziaPBX Call Flow Editor,Site
then merged into the project as the new ocial build Documentation (cfe). Retrieved on 2012-07-05.
system.[18]
[14] AMOOCON Presentation Trunk Groups are not Lug-
In July 2009, an alpha level release running on Linux gage Collections Archived July 1, 2010, at the Wayback
was published. This was further stabilized into a beta re- Machine., AMOOCON (conference presentation), Ros-
lease on 13 February 2010. The nal production ready tock Germany, 4 June 2010. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
rmware was released as version 2.0 on 4 May 2010.[19]
[15] VoIP Users Conference Interview AskoziaPBX, VoIP
Users Conference (audio interview), 15 May 2009. Re-
trieved on 2010-07-28.
4.5 See also
[16] Site News First Developer Snapshot on Linux, Site News
List of SIP software other SIP related programs (news entry), 8 July 2009. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.

[17] AMOOCON Presentation AskoziaPBX: Porting to

4.6 References
[1] Changelog. Askozia. 11 February 2016. Retrieved 19
May 2016.
[2] Site Forums AskoziaPBX License Addendum Notica-
tion, Site Forums (forum post), 29 April 2010. Retrieved
on 2010-07-28.
[3] Site Documentation AskoziaPBX License, Site Docu-
mentation (license), 29 April 2010. Retrieved on 2010-
07-28.
Linux, Going for Mainstream Archived May 23, 2009,
at the Wayback Machine., AMOOCON (conference pre-
sentation), Rostock Germany, 5 May 2009. Retrieved on
2010-07-28.
[18] FLOSS Weekly Interview AskoziaPBX, FLOSS Weekly
(video interview), 7 July 2010. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
[19] VoIP Users Conference Interview All About Askozi-
aPBX v2.0, VoIP Users Conference (audio interview), 7
May 2010. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.

[4] Open Source Meets Business Presentation Compact

Open Source SoftPBX fr VoIP-Lsungen in kleinen
und mittleren Unternehmen, Open Source Meets Business
(conference presentation), Nuremberg Germany, 23 Jan-
uary 2008. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.

[5] AsteriskTag Presentation AskoziaPBX Archived May

29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine., AsteriskTag (confer-
ence presentation), Berlin Germany, 27 May 2008. Re-
trieved on 2010-07-28.

[6] Orlet, Phillipp and Ramisch, Fritz. Just Do It!" Archived

July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., Studi38 (maga-
zine), Braunschweig Germany, Summer Semester 2010.
Retrieved on 2010-07-28.

[7] Peiker, Stephanie. Leuchtturm fr die Region,

Braunschweiger Zeitung (newspaper), Braunschweig
Germany, 30 April 2010. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.

[8] Asterisk-Users List New Project: AskoziaPBX,

Asterisk-Users List (mailing list post), 10 September
2007. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
Chapter 5

Asterisk (PBX)

Asterisk is a software implementation of a telephone gateway between IP phones and the public switched tele-
private branch exchange (PBX); it allows attached phone network (PSTN) via T- or E-carrier interfaces or
telephones to make calls to one another, and to connect analog FXO cards. The Inter-Asterisk eXchange (IAX)
to other telephone services, such as the public switched protocol, RFC 5456, native to Asterisk, provides ecient
telephone network (PSTN) and Voice over Internet Pro- trunking of calls among Asterisk PBXes, in addition to
tocol (VoIP) services. Its name comes from the asterisk distributing some conguration logic. Many VoIP service
symbol, *. providers support it for call completion into the PSTN,
Asterisk is released with a dual license model, using often because they themselves have deployed Asterisk or
the GNU General Public License (GPL) as a free soft- oer it as a hosted application. Some telephones also sup-
ware license and a proprietary software license to per- port the IAX protocol.
mit licensees to distribute proprietary, unpublished sys- By supporting a variety of traditional and VoIP tele-
tem components. phony services, Asterisk allows deployers to build tele-
phone systems, or migrate existing systems to new tech-
Asterisk was created in 1999 by Mark Spencer of
Digium. [1][2]
Originally designed for Linux, Asterisk runs nologies. Some sites are using Asterisk to replace propri-
on a variety of operating systems, including NetBSD, etary PBXes, others provide additional features, such as
OpenBSD, FreeBSD, Mac OS X, and Solaris. Aster- voice mail or voice response menus, or virtual call shops,
isk is small enough to run in an embedded environment or to reduce cost by carrying long-distance calls over the
such as Customer-premises equipment-hardware running Internet (toll bypass).
OpenWrt.[3] There are complete self-contained versions In addition to VoIP protocols, Asterisk supports tradi-
that can boot from a storage device such as a ash drive tional circuit-switching protocols such as ISDN and SS7.
or external disk drive (preferably IDE/PATA, SATA or This requires appropriate hardware interface cards, mar-
mSATA; a USB-connected device can be used, but is of- keted by third-party vendors. Each protocol requires the
ten not recommended).[4] A live CD or virtual machine installation of software modules. In Asterisk release 14
can also be used. the Opus audio codec is supported.

5.1 Features 5.2 Internationalization

The Asterisk software includes many features available in While initially developed in the United States, Aster-
proprietary PBX systems: voice mail, conference calling, isk has become a popular VoIP PBX worldwide because
interactive voice response (phone menus), and automatic it is freely available under open-source licensing, and
call distribution. Users can create new functionality by has a modular, extensible design. The American En-
writing dial plan scripts in several of Asterisks own ex- glish, French, Persian (Farsi) and Mexican Spanish fe-
tensions languages, by adding custom loadable modules male voices along with other prompts, such as Australian
written in C, or by implementing Asterisk Gateway Inter- English, for the interactive voice response and voice mail
face (AGI) programs using any programming language features are frequently updated with submissions from de-
capable of communicating via the standard streams sys- velopers in many languages and dialects. A few novelty
tem (stdin and stdout) or by network TCP sockets. prompts are oered, such as jokes[5] and a themed zom-
[6]
Asterisk supports several standard voice over IP proto- bie apocalypse message for Halloween. Additionally,
cols, including the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the voice sets are oered for commercial sale in various lan-
Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP), and H.323. guages, dialects, and genders.
Asterisk supports most SIP telephones, acting both as The default set of English-language Asterisk prompts, in-
registrar and back-to-back user agent, and can serve as a cluded with the package, are recorded by professional

14
5.5. REFERENCES
telephone voice Allison Smith in Calgary, Alberta.[7]
5.3 Derived products
Asterisk is a core component in many commercial prod-
ucts and open-source projects. Some of the commercial
products are hardware and software bundles, for which
the manufacturer supports and releases the software with
an open-source distribution model.
AskoziaPBX, a fork of the m0n0wall project, uses
Asterisk PBX software to realize all telephony func-
tions.
Elastix uses Asterisk, HylaFAX, Openre and
Postx to oer PBX, fax, instant messaging and
email functions, respectively.
FreePBX, an open-source graphical user interface,
bundles Asterisk as the core of its FreePBX Distro[8]
LinuxMCE bundles Asterisk to provide telephony;
there is also an embedded version of Asterisk for
OpenWrt routers.
PBX in a Flash/Incredible PBX and trixbox are soft-
ware PBXes based on Asterisk.
There are also various add-on products, often commer-
cial, which extend Asterisk in some manner.
As one example, the standard voice prompts included
with the system are free. A business can purchase match-
ing voice announcements of its company name, IVR
menu options and employee or department names (as a
library of live recordings of common names[9] or a set of
fully customised prompts recorded by the same profes-
sional voice talent) at additional cost for seamless inte-
gration into the system.
Other add-ons provide fax support, text-to-speech, addi-
tional codecs and new features.[10] Some third-party add-
ons are free;[11] a few even support embedded platforms
such as the Raspberry Pi.[12]
5.4 See also
Comparison of VoIP software
DUNDi
FreeSWITCH IPBX
GateKeeper H.323
GNU SIP Witch
List of SIP software
OpenBTS
15
SIP Express Router
Sippy B2BUA
5.5 References
[1] Olejniczak, Stephen P.; Kirby, Brady (2007). Asterisk For
Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470098547.
[2] Van Meggelen, Jim; Smith, Jared; Madsen, Leif (2007).
Asterisk: The Future of Telephony. O'Reilly Media, Inc.
ISBN 9780596510480.
[3] Asterisk on OpenWrt. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
[4] AstLinux: Boot via USB Flash Storage. For production
AstLinux installations, it is recommended to use ash stor-
age connected o IDE, SATA or mSATA controllers ... it
takes longer for USB storage devices to be recognized ...
AstLinux may fail ... followed by the USB drive mounting
a few seconds later.
[5] You are not the next caller in line, parody on-hold mes-
sage where a pre-recorded Allison Smith sheepishly con-
fesses (at 0:00:45) that the caller is actually *not* next in
queue and would be lucky to get a response at 11:30pm
from the cleaning lady after other workers had left for the
day.
[6] Zombie-Proof Your Phone System. Go.digium.com.
Retrieved 2016-01-04.
[7] Asterisk Voice Recordings. The IVR Voice.
[8] Madsen, Leif; Jim Van Meggelen; Russell Bryant (2013).
Asterisk: The Denitive Guide, 4th Edition (4th ed.).
O'Reilly Media. p. 800. ISBN 978-1-4493-3242-
6. FreePBX, the juggernaut of the Asterisk commu-
nity. This interface (which is at the heart of many of
the most popular Asterisk distributions, such as Aster-
iskNOW, Elastix, the FreePBX Distro, and PBX in a
Flash), is unarguably a very large part of why Asterisk has
been as successful as it has. With the FreePBX interface,
you can congure and manage many aspects of an Asterisk
system without touching a single conguration le. While
we purists may like everyone to work only with the con-
g les, we recognize that for many, learning Linux and
editing these les by hand is simply not going to happen.
For those folks, there is FreePBX, and it has our respect
for the important contributions it has made to the success
of Asterisk.
[9] Allison On Demand. AsteriskExchange.com.
[10] Asterisk Software Add-Ons. Digium. 2015-12-29. Re-
trieved 2016-01-04.
[11] Riddell, Matt (2009-08-08). 35 Great free Asterisk ap-
plications. Venturevoip.com. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
[12] The 5-Minute PBX: Incredible PBX 11 and Incredible
Fax Get a Facelift. Nerd Vittles. 2013-06-18. Retrieved
2016-01-04.
16 CHAPTER 5. ASTERISK (PBX)

5.6 External links

Ocial website
Chapter 6

Asterisk Gateway Interface

Asterisk Gateway Interface (AGI) is a software inter- 6.2 Usage examples

face and communications protocol for application level
control of selected features of the Asterisk PBX. Example for NanoAGI
AGI allows an external, user-written program, launched #include src/agi.H int main() { AGI agi; if(
from the Asterisk dial plan via pipes to control telephony agi.cmd(stream le hello-world 0) < 0) { // cerr
operations on its associated control and voice channels. << agi.err; return 1; } agi.cmd(hangup); return 0; }
It is similar to the CGI feature of web servers in allowing
any language to be used for writing the external program
which communicates with Asterisk via stdin and stdout. Compile it with Make utility
While the initial feature set of AGI included only a pro- $ make
cedural control of Asterisk operations via commands and Move compiled binary into ${astagidir}. Then add fol-
response handshake, Enhanced AGI (EAGI) also pro- lowing into ${astetcdir}/extensions.conf and reload di-
vided out-of-band access to the incoming audio stream. alplan:
FastAGI is an extension to AGI which allows the exter- exten => _100,1,AGI(scriptname)
nal program to run at a separate network host to avoid the
overhead of creating a new process for every call on the
Asterisk server. It uses a TCP socket for communication 6.3 External links
to the external host which provides the function of an AGI
service, in a manner of the clientserver model. The de-
http://examples.oreilly.de/english_examples/
fault TCP port for FastAGI is 4573. Similar to HTTP
asterisk/openbook/appc.pdf[]
uniform resource identiers (URIs), FastAGI employs
a URI format of.agi://hostname{[}:port{]}{[}/program/
path]
The AGI feature set of Asterisk is implemented as an As-
terisk loadable module (res agi).

6.1 Software Interfaces

There are many libraries that greatly simplies develop-
ment process of AGI scripts. The most interesting of
them is:

1. phpagi

2. Perl AGI Library

3. CAGI

4. NanoAGI

5. PyST

17
Chapter 7

Automatic call distributor

In telephony, an automatic call distributor (ACD) or
automated call distribution system, is a device or sys-
tem that distributes incoming calls to a specic group
of terminals or agents based on the customers selection,
customers telephone number, selected incoming line to
the system, or time of day the call was processed. It is
often part of a computer telephony integration (CTI) sys-
tem.
Routing incoming calls is the task of the ACD system. 7.1 Distribution methods
ACD systems are often found in oces that handle large
volumes of incoming phone calls from callers who have
no need to talk to a specic person but who require assis-
tance from any of multiple persons (e.g., customer service
representatives) at the earliest opportunity.
The routing strategy is a rule-based set of instructions that
tells the ACD how calls are handled inside the system.
Typically this is an algorithm that determines the best
available employee or employees to respond to a given
incoming call. To help make this match, additional data
are solicited and reviewed to nd out why the customer is
calling. Sometimes the callers caller ID or ANI is used;
more often a simple IVR is used to ascertain the reason
for the call.
Originally, the ACD function was internal to the Private
Branch Exchange of the company. However, the closed
nature of these systems limited their exibility. A system
was then designed to enable common computing devices,
such as server PCs, to make routing decisions. For this,
generally the PBX would issue information about incom-
ing calls to this external system and receive a direction of
the call in response.
An additional function for these external routing appli-
cations is to enable CTI. This allows improved eciency
for call center agents by matching incoming phone calls
with relevant data on their PC via screen pop.
contact center. All real-time and historical statistical in-
formation can then be shared amongst call center sites.
One of the rst large and separate ACDs was a modied
5XB switch used by New York Telephone in the early
1970s to distribute calls among hundreds of 4-1-1 infor-
mation operators.
There are multiple choices for distributing incoming calls
from a queue.
Linear Call Distribution Calls are distributed in
order, starting at the beginning each time.
Circular/Rotary Call Distribution Calls are dis-
tributed in order, starting with the next in order.
Uniform Call Distribution Calls are distributed
uniformly, starting with the person who has handled
the fewest calls.
Simultaneous Call Distribution Calls are presented
to all available extensions simultaneously.
Weighted Call Distribution Calls are distributed
according to a congurable weighting, such as dif-
fering skill sets within customer service representa-
tives.
7.2 See also
Communications system, voice communication
control system

A common protocol to achieve this is CSTA; however, Skills-based routing

almost every PBX vendor has its own avor of CSTA,
Vector directory number
and CSTA is quite hard to program because of its com-
plex nature. Various vendors have developed intermedi- Zip tone
ate software that hides these complexities and expedites
the work of programmers.
Also, these protocols enable call centers consisting of 7.3 References
PBXs from multiple vendors to be treated as one virtual

18
Chapter 8

Automatic number identication

Automatic number identication (ANI) is a feature of ANI is generally not transmitted when a call is operator
a telecommunications network for automatically deter- assisted; only the area code of the last switch to route the
mining the origination telephone number on toll calls for call is sent.
billing purposes. Placing a call through an outbound-only VoIP service or
In telephony, ANI service was originally created by some calling cards will cause a non-working number to
AT&T Corporation for internal long distance charging be sent as the ANI. ANI is also not supported properly
purposes,[1][2] eliminating the need for telephone oper- for calls originated from four-party lines.
ators to manually request the number of the calling party
for a toll call.
Modern ANI has two components: information digits,
which identify the class of service,[3] and the calling party
billing telephone number.
8.3 Automatic number announce-
ANI is not related to newer caller ID services such as call
ment
display.
Automatic number identication is also used to describe Main article: automatic number announcement circuit
the functions of two-way radio selective calling that iden-
tify the transmitting user. ANI is used to provide automatic number announcement,
an internal test facility for telephone maintenance work-
ers. The service, which is not advertised to the public,
8.1 Toll-free numbers allows an installer to identify an individual line by using
it to dial a special unpublished number in a range reserved
Modern toll-free telephone numbers, which generate for testing purposes (such as 958-xxxx in much of North
itemized billing of all calls received instead of relying on America).
the special xed-rate trunks of the Bell System's original
Inward WATS service, depend on ANI to track inbound
calls to numbers in special area codes such as +1-800,
888, 877, 866, 855 and 844 (United States and Canada),
1800 (Australia) or 0800 and 0808 (United Kingdom).
8.4 DNIS

Main articles: Direct inward dialing and Dialed Number

8.2 Privacy Identication Service

ANI is dierent, conceptually and technically, from
caller ID service. A callers telephone number and line
type are captured by ANI service even if caller ID block-
ing is activated. The destination telephone company
switching oce can relay the originating telephone num-
ber to ANI delivery services subscribers. Toll-free sub-
scribers and large companies normally have access to
ANI, either instantly via installed equipment, or from a
monthly billing statement. Residential subscribers can
obtain access to ANI information through third party
companies that charge for the service.[4]
A related service feature available to private branch ex-
change subscribers is the Dialed Number Identication
Service (DNIS), a code indicating the number requested
by the caller. With the information, a service provider
can have several toll-free numbers directed to the same
call center and provide unique service based on the num-
ber dialed. DNIS can also be used to identify other call
routing information. For example, toll-free service can
be congured to send a specic DNIS number that is as-
signed to callers from geographic regions based on city,
area code, state, or country.

19
20 CHAPTER 8. AUTOMATIC NUMBER IDENTIFICATION

8.5 Similar services

Europe: Calling Line Identication (CLI)

United Kingdom: Caller Line Identication (CLID)

Australia: Automatic number identication (ANI)
1800801920 or 12722123 (Telstra line only, local
call cost)

8.6 References
[1] US Patent 2,265,844: Calling Line Identication Circuit

[2] US Patent 2,300,829: Calling Line Identication System

[3] ANI II Digits. North American Numbering Plan Ad-

ministration. 2003. Archived from the original on 18 June
2007. Retrieved 2007-07-06.

[4] See Gizmodo

Chapter 9

Business telephone system

9.1 Key telephone system

Early model 464G Western Electric key telephone set

A business telephone system is a multiline telephone

system typically used in business environments, encom-
passing systems ranging from small key telephone sys-
tems to large-scale private branch exchanges.
A business telephone system diers from an installation Early key telephone for use in a wealthy household
of several telephones with multiple central oce (CO)
lines in that the CO lines used are directly controllable in Key telephone systems are primarily dened by arrange-
key telephone systems from multiple telephone stations, ments with individual line selection buttons for each
and that such a system often provides additional features available telephone line. The earliest systems were known
related to call handling. Business telephone systems are as wiring plans and simply consisted of telephone sets,
often broadly classied into key telephone systems, and keys, lamps, and wiring.
private branch exchanges, but many hybrid systems exist. Key was a Bell System term of art for a customer-
[1]
A key telephone system was originally distinguished from controlled switching system such as the line-buttons on
a private branch exchange (PBX) in that it did not re- the phones associated with such systems.
quire an operator or attendant at the switchboard to es- The wiring plans evolved into modular hardware building
tablish connections between the central oce trunks and blocks with a variety of functionality and services in the
stations, or between stations. Technologically, private 1A key telephone system developed in the Bell System in
branch exchanges share lineage with central oce tele- the 1930s.[2]
phone systems, and in larger or more complex systems,
may rival a central oce system in capacity and features. Key systems can be built using three principal archi-
With a key telephone system, a station user could control tectures: electromechanical shared-control, electronic
the connections directly using line buttons, which indi- shared-control, or independent key sets.
cated the status of lines with built-in lamps. New installations of key telephone systems have become

21
22
less common, as hybrid systems and private branch ex- Automatic Electric Company also produced a family of
changes of comparable size have similar cost and greater key telephone equipment, some of it compatible with
functionality. Western Electric equipment, but it did not gain the
widespread use enjoyed by Western Electric equipment.
9.1.1 Electromechanical shared-control
key system
A typical rotary dial key telephone: the Western Electric eighteen-
button Call Director, manufactured from 1958 to the early '80s.
Before the advent of large-scale integrated circuits, key
systems were typically composed of electromechanical
components (relays) as were larger telephone switching
systems.
The systems marketed in North America as the 1A, 6A,
1A1 and the 1A2 Key System are typical examples and
sold for many decades. The 1A family of Western Elec-
tric Company (WECo) key telephone units (KTUs) were
introduced in the late 1930s and remained in use to the
1950s. 1A equipment was primitive and required at least
two KTUs per line; one for line termination and one
for station (telephone instrument) termination. The tele-
phone instrument commonly used by 1A systems was the
WECo 300-series telephone. Introduced in 1953, 1A1
key systems simplied wiring with a single KTU for both
line and station termination, and increased the features
available. As the 1A1 systems became commonplace, re-
quirements for intercom features grew. The original in-
tercom KTUs, WECo Model 207, were wired for a single
talk link, that is, a single conversation on the intercom at a
time. The WECo 6A dial intercom system provided two
talk links and was often installed as the dial intercom in a
1A1 or 1A2 key system. The 6A systems were complex,
troublesome and expensive, and never became popular.
The advent of 1A2 technology in the 1964 simplied key
system set up and maintenance. These continued to be
used throughout the 1980s, when the arrival of electronic
key systems with their easier installation and greater fea-
tures signaled the end of electromechanical key systems.
Two lesser-known key systems were used at airports for
air trac control communications, the 102 and 302 key
systems. These were uniquely designed for communica-
tions between the air trac control tower and radar ap-
proach control (RAPCON) or ground control approach
(GCA), and included radio line connections.
CHAPTER 9. BUSINESS TELEPHONE SYSTEM
9.1.2 Electronic shared-control system
With the advent of LSI ICs, the same architecture could
be implemented much less expensively than was possible
using relays. In addition, it was possible to eliminate the
many-wire cabling and replace it with much simpler ca-
ble similar to (or even identical to) that used by non-key
systems. Electronic shared-control systems led quickly
to the modern hybrid telephone system, as the features of
PBX and key system quickly merged. One of the most
recognized such systems is the AT&T Merlin.
Additionally, these more modern systems allowed a di-
verse set of features including:
Answering machine functions
Automatic call accounting
Call Forward
Call Transfer
Remote supervision of the entire system
Selection of signaling sounds
Speed dialing
Station-specic limitations (such as no long distance
access or no paging)
Features could be added or modied simply using soft-
ware, allowing easy customization of these systems. The
stations were easier to maintain than the previous elec-
tromechanical key systems, as they used ecient LEDs
instead of incandescent light bulbs for line status indica-
tion.
LSI also allowed smaller systems to distribute the control
(and features) into individual telephone sets that don't re-
quire any single shared control unit. Generally, these sys-
tems are used with a relatively few telephone sets and it is
often more dicult to keep the feature set (such as speed-
dialing numbers) in synchrony between the various sets.
9.2 Hybrid key telephone system
Into the 21st century, the distinction between key systems
and PBX systems has become increasingly blurred. Early
electronic key systems used dedicated handsets which
displayed and allowed access to all connected PSTN lines
and stations.
9.3. PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE 23

Nortel T Series Key System Telephone An Avaya G3si PBX with front cover removed (view from the
top).

The modern key system now supports SIP, ISDN, ana-

log handsets (in addition to its own proprietary handsets Each PBX-connected station, such as a telephone set, a
- usually digital) as well as a raft of features more tradi- fax machine, or a computer modem, is often referred to
tionally found on larger PBX systems. Their support for as an extension and has a designated extension telephone
both analog and digital signaling, and of some PBX func- number that may or may not be mapped automatically to
tionality gives rise to the hybrid designation.[3] the numbering plan of the central oce and the telephone
number block allocated to the PBX.
A hybrid system typically has some call appearance but-
tons that directly correspond to individual lines and/or Initially, PBX systems oered the primary advantage of
stations, but may also support direct dialing to extensions cost savings for internal phone calls: handling the cir-
or outside lines without selecting a line appearance. cuit switching locally reduced charges for telephone ser-
vice via central-oce lines. As PBX systems gained pop-
The modern key system is usually fully digital, although
ularity, they began to feature services not available in
analog variants persist and some systems implement
the public network, such as hunt groups, call forwarding,
VOIP services. Eectively, the aspects that distinguish
and extension dialing. From the 1960s a simulated PBX
a PBX from a hybrid key system are the amount, scope
known as Centrex provided similar features from the cen-
and complexity of the features and facilities oered.
tral telephone exchange.
Hybrid systems are a common tool in the nancial ser-
A PBX diers from a key telephone system (KTS) in that
vices industry used on trading oors. These advanced hy-
users of a key system manually select their own outgo-
brid key systems generally only require attached PBXs for
ing lines on special telephone sets that control buttons for
interaction with back-oce sta and voicemail. These
this purpose, while PBXs select the outgoing line auto-
systems commonly have their front end units referred to
matically or, formerly, by an operator. The telephone sets
as Turrets and are notable for their presentation of hoot-n-
connected to a PBX do not normally have special keys for
holler circuits. Multiple Hoots are presented to multiple
central-oce line control, but it is not uncommon for key
users over multiplexed speakers to multiple locations.
systems to be connected to a PBX to extend its services.
A PBX, in contrast to a key system, employs an organiza-
tional numbering plan for its stations. In addition, a dial
9.3 Private branch exchange plan determines whether additional digit sequences must
be prexed when dialing to obtain access to a central-
oce trunk. Modern number-analysis systems permit
A private branch exchange (PBX) is a telephone ex-
users to dial internal and external telephone numbers
change or switching system that serves a private organi-
without special codes to distinguish the intended desti-
zation and performs concentration of central oce lines
nation.
or trunks and provides intercommunication between a
[4]
large number of telephone stations in the organization.
The central oce lines provide connections to the public
switched telephone network and the concentration aspect 9.3.1 History
of a PBX permits the shared use of these lines between all
stations in the organization. The intercommunication as- The term PBX originated when switchboard operators
pect allows two or more stations to establish telephone or managed company switchboards manually using cord cir-
conferencing calls between them without using the cen- cuits. As automated electromechanical switches and
tral oce equipment. later electronic switching systems gradually replaced the
24
PBX switchboard, 1975
manual systems, the terms private automatic branch ex-
change (PABX) and private manual branch exchange
(PMBX) dierentiated them. Solid-state digital systems
were sometimes referred to as electronic private automatic
branch exchanges (EPABX). As of 2016, the term PBX is
by far the most widely recognized. The acronym now ap-
plies to all types of complex, in-house telephony switch-
ing systems.
Two signicant developments during the 1990s led to
new types of PBX systems. One was the massive growth
of data networks and increased public understanding of
packet switching. Companies needed packet-switched
networks for data, so using them for telephone calls
proved tempting, and the availability of the Internet as
a global delivery-system made packet-switched commu-
nications even more attractive. These factors led to the
development of the voice over IP PBX, or IP-PBX.
The other trend involved the idea of focusing on core
competence. PBX services had always been hard to ar-
range for smaller companies, and many companies real-
ized that handling their own telephony was not their core
competence. These considerations gave rise to the con-
cept of the hosted PBX. In wireline telephony, the origi-
nal hosted PBX was the Centrex service provided by tel-
cos since the 1960s; later competitive oerings evolved
into the modern competitive local exchange carrier. In
voice over IP, hosted solutions are easier to implement as
the PBX may be located at and managed by any telephone
service provider, connecting to the individual extensions
via the Internet. The upstream provider no longer needs
to run direct, local leased lines to the served premises.
9.3.2 System components
A PBX often includes:
Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings.
Console or switchboard allows the operator to con-
trol incoming calls. For the option to call from IP network to the circuit-
switched PSTN (SS7/ISUP), the hosted solutions include
Interconnecting wires and cables. interconnecting media gateways.
CHAPTER 9. BUSINESS TELEPHONE SYSTEM
Logic cards, switching and control cards, power
cards and related devices that facilitate PBX opera-
tion.
Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data
processing, control and logic.
Outside telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry
them from) the PBX.
Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines.
The PBXs internal switching network.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) consisting of
sensors, power switches and batteries.
9.3.3 Current trends
Since the advent of Internet telephony (Voice over IP)
technologies, PBX development has tended toward the IP
PBX, which uses the Internet Protocol to carry calls.[5]
Most modern PBXs support VoIP. ISDN PBX systems
also replaced some traditional PBXs in the 1990s, as
ISDN oers features such as conference calling, call
forwarding, and programmable caller ID. As of 2015
ISDN is being phased out by most major telecommuni-
cation carriers throughout Europe in favour of all-IP net-
works, with some expecting complete migration by 2025
[6]
Originally having started as an organizations manual
switchboard or attendant console operated by a telephone
operator or just simply the operator, PBXs have evolved
into VoIP centers that are hosted by the operators or even
manufacturers.
Even though VoIP is considered the future of telephony,
the circuit switched network remains the core of commu-
nications, and the existing PBX systems are competitive
in services with modern IP systems. Five distinct scenar-
ios exist:
Hosted/virtual PBX (hosted and circuit-switched) or
traditional Centrex
IP Centrex or hosted/virtual IP (hosted and packet-
switched)
IP PBX (private and packet-switched)
Mobile PBX solution (mobile phones replacing or
used in combination with xed phones)
PBX (private and circuit-switched)
9.3. PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE 25

9.3.4 Home and small-business usage Auto dialing

Historically, the expense of full-edged PBX systems has
put them out of reach of small businesses and individuals.
However, since the 1990s many small, consumer-grade
and consumer-size PBXs have become available. These
systems are not comparable in size, robustness or exi-
bility to commercial-grade PBXs, but still provide many
features.
The rst consumer PBX systems used analog (POTS) Call blocking
telephone lines, typically supporting four private ana-
log and one public analog line. They were the size of
a small cigar box. In Europe these systems for ana-
log phones were followed by consumer-grade PBXs for
ISDN. Using small PBXs for ISDN is a logical step,
since the ISDN basic rate interface provides two logi-
cal phone lines (via two ISDN B channels) which can
be used in parallel. With the adoption of VoIP by con-
sumers, consumer VoIP PBXs have appeared, with PBX
functions becoming simple additional software features
of consumer-grade routers and switches.[7] Additionally,
many telecommunications providers now oer Hosted Conference call
PBX systems where the provider actually hosts the PBX
and the phone handsets are connected to it through an in-
ternet connection.
Open source projects have provided PBX-style features
since the 1990s. These projects provide exibility, fea-
tures, and programmability.
9.3.5 PBX functions
Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing
duties:[8]
Establishing connections (circuits) between the tele-
phone sets of two users (e.g. mapping a dialed num-
ber to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't al-
ready busy)
Automated directory services (where callers can be
routed to a given employee by keying or speaking
the letters of the employees name)
Automatic call distributor
Automatic ring back
Busy override
Call forwarding on busy or absence
Call logging
Call park
Call pick-up
Call transfer
Call waiting
Camp-on
Custom greetings
Customized abbreviated dialing (Speed dialing)
Direct inward dialing (DID)
Direct inward system access (DISA) (the ability to
access internal features from an outside telephone
line)
Do not disturb (DND)
Follow-me, also known as nd-me: Determines the
routing of incoming calls. The exchange is cong-
ured with a list of numbers for a person. When a call
is received for that person, the exchange routes it to
each number on the list in turn until either the call is
answered or the list is exhausted (at which point the
call may be routed to a voice mail system).

Maintaining such connections as long as the users Interactive voice response

require them (i.e. channelling voice signals between Local Connection: Another useful attribute of a
the users) hosted PBX is the ability to have a local number
Disconnecting those connections as per the users re- in cities in which you are not physically present.
quirement This service essentially lets you create a virtual of-
ce presence anywhere in the world.[10]
Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g.
Music on hold
metering calls)
Night service
In addition to these basic functions, PBXs oer many Public address voice paging
other calling features and capabilities, with dierent
manufacturers providing dierent features in an eort to Shared message boxes (where a department can have
dierentiate their products.[9] Common capabilities in- a shared voicemail box)
clude (manufacturers may have a dierent name for each Voice mail
capability):
Voice message broadcasting
Auto attendant Welcome message
26 CHAPTER 9. BUSINESS TELEPHONE SYSTEM

9.3.6 Interface standards Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX:

Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: File the PBX generates a le containing the call
records from the PBX.
DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. Network port (listen mode) an external application
Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX streams
information to the application.
POTS (plain old telephone service) the common
two-wire interface used in most homes. This is Network port (server mode) the PBX connects to
cheap and eective, and allows almost any standard another application or buer.
phone to be used as an extension. Serial interface historically used to print every
proprietary the manufacturer has dened a proto- call record to a serial printer. In modern systems a
col. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to software application connects via serial cable to this
their PBX, but the benet is more visible informa- port.
tion displayed and/or specic function buttons.
A data record from a PBX or other telecommunication
system that provides the statistics for a telephone call is
Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include:
usually termed a call detail record (CDR) or a Station
Messaging Detail Record (SMDR).
DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Stan-
dardized by British Telecom, this usually runs over
E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. 9.3.7 Hosted PBX systems
Internet Protocol H.323 and the Session Initiation
Virtual PBX systems or hosted PBX systems deliver
Protocol (SIP) are IP based solutions for multimedia
PBX functionality as a service, available over the pub-
sessions.
lic switched telephone network (PSTN) or the Internet.
Primary rate interface (ISDN) Provided over T1 Hosted PBXs are typically provided by a telephone com-
(23 bearer channels and 1 signaling channel) or E1 pany or service provider, using equipment located in the
carriers. premises of a telephone exchange or the providers data
center.[11] This means the customer does not need to buy
Proprietary protocols if equipment from several or install PBX equipment. Generally the service is pro-
manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard pro- vided by a lease agreement and the provider can, in some
tocol is required. congurations, use the same switching equipment to ser-
QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually vice multiple hosted PBX customers.
runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical The rst hosted PBX services were feature-rich com-
circuits. pared to most premises-based systems of the time. Some
PBX functions, such as follow-me calling, appeared in a
Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: hosted service before they became available in hardware
PBX equipment. Since introduction, updates and new of-
Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter- ferings have moved feature sets in both directions. It is
Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are possible to get hosted PBX services that include feature
supported by some network providers. sets from minimal functionality to advanced feature com-
binations.
ISDN the most common digital standard for xed
telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Ba- In addition to the features available from premises-based
sic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit PBX systems, hosted-PBX:
capacity) versions. Most medium to large compa-
nies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 allows a single number to be presented for the en-
or E1 physical connections. tire company, despite its being geographically dis-
tributed. A company could even choose to have no
RBS (robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital cir- premises, with workers connected from home us-
cuits over a four-wire (T1) interface ing their domestic telephones but receiving the same
features as any PBX user.
standard POTS (plain old telephone service) lines
the common two-wire interface used in most do- allows multimodal access, where employees access
mestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller sys- the network via a variety of telecommunications sys-
tems, and can suer from not being able to detect tems, including POTS, ISDN, cellular phones, and
incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call VOIP. This allows one extension to ring in multiple
(commonly called glare). locations (either concurrently or sequentially).
9.5. SEE ALSO
allows scalability so that a larger system is not
needed if new employees are hired, and so that re-
sources are not wasted if the number of employees
is reduced.
eliminates the need for companies to manage or pay
for on-site hardware maintenance.
supports integration with custom toll plans (that al-
low intra company calls, even from private premises,
to be dialed at a cheaper rate) and integrated billing
and accounting (where calls made on a private line
but on the companys behalf are billed centrally to
the company).
9.4 Hosted PBX providers
The ongoing migration of most major telecommunication
carriers to IP based networks, coupled with the rise in
Cloud Communications has resulted in a signicant rise
in the uptake of hosted PBX solutions.
9.4.1 Mobile PBX
A mobile PBX is a hosted PBX service that extends
xed-line PBX functionality to mobile devices such as
cellular handsets, smartphones and PDA phones by pro-
visioning them as extensions. Mobile PBX services also
can include xed-line phones. Mobile PBX systems are
dierent from other hosted PBX systems that simply for-
ward data or calls to mobile phones by allowing the mo-
bile phone itself, through the use of buttons, keys and
other input devices, to control PBX phone functions and
to manage communications without having to call into the
system rst.
A mobile PBX may exploit the functionality available in
smartphones to run custom applications to implement the
PBX specic functionality.
In addition, a mobile PBX may create extension identi-
ers for each handset that allow to dial other cell phones
in the PBX via their extension shortcut, instead of a PSTN [11] On-Premise [sic] vs Hosted PBX: Blockbuster or Net-
number.
9.4.2 IP-PBX
An IP PBX handles voice signals under Internet proto-
col, bringing benets for computer telephony integration
(CTI). An IP-PBX can exist as physical hardware, or
can carry out its functions virtually, performing the call-
routing activities of the traditional PBX or key system as
a software system. The virtual version is also called a "
-Soft PBX -".
27
9.5 See also
Centrex
Circuit ID
Cloud communications
Ground start trunk
List of SIP software
RJ21
Switchboard operator
Telephone exchange
Telephone switchboards
9.6 References
[1] W.F.B. Wood, Key Telephone Systems: The Latest Chap-
ter, Bell Laboratories Record, March 1966, pp.85
[2] AT&T (1984) Engineering and Operations in the Bell Sys-
tem
[3] Ng, John (June 16, 1986). Fish, Fowl, or Neither?:
Quick, whats the dierence between a key telephone sys-
tem and a hybrid?". Network World. 3 (15).
[4] AT&T, Notes on the Network (1980) p.3
[5] Big Changes Coming for SMBs in 2014 (Infographic)".
eFax. 17 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[6] BT Prepare to Switch to an All IP Network by 2025.
Yoozoom Telecommunications. Yoozoom Telecommuni-
cations. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
[7] Sullivan, Mark. The Big Guide To VOIP For Small Busi-
ness. Forbes.com. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
[8] Unuth, Nadeem. The Functions of a PBX. About.com.
Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[9] Wright, Ian. Features of a Business Phone System. Ex-
pert Market. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
[10] Why Hosted PBX is the Better Choice For Small Busi-
nesses. Unity Connected Solutions. Unity Connected.
ix? - Blog - 1stel. Blog - 1stel. 2016-03-01. Retrieved
2016-05-02.
9.7 External links
Telecommunications Equipment at DMOZ
Business Phone Systems at Nexcom Digital
EPABX Business Telephone System at Jkay Tech-
nology
Chapter 10
Call capture
Call capture is a telephone-based technology that cap-
tures personal data from persons who call a properly pro-
visioned number. After the call is placed, the system no-
ties a client of the name, phone number and address of
the person calling. The system was designed as a device
for real estate agents and allows one to legally bypass do
not call laws.
10.1 Sample service
Real estate agents for example might display their 800
call capture phone number on a signrider (small, some-
times 12 30 sign that sits on top of the For Sale sign
in a house owners yard), with a call to action like Free
Recorded InformationCall 24 hours. When someone
drives by, notices the sign, writes the phone number down
and calls on his cell phone or land line, they are greeted by
the real estate agents personal greeting, directed to dial
in the 4-digit extension for the home they are interested
in. Then, they listen to a 4560 second audio tour of
the home.
At the end of the message, the caller can either leave a
voice mail, transfer directly to the agent, request an auto-
matic fax of specs for the home, enter another extension
to listen about another home, or simply hang up.
Regardless of what they do, the agent who owns that 800
call capture phone number will be notied within 30 sec-
onds of the callers phone number. If the caller is calling
from a home-based phone, then the real estate agent will
also receive a notication with the callers phone number,
name and address.
10.2 Levels of service
Levels or grades of call capture exist. If you have Caller
ID, then you have the lowest grade of call capture. How-
ever, calls from unpublished numbers are blocked, or, you
can't view them, on Caller ID.
The best call capture technology uses Automatically
Number Identication (ANI). ANI serves a function sim-
ilar to Caller ID, but utilizes a dierent underlying tech-
28
nology, and is usually impossible to block by prexing a
call with *67.
ANI was originally developed by telecommunications
companies for billing purposes and is one of the core
technologies behind 911 emergency services. Its also
available for commercial purposes for customers who
may benet from knowing who is calling them. The Fed-
eral Communications Commission allows anyone who is
paying for a phone call (800 numbers are free to the caller,
not the owner of the 800 number) to know who is calling
them.
A personal computer can be used for detecting Caller ID.
In addition, sales leads and their contact information can
be sent to an email inbox by companies. For instance, a
real estate agent could print out his/her list of leads from
the previous day every morning and start to call them
back.
As far as alternative lead generation systems, call capture
has several advantages.
Leads are transmitted directly to the client without
a middle man. This should reduce costs.
Call capture is a potent substitute for cold calling,
especially in light of the new Do Not Call laws.
Anyone who calls a call capture 800 line falls under
the 90 day business inquiry rule of the Do Not Call
laws. This means that the end user can call anyone
who has called their call capture 800 number in the
past 90 days.
Chapter 11

Call waiting

Call waiting is a telecommunication service oered by R0 Reject call waiting This will send the call to
a telephony service provider to a subscriber by which voice mail or a busy tone.
the subscriber may suspend a telephone call already in
progress to accept a second call. The subscriber may
switch between calls, typically by using the hook ash sig- Type II Caller ID also works with call waiting.
nal.
Call waiting alleviates the need to have more than one
telephone line for voice communications. 11.2 Line sharing
Since the waiting call creates an audible signal (for exam-
11.1 Star codes*43# ple, a 440 Hz beep every ten seconds in North America),
call waiting can cause dial-up Internet access connections
For more details on this topic, see Vertical service code. to terminate, unless the modem supports the most recent
V.92 modem standard. For this reason, call waiting is of-
ten disabled on shared voice lines used for dial-up modem
In North America, the NANP uses the *70 star code pre- or fax purposes. However, Call Waiting has no impact on
x to suspend call waiting for a dialed call. A stutter dial DSL connections.
tone conrms the de-activation.
On most European telephone networks, and GSM or
UMTS mobile phones, call waiting is activated by dial-
ing the following codes:
11.3 History

To activate: *43# Call waiting was introduced to North America in the

early 1970s when the rst generation of electronic switch
To deactivate: #43# machines built by Western Electric, Electronic Signaling
System 1 started to replace older mechanical equipment
To check status: *#43# in the old Bell System local telephone companies. At
rst, some smaller municipalities had it only on a spe-
A voice announcement, tone or a message on your phones cic phone exchange (e.g., phone customers in Trenton,
screen will conrm the service status. Michigan initially had to have a phone number start-
ing with 671 to have call waiting, since 671 was at that
Call waiting in Europe uses an R (recall) button on the time the only exchange in that area served by one of the
phone. This performs a similar function to a North Amer- new ESS switches), but as demand for it became more
ican hook ash button but is much shorter duration, typ- widespread, it eventually became available on all phone
ically 80ms to 100ms, vs. 250ms in North America. In exchanges as the older equipment was phased out.
some networks, pressing R toggles between the calls, sim-
ilar to North America. However, in most countries there In Europe call waiting was also introduced in the 1970s
are further options: with the introduction of the rst digital switching sys-
tems such as the Ericsson AXE, Alcatel E10 and Sys-
tem 12. It was also available on some Ericsson crossbar
R1 Answer the waiting call and hang up on the
exchanges, such as the ARE11 which, while electrome-
current call.
chanical, was computerised. Other digital systems such
R2 Toggle between the calls. as the UKs System X also supported the service. Switch-
ing systems developed in the 1980s such as the German
R3 Merge the two calls for conference calling. Siemens/Bosch EWSD also had call waiting.

29
30 CHAPTER 11. CALL WAITING

11.4 See also

Internet Call Waiting

Vertical service code

11.5 External links

Call waiting user manual, and Call waiting product
specications from Bell Canada
Chapter 12

Called party

The called party (in some contexts called the B-

Number) is a person who (or device that) answers a
telephone call. The person who (or device that) initiates
a telephone call is the calling party.
In some situations, the called party may number more
than one: such an instance is known as a conference call.
Strictly, in some systems, only one called party is con-
tacted at each event, as to initiate a conference call the
calling party contacts the rst called party, then this per-
son contacts the second called party, but audio is trans-
ferred to both called parties.
In a collect call (i.e. reverse charge), the called party pays
the fee for the call, when it is usually the calling party that
does so. The called party also pays if the number dialed
is a toll-free telephone number.
In some countries such as Canada, the United States and
China, users of mobile phones pay for the airtime to
receive calls. In most other countries (e.g. most European
countries) the elevated interconnect fees are paid fully by
the calling party and the called party incurs no charge.

12.1 See also

3pcc

12.2 References

31
Chapter 13

Caller ID

Caller ID (caller identication, CID), also called call- telephone number placing a call, in a non-electronic cen-
ing line identication (CLID), calling number deliv- tral oce switch. Previous to this, the calling number
ery (CND), calling number identication (CNID) or could not be identied electronically. Caller ID is made
calling line identication presentation (CLIP), is a up of two separate pieces of information: the calling
telephone service, available in analog and digital phone number and the billing (or subscriber) name where avail-
systems and most voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) ap- able. When a call is made from a given name, this name
plications, that transmits a caller's number to the called can be passed on through a number of dierent meth-
party's telephone equipment during the ringing signal, ods. For example, the callers name may be datalled in
or when the call is being set up but before the call is the originating switch, in which case it is sent along with
answered. Caller ID may be used by the recipient to the number. More commonly, a database is accessed by
avoid answering unwanted incoming calls by the concept the receiving switch, in order to match the number to a
of informed consent. However, it also poses problems name. If the name does not exist, then the city, State,
for personal privacy. Usually, the caller can disable or Province, or other designation may be sent. Some of
block the Caller ID facility, but some call capture tech- these databases may be shared among several companies,
nology can bypass a caller block. On the other hand, the each paying every time a name is extracted. It is for
possibility of caller ID spoong may render received in- this reason that mobile phone callers appear as WIRE-
formation unreliable. LESS CALLER, or the location where the phone number
With appropriate hardware, networking and software, is registered (these vary based on which company owns
Caller ID can also be associated with a name of the call- the block of numbers, not the provider to which a num-
ing telephone number. This service is called CNAM. The ber may have been ported). Additionally, nothing ensures
information made available to the called party may be dis- that the number sent by a switch is the actual number
played on a telephones display, on a separately attached where the call originated; the telephone switch initiating
device, or personal computer. A modem can pass Caller the call may send any digit string desired as caller ID. As
ID information to a computer for purposes of call log- such, the telephone switch, and therefore the operating
ging or blocking, but this can be problematic as modems entity, must also be trusted to provide secure authentica-
in dierent countries have dierent systems, which may tion.
cause hardware or software incompatibilities. However, The displayed caller ID also depends on the equipment
many modems are designed and programmed to handle originating the call.
multiple signalling methods, and can be congured to use
If the call originates on a POTS line (a standard loop start
the local standard. line), then caller ID is provided by the service providers
local switch. Since the network does not connect the
caller to the callee until the phone is answered, generally
13.1 Calling-line identication the caller ID signal cannot be altered by the caller. Most
service providers however, allow the caller to block caller
In some countries, the terms caller display, calling line ID presentation through the vertical service code *67.
identication presentation (CLIP), call capture, or just A call placed behind a private branch exchange (PBX)
calling line identity are used; call display is the predomi- has more options. In the typical telephony environment,
nant marketing name used in Canada (although some cus- a PBX connects to the local service provider through
tomers use the phrase caller ID). The idea of CNID as a Primary Rate Interface (PRI) trunks. Generally, although
service for POTS subscribers originated from automatic not absolutely, the service provider simply passes what-
number identication (ANI) as a part of toll free number ever calling line ID appears on those PRI access trunks
service in the United States. transparently across the Public Switched Telephone Net-
However, CNID and ANI are not the same thing. ANI work (PSTN). This opens up the opportunity for the PBX
was originally a term given to a system that identied the administrator to program whatever number they choose

32
13.3. HISTORY 33

in their external phone number elds.

Some IP phone services (ITSPs, or Internet Telephony
Service Providers) support PSTN gateway installations
throughout the world. These gateways egress calls to the
local calling area, thus avoiding long distance toll charges.
ITSPs also allow a local user to have a number located in
a foreign exchange; the New York caller could have a
Los Angeles number, for example. When that user places
a call, the calling line ID would be that of a Los Angeles
number, although they are actually located in New York.
This allows a call return without having to incur long dis-
tance calling charges.
With cellphones, the biggest issue appears to be in the The rst caller identication receiver
passing of calling line ID information through the net-
work. Cellphone companies must support interconnect-
ing trunks to a signicant number of Wireline and PSTN and historic working models are still in the possession of
access carriers. Paraskevakos.
In the patents related to these devices, Paraskevakos also
proposed to send alphanumeric information to the receiv-
13.2 CLI localisation ing apparatus, such as the callers name, and also to make
feasible banking by telephone. He also proposed to iden-
tify the calling telephone by special code (e.g., PF for
CLI localisation describes the process of presenting a lo-
public phone, HO for home phone, OF for oce
calised CLI (Calling Line Identity) to the recipient of a
phone, PL for police).
telephone call. CLI localisation is utilised by various or-
ganisations, including call centres, debt collectors and in- In May 1976, Kazuo Hashimoto, a prolic Japanese in-
surance companies. CLI localisation allows companies to ventor with over 1000 patents worldwide,[6] rst built a
increase their contact rate by increasing the chance that a prototype of a caller ID display device that could receive
called party will answer a phone call. Because a localised caller ID information. His work on caller ID devices and
CLI is displayed on the called partys device, the call is early prototypes was received in the Smithsonian Institu-
perceived as local and recognisable to the caller.[1] tion, National Museum of American History in 2000.[7]
U.S. patent 4,242,539, led originally on May 8, 1976,
and a resulting patent re-examined at the patent oce
by AT&T, was successfully licensed to most of the ma-
13.3 History jor telecommunications and computer companies in the
world.[8]
In 1968, Theodore George Ted Paraskevakos, while
Initially, the operating telephone companies wanted to
working in Athens, Greece as a communications engineer have the caller ID function performed by the central of-
for SITA,[2] began developing a system to automatically
ce as a voice announcement and charged on a per-call
identify a telephone caller to a call recipient. After sev- basis. John Harris, an employee of Northern Telecom's
eral attempts and experiments, he developed the method
telephone set manufacturing division in London, Ontario
in which the callers number is transmitted to the called promoted the idea of having caller ID as a telephone set
receivers device. This method was the basis for modern-
display. The telephone was coded ECCS for Enhanced
day Caller ID technology. Custom Calling Services. A video of his prototype was
From 1969 through 1975, Paraskevakos was issued used to leverage the feature from the central oce to the
20 separate patents related to automatic telephone line telephone set.
identication,[3] and since they signicantly predated all In 1977, a Brazilian inventor, Valdir Bravo Salinas, led
other similar patents, they appear as prior art in later a patent application for a caller ID device at the Brazilian
United States Patents issued to Kazuo Hashimoto[4] and Patent and Trademarks Oce (INPI). The patent was is-
Carolyn A. Doughty.[5] sued in 1982 as patent PI7704466 and is the rst patent
In 1971, Paraskevakos, working with Boeing in ever issued for a caller ID equipment in Brazil. Later
Huntsville, Alabama, constructed and reduced to in 1980 two other Brazilian inventors, Joo da Cunha
practice a transmitter and receiver, representing the Doya and Nlio Jos Nicolai, led dierent patent ap-
worlds rst prototypes of caller-identication devices. plications for caller ID devices. Mr. Doyas applica-
They were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in tion was led on May, 2nd, 1980 and issued as patent
Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several PI8003077. Mr. Nicolais application was led on July,
telephone companies with great success. These original 2nd,1980 and rejected for being a mere copy of Mr. Sali-
34
nas invention, thus lacking novelty. In 1981 another ap-
plication for a caller ID equipment was led at the INPI.
The inventors were Mr. Jos Daniel Martin Catoira and
Mr. Afonso Feij da Costa Ribeiro Neto. This appli-
cation was granted and the patent was issued as patent
PI8106464.
The rst market trial for Caller ID and other Custom Lo-
cal Area Signaling Services was conducted by BellSouth
as one of the TouchStar services on July 7, 1984 in
Orlando, Florida. The Lines of Business (marketing) de-
partment in BellSouth Services named the service Caller
ID. The other Regional Bell Operating Companies later
adopted the name and eventually became the generally
accepted name in the US. Planning for the trial was initi-
ated by a team in Bell Laboratories, AT&T, and Western
Electric before the Bell System divestiture, with the par-
ticipation of Southern Bell. The purpose of these trials
was to assess the revenue potential of services that depend
on deployment of the common channel signaling network
needed to transmit the calling number between originat-
ing and terminating central oces. Trial results were an-
alyzed by Bellcore members of the original team.
In 1987, Bell Atlantic (now Verizon Communications)
conducted another market trial in Hudson County, New
Jersey, which was followed by limited deployment.[9]
BellSouth was the rst company to deploy caller ID in De-
cember 1988 in Memphis, Tennessee, with a full deploy-
ment to its nine-state region over the next four years. Bell
Atlantic was the second local telephone company to de-
ploy Caller ID in New Jerseys Hudson County. US West
Communications (now CenturyLink) was the third local
telephone company to oer caller ID service in 1989.
13.4 Type II Caller ID
In 1995, Bellcore released another type of modulation,
similar to Bell 202, in which it became possible to
transmit caller ID information and even provide call-
disposition options while the user was already on the tele-
phone. This service became known in some markets as
call waiting ID, or (when it was combined with call-
disposition options), Call Waiting Deluxe; it is techni-
cally referred to as Analog Display Services Interface.
Call Waiting Deluxe is the Bellcore (now Telcordia
Technologies) term for Type II caller ID with Disposi-
tion Options.
This CLASS-based POTS-telephone calling feature
works by combining the services of call waiting with
caller ID but also introduces an options feature that,
in conjunction with certain screen-based telephones, or
other capable equipment, gives a telephone user the op-
tion to
Switch: Place the current call on hold to take the
second call (not a new feature)
CHAPTER 13. CALLER ID
Hang-up: Disconnect the current call and take the
second call (not a new feature)
Please Hold: Send the caller either a custom or
telephone-company-generated voice message asking
the caller to hold
Forward to Voice Mail: Send the incoming caller
to the recipients voice mail service.
Join: Add the incoming caller to the existing con-
versation.
13.5 Operation
In the United States, caller ID information is sent to the
called party by the telephone switch as an analogue data
stream (similar to data passed between two modems), us-
ing Bell 202 modulation between the rst and second
rings, while the telephone unit is still on hook. If the
telephone call is answered too quickly after the rst ring,
caller ID information will not be transmitted to the re-
cipient. There are two types of caller ID, number only
and name+number. Number-only caller ID is called Sin-
gle Data Message Format (SDMF), which provides the
callers telephone number, the date and time of the call.
Name+number caller ID is called Multiple Data Mes-
sage Format (MDMF), which in addition to the infor-
mation provided by SDMF format, can also provide the
directory listed name for the particular number. Caller
ID readers which are compatible with MDMF can also
read the simpler SDMF format, but an SDMF caller ID
reader will not recognize an MDMF data stream, and will
act as if there is no caller ID information present, e.g. as
if the line is not equipped for caller ID.
Instead of sending the caller ID in between the rst and
second ring, some systems use a "line reversal" to an-
nounce the caller ID, or caller ID signals are simply sent
without any announcement. Instead of Bell 202, the Eu-
ropean alternative V.23 is sometimes used, (without the
75-baud reverse channel) or the data is sent using DTMF
signalling.
In general, CID as transmitted from the origin of the
call is only the calling partys full phone number (includ-
ing area code, and including international access code
and country code if its an international call). The call-
ing party name is added by the consumers terminating
central oce if the consumer has subscribed to that ser-
vice. Calling name delivery is not automatic. A SS7 (or
Signalling System 7) TCAP query may be launched by the
called partys central oce, in order to retrieve the infor-
mation for Calling Name delivery to the caller ID equip-
ment at the consumers location, if the callers name has
not already been associated with the calling partys line
at the originating central oce. Canadian systems using
CCS7 automatically (but not in all cases) send the calling
13.7. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES 35

name with the call set-up and routing information at the 13.7 Regional dierences
time of the call.
To look up the name associated with a phone number, the
carrier in some instances has to access that information
from a third-party database, and some database providers
charge a small fee for each access to such databases. To
avoid such charges, some carriers will report the name as
unavailable, or will report the name as "(city), (state)"
based on the phone number, particularly for wireless
callers. For toll-free numbers, they may report a string
such as TOLLFREE NUMBER if the name is not avail-
able in a database.

13.6 Uses
Converter that converts from DTMF to FSK format
13.6.1 Telemarketing
Dierent countries often use dierent standards for trans-
Telemarketing organisations often spoof caller ID. In mitting caller ID information. As a result, phones pur-
some instances, this is done to provide a central num- chased in one country may not be compatible with the lo-
ber for consumers to call back, such as a toll-free num- cal caller ID standard when the phone is used in a dier-
ber, rather than having consumers call back the outbound ent country.[11] For example, the US uses Bellcore FSK,
call centre where the call actually originated. However, whereas Taiwan uses ETSI FSK, so a phone purchased in
some telemarketers block or fraudulently spoof caller ID the US will not understand Taiwans caller ID standard.
to prevent being traced. It is against United States fed- There are even cases where individual state/provinces will
eral law for telemarketers to block or to send false caller use dierent protocols within a country. Caller ID con-
ID.[10] Individuals can bring civil suits and the Federal verters can be used to translate from one standard to an-
Communications Commission (FCC) can ne companies other.
or individuals that are illegally spoong or blocking their Below is a list of countries and the caller ID standard used:
caller ID.
Some telemarketers have used caller ID itself for mar-
keting, such as by using a toll-free number and register- 13.7.1 UK
ing the text string FREE MONEY or FREE PLANE
TICKETS as the name to be displayed on the caller ID. Telephone equipment usually displays CLID information
with no diculty. Modems are notoriously problematic;
very few modems support the British Telecom standard
in hardware; drivers for those that do often have errors
13.6.2 ISPs that prevent CLID information from being recognised.[13]
Other UK telephone companies use slight variations on
Some Internet service providers (ISPs) providing dial-up the Bellcore standard, and CLID support is hit and
access require the customer to use CNID to prevent abuse miss.[14]
of the account by unauthorised callers. Some systems
with dial-up access can be programmed only to accept
calls with specic caller ID strings. 13.8 Legal issues

13.8.1 United States

13.6.3 Mobile providers
Most mobile phone providers used the caller ID to auto-
matically connect to voice mail when a call to the voice
mail number was made from the associated mobile phone
number, bypassing the need to enter a password. While
this was convenient for many users, because of spoong,
this practice has been replaced by more secure authenti-
cation by many carriers.
In the United States, telemarketers are required to trans-
mit caller ID.[15] This requirement went into eect on
January 29, 2004.[16] Courts have ruled that caller ID is
admissible.[17] Providers are required by FCC rules to of-
fer per-call blocking of caller ID to their customers.
Legislation in the United States in 2007 would make it
illegal to spoof caller ID for fraudulent purposes. See
caller ID spoong.
36
13.9 Getting around caller ID
13.9.1 Blocking
The caller ID information is masked when a SkypeOut call is
placed.
Blocking is the common term for preventing the display
of a calling number.
Telecommunications regulators vary in their require-
ments for the use and eectiveness of assorted technolo-
gies to prevent numbers from being displayed. Generally,
unlisted numbers are always blocked. Non-published and
regular listed numbers are not usually blocked. But there
is varying treatment for the determination of call display
blocking because of many factors. If desired, customers
should inquire carefully to make sure their number will
not be displayed. The telephone service provider may
also have vertical service codes which can be dialed to
congure blocking as active for all calls or on a call-by-
call basis.
In some locations in the United States, regulations allow 13.9.3 Disabling
(or require) blocking to be automatic and transparent to
the caller.
Where blocking is applied on a call-by-call basis (that is,
at the time a call is made), subscribers can block their
caller ID by dialing a special code (a vertical service
code, or VSC) before making a call. In North Amer-
ica and some other regions, the code is *67, while in
the United Kingdom and Ireland, it is 141. This special
code does not block the information from companies us-
ing call capture technology. This means that equipment
with caller ID will simply display the word PRIVATE
or WITHHELD. When CNID is blocked at the callers
request, the number is actually transmitted through the
entire telephone network, with the presentation with-
held ag set; the destination CO is expected to honor
this ag, but sometimes does notespecially when the
destination phone number is served by an ISDN PRI.
Alternatively, in cases where caller ID is being blocked
CHAPTER 13. CALLER ID
automatically, it can only be released on a call-by-call ba-
sis by dialing a special code (*82 in North America; 1470
in the UK). See Enabling, below.
Similarly, some countries oer anonymous caller rejec-
tion, which rejects all calls when the subscribers name,
number (or both) is blocked. Some telephone compa-
nies protect their clients from receiving blocked infor-
mation by routing anonymous calls to a service (such as
AT&T Privacy Manager), where the caller is required to
announce himself or herself. The service then asks the
called party if they want to accept or reject the call. Other
telephone companies play a recording to the caller ad-
vising them of the called partys rejection conguration,
and often oer advice (such as prexing their dialing with
*82) on how to get their call to the intended called party.
Blocking the number is referred to as calling line identi-
cation restriction (CLIR). Emergency services will most
likely be able to show the restricted number using a ser-
vice called calling line identication restriction override
(CLIRO), or by using general ANI services.
These features create a cat-and-mouse game type of situ-
ation, whereby subscribers must purchase additional ser-
vices in order to cancel out other services.
13.9.2 Spoong
Caller ID spoong is the practice of causing the telephone
network to display a number on the recipients Caller ID
display that is not that of the actual originating station.
Many telephone services, such as ISDN PRI based PBX
installations, and voice over IP services, permit the caller
to congure customized caller ID information. In cor-
porate settings this permits the announcement of switch-
board number or customer service numbers. Caller ID
spoong may be illegal in some countries or situations.
Prexing a telephone number with the following codes
disables Caller ID on a per-call basis:
Albania: #31# (cell phones)
Argentina: *31# (landlines) or #31# (most cell
phone companies)
Australia: 1831 (landline and mobile phones)[18]
Bulgaria: #31# (mobile phones)
Denmark: #31#
Canada: #31# (mobile phones) or *67 (landlines)
France: #31# (cell phones) or 3651 (landlines)
Germany: On most landlines and mobiles, *31#,
however some mobile providers use #31#.
13.10. NOTES 37

Greece: *31* (landlines), #31# (cell phones). 13.9.4 Enabling

Hong Kong: 133 Depending on the operator and country, there are a num-
ber of prex codes that can unblock Caller ID.
Iceland: *31*
Australia: 1832 (landline and mobile phones)
India: #31# after network unlocked
Czech Republic: *31* (landline)
Ireland: 141 Denmark: *31*

Israel: *43 (landlines) or #31# (most cell phone Germany: *31# (Some mobile providers)
companies) India: *31#

Italy: *67# (landlines) or #31# (most cell phone Ireland: 142 (Landlines)
companies)
Japan: 186
Japan: 184 Hong Kong: uses 1357.
New Zealand: 0196 (Telecom/Spark)
New Zealand: 0197 (Telecom/Spark) or *67
(Vodafone) North America: *82 (*UB, UnBlock), 1182 (ro-
tary phone).
NEPAL: *9# (NTC)
Switzerland: #31#
North America: *67, 1167 (rotary phone), #31# United Kingdom: 1470.
(AT&T Wireless)
On GSM mobile networks, callers may dial *31#[19] be-
Netherlands: *31*, #31# (KPN) fore the number they wish to call to enable caller ID.

Pakistan: *32# PTCL

Romania: *31*
13.10 Notes

South Africa *31* (Telkom)
South Africa #31#(Cell Phones)
South Korea: *23 or *23# (most cell phone com-
panies)
Spain: #31#(Cell Phones); 067 (landlines)
Sweden #31#
Switzerland Landline:*31# (or *31+Targetnum-
ber -> Call-by-Call disable)
Switzerland Mobile:#31# (or #31+Targetnumber
-> Call-by-Call disable)
United Kingdom: 141
Other countries and networks vary, however on GSM mo-
bile networks, callers may dial #31#[19] before the num-
ber they wish to call to disable it.
Some countries and network providers do not allow Caller
ID blocking based on the domestic telecommunications
regulations, or CLIR is only available as a paid or value-
added service.[20]
Calling ID (vs. Caller ID) is the identication of
whom you are calling, or connecting to, as opposed
to caller ID identifying who calls you. Some Centrex
telephone systems oer this feature. Similarly, when
one Skype user calls another Skype user, the caller
can see the other partys details and even an image
or photograph they have chosen to represent their
identity.
The inverse feature, giving the number originally di-
aled, is known as direct inward dialing, direct di-
aling inward, or Dialed Number Identication Ser-
vice. This tells the PBX where to route an incoming
call, when there are more internal lines with external
phone numbers than there are actual incoming lines
in a large company or other organisation.
Not all types of caller identication use 202-type
modulation, nor do all systems send the informa-
tion between the rst and second ring, e.g., British
Telecom sends the signal before the rst ring, after
a polarity reversal in the line. (Because of this most
caller ID software is not compatible with BT even
if the modem is) As a result, not all caller ID de-
vices are compatible from country to country or in
the same country, even though the basic phone sys-
tem is the same. Some providers use FSK, others
use the DTMF protocol.
38 CHAPTER 13. CALLER ID

This is not to be confused with Microsoft Caller-ID, 13.12 External links

a patented e-mail authentication technology. For the
history of this now-dead proposal, see MARID. Report and Order from the FCC on Implementing
the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991,
Caller ID as now implemented is not as originally
including rules and discussion of caller ID issues.
represented to the public as a Call Blocking feature.
Regardless of blocking status, your Caller ID is al- Caller ID Information at Privacy Corps
ways transmitted with each call; the actual blocking
occurs at the destination central oce, where it may Technical details of Caller ID
be incorrectly ignored, or which may be improperly
Additional MDMF details
delivered by ISDN PRI to the end customer.
Caller ID how it works

13.11 References
[1] http://nexbridge.co.uk/
cli-localisation-under-the-microscope/

[2] formerly known as Socit Internationale de Tlcommu-

nications Aronautiques

[3] Patent #3,727,003/4-10-1973 and Patent # 3,812,296/5-

21-1974

[4] Patent # 4,242,539/12-30-1980

[5] Patent # 4,551,581/11-5-1985 and Patent # 4,582,956/4-

15-1986; (both assigned to AT&T Bell Laboratories)

[6] PhoneTel Patent Services :: History : Hashimoto

[7] PhoneTel Collection, 1954-1994

[8] Fight heats up over patents on Caller ID. (Kazuo

Hashimoto) - Communications News - HighBeam Re-
search

[9] Caller ID - Consumers Friend or Foe? - NYTimes.com.

nytimes.com. 4 April 1992. Retrieved 3 February 2015.

[10] 47 CFR 64.1601

[11] Caller ID FAQ. ainslie.org.uk. Archived from the orig-

inal on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.

[12] Telecom New Zealand TNA 102

[13] talkingcallerid.com

[14] Caller ID FAQ. ainslie.org.uk. Archived from the orig-

inal on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.

[15] 18 FCC Rcd 14014 (FCC, July 3, 2003) at para. 173 et

seq.

[16] 47 C.F.R. 64.1601(e).

[17] State v. Schuette, 273 Kan. 59, 44 P.3d 459 (Kansas

2002)

[18] http://exchange.telstra.com.au/2012/06/19/
how-to-block-your-number-when-calling-someone/

[19] GSM Features

[20] http://www.nosapps.com/index.php/en/support/faqs?
view=category&id=18
Chapter 14

Caller ID spoong

has been used in purchase scams on web sites such as

Craigslist and eBay. The scamming caller claims to be
calling from Canada into the U.S. with a legitimate inter-
est in purchasing advertised items. Often the sellers are
asked for personal information such as a copy of a regis-
tration title, etc., before the (scammer) purchaser invests
the time and eort to come see the for-sale items. In the
2010 election, fake caller IDs of ambulance companies
and hospitals were used in Missouri to get potential vot-
ers to answer the phone.[2] In 2009, a vindictive Brooklyn
wife spoofed the doctors oce of her husbands lover in
an attempt to trick the other woman into taking medica-
tion which would make her miscarry.[3]
Frequently, caller ID spoong is used for prank calls.
Example of Caller ID spoofed via orange boxing, both the name For example, someone might call a friend and arrange
and number are faked to reference "leetspeak". for "The White House" to appear on the recipients caller
display. In December 2007, a hacker used a Caller ID
Caller ID spoong is the practice of causing the tele- spoong service and was arrested for sending a SWAT
phone network to indicate to the receiver of a call that the team to a house of an unsuspecting victim.[4] In Febru-
originator of the call is a station other than the true orig- ary 2008, a Collegeville, Pennsylvania man was arrested
inating station. For example, a Caller ID display might for making threatening phone calls to women and having
display a phone number dierent from that of the tele- their home numbers appear on their caller ID to make it
phone from which the call was placed. The term is com- look like the call was coming from inside the house.[5]
monly used to describe situations in which the motivation In March 2008, several residents in Wilmington,
is considered malicious by the speaker or writer. Delaware reported receiving telemarketing calls during
the early morning hours, when the caller had apparently
spoofed the Caller ID to evoke the 1982 Tommy Tutone
14.1 History song "867-5309/Jenny.[6] By 2014, an increase in illegal
telemarketers displaying the victims own number, either
verbatim or with a few digits randomised, was observed
Caller ID spoong has been available for years to peo- as an attempt to evade caller ID-based blacklists.[7]
ple with a specialized digital connection to the telephone
company, called an ISDN PRI circuit. Collection agen- In the Canadian federal election of May 2, 2011, both
cies, law-enforcement ocials, and private investigators live calls and robocalls are alleged to have been placed
have used the practice, with varying degrees of legality. with false caller ID, either to replace the callers identity
with that of a ctitious person (Pierre Poutine of Joliette,
The rst mainstream Caller ID spoong service, Quebec)[8] or to disguise calls from an Ohio call centre
Star38.com, was launched in September 2004. as Peterborough, Ontario domestic calls. See Robocall
Star38.com was the rst service to allow spoofed scandal.
calls to be placed from a web interface. It stopped
oering service in 2005, as a handful of similar sites In June 2012, a search on Google returned nearly 50,000
were launched. consumer complaints by individuals receiving multiple
continuing spoofed Voice Over IP (VoIP) calls on lines
In August 2006, Paris Hilton was accused of using caller leased / originating from Pacic Telecom Communi-
ID spoong to break into a voicemail system that used cations Group located in Los Angeles, CA (in a mail-
caller ID for authentication.[1] Caller ID spoong also

39
40 CHAPTER 14. CALLER ID SPOOFING

box store), in apparent violation of FCC rules. Compa-
nies such as these lease out thousands of phone numbers
to anonymous voice-mail providers who, in combination
with dubious companies like Phone Broadcast Club
(who do the actual spoong), allow phone spam to be-
come an increasingly widespread and pervasive problem.
In 2013, the misleading caller name Teachers Phone
was reported on a large quantity of robocalls advertising
credit card services as a ruse to trick students families
into answering the unwanted calls in the mistaken belief
they were from local schools.[9]
On January 7, 2013, the Internet Crime Complaint Cen-
ter issued a Scam Alert for various telephony denial of
service attacks by which fraudsters were using spoofed
caller ID to impersonate police in an attempt to collect
bogus payday loans, then placing repeated harassing calls
to police with the victims number displayed.[10] While
impersonation of police is common,[11][12] other scams
involved impersonating utility companies to threaten
businesses or householders with disconnection[13] as a
means to extort money,[14] impersonating immigration
ocials[15] or impersonating medical insurers to obtain
personal data for use in theft of identity.[16] Bogus caller
ID has also been used in grandparent scams which tar-
get the elderly by impersonating family members and re-
questing wire transfer of money.[17]
strictive. Providers which market wholesale VoIP are
typically intended to allow any displayed number to be
sent, as resellers will want their end users numbers to ap-
pear.
In a rare few cases, a destination number served by voice-
over-IP is reachable directly at a known SIP address
(which may be published through ENUM telephone num-
ber mapping, a .tel DNS record or located using an inter-
mediary such as SIP Broker). Some Google Voice users
are directly reachable by SIP, as are all iNum Initiative
numbers in country codes +883 5100 and +888. As a
Federated VoIP scheme provides a direct Internet con-
nection which does not pass through a signaling gateway
to the public switched telephone network, it shares the
advantages (nearly free unlimited access worldwide) and
disadvantages (ernet applications.)
14.2.2 Service providers
Some spoong services work similarly to a prepaid
calling card. Customers pay in advance for a personal
identication number (PIN). Customers dial the number
given to them by the company, their PIN, the destination
number and the number they wish to appear as the Caller
ID. The call is bridged or transferred and arrives with the
spoofed number chosen by the callerthus tricking the
called party.

14.2 Technology and methods
Caller ID is spoofed through a variety of methods and
dierent technology. The most popular ways of spoong
Caller ID are through the use of VoIP or PRI lines.
14.2.1 Voice over IP
Many providers also provide a Web-based interface or a
mobile application where a user creates an account, logs
in and supplies a source number, destination number and
the bogus caller ID information to be displayed. The
server then places a call to each of the two endpoint num-
bers and bridges the calls together.
Some providers oer the ability to record calls, change
the voice and send text messages.[18]

In the past, Caller ID spoong required an advanced

knowledge of telephony equipment that could be quite 14.2.3 Orange box
expensive. However, with open source software (such
Main article: orange box
as Asterisk or FreeSWITCH, and almost any VoIP com-
pany), one can spoof calls with minimal costs and eort.
Some VoIP providers allow the user to congure their dis- Another method of spoong is that of emulating the
played number as part of the conguration page on the Bell 202 FSK signal. This method, informally called
providers web interface. No additional software is re- orange boxing, uses software that generates the audio sig-
quired. If the caller name is sent with the call (instead of nal which is then coupled to the telephone line during the
being generated from the number by a database lookup call. The object is to deceive the called party into think-
at destination) it may be congured as part of the settings ing that there is an incoming call waiting call from the
on a client-owned analog telephone adapter or SIP phone. spoofed number, when in fact there is no new incoming
The level of exibility is provider-dependent. A provider call. This technique often also involves an accomplice
which allows users to bring their own device and unbun- who may provide a secondary voice to complete the illu-
dles service so that direct inward dial numbers may be sion of a call-waiting call. Because the orange box cannot
purchased separately from outbound calling minutes will truly spoof an incoming caller ID prior to answering and
be more exible. A carrier which doesn't follow estab- relies to a certain extent on the guile of the caller, it is
lished hardware standards (such as Skype) or locks sub- considered as much a social engineering technique as a
scribers out of conguration settings on hardware which technical hack.
the subscriber owns outright (such as Vonage) is more re- Other methods include switch access to the Signaling Sys-
14.4. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS 41

tem 7 network and social engineering telephone company 14.4.1 Canada

operators, who place calls for you from the desired phone
number. Caller ID spoong remains legal in Canada, and has re-
cently become so prevalent that the Canadian Anti-Fraud
Centre has add[ed] an automated message about [the
practice] to their fraud-reporting hotline.[20] The CRTC
14.3 Caller name display estimates that 40% of the complaints they receive regard-
ing unsolicited calls involve spoong.[21] The agency ad-
[22]
Telephone exchange equipment manufacturers vary in vises Canadians to le complaints regarding such calls,
their handling of caller name display. Much of the equip- provides a list of protection options for dealing with them
[23]
ment manufactured for Bell System companies in the on its website, and, from July through December 2015,
United States sends only the callers number to the distant held a public consultation to identify technical solutions
[21][23][24]
exchange; that switch must then use a database lookup to address the issue.
to nd the name to display with the calling number.
Canadian landline exchanges often run Nortel equipment
which sends the name along with the number. Mobile, 14.4.2 India
CLEC, Internet or independent exchanges also vary in
their handling of caller name, depending on the switch- According to a report from the India Department
ing equipment manufacturer. Calls between numbers in of Telecommunications, the Government of India has
diering country codes represent a further complication, taken following steps against the CLI spoong Service
as Caller ID often displays the local portion of the call- Providers:
ing number without indicating a country of origin or in
a format that can be mistaken for a domestic or invalid Websites oering caller-ID spoong services are
number. blocked in India as an immediate measure.

This results in multiple possible outcomes: International Long Distance Operators (ILDOs),
National Long Distance Operators(NLDOs) and
Access Service Providers have been alerted to the
The name provided by the caller (in the analog tele- existence of such spoong services, and shall collec-
phone adapter conguration screen for voice-over- tively be prepared to take action to investigate cases
IP users or on the web interface on a spoong of caller-ID spoong as they are reported.[25]
provider) is blindly passed verbatim to the called
party and may be spoofed at will
As per DOT, Using spoofed call service is illegal as per
Indian Telegraph Act, Sec 25(c), Using such service may
The name is generated from a telephone company lead to ne or 3 years imprisonment or both.
database using the spoofed Caller ID number.

A destination provider may display no name or just 14.4.3 United Kingdom

the geographic location of the provided telephone
area code on caller ID (e.g., ARIZONA, CAL- In the U.K., the spoofed number is called the presenta-
IFORNIA, OREGON, or ONTARIO). This tion number. This must be either allocated to the caller,
often occurs where the destination carrier is a low- or if allocated to a third party, it is only to be used with
cost service (such as a VoIP provider) running no the third partys explicit permission.[26]
database or outdated data in which the number is
not found.
14.4.4 United States
If the displayed number is in the recipients address
Caller ID spoong is generally illegal in the United States
book, some handsets will display the name from the
if done with the intent to defraud, cause harm, or wrong-
local address book in place of the transmitted name.
fully obtain anything of value. The relevant federal
Some VoIP providers use Asterisk (PBX) to provide
statute, the Truth in Caller ID Act of 2009, does make
similar functionality at the server;[19] this may lead
exceptions for certain law-enforcement purposes. Callers
to multiple substitutions with priority going to the
are also still allowed to preserve their anonymity by
destination users own handset as the last link in the
choosing to block all outgoing caller ID information on
CNAM chain.
their phone lines.
Under the act, which also targets VOIP services, it is il-
legal to cause any caller identication service to know-
14.4 Legal considerations ingly transmit misleading or inaccurate caller identica-
tion information with the intent to defraud, cause harm, or
42
wrongfully obtain anything of value.... Forfeiture penal- [16] Scammers busy under guise of Obamacare. CBS News.
ties or criminal nes of up to $10,000 per violation (not to
exceed $1,000,000) could be imposed.[18] The law main-
tains an exemption for blocking ones own outgoing caller
ID information, and law enforcement isn't aected.[27][28]
The New York Times sent the number 111-111-1111 for
all calls made from its oces until August 15, 2011. The
fake number was intended to prevent the extensions of
its reporters appearing in call logs, and thus protect re-
porters from having to divulge calls made to anonymous [19] http://wiki.voip.ms/article/Phone_book
sources. The Times abandoned this practice because [20] Cummings, Madeleine. (12 Aug 2015). The call is com-
of the proposed changes to the caller ID law, and be-
cause many companies were blocking calls from the well-
known number.[29]
14.5 References
[1] Robert McMillan (25 August 2006). Paris Hilton ac-
cused of voice-mail hacking. InfoWorld. Retrieved 14
June 2015.
[2] Kansas City Star, Fake called IDs used in Missouri elec-
tions David A. Lieb, Associated Press. Sun. Nov. 14,
2010.
[3] Enraged Brooklyn wife Kisha Jones stole docs Rx pad
to prescribe drug to abort baby of hubbys lover. Daily
News. New York.
[4] Hacking caller id systems on the rise - FOX16.com
[5] KYW Newsradio 1060 Philadelphia - Man Pleads Guilty
to Making Scary Phone Calls (link rot)
[6] Telemarketers Call Invokes Old Hit Song, (Associated
Press, March 11, 2008)
[7] The Caller ID Scam You Must Know About. The Fiscal
Times. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[8] Payton, Laura (February 28, 2012). Robocalls phone
number registered to 'Pierre Poutine'". CBC News. Re-
trieved March 11, 2012.
[9] Robocallers Impersonate Teachers On Caller ID, Scare
Parents. Consumerist. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[10] http://www.ic3.gov/media/2013/130107.aspx
[11] Carmen Duarte Arizona Daily Star. Pima County Sher-
is detectives alert public about scam. Arizona Daily
Star. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[12] Authorities Warn About Scam Artists Posing As Law
Enforcement Ocers In Camden County. Retrieved 14
June 2015.
[13] FTC asked to probe fraudulent calls to restaurants.
[14] Nick Sloan. Kansas City Kansan: BPU warns customers
of phone-scam. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[15] Beware: widespread immigration-related fraud schemes
currently on the rise!". Retrieved 14 June 2015.
CHAPTER 14. CALLER ID SPOOFING
[17] Fort Stockton resident latest victim of Grandparent
Scam. The Fort Stockton Pioneer. Retrieved 14 June
2015.
[18] http://www.nysba.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=
Home&CONTENTID=46713&TEMPLATE=/CM/
HTMLDisplay.cfm#_ftn2 Don't Believe Your Eyes:
Spoong
ing from inside your house: Caller ID spoong becoming
more frequent for frustrated Canadians. National Post.
Retrieved 25 Jan 2016.
[21] CRTC seeks solutions to help Canadians protect them-
selves from unsolicited and illegitimate calls. 23 Jul
2015. Retrieved 22 Jan 2016.
[22] What You Should Know About Telemarketing in
Canada. CRTC. 26 Nov 2014. Retrieved 22 Jan 2016.
[23] CRTC publishes a summary of protection options cur-
rently oered for spoofed and unsolicited calls. CRTC.
20 Nov 2015. Retrieved 22 Jan 2016.
[24] Bradshaw, James (24 Jul 2015). CRTC aims to combat
'spoong' by telemarketers. The Globe and Mail. Re-
trieved 22 Jan 2016.
[25] Harish Kumar,ITS. Call (Calling Line Identication)
spoong services Oered through websites Study of
Modus Operandi, Impact and Regulatory Framework in
India.
[26] Director General of Telecommunications (11 December
2003, amended 26 April 2007). Guidelines for the provi-
sion of Calling Line Identication Facilities and other re-
lated services over Electronic Communications Networks
Version 2. ofcom. Retrieved 2012-01-09. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[27] Congress outlaws all Caller ID spoong (VoIP too)". Ars
Technica. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[28] Caller ID and Spoong. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[29] Peters, Jeremy W. (12 August 2011). At The Times, Era
of '111-111-1111' Nears Its End. The New York Times
(Media Decoder blog). Retrieved August 12, 2011.
14.6 Further reading
BBC News
California State Senate Bill SJR15-Florez
October 29, 2004 Washington Post article
Wired news report of FCC investigation
Arstechnica: Congress outlaws all Caller ID spoof-
ing (VoIP too)
Chapter 15
Cellular frequencies
Cellular frequencies are the sets of frequency ranges
within the ultra high frequency band that have been
assigned for cellular phone use.[1] Most cellular phone
networks worldwide use portions of the radio frequency
spectrum, allocated to the mobile service, for the trans-
mission and reception of their signals. The particular
bands may also be shared with other radiocommunication
services, e.g. broadcasting service, and xed service op-
eration.
15.1 Overview
Radio frequencies used for cellular networks dier in
ITU Regions (Americas, Europe, Africa and Asia). The
rst commercial standard for mobile connection in the
United States was AMPS, which was in the 800 MHz
frequency band. In Nordic countries of Europe, the rst
widespread automatic mobile network was based on the
NMT-450 standard, which was in the 450 MHz band.
As mobile phones became more popular and aordable,
mobile providers encountered a problem because they
couldn't provide service to the increasing number of cus-
tomers. They had to develop their existing networks
and eventually introduce new standards, often based on
other frequencies. Some European countries (and Japan)
adopted TACS operating in 900 MHz. The GSM stan-
dard, which appeared in Europe to replace NMT-450
and other standards, initially used the 900 MHz band
too. As demand grew, carriers acquired licenses in the
1,800 MHz band. (Generally speaking, lower frequen-
cies allow carriers to provide coverage over a larger area,
while higher frequencies allow carriers to provide service
to more customers in a smaller area.)
In the U.S., the analog AMPS standard that used the cel-
lular band (800 MHz) was replaced by a number of digital
systems. Initially, systems based upon the AMPS mo-
bile phone model were popular, including IS-95 (often
known as "CDMA", the air interface technology it uses)
and IS-136 (often known as D-AMPS, Digital AMPS, or
"TDMA", the air interface technology it uses). Eventu-
ally, IS-136 on these frequencies was replaced by most
operators with GSM. GSM had already been running for
some time on US PCS (1,900 MHz) frequencies.
And, some NMT-450 analog networks have been re-
placed with digital networks using the same frequency. In
Russia and some other countries, local carriers received
licenses for 450 MHz frequency to provide CDMA mo-
bile coverage area.
Many GSM phones support three bands
(900/1,800/1,900 MHz or 850/1,800/1,900 MHz)
or four bands (850/900/1,800/1,900 MHz), and are
usually referred to as tri-band and quad-band phones, or
world phones; with such a phone one can travel inter-
nationally and use the same handset. This portability is
not as extensive with IS-95 phones, however, as IS-95
networks do not exist in most of Europe.
Mobile networks based on dierent standards may use the
same frequency range; for example, AMPS, D-AMPS,
N-AMPS and IS-95 all use the 800 MHz frequency band.
Moreover, one can nd both AMPS and IS-95 networks
in use on the same frequency in the same area that do
not interfere with each other. This is achieved by the use
of dierent channels to carry data. The actual frequency
used by a particular phone can vary from place to place,
depending on the settings of the carriers base station.
15.2 See also
Bands by technology:
GSM frequency bands
UMTS frequency bands
LTE frequency bands
Deployed networks by technology
List of LTE networks
List of UMTS networks
List of WiMAX networks
List of mobile network operators (summary)
Mobile country code - code, frequency, and technol-
ogy for each operator in each country
Other articles:
43
44 CHAPTER 15. CELLULAR FREQUENCIES

Roaming

Dual-band
Tri-band

Quad-band
Microwave

15.3 References
[1] Guowang Miao, Jens Zander, Ki Won Sung, and Ben
Slimane, Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks, Cam-
bridge University Press, ISBN 1107143217, 2016.
Chapter 16

Cellular network

For history of mobile phones, including the history of cel- long as they are in dierent cells
lular networks, see History of mobile phones.
A cellular network or mobile network is a communica- Mobile devices use less power than with a single
transmitter or satellite since the cell towers are closer

Larger coverage area than a single terrestrial trans-

mitter, since additional cell towers can be added in-
denitely and are not limited by the horizon

Major telecommunications providers have deployed voice

and data cellular networks over most of the inhabited land
area of the Earth. This allows mobile phones and mobile
computing devices to be connected to the public switched
telephone network and public Internet. Private cellular
networks can be used for research[2] or for large organi-
zations and eets, such as dispatch for local public safety
agencies or a taxicab company.[3]

16.1 Concept

Top of a cellular radio tower

tion network where the last link is wireless. The network

is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by
F1 F2 F1
at least one xed-location transceiver, known as a cell site
or base station. This base station provides the cell with
the network coverage which can be used for transmission
of voice, data and others. A cell might use a dierent set
of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interfer- F3 F4 F3

ence and provide guaranteed service quality within each

cell.[1]
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage
F1 F2
over a wide geographic area. This enables a large num-
ber of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers,
etc.) to communicate with each other and with xed
transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via Example of frequency reuse factor or pattern 1/4
base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving
through more than one cell during transmission. In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with
radio service is divided into regular shaped cells, which
Cellular networks oer a number of desirable features:[1] can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other regular
shapes, although hexagonal cells are conventional. Each
More capacity than a single large transmitter, since of these cells is assigned with multiple frequencies (f 1
the same frequency can be used for multiple links as f 6 ) which have corresponding radio base stations. The

45
46 CHAPTER 16. CELLULAR NETWORK

group of frequencies can be reused in other cells, pro- make signal separation practically impossible. Time
vided that the same frequencies are not reused in adjacent division multiple access is used in combination with
neighboring cells as that would cause co-channel interfer- either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to give
ence. multiple channels within the coverage area of a single
The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared cell.
with a network with a single transmitter, comes from the
mobile communication switching system developed by
Amos Joel of Bell Labs[4] that permitted multiple callers 16.3 Frequency reuse
in the same area to use the same frequency by switching
calls made using the same frequency to the nearest avail-
able cellular tower having that frequency available and The key characteristic of a cellular network is the abil-
from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused ity to re-use frequencies to increase both coverage and
in a dierent area for a completely dierent transmission. capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must use
If there is a single plain transmitter, only one transmission dierent frequencies, however there is no problem with
can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there two cells suciently far apart operating on the same fre-
is inevitably some level of interference from the signal quency, provided the masts and cellular network[1]users
from the other cells which use the same frequency. This equipment do not transmit with too much power.
means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be The elements that determine frequency reuse are the
at least a one cell gap between cells which reuse the same reuse distance and the reuse factor. The reuse distance,
frequency. D is calculated as
In the simple case of the taxi company, each radio had a
manually operated channel selector knob to tune to dif-
ferent frequencies. As the drivers moved around, they D = R 3N
would change from channel to channel. The drivers knew
which frequency covered approximately what area. When where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per
they did not receive a signal from the transmitter, they cluster. Cells may vary in radius from 1 to 30 kilometres
would try other channels until they found one that worked. (0.62 to 18.64 mi). The boundaries of the cells can also
The taxi drivers would only speak one at a time, when in- overlap between adjacent cells and large cells can be di-
vited by the base station operator (this is, in a sense, time vided into smaller cells.[5]
division multiple access (TDMA)).
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same
frequency can be used in the network. It is 1/K (or K
according to some books) where K is the number of cells
16.2 Cell signal encoding which cannot use the same frequencies for transmission.
Common values for the frequency reuse factor are 1/3,
1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on
To distinguish signals from several dierent transmitters, notation).[6]
time division multiple access (TDMA), frequency divi-
sion multiple access (FDMA), code division multiple ac- In case of N sector antennas on the same base station
cess (CDMA), and orthogonal frequency division multi- site, each with dierent direction, the base station site
ple access (OFDMA) were developed.[1] can serve N dierent sectors. N is typically 3. A reuse
pattern of N/K denotes a further division in frequency
With TDMA, the transmitting and receiving time slots among N sector antennas per site. Some current and his-
used by dierent users in each cell are dierent from each torical reuse patterns are 3/7 (North American AMPS),
other. 6/4 (Motorola NAMPS), and 3/4 (GSM).
With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell can only
used by dierent users in each cell are dierent from each use a number of frequency channels corresponding to a
other. In a simple taxi system, the taxi driver manually bandwidth of B/K, and each sector can use a bandwidth
tuned to a frequency of a chosen cell to obtain a strong of B/NK.
signal and to avoid interference from signals from other
cells. Code division multiple access-based systems use a wider
frequency band to achieve the same rate of transmission
The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves as FDMA, but this is compensated for by the ability to
the same result; the distributed transceivers can select one use a frequency reuse factor of 1, for example using a
cell and listen to it. reuse pattern of 1/1. In other words, adjacent base sta-
Other available methods of multiplexing such as tion sites use the same frequencies, and the dierent base
polarization division multiple access (PDMA) cannot be stations and users are separated by codes rather than fre-
used to separate signals from one cell to the next since quencies. While N is shown as 1 in this example, that
the eects of both vary with position and this would does not mean the CDMA cell has only one sector, but
16.5. BROADCAST MESSAGES AND PAGING 47

rather that the entire cell bandwidth is also available to stadiums and arenas.[8] As a result, a cell phone user may
each sector individually. be standing in sight of a cell tower, but still have trou-
Depending on the size of the city, a taxi system may not ble getting a good signal because
[8]
the directional antennas
have any frequency-reuse in its own city, but certainly in point in a dierent direction.
other nearby cities, the same frequency can be used. In a Although the original cell towers created an even, om-
large city, on the other hand, frequency-reuse could cer- nidirectional signal, were at the centers of the cells and
tainly be in use. were omnidirectional, a cellular map can be redrawn with
Recently also orthogonal frequency-division multiple ac- the cellular telephone towers located at[9]the corners of the
cess based systems such as LTE are being deployed with hexagons where three cells converge. Each tower has
a frequency reuse of 1. Since such systems do not three sets of directional antennas aimed in three dierent
spread the signal across the frequency band, inter-cell ra- directions with 120 degrees for each cell (totaling 360 de-
dio resource management is important to coordinate re- grees) and receiving/transmitting into three dierent cells
source allocation between dierent cell sites and to limit at dierent frequencies. This provides a minimum of
the inter-cell interference. There are various means of three channels, and three towers for each cell and greatly
Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) already de- increases the chances of receiving a usable signal from at
ned in the standard.[7] Coordinated scheduling, multi- least one direction.
site MIMO or multi-site beam forming are other exam- The numbers in the illustration are channel numbers,
ples for inter-cell radio resource management that might which repeat every 3 cells. Large cells can be subdivided
be standardized in the future. into smaller cells for high volume areas.[10]

16.4 Directional antennas 16.5 Broadcast messages and pag-

ing
Practically every cellular system has some kind of broad-
cast mechanism. This can be used directly for distributing
information to multiple mobiles. Commonly, for exam-
ple in mobile telephony systems, the most important use
of broadcast information is to set up channels for one-to-
one communication between the mobile transceiver and
the base station. This is called paging. The three dier-
ent paging procedures generally adopted are sequential,
parallel and selective paging.
The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from
network to network, but normally we know a limited
number of cells where the phone is located (this group of
cells is called a Location Area in the GSM or UMTS sys-
tem, or Routing Area if a data packet session is involved;
in LTE, cells are grouped into Tracking Areas). Paging
takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of
those cells. Paging messages can be used for information
transfer. This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems for
sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where
it allows for low downlink latency in packet-based con-
nections.
Cellular telephone frequency reuse pattern. See U.S. Patent
4,144,411

Cell towers frequently use a directional signal to improve 16.6 Movement from cell to cell and
reception in higher-trac areas. In the United States, the handing over
FCC limits omnidirectional cell tower signals to 100 watts
of power. If the tower has directional antennas, the FCC In a primitive taxi system, when the taxi moved away
allows the cell operator to broadcast up to 500 watts of from a rst tower and closer to a second tower, the taxi
eective radiated power (ERP).[8] driver manually switched from one frequency to another
Cell phone companies use this directional signal to im- as needed. If a communication was interrupted due to
prove reception along highways and inside buildings like a loss of a signal, the taxi driver asked the base station
48 CHAPTER 16. CELLULAR NETWORK

operator to repeat the message on a dierent frequency. in clear open areas, a user may receive signals from a cell
In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile transceivers site 25 miles (40 km) away.
move from cell to cell during an ongoing continuous com- Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology,
munication, switching from one cell frequency to a dier- including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS (analog), the term
ent cell frequency is done electronically without interrup- cell phone is in some regions, notably the US, used in-
tion and without a base station operator or manual switch- terchangeably with mobile phone. However, satellite
ing. This is called the handover or hando. Typically, a phones are mobile phones that do not communicate di-
new channel is automatically selected for the mobile unit rectly with a ground-based cellular tower, but may do so
on the new base station which will serve it. The mobile indirectly by way of a satellite.
unit then automatically switches from the current channel There are a number of dierent digital cellular tech-
to the new channel and communication continues. nologies, including: Global System for Mobile Com-
The exact details of the mobile systems move from one munications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service
base station to the other varies considerably from system (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Opti-
to system (see the example below for how a mobile phone mized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evo-
network manages handover). lution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecom-
munications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA),
16.7 Mobile phone network and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN). The
transition from existing analog to the digital standard fol-
lowed a very dierent path in Europe and the US.[11] As
SMSC
a consequence, multiple digital standards surfaced in the
SDP SCP
BSC
US, while Europe and many countries converged towards
VLR

MSC the GSM standard.

AuC HLR
BSC

FNR 16.7.1 Structure of the mobile phone cellu-

VLR
GMSC
MSC
VLR
lar network
BSC BSC

A simple view of the cellular mobile-radio network con-

Inne sieci PLMN i PSTN
sists of the following:

A network of radio base stations forming the base

GSM network architecture
station subsystem.

The most common example of a cellular network is a The core circuit switched network for handling voice
mobile phone (cell phone) network. A mobile phone is a calls and text
portable telephone which receives or makes calls through A packet switched network for handling mobile data
a cell site (base station), or transmitting tower. Radio
waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell The public switched telephone network to connect
phone. subscribers to the wider telephony network
Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio
frequencies are a limited, shared resource. Cell-sites and This network is the foundation of the GSM system net-
handsets change frequency under computer control and work. There are many functions that are performed by
use low power transmitters so that the usually limited this network in order to make sure customers get the de-
number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used sired service including mobility management, registra-
by many callers with less interference. tion, call set-up, and handover.
A cellular network is used by the mobile phone opera- Any phone connects to the network via an RBS (Radio
tor to achieve both coverage and capacity for their sub- Base Station) at a corner of the corresponding cell which
scribers. Large geographic areas are split into smaller in turn connects to the Mobile switching center (MSC).
cells to avoid line-of-sight signal loss and to support a The MSC provides a connection to the public switched
large number of active phones in that area. All of the cell telephone network (PSTN). The link from a phone to the
sites are connected to telephone exchanges (or switches), RBS is called an uplink while the other way is termed
which in turn connect to the public telephone network. downlink.
In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approxi- Radio channels eectively use the transmission medium
mately 1 2 mile (0.80 km), while in rural areas, the range through the use of the following multiplexing and access
could be as much as 5 miles (8.0 km). It is possible that schemes: frequency division multiple access (FDMA),
16.8. SEE ALSO 49

time division multiple access (TDMA), code division The eect of frequency on cell coverage means that dif-
multiple access (CDMA), and space division multiple ac- ferent frequencies serve better for dierent uses. Low
cess (SDMA). frequencies, such as 450 MHz NMT, serve very well for
countryside coverage. GSM 900 (900 MHz) is a suitable
solution for light urban coverage. GSM 1800 (1.8 GHz)
16.7.2 Small cells starts to be limited by structural walls. UMTS, at 2.1 GHz
is quite similar in coverage to GSM 1800.
Main article: Small cell
Higher frequencies are a disadvantage when it comes to
coverage, but it is a decided advantage when it comes to
Small cells, which have a smaller coverage area than base capacity. Pico cells, covering e.g. one oor of a building,
stations, are categorised as follows: become possible, and the same frequency can be used for
cells which are practically neighbours.
Microcell, less than 2 kilometres
Cell service area may also vary due to interference from
Picocell, less than 200 metres transmitting systems, both within and around that cell.
Femtocell, around 10 metres This is true especially in CDMA based systems. The
receiver requires a certain signal-to-noise ratio, and the
transmitter should not send with too high transmission
16.7.3 Cellular handover in mobile phone power in view to not cause interference with other trans-
networks mitters. As the receiver moves away from the transmitter,
the power received decreases, so the power control algo-
Main article: Handover rithm of the transmitter increases the power it transmits
to restore the level of received power. As the interference
(noise) rises above the received power from the transmit-
As the phone user moves from one cell area to another cell
ter, and the power of the transmitter cannot be increased
while a call is in progress, the mobile station will search
any more, the signal becomes corrupted and eventually
for a new channel to attach to in order not to drop the call.
unusable. In CDMA-based systems, the eect of inter-
Once a new channel is found, the network will command
ference from other mobile transmitters in the same cell
the mobile unit to switch to the new channel and at the
on coverage area is very marked and has a special name,
same time switch the call onto the new channel.
cell breathing.
With CDMA, multiple CDMA handsets share a spe-
One can see examples of cell coverage by studying some
cic radio channel. The signals are separated by using
of the coverage maps provided by real operators on their
a pseudonoise code (PN code) specic to each phone. As
web sites or by looking at independently crowdsourced
the user moves from one cell to another, the handset sets
maps such as OpenSignal. In certain cases they may mark
up radio links with multiple cell sites (or sectors of the
the site of the transmitter, in others it can be calculated
same site) simultaneously. This is known as soft hand-
by working out the point of strongest coverage.
o because, unlike with traditional cellular technology,
there is no one dened point where the phone switches to A cellular repeater is used to extend cell coverage into
the new cell. larger areas. They range from wideband repeaters for
consumer use in homes and oces to smart or digital re-
In IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older analog sys-
peaters for industrial needs.
tems such as NMT it will typically be impossible to test
the target channel directly while communicating. In this
case other techniques have to be used such as pilot bea- 16.7.5 Coverage comparison of dierent
cons in IS-95. This means that there is almost always a frequencies
brief break in the communication while searching for the
new channel followed by the risk of an unexpected return The following table shows the dependency of the cover-
to the old channel. age area of one cell on the frequency of a CDMA2000
If there is no ongoing communication or the communica- network:[12]
tion can be interrupted, it is possible for the mobile unit
to spontaneously move from one cell to another and then
notify the base station with the strongest signal. 16.8 See also

16.7.4 Cellular frequency choice in mobile Lists and technical information:

phone networks Technology: GSM, IS-95, UMTS, CDMA2000,
LTE
Main article: Cellular frequencies
Cellular frequencies
50 CHAPTER 16. CELLULAR NETWORK

GSM frequency bands 16.9 References

UMTS frequency bands
[1] Guowang Miao; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Sli-
LTE frequency bands
mane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks.
Deployed networks by technology Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107143217.

List of UMTS networks [2] Tom Simonite January 24, 2013 (2013-01-24). Googles
Private Cell Phone Network Could Be a Threat to Cellu-
List of HSDPA networks lar Carriers | MIT Technology Review. Technologyre-
List of HSUPA networks view.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
List of HSPA+ networks [3] Be Mobile, Stay Connected | PMN. Privatemobilenet-
List of TD-SCDMA networks works.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
List of CDMA2000 networks [4] U.S. Patent 3,663,762, issued May 16, 1972.
List of LTE networks
[5] J. E. Flood. Telecommunication Networks. Institution of
List of deployed WiMAX networks Electrical Engineers, London, UK, 1997. chapter 12.
Deployed networks by country (including technol- [6] Phone Networks. The Reverse Phone. 8 June 2011.
ogy and frequencies) Retrieved 2 April 2012.

List of mobile network operators of Europe
List of mobile network operators of the Amer-
icas
List of mobile network operators of the Asia
Pacic region
List of mobile network operators of the Mid-
dle East and Africa
List of mobile network operators (summary)
Mobile country code - code, frequency, and technol-
ogy for each operator in each country
Comparison of mobile phone standards
Equipment:
Cellular repeater
Cellular router
Professional mobile radio (PMR)
OpenBTS
Other:
Cellular trac
MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output)
Mobile edge computing
Mobile phone radiation and health
Network simulation
Radio resource management (RRM)
Routing in cellular networks
Signal strength
Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations
[7] Pauli, Volker; Naranjo, Juan Diego; Seidel, Eiko (Decem-
ber 2010). Heterogeneous LTE Networks and Inter-Cell
Interference Coordination (PDF). Nomor Research. Re-
trieved 2 April 2012.
[8] Drucker, Elliott, The Myth of Cellular Tower Health Haz-
ards, retrieved 2013-11-19
[9] Cellular Telephone Basics. Privateline.com. 1 January
2006. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
[10] U.S. Patent 4,144,411 Cellular Radiotelephone System
for Dierent Cell Sizes Richard H. Frenkiel (Bell Labs),
led Sep 22, 1976, issued March 13, 1979
[11] Paetsch, Michael (1993): The evolution of mobile com-
munications in the US and Europe. Regulation, technol-
ogy, and markets. Boston, London: Artech House (The
Artech House mobile communications library).
[12] page 17
16.10 External links
Raciti, Robert C. (July 1995). CELLULAR
TECHNOLOGY. Nova Southeastern University.
Retrieved 2 April 2012.
16.11 Further reading
P. Key, D. Smith. Teletrac Engineering in a com-
petitive world. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam
Netherlands, 1999. Chapter 1 (Plenary) and 3 (mo-
bile).
William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunica-
tions Systems (1989), McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 17

Circuit switching

Circuit switching is a method of implementing a used capacity guaranteed to a connection cannot be used
telecommunications network in which two network nodes by other connections on the same network.
establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit)
through the network before the nodes may communi-
cate. The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the
channel and remains connected for the duration of the
17.1 The call
communication session. The circuit functions as if the
nodes were physically connected as with an electrical cir- For call setup and control (and other administrative pur-
cuit. poses), it is possible to use a separate dedicated signalling
channel from the end node to the network. ISDN is one
The dening example of a circuit-switched network is such service that uses a separate signalling channel while
the early analog telephone network. When a call is plain old telephone service (POTS) does not.
made from one telephone to another, switches within the
telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit be- The method of establishing the connection and moni-
tween the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts. toring its progress and termination through the network
may also utilize a separate control channel as in the case
Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which of links between telephone exchanges which use CCS7
divides the data to be transmitted into packets transmitted packet-switched signalling protocol to communicate the
through the network independently. In packet switching, call setup and control information and use TDM to trans-
instead of being dedicated to one communication session port the actual circuit data.
at a time, network links are shared by packets from mul-
tiple competing communication sessions, resulting in the Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of cir-
loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided cuit switching. The subscriber would ask the operator to
by circuit switching. connect to another subscriber, whether on the same ex-
change or via an inter-exchange link and another opera-
In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a con- tor. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical
nection, as opposed to packet switching, where packet connection between the two subscribers telephones for
queues may cause varying and potentially indenitely the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the
long packet transfer delays. No circuit can be degraded connection could not be used to carry other calls at the
by competing users because it is protected from use by same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talk-
other callers until the circuit is released and a new con- ing and the line was silent.
nection is set up. Even if no actual communication is
taking place, the channel remains reserved and protected
from competing users.
17.2 Compared with datagram
Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology
that emulates circuit switching, in the sense that the con- packet switching
nection is established before any packets are transferred,
and packets are delivered in order. Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which
While circuit switching is commonly used for connect- divides the data to be transmitted into small units, called
ing voice circuits, the concept of a dedicated path per- packets, transmitted through the network independently.
sisting between two communicating parties or nodes can Packet switching shares available network bandwidth be-
be extended to signal content other than voice. Its advan- tween multiple communication sessions.
tage is that it provides for continuous transfer without the Multiplexing multiple telecommunications connections
overhead associated with packets making maximal use of over the same physical conductor has been possible for
available bandwidth for that communication. Its disad- a long time, but nonetheless each channel on the multi-
vantage is that it can be relatively inecient because un- plexed link was either dedicated to one call at a time, or

51
52 CHAPTER 17. CIRCUIT SWITCHING

it was idle between calls.

In circuit switching, a route and its associated bandwidth
is reserved from source to destination, making circuit
switching relatively inecient since capacity is reserved
whether or not the connection is in continuous use.
In contrast, packet switching is the process of segmenting
data to be transmitted into several smaller packets. Each
packet is labeled with its destination and a sequence num-
ber for ordering related packets, precluding the need for a
dedicated path to help the packet nd its way to its desti-
nation. Each packet is dispatched independently and each
may be routed via a dierent path. At the destination, the
original message is reordered based on the packet number
to reproduce the original message. As a result, datagram
packet switching networks do not require a circuit to be
established and allow many pairs of nodes to communi-
cate concurrently over the same channel.

17.3 Examples of circuit-switched

networks
Public switched telephone network (PSTN)
B channel of ISDN
Circuit Switched Data (CSD) and High-Speed
Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) service in cellular
systems such as GSM
Datakit
X.21 (Used in the German DATEX-L and Scandi-
navian DATEX circuit switched data network)
Optical mesh network

17.4 See also

Clos network
Connection-oriented communication
Message switching
Switching circuit theory
Time-driven switching

17.5 External links

Netheads vs Bellheads by Steve Steinberg
University of Virginia
RFC 3489 Some Internet Architectural Guidelines
and Philopsophy
Chapter 18

Code division multiple access

This article is about a channel access method. For the In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the
mobile phone technology referred to as CDMA, see "Altai" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based
IS-95 and CDMA2000. on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system
weighed 11 kg (24 lb). It was placed in the trunk of
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel the vehicles of high-ranking ocials and used a standard
handset in the passenger compartment. The main devel-
access method used by various radio communication
technologies. [1] opers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Sci-
ence Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI
CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service
transmitters can send information simultaneously over a started in Moscow and in 1970 Altai service was used in
single communication channel. This allows several users 30 USSR cities.[7]
to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To per-
mit this without undue interference between the users,
CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a spe- 18.2 Uses
cial coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a
code).[1]
CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile
phone standards. IS-95, also called cdmaOne, and its
3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to
as CDMA"', but UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM
carriers, also uses wideband CDMA, or W-CDMA, as
well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio tech-
nologies.

18.1 History
The technology of code division multiple access chan-
nels has long been known. In the Soviet Union (USSR),
the rst work devoted to this subject was published in
1935 by professor Dmitriy V. Ageev.[2] It was shown that
through the use of linear methods, there are three types
of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory.
The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the
young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in
Moscow, made an experimental model of a wearable au-
tomatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base
station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 2030 km operating
distance, and 2030 hours of battery life.[3][4] The base
station, as described by the author, could serve several A CDMA2000 mobile phone
customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new ex-
perimental pocket model of mobile phone. This phone
weighed 0.5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich One of the early applications for code division mul-
proposed the device, named by him as correllator.[5][6] tiplexing is in the Global Positioning System (GPS).

53
54 CHAPTER 18. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile matches the desired users code then the correlation func-
phones. tion will be high and the system can extract that signal.
If the desired users code has nothing in common with
The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cd- the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as
maOne. possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to
as cross-correlation. If the code is correlated with the
The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as
signal at any time oset other than zero, the correlation
CDMA2000, is used by several mobile phone com-
should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred
panies, including the Globalstarnetwork.
to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path
[10]
The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses interference.
W-CDMA. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room
(channel) in which people wish to talk to each other si-
CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite multaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take
system for transportation logistics. turns speaking (time division), speak at dierent pitches
(frequency division), or speak in dierent languages
(code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example
18.3 Steps in CDMA modulation where people speaking the same language can understand
each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and
CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple access tech- rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users
[8]

nique. A spread spectrum technique spreads the band- is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same
width of the data uniformly for the same transmitted channel, but only users associated with a particular code
power. A spreading code is a pseudo-random code that can communicate.
has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike other narrow In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: syn-
pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs chronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudo-
at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. random codes).
Data for transmission is combined via bitwise XOR (ex-
clusive OR) with the faster code. The gure shows how
a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal
with pulse duration of Tb (symbol period) is XOR'ed with
18.4 Code division multiplexing
the code signal with pulse duration of Tc (chip period). (synchronous CDMA)
(Note: bandwidth is proportional to 1/T , where T = bit
time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is 1/Tb The digital modulation method is analogous to those used
and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is 1/Tc in simple radio transceivers. In the analog case, a low
. Since Tc is much smaller than Tb , the bandwidth of frequency data signal is time multiplied with a high fre-
the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the band- quency pure sine wave carrier, and transmitted. This
width of the original signal. The ratio Tb /Tc is called the is eectively a frequency convolution (WienerKhinchin
spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a theorem) of the two signals, resulting in a carrier with
certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users narrow sidebands. In the digital case, the sinusoidal car-
supported simultaneously by a base station.[9] rier is replaced by Walsh functions. These are binary
bT
square waves that form a complete orthonormal set. The
data signal is also binary and the time multiplication is
Data Signal achieved with a simple XOR function. This is usually a
Gilbert cell mixer in the circuitry.
Pseudorandom Code

Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties

Transmitted signal:
Data Signal XOR with
Tc
the Pseudorandom
Generation of a CDMA signal
Each user in a CDMA system uses a dierent code to
modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to mod-
ulate the signal is very important in the performance of
CDMA systems.[1] The best performance will occur when
there is good separation between the signal of a desired
user and the signals of other users. The separation of the
signals is made by correlating the received signal with the
locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal a (a + b) = a2
of orthogonality between vectors representing the data
strings. For example, binary string 1011 is represented
by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by
taking their dot product, by summing the products of their
respective components (for example, if u = (a, b) and v
= (c, d), then their dot product uv = ac + bd). If the dot
product is zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal
to each other. Some properties of the dot product aid un-
derstanding of how W-CDMA works. If vectors a and b
are orthogonal, then ab = 0 and:
since a a + a b = a2 + 0
18.4. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (SYNCHRONOUS CDMA) 55

a(a+b) = a2 since aa+ab = a2 +0 on the right. These vectors will be assigned to individ-
ual users and are called the code, chip code, or chipping
b (a + b) = b2 since b a + b b = 0 + b2 code. In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example
uses codes, v, with only two bits.
b (a b) = b2 since b a b b = 0 b2
Each user is associated with a dierent code, say v. A 1
Each user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal bit is represented by transmitting a positive code, v, and a
to the others codes to modulate their signal. An example 0 bit is represented by a negative code, v. For example,
of four mutually orthogonal digital signals is shown in the if v = (v0 , v1 ) = (1, 1) and the data that the user wishes
gure. Orthogonal codes have a cross-correlation equal to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted symbols
to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with each would be
other. In the case of IS-95 64 bit Walsh codes are used to (v, v, v, v) = (v0 , v1 , v0 , v1 , v0 , v1 , v0 , v1 ) = (1, 1,
encode the signal to separate dierent users. Since each 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1). For the purposes of this article, we
of the 64 Walsh codes are orthogonal to one another, the call this constructed vector the transmitted vector.
signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal signals. The
following example demonstrates how each users signal Each sender has a dierent, unique vector v chosen from
can be encoded and decoded. that set, but the construction method of the transmitted
vector is identical.
Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two
18.4.1 Example signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the
amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase,
they subtract and give a signal that is the dierence of the
amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by
the addition of the transmission vectors, component by
component.
If sender0 has code (1, 1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and
sender1 has code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both
senders transmit simultaneously, then this table describes
the coding steps:
Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same
time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal:

(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0)

This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The re-

ceiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known
sender by combining the senders code with the inter-
ference pattern. The following table explains how this
works, and shows that the signals do not interfere with
one another:
Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are inter-
preted as 1 while all values less than zero are interpreted
as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2, 2, 2, 2),
but the receiver interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1). Values of
exactly 0 means that the sender did not transmit any data,
as in the following example:

An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals.

Assume signal0 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) is transmit-
ted alone. The following table shows the decode at the
Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal. receiver:
(Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using
these vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, sender1s code, the data is all zeros, therefore the cross
for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.) An correlation is equal to zero and it is clear that sender1 did
example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture not transmit any data.
56 CHAPTER 18. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

18.5 Asynchronous CDMA Ecient practical utilization of the xed frequency

spectrum
See also: Direct-sequence spread spectrum and near-far
problem In theory CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the
same spectral eciency but practically, each has its own
challenges power control in the case of CDMA, timing
When mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordi- in the case of TDMA, and frequency generation/ltering
nated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, in the case of FDMA.
a dierent approach is required. Since it is not mathe-
matically possible to create signature sequences that are TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmis-
both orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points and sion times of all the users to ensure that they are received
which make full use of the code space, unique pseudo- in the correct time slot and do not cause interference.
random or pseudo-noise (PN) sequences are used in Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a mobile en-
asynchronous CDMA systems. A PN code is a binary vironment, each time slot must have a guard-time, which
sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in reduces the probability that users will interfere, but de-
a deterministic manner by intended receivers. These PN creases the spectral eciency. Similarly, FDMA systems
codes are used to encode and decode a users signal in must use a guard-band between adjacent channels, due to
Asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthog- the unpredictable doppler shift of the signal spectrum be-
onal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the exam- cause of user mobility. The guard-bands will reduce the
ple above). These PN sequences are statistically uncor- probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but de-
related, and the sum of a large number of PN sequences crease the utilization of the spectrum.
results in multiple access interference (MAI) that is ap-
proximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the Flexible allocation of resources
central limit theorem in statistics). Gold codes are an ex-
ample of a PN suitable for this purpose, as there is low Asynchronous CDMA oers a key advantage in the exi-
correlation between the codes. If all of the users are re- ble allocation of resources i.e. allocation of a PN codes to
ceived with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., active users. In the case of CDM (synchronous CDMA),
the noise power) of the MAI increases in direct propor- TDMA, and FDMA the number of simultaneous orthog-
tion to the number of users. In other words, unlike syn- onal codes, time slots and frequency slots respectively are
chronous CDMA, the signals of other users will appear xed hence the capacity in terms of number of simultane-
as noise to the signal of interest and interfere slightly with ous users is limited. There are a xed number of orthog-
the desired signal in proportion to number of users. onal codes, time slots or frequency bands that can be allo-
All forms of CDMA use spread spectrum process gain to cated for CDM, TDMA, and FDMA systems, which re-
allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted main underutilized due to the bursty nature of telephony
signals. Signals encoded with the specied PN sequence and packetized data transmissions. There is no strict limit
(code) are received, while signals with dierent codes (or to the number of users that can be supported in an asyn-
the same code but a dierent timing oset) appear as chronous CDMA system, only a practical limit governed
wideband noise reduced by the process gain. by the desired bit error probability, since the SIR (Signal
to Interference Ratio) varies inversely with the number
Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal
of users. In a bursty trac environment like mobile tele-
strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters.
phony, the advantage aorded by asynchronous CDMA
A CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, or FDMA re-
is that the performance (bit error rate) is allowed to uc-
ceiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong
tuate randomly, with an average value determined by the
signals using dierent codes, time slots or frequency
number of users times the percentage of utilization. Sup-
channels due to the orthogonality of these systems. This
pose there are 2N users that only talk half of the time,
is not true for Asynchronous CDMA; rejection of un-
then 2N users can be accommodated with the same aver-
wanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the un-
age bit error probability as N users that talk all of the time.
wanted signals are much stronger than the desired sig-
The key dierence here is that the bit error probability
nal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general re-
for N users talking all of the time is constant, whereas it
quirement in any asynchronous CDMA system to approx-
is a random quantity (with the same mean) for 2N users
imately match the various signal power levels as seen at
talking half of the time.
the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a
fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control In other words, asynchronous CDMA is ideally suited to
each mobiles transmit power. a mobile network where large numbers of transmitters
each generate a relatively small amount of trac at ir-
regular intervals. CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA,
18.5.1 Advantages of asynchronous and FDMA systems cannot recover the underutilized re-
CDMA over other techniques sources inherent to bursty trac due to the xed num-
ber of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency channels
18.6. COLLABORATIVE CDMA
that can be assigned to individual transmitters. For in-
stance, if there are N time slots in a TDMA system and
2N users that talk half of the time, then half of the time
there will be more than N users needing to use more than
N time slots. Furthermore, it would require signicant
overhead to continually allocate and deallocate the or-
thogonal code, time slot or frequency channel resources.
By comparison, asynchronous CDMA transmitters sim-
ply send when they have something to say, and go o the
air when they don't, keeping the same PN signature se-
quence as long as they are connected to the system.
18.5.2 Spread-spectrum characteristics of
CDMA
Most modulation schemes try to minimize the band-
width of this signal since bandwidth is a limited resource.
However, spread spectrum techniques use a transmission
bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater
than the minimum required signal bandwidth. One of
the initial reasons for doing this was military applications
including guidance and communication systems. These
systems were designed using spread spectrum because of
its security and resistance to jamming. Asynchronous
CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the
signal is spread using a pseudo-random code; this code
makes the spread spectrum signals appear random or have
noise-like properties. A receiver cannot demodulate this
transmission without knowledge of the pseudo-random
sequence used to encode the data. CDMA is also resistant
to jamming. A jamming signal only has a nite amount
of power available to jam the signal. The jammer can
either spread its energy over the entire bandwidth of the
signal or jam only part of the entire signal.[11]
CDMA can also eectively reject narrow band interfer-
ence. Since narrow band interference aects only a small
portion of the spread spectrum signal, it can easily be re-
moved through notch ltering without much loss of in-
formation. Convolution encoding and interleaving can be
used to assist in recovering this lost data. CDMA signals
are also resistant to multipath fading. Since the spread
spectrum signal occupies a large bandwidth only a small
portion of this will undergo fading due to multipath at any
given time. Like the narrow band interference this will
result in only a small loss of data and can be overcome.
Another reason CDMA is resistant to multipath inter-
ference is because the delayed versions of the transmit-
ted pseudo-random codes will have poor correlation with
the original pseudo-random code, and will thus appear as
another user, which is ignored at the receiver. In other
words, as long as the multipath channel induces at least
one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the
receiver such that they are shifted in time by at least one
chip from the intended signal. The correlation properties
of the pseudo-random codes are such that this slight de-
lay causes the multipath to appear uncorrelated with the
57
intended signal, and it is thus ignored.
Some CDMA devices use a rake receiver, which exploits
multipath delay components to improve the performance
of the system. A rake receiver combines the informa-
tion from several correlators, each one tuned to a dier-
ent path delay, producing a stronger version of the signal
than a simple receiver with a single correlation tuned to
the path delay of the strongest signal.[12]
Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio
channel frequency at other cell sites within a cellular sys-
tem. In the FDMA and TDMA systems frequency plan-
ning is an important consideration. The frequencies used
in dierent cells must be planned carefully to ensure
signals from dierent cells do not interfere with each
other. In a CDMA system, the same frequency can be
used in every cell, because channelization is done using
the pseudo-random codes. Reusing the same frequency
in every cell eliminates the need for frequency planning
in a CDMA system; however, planning of the dierent
pseudo-random sequences must be done to ensure that
the received signal from one cell does not correlate with
the signal from a nearby cell.[13]
Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA
systems have the ability to perform soft hand os. Soft
hand os allow the mobile telephone to communicate si-
multaneously with two or more cells. The best signal qual-
ity is selected until the hand o is complete. This is dif-
ferent from hard hand os utilized in other cellular sys-
tems. In a hard hand o situation, as the mobile telephone
approaches a hand o, signal strength may vary abruptly.
In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft hand o, which
is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher
quality signal.[13]
18.6 Collaborative CDMA
In a recent study, a novel collaborative multi-user
transmission and detection scheme called Collaborative
CDMA[14] has been investigated for the uplink that ex-
ploits the dierences between users fading channel sig-
natures to increase the user capacity well beyond the
spreading length in multiple access interference (MAI)
limited environment. The authors show that it is possi-
ble to achieve this increase at a low complexity and high
bit error rate performance in at fading channels, which
is a major research challenge for overloaded CDMA sys-
tems. In this approach, instead of using one sequence per
user as in conventional CDMA, the authors group a small
number of users to share the same spreading sequence
and enable group spreading and despreading operations.
The new collaborative multi-user receiver consists of two
stages: group multi-user detection (MUD) stage to sup-
press the MAI between the groups and a low complex-
ity maximum-likelihood detection stage to recover jointly
the co-spread users data using minimum Euclidean dis-
58 CHAPTER 18. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

tance measure and users channel gain coefcients. In [12] Rapporteur, Theodore S. (2002). Wireless Communica-
CDMA, signal security is high. tions, Principles and Practice. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

[13] Harte, Levine, Kikta, Lawrence, Richard, Romans

(2002). 3G Wireless Demystied. McGowan-Hill.
18.7 See also
[14] Shakya, Indu L. (2011). High User Capacity Collabora-
tive CDMA. IET Communications.
cdmaOne
CDMA2000
18.10 External links
W-CDMA
Orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF), an CDMA Development Group
implementation of CDMA
Talk at Princeton Institute for Advanced Study
Pseudo-random noise on Solomon Golombs work on pseudorandom se-
quences
Spread spectrum
CDMA Spectral Eciency
Comparison of mobile phone standards

18.8 Further reading

Viterbi, Andrew J. (1995). CDMA: Principles of
Spread Spectrum Communication (1st ed.). Prentice
Hall PTR. ISBN 0-201-63374-4.
CDMA Spectrum. Retrieved 2008-04-29.

18.9 References
[1] Guowang Miao; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Sli-
mane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107143217.

[2] Ageev, D. V. (1935). Bases of the Theory of Linear

Selection. Code Demultiplexing. Proceedings of the
Leningrad Experimental Institute of Communication: 3
35.

[3] Nauka i Zhizn 8, 1957, p. 49

[4] Yuniy technik 7, 1957, p. 4344

[5] Nauka i Zhizn 10, 1958, p. 66

[6] Tekhnika Molodezhi 2, 1959, p. 1819

[7] First Russian Mobile Phone. September 18, 2006.

[8] Ipatov, Valeri (2000). Spread Spectrum and CDMA. John

Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[9] Dubendorf, Vern A. (2003). Wireless Data Technologies.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[10] CDMA Spectrum. Retrieved 2008-04-29.

[11] Skylar, Bernard (2001). Digital Communications: Fun-

damentals and Applications (Second ed.). Prentice-Hall
PTR.
Chapter 19

Conference call

19.1.1 Business

Businesses use conference calls daily to meet with re-

mote parties, both internally and outside of their com-
pany. Common applications are client meetings or sales
presentations, project meetings and updates, regular team
meetings, training classes and communication to employ-
ees who work in dierent locations. Conference calling
is viewed as a primary means of cutting travel costs and
allowing workers to be more productive by not having to
go out-of-oce for meetings.
Conference calls are used by nearly all United States
public corporations to report their quarterly results.
A Polycom phone made specically for conference calls. These calls usually allow for questions from stock analysts
and are called earnings calls. A standard conference call
A conference call is a telephone call in which someone begins with a disclaimer stating that anything said in the
talks to several people at the same time. The conference duration of the call may be a forward-looking statement,
calls may be designed to allow the called party to partic- and that results may vary signicantly. The CEO, CFO,
ipate during the call, or the call may be set up so that the or investor relations ocer then will read the companys
called party merely listens into the call and cannot speak. quarterly report. Lastly, the call is opened for questions
It is sometimes called ATC (audio tele-conference). from analysts.
Conference calls can be designed so that the calling party Conference calls are increasingly used in conjunction with
web conferences, where presentations or documents are
calls the other participants and adds them to the call; how-
shared via the internet. This allows people on the call to
ever, participants are usually able to call into the confer-
ence call themselves by dialing a telephone number that view content such as corporate reports, sales gures and
connects to a conference bridge (a specialized type of company data presented by one of the participants. The
equipment that links telephone lines). main benet is that the presenter of the document can
give clear explanations about details within the document,
Companies commonly use a specialized service provider
while others simultaneously view the presentation. Care
who maintains the conference bridge, or who provides the
should be taken not to mix video and audio source on the
phone numbers and PIN codes that participants dial to
same network since the video feed can cause interruptions
access the meeting or conference call.
on sound quality[1]
The more limited three-way calling is available (usually
It is important to pay attention to conference call etiquette
at an extra charge) on home or oce phone lines. For
when participating; for example, one should refrain from
a three-way call, the rst called party is dialed. Then
shouting, multitasking in certain cases, and using an un-
the hook ash button (or recall button) is pressed and the
pleasant tone. Care should also be taken to schedule a call
other called party's phone number is dialed. While it is
at a convenient time.[2][3]
ringing, ash/recall is pressed again to connect the three
people together. This option allows callers to add a sec- Business conference calls are usually hosted or operator-
ond outgoing call to an already connected call. assisted, with a variety of features.
Conference calls are also beginning to cross over into the
world of podcasting and social networking, which in turn
19.1 Usage fosters new kinds of interaction patterns. Live streaming
or broadcasting of conference calls allows a larger audi-

59
60 CHAPTER 19. CONFERENCE CALL

ence access to the call without dialing in to a bridge. In services are usually compensated through a revenue shar-
addition, organizers of conference calls can publish a dial- ing arrangement with the local phone company, sharing
in number alongside the audio stream, creating potential the terminating access charge for all incoming calls to a
for audience members to dial in and interact. phone carrier.
The UK government has changed exible working rights Some background on the terminating access charge: On
since 2014 so that employees who have been working full- every long distance call in the United States including toll
time for a company or organisation can lawfully request conference calls, the consumer is paying for origination
exible working. In recent years, there has been a number (dial tone), transport, and termination (connecting the
of dierent types of exible working options as a result call).[7] Each of these phone companies share a piece of
of conference calling technology enabling employees to the cost of the call. If it is the same phone company per-
work remotely.[4] forming all three tasks (most likely the two largest phone
companies AT&T and Verizon), they keep all of the
charge. This is known as intercarrier compensation (ICC)
19.1.2 Flat-rate conferencing and is intended to keep the telecommunications system
functioning by having every phone company receive com-
Flat-rate conferencing[5] services are being oered which pensation for using their network.
give unlimited access to a conference bridge at a xed
monthly cost. Because telecommunication carriers oer In the case of free conference calling, the conferencing
free long-distance bundled with local service, this alterna- company strikes an agreement with the local phone com-
tive is gaining widespread popularity for budget conscious pany that hosts the conferencing bridge to receive a share
businesses and non-prots. of the terminating access charge received for connecting
the call. At large carriers such as AT&T and Verizon,
In the UK, there are conference services oered on a pay- they keep these access charges for their own conferenc-
as-you-go basis where the cost of the phone calls (using ing services in addition to charging the customer for the
0843/0844, or 0871/0872 non-geographic revenue shar- conference service. With free conference calling, as men-
ing numbers) from each of the participants covers the cost tioned above, there are no organizer fees so these services
of the conference service. With this service type there is do not double-dip: the consumer pays for a regular call
no monthly charge and usually no contracts to sign. with the same three components origination, transport,
and termination of any call. In other words, the call
costs the same as any other call under the customers call-
19.1.3 Prepaid conference calls ing plan, but the conferencing is included for free to the
host and participants of the conference call.
Prepaid conference call services allow businesses and in-
dividuals to purchase conferencing services online,[6] and This added competition in the conferencing market has
conduct conference calls on a pay-as-you-go basis. Typ- brought average rates down from over 20 cents per minute
ically, a conference call PIN and its associated calling to under 10 cents per minute. In addition, it is more e-
instructions are displayed immediately online after be- cient and less expensive to speak to many people on one
ing purchased and/or sent via email. Generally, prepaid call (a conference call) than on multiple person-to-person
conference call services are used with a landline tele- calls.
phone, mobile phone, or computer, and there is no need to In November 2011, the Federal Communications Com-
buy additional expensive telecommunications hardware mission (FCC) published a 732-page Order on Inter-
or add/switch long distance service. Some services allow Carrier Compensation (ICC),[8] including rules govern-
one to start or join a conference call from virtually any ing revenue sharing. Citing Section 251(b)(5) of the
country worldwidewith appropriate telephone access. Telecommunications Act of 1996, the FCC mandated
Large telecommunications providers such as AT&T, that terminating access rates for all calls (not just con-
Embarq (formerly Sprint), Verizon and other large to ference calls) be leveled in 2012 and 2013, then reduced
medium conferencing service providers maintain a dom- in three increments over the subsequent three years until
inant position in the conferencing niche; servicing many they reach $0 in 2017.[9] These mostly sub-1 cent charges
of the worlds biggest brands. However, the Internet and are replaced with an access recovery charge (ARC) that is
improved global VoIP networks have helped to signi- added onto every customers bill by their phone carriers.
cantly reduce the barrier of entry into this niche. In other words, every phone company will get to keep the
terminating access charges they had to pay out to connect
each call while charging consumers more whether they
19.1.4 Free conference calling make calls or not. This order has been challenged at the
Federal Appeals Court by several parties.[10]
Free conferencing is dierent from traditional confer-
As for revenue sharing, the order adds a measure for high
ence calling in that it has no organizer fees and allows for
volume call trac which triggers an immediate terminat-
multiple people to meet for the price of their long distance
ing access charge reduction to the lowest rate of any car-
connections. Companies that provide free conference call
19.2. CONFERENCING IN IMS 61

rier in that state.[9] Broadcast mode

In the United Kingdom the 0870 prex was originally Q&A facilitation
used by UK-based free conference calling providers in
order to receive a rebate from every call from telephone Polling and polling reports
company that owns the number. However, in April 2009
Ofcom, the independent regulator and competition au- Sub-conferencing
thority for the UK communications industries, announced Dial-out with or without requested response
that the rebate that is payable to the telecoms supplier
when an 0870 number is used would be removed.[11] Sys- Web based screen sharing options
tems were soon moved to 0844 and 0871 prexes in order
to retain the revenue sharing arrangement. 24/7 availability

Recently in the UK, a very small number of confer-

ence call providers have begun to use 03 numbers,
which are included in bundled minutes under Ofcom
regulations.[12][13] This has provided the option to hold
conference calls without any costs whatsoever, as call are
included in the minutes bundles provided by most UK
network operators. There is a general trend for compa-
nies in the UK to more to 03 numbers for inbound ser-
vices because these numbers are more palatable to the
caller.
A distinct dierence between sound quality of paid and
free conference calls has been noted by customers who
have claimed to hear background noises when using the
free conferencing services, which rarely happens on paid
conference calling services. [14]
19.2 Conferencing in IMS
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) dened
a technical specication (TS 24.147) for conferencing
within the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) based on the
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), SIP Events, the Session
Description Protocol (SDP) and the Binary Floor Control
Protocol (BFCP, aka RFC4582).
19.3 See also
Teleconference

Group call
19.1.5 Premium conferencing Conference operation
Here participants dial in on a premium-rate number such
as a toll free number in the US. The conference is typically
hosted by the party that perceives value in the call in order 19.4 References
to justify the cost: this could be a business owner, a non-
prot board member, an educator, lawyer, or expert in [1] The biggest problem with video conferencing.
any given eld. That person then usually pays for the cost
[2] Conference Call Etiquettes. No Cost Conference
of the call. Premium conferencing can also be used for Global. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
charitable fundraisers.
[3] Top tips for conference call etiquette. Conference-
Premium Conferencing Feature Sets[15] [14]
Call.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-09-10.

Reservationless or operator assisted conferencing [4] Powwownow. Flexible Working Guide for Employers
(PDF).
Host PINs
[5] Business Conference Call Retrieved 2011-01-14.
Name announce
[6] Conference Call IT Support
Roll-call (unique and superior)
[7] Diane S. Katz (2004-08-14). 12. What are access
Moderator/participant codes charges?". Retrieved 2013-02-01.

Live web-based call management with [8] John J. Heitmann (2011-11-29). FCC ICC/USF Reform
mute/unmute, drop one/all, and dial out Order Published in Federal Register. Retrieved 2013-
02-01.
Recording with .wav le access through an online
account [9] FCC Releases Connect America Fund Order, Reforms
USF/ICC for Broadband, pg 215
High-quality on-demand transcriptions (with 4-hour
turnaround on request) [10] Let the Challenges Begin! USF/ICC Order under Attack
as Parties Turn to Courts. 2011-12-11. Retrieved 2013-
Customizable, branded greetings(unique) 02-01.
62 CHAPTER 19. CONFERENCE CALL

[11] New Ofcom rules should soon make it cheaper to call

0870 numbers. 2009-04-23. Retrieved 2010-05-17.

[12] http://ask.ofcom.org.uk/help/telephone/03number

[13] http://whypay.net

[14] 8 awesome (and sometimes free) conference call ser-

vices. CIO.

[15] Civicom. Archived from the original on 2010-01-10.

Retrieved 2011-11-30.
Chapter 20

Digital AMPS

IS-54 and IS-136 are second-generation (2G) mobile
phone systems, known as Digital AMPS (D-AMPS),
and a further development of the north-American 1G
mobile system AMPS. It was once prevalent through-
out the Americas, particularly in the United States and
Canada since the rst commercial network was deployed
in 1993.[1] D-AMPS is considered end-of-life, and exist-
ing networks have mostly been replaced by GSM/GPRS
or CDMA2000 technologies.
This system is most often referred to as TDMA. That
name is based on the abbreviation for time division mul-
tiple access, a common multiple access technique which
is used in most 2G standards, including GSM, as well
as in IS-54 and IS-136. However, D-AMPS has been
competing against GSM and systems based on code di-
vision multiple access (CDMA) for adoption by the net-
work carriers, although it is now being phased out in favor
of GSM/GPRS and CDMA2000 technology.
D-AMPS uses existing AMPS channels and allows for
smooth transition between digital and analog systems in
the same area. Capacity was increased over the preced-
ing analog design by dividing each 30 kHz channel pair
into three time slots (hence time division) and digitally
compressing the voice data, yielding three times the call
capacity in a single cell. A digital system also made calls
more secure in the beginning, as analogue scanners could
not access digital signals. Calls were encrypted, using
(CMEA), which was later found to be weak.[2]
IS-136 added a number of features to the original IS-54 is United States Digital Cellular (USDC). But sometimes
specication, including; text messaging, circuit switched D-AMPS and USDC also refers to the other prominent
data (CSD), and an improved compression protocol. interim standard IS-136.
SMS and CSD were both available as part of the GSM
protocol, and IS-136 implemented them in a nearly iden-
tical fashion.
Former large IS-136 networks, including AT&T in the
United States, and Rogers Wireless in Canada, have up-
graded their existing IS-136 networks to GSM/GPRS.
Rogers Wireless removed all 1900 MHz IS-136 in 2003,
and has done the same with its 800 MHz spectrum as the
equipment failed. Rogers deactivated its IS-136 network
(along with AMPS) on May 31, 2007. AT&T soon fol-
lowed in February 2008, shutting down both TDMA and
AMPS.
Alltel, who primarily uses CDMA2000 technology but
acquired a TDMA network from Western Wireless, shut
down its TDMA and AMPS networks in September
2008. US Cellular, which now also primarily uses
CDMA2000 technology, shut down its TDMA network
in February 2009.
IS-54 is the rst mobile communication system which
had provision for security, and the rst to employ TDMA
technology.[3]
20.1 Introduction
IS-54 stands for Interim Standard-54, which is a mo-
bile communication standard employing digital technol-
ogy. It was standardized by Electronic Industries Al-
liance (EIA) and Telecommunications Industry Associ-
ation (TIA) together. It later became an American Na-
tional Standard when it got approved by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). When an interim
standard becomes an American National Standard, the
IS designator is dropped. The ANSI designation of IS-54
is ANSI/TIA/EIA-627, but this standard is still popularly
referred to as IS-54.
IS-54 maintains compatibility with Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS) in many ways. It is a digital ex-
tension of AMPS and so it is also quite widely known
as Digital AMPS (D-AMPS). Another name for IS-54
20.2 History
The evolution of mobile communication began in 3 dif-
ferent geographic regions; North America, Europe and
Japan. The standards used in these regions were quite
independent of each other.
The earliest mobile or wireless technologies implemented
were wholly analogue, and are collectively known as 1st
Generation (1G) technologies. In Japan, the 1G stan-
dards were; Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and

63
64 CHAPTER 20. DIGITAL AMPS

the high capacity version of it (Hicap). The early sys- uses digital channels where available, and defaults to reg-
tems used throughout Europe were not compatible to ular AMPS where they are not. IS-54 was, backward
each other, meaning the later idea of a common 'Euro- compatible with analogue cellular and indeed co-exists
pean Union' viewpoint/technological standard was absent on the same radio channels as AMPS. No analogue cus-
at this yime. tomers were left behind; they simply could not access IS-
Amongst the various 1G standards in use in Europe, in- 54s new features. IS-54 also supported authentication, a
cluded; C-Netz (in Germany and Austria), Comviq (in help in preventing fraud.
Sweden), Nordic Mobile Telephones/450 (NMT450) and
NMT900 (both in Nordic countries), NMT-F (French
version of NMT900), Radiocom 2000 (RC2000) (in 20.3 Technology specications
France), and TACS(Total Access Communication Sys-
tem) (in the United Kingdom, Italy and Ireland). North
IS-54 employs the same 30 kHz channel spacing and fre-
American standards were Advanced Mobile Phone Sys-
quency bands (824-849 and 869-894 MHz) as AMPS.
tem (AMPS) and Narrow-band AMPS (N-AMPS).
Capacity was increased over the preceding analog design
Out of the 1G standards, the most successful was the by dividing each 30 kHz channel pair into three time slots
AMPS system. Despite the Nordic countries' coopera- and digitally compressing the voice data, yielding three
tion, European engineering eorts were divided among times the call capacity in a single cell. A digital sys-
the various standards, and the Japanese standards did not tem also made calls more secure because analog scanners
get much attention. Developed by Bell Labs in the 1970s could not access digital signals.
and rst used commercially in the United States in 1983,
The IS-54 standard species 84 control channels, 42
AMPS operates in the 800 MHz band in the United States
of which are shared with AMPS. To maintain compat-
and is the most widely distributed analog cellular stan-
ibility with the existing AMPS cellular telephone sys-
dard. (The 1900 MHz PCS band, established in 1994, is
tem, the primary forward and reverse control channels
for digital operation only.) The success of AMPS kick-
in IS-54 cellular systems use the same signaling tech-
started the mobile age in the North America.
niques and modulation scheme (binary FSK) as AMPS.
The market showed an increasing demand because it had An AMPS/IS-54 infrastructure can support use of either
higher capacity and mobility than the then-existing mo- analog AMPS phones or D-AMPS phones.
bile communication standards were calable of handling.
The access method used for IS-54 is Time Division Mul-
For example, the Bell Labs system in the 1970s could
tiple Access (TDMA), which was the rst U.S. digital
carry only 12 calls at a time throughout all of New York
standard to be developed. It was adopted by the TIA
City. AMPS used Frequency Division Multiple Access
in 1992. TDMA subdivides each of the 30 kHz AMPS
FDMA which enabled each cell site to transmit on dier-
channels into 3 full-rate TDMA channels, each of which
ent frequencies, allowing many cell sites to be built near
is capable of supporting a single voice call. Later, each
each other.
of these full-rate channels was further sub-divided into
AMPS also had many disadvantages, as well. Primarily, two half-rate channels, each of which, with the necessary
it did not have the ability to support the ever-increasing coding and compression, could also support a voice call.
demand for mobile communication usage. Each cell site Thus, TDMA could provide 3 to 6 times the capacity of
did not have much capacity for carrying higher numbers AMPS trac channels. Time Division Multiple Access
of calls. AMPS also had a poor security system which or TDMA was initially dened by the IS-54 standard and
allowed people to steal a phones serial code to use for is now specied in the IS-13x series of specications of
making illegal calls. All of these triggered the search for the EIA/TIA.
a more capable system.
The channel transmission bit rate for digitally modulating
The quest resulted in IS-54, the rst American 2G stan- the carrier is 48.6 kbit/s. Each frame has six time slots of
dard. In March 1990, the North American cellular net- 6.67-ms duration. Each time slot carries 324 bits of in-
work incorporated the IS-54B standard, the rst North formation, of which 260 bits are for the 13-kbit/s full-rate
American dual mode digital cellular standard. This stan- trac data. The other 64 bits are overhead; 28 of these
dard won over Motorola's Narrowband AMPS or N- are for synchronization, and they contain a specic bit
AMPS, an analog scheme which increased capacity, by sequence known by all receivers to establish frame align-
cutting down voice channels from 30 kHz to 10 kHz. ment. Also, as with GSM, the known sequence acts as a
IS-54, on the other hand, increased capacity by digital training pattern to initialize an adaptive equalizer.
means using TDMA protocols. This method separates
The IS-54 system has dierent synchronization se-
calls by time, placing parts of individual conversations
quences for each of the six time slots making up the
on the same frequency, one after the next. TDMA tripled
frame, thereby allowing each receiver to synchronize to
call capacity.
its own preassigned time slots. An additional 12 bits in
Using IS-54, a cellular carrier could convert any of its sys- every time slot are for the SACCH (i.e., system control
tems analog voice channels to digital. A dual mode phone information). The digital verication color code (DVCC)
20.5. SYSTEM EXAMPLE 65

is the equivalent of the supervisory audio tone used in the associated control channel or SACCH does not perform
AMPS system. There are 256 dierent 8-bit color codes, handos but conveys things like signal strength informa-
which are protected by a (12, 8, 3) Hamming code. Each tion to the base station.
base station has its own preassigned color code, so any The IS-54 speech coder uses the technique called vector
incoming interfering signals from distant cells can be ig- sum excited linear prediction (VSELP) coding. This is a
nored. special type of speech coder within a large class known
The modulation scheme for IS-54 is 7C/4 dieren- as code-excited linear prediction (CELP) coders. The
tial quaternary phase shift keying (DQPSK), otherwise speech coding rate of 7.95 kbit/s achieves a reconstructed
known as dierential 7t/4 4-PSK or /4 DQPSK. This speech quality similar to that of the analog AMPS sys-
technique allows a bit rate of 48.6 kbit/s with 30 kHz tem using frequency modulation. The 7.95-kbit/s signal
channel spacing, to give a bandwidth eciency of 1.62 is then passed through a channel coder that loads the bit
bit/s/Hz. This value is 20% better than GSM. The major rate up to 13 kbit/s. The new half-rate coding standard
disadvantage with this type of linear modulation method reduces the overall bit rate for each call to 6.5 kbit/s, and
is the power ineciency, which translates into a heav- should provide comparable quality to the 13-kbit/s rate.
ier hand-held portable and, even more inconvenient, a This half-rate gives a channel capacity six times that of
shorter time between battery recharges. analog AMPS.
IS-54 security features is also a matter of interest as it was
the rst standard to specify some security measures. IS-
54 uses the CAVE (Cellular Authentication, Voice Pri- 20.5 System example
vacy and Encryption) algorithm for authentication and the
CMEA (Cellular Message Encryption Algorithm) for en- The discussion of a communication system will not be
cryption. complete without the explanation of a system example. A
The technical specications can be summarized as below: dual-mode cellular phone as specied by the IS-54 stan-
dard is explained. A dual-mode phone is capable of oper-
ating in an analog-only cell or a dual-mode cell. Both the
transmitter and the receiver support both analog FM and
20.4 Call processing digital time division multiple access (TDMA) schemes.
Digital transmission is preferred, so when a cellular sys-
A conversations data bits makes up the DATA eld. Six tem has digital capability, the mobile unit is assigned a
slots make up a complete IS-54 frame. DATA in slots digital channel rst. If no digital channels are available,
1 and 4, 2 and 5, and 3 and 6 make up a voice circuit. the cellular system will assign an analog channel. The
DVCC stands for digital verication color code, arcane transmitter converts the audio signal to a radio frequency
terminology for a unique 8-bit code value assigned to each (RF), and the receiver converts an RF signal to an audio
cell. G means guard time, the period between each time signal. The antenna focuses and converts RF energy for
slot. RSVD stands for reserved. SYNC represents syn- reception and transmission into free space. The control
chronization, a critical TDMA data eld. Each slot in panel serves as an input/output mechanism for the end
every frame must be synchronized against all others and user; it supports a keypad, a display, a microphone, and a
a master clock for everything to work. speaker. The coordinator synchronizes the transmission
Time slots for the mobile-to-base direction are con- and receives functions of the mobile unit. A dual-mode
structed dierently from the base-to-mobile direction. cellular phone consists of the following:
They essentially carry the same information but are ar-
ranged dierently. Notice that the mobile-to-base direc- Transmitter
tion has a 6-bit ramp time to enable its transmitter time
to get up to full power, and a 6-bit guard band during Antenna assembly
which nothing is transmitted. These 12 extra bits in the
Receiver
base-to-mobile direction are reserved for future use.
Once a call comes in the mobile switches to a dierent Control panel
pair of frequencies; a voice radio channel which the sys-
Coordinator
tem carrier has made analog or digital. This pair carries
the call. If an IS-54 signal is detected it gets assigned a
digital trac channel if one is available. The fast asso-
ciated channel or FACCH performs handos during the 20.6 Successor technologies
call, with no need for the mobile to go back to the con-
trol channel. In case of high noise FACCH, embedded By 1993 American cellular was again running out of ca-
within the digital trac channel overrides the voice pay- pacity, despite a wide movement to IS-54. The American
load, degrading speech quality to convey control informa- cellular business continued booming. Subscribers grew
tion. The purpose is to maintain connectivity. The slow from one and a half million customers in 1988 to more
66 CHAPTER 20. DIGITAL AMPS

than thirteen million subscribers in 1993. Room existed 20.8 References

for other technologies to cater to the growing market. The
technologies that followed IS-54 stuck to the digital back- [1] Anton A. Huurdeman, The Worldwide History of
bone laid down by it. Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons, 31 juli 2003,
page 533

[2]

[3]
20.6.1 IS-136
History of mobile communication:1990{}s
A pragmatic eort was launched to improve IS-54 that
eventually added an extra channel to the IS-54 hybrid de- Paper on CMEA
sign. Unlike IS-54, IS-136 utilizes time division mul-
Cingular Wireless: TDMA Service Sunset
tiplexing for both voice and control channel transmis-
sions. Digital control channel allows residential and in- Edge Wireless: TDMA Network Changing to
building coverage, dramatically increased battery standby GSM/GPRS
time, several messaging applications, over the air acti-
vation and expanded data applications. IS-136 systems
needed to support millions of AMPS phones, most of 20.9 External links
which were designed and manufactured before IS-54 and
IS-136 were considered. IS-136 added a number of fea-
Timeslot structure for IS-136 and IS-54
tures to the original IS-54 specication, including text
messaging, circuit switched data (CSD), and an improved
compression protocol. IS-136 TDMA trac channels
use /4-DQPSK modulation at a 24.3-kilobaud channel
rate and gives an eective 48.6 kbit/s data rate across the
six time slots comprising one frame in the 30 kHz chan-
nel.

20.7 Sunset for D-AMPS in the US

and Canada

AT&T Mobility, the largest US carrier to support D-

AMPS (which it refers to as TDMA), had turned down
its existing network in order to release the spectrum to its
GSM and UMTS platforms in 19 wireless markets, which
started on May 30, 2007, with other areas that followed
in June and July. The TDMA network in these markets
operated on the 1900 MHz frequency and did not coex-
ist with an AMPS network. Service on the remaining
850 MHz TDMA markets was discontinued along with
AMPS service on February 18, 2008, except for in areas
where service was provided by Dobson Communications.
The Dobson TDMA and AMPS network was shut down
March 1, 2008.
On May 31, 2007 Rogers Wireless decommissioned its
D-AMPS and AMPS networks and moved the remaining
customers on these older networks onto its GSM network.
Alltel completed their shutdown of their D-AMPS and
AMPS networks in September 2008. The last carrier in
the United States to operate a D-AMPS network was U.S.
Cellular, who shut down its D-AMPS network in Febru-
ary 2009.
Chapter 21

Direct inward dial

Direct inward dialing (DID), also called direct dial-in cation of their DID telephone number.
(DDI) in Europe and Oceania, is a telecommunication
service oered by telephone companies to sub-
scribers who operate a private branch exchange (PBX)
system.[1][2] The feature provides service for multiple
telephone numbers over one or more analog or digital 21.2 Use in fax services
physical circuits to the PBX, and transmits the dialed
telephone number to the PBX so that a PBX extension
is directly accessible for an outside caller, possibly DID service is also used by fax servers. A telephone line
by-passing an auto-attendant. is terminated at a telephone interface (fax modem) of a
computer that runs fax server software. A set of digits
of the assigned phone numbers are used to identify the
recipient of the fax. This allows many recipients to have
21.1 Plain old telephone service an individual fax number, even though there is only one
fax machine available.

For direct inward dialing service, the telephone company Some voice over IP (VoIP) vendors have used one cen-
provides one or more trunk lines to the customer for con- tral, remotely located fax server as a means of oer-
nection to the customers PBX, and allocates a range of ing Internet fax service to their clients. In theory, stan-
telephone numbers to the customer. Calls to such num- dards such as T.38 should have allowed VoIP subscribers
bers are forwarded via the trunks. As calls are pre- to keep their existing fax equipment working locally; in
sented to the PBX, the dialed telephone number (DNIS) practice, T.38 at the subscribers site oers no benet if
the upstream provider is least-cost routing to gateways
is transmitted, usually partially, e.g., the last four digits,
so that the PBX can route the call directly to the desiredthat don't support T.38 and cannot reliably send or receive
telephone extension within the organization without the fax/modem trac. A fax server at a central location,
need for an operator or attendant. The service provides connected directly to public switched telephone network
automatic direct inward call routing while maintaining (PSTN) T-carrier primary rate interface lines and using
only a limited number of subscriber lines to satisfy the direct inward dial to identify the intended addressee can
average concurrent usage of the customer. convert an incoming fax to an electronic document (such
as .tif or .pdf) for web or e-mail delivery. The fax trac
Traditionally, DID circuits were analog. These types of never passes through the VoIP infrastructure as a dial-up
DID trunks had to be powered by the customer premises modem call and therefore arrives reliably even if T.38 is
equipment. The central oce equipment detects the not properly supported at some points in the network.
power state of the line and disables service if the cir-
cuit is not powered. This is the reverse arrangement from
standard plain old telephone service (POTS) lines which
are powered by the central oce. Nowadays, it is far
more common to deliver DIDs on a primary rate inter- 21.3 Voice over IP
face (PRI) circuit.
In the United States the feature was developed by AT&T DID service has similar relevance for Voice over Inter-
in the 1960s, patterned upon the earlier IKZ service of net Protocol (VoIP) communications.[3] To allow public
the Deutsche Bundespost. switched telephone network (PSTN) users to directly
The trunks for DID service are unidirectional, inbound reach users with VoIP phones, DID numbers are assigned
to the customer PBX. However, the service may be com- to a communications gateway. The gateway connects the
bined with direct outward dialing (DOD) allowing PBX PSTN to the VoIP network, routing and translating calls
extensions direct outbound calling capability with identi- between the two networks.

67
68 CHAPTER 21. DIRECT INWARD DIAL

21.4 Sellers [2] http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/DID.html

[3] http://www.commpeak.com/wholesale-services/
In countries with multiple competing local providers, voice-origination/
DID services can be purchased in bulk from a
Competitive Local Exchange Carrier (CLEC).
For voice over IP resellers, some specialized CLECs (for
local numbers) or interexchange carriers (for toll-free
numbers) will deliver blocks of direct inward dial calls
already converted to Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) or
common VoIP formats. The individual VoIP provider
need only obtain an inventory of local or freephone num-
bers from VoIP-aware carriers in various regions, import
them in bulk to a VoIP PBX (such as Asterisk) and is-
sue them individually to end users. International DID
numbers can be purchased in bulk from international
providers.
UK geographic DID numbers can often be obtained for
free and can be terminated over SIP. A few US DIDs
are available without monthly charges from vendors like
Ipkall, but at the expense of the caller paying for a call to
some expensive, rural location.
The majority of vendors charge a nominal amount per
number per month (as little as $1/month in small quanti-
ties) and then bill per-minute or per number of channels
which can be simultaneously in use. For the caller, these
numbers can be assigned to locations which are a local
call.

21.5 Direct outward dialing

The corresponding service to DID for outgoing calls
from a PBX to the central oce exchange is called di-
rect outward dialing (DOD) or Direct Dial Central Oce
(DDCO). This service is often combined with DID ser-
vice and allows direct dialing of global telephone num-
bers by every extension covered by the service without
the assistance of an operator. The caller line identica-
tion (CLI) or caller-id of extensions for outgoing calls is
often set to the extension DID number, but may be the
organizations central switch board number.

21.6 See also

Dialed Number Identication Service

Dial plan

Voice over IP

21.7 References
[1] http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/voice/
digital-ccs/14072-direct-inward-dial.html
Chapter 22
Disruptive innovation
The free, online encyclopedia Wikipedia was a disruptive in-
novation that had a major impact on both the traditional, for-
prot printed paper encyclopedia market (e.g., Encyclopedia
Britannica) and the for-prot digital encyclopedia market (e.g.,
Encarta). The English Wikipedia provides over 5 million arti-
cles for free; in contrast, a $1,000 set of Britannica volumes had
120,000 articles.
A disruptive innovation is an innovation that creates a
new market and value network and eventually disrupts
an existing market and value network, displacing estab-
lished market leading rms, products and alliances. The
term was dened and phenomenon analyzed by Clayton
M. Christensen beginning in 1995.[2] In the early 2000s,
signicant societal impact has also been used as an as-
pect of disruptive innovation.[3]
Not all innovations are disruptive, even if they are revo-
lutionary. For example, the rst automobiles in the late
19th century were not a disruptive innovation, because
early automobiles were expensive luxury items that did
not disrupt the market for horse-drawn vehicles. The
market for transportation essentially remained intact until
the debut of the lower-priced Ford Model T in 1908.[4]
The mass-produced automobile was a disruptive inno-
vation, because it changed the transportation market,
69
whereas the rst thirty years of automobiles did not.
Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders
and entrepreneurs, rather than existing market-leading
companies. The business environment of market lead-
ers does not allow them to pursue disruptive innovations
when they rst arise, because they are not protable
enough at rst and because their development can take
scarce resources away from sustaining innovations (which
are needed to compete against current competition).[5]
A disruptive process can take longer to develop than by
the conventional approach and the risk associated to it
is higher than the other more incremental or evolution-
ary forms of innovations, but once it is deployed in the
market, it achieves a much faster penetration and higher
degree of impact on the established markets.[3]
22.1 History and usage of the term
The term disruptive technologies was coined by Clayton
M. Christensen and introduced in his 1995 article Disrup-
tive Technologies: Catching the Wave,[6] which he cowrote
with Joseph Bower. The article is aimed at manage-
ment executives who make the funding or purchasing de-
cisions in companies, rather than the research commu-
nity. He describes the term further in his book The In-
novators Dilemma.[7] Innovators Dilemma explored the
cases of the disk drive industry (which, with its rapid gen-
erational change, is to the study of business what fruit
ies are to the study of genetics, as Christensen was ad-
vised in the 1990s[8] ) and the excavating equipment in-
dustry (where hydraulic actuation slowly displaced cable-
actuated movement). In his sequel with Michael E.
Raynor, The Innovators Solution,[9] Christensen replaced
the term disruptive technology with disruptive innovation
because he recognized that few technologies are intrinsi-
cally disruptive or sustaining in character; rather, it is the
business model that the technology enables that creates
the disruptive impact. However, Christensens evolution
from a technological focus to a business-modelling focus
is central to understanding the evolution of business at
the market or industry level. Christensen and Mark W.
Johnson, who cofounded the management consulting rm
Innosight, described the dynamics of business model in-
70 CHAPTER 22. DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION

novation in the 2008 Harvard Business Review article forward-thinking innovation could improve the economic
Reinventing Your Business Model.[10] The concept of benets of these same well-managed companies, once
disruptive technology continues a long tradition of iden- decision-making management understood the systemic
tifying radical technical change in the study of innovation benets as a whole.
by economists, and the development of tools for its man-
agement at a rm or policy level.
In the late 1990s, the automotive sector began to embrace
a perspective of constructive disruptive technology by
working with the consultant David E. O'Ryan, whereby
the use of current o-the-shelf technology was integrated
with newer innovation to create what he called an unfair
advantage. The process or technology change as a whole
had to be constructive in improving the current method
of manufacturing, yet disruptively impact the whole of the
business case model, resulting in a signicant reduction of
waste, energy, materials, labor, or legacy costs to the user.
In keeping with the insight that what matters economi-
cally is the business model, not the technological sophis-
tication itself, Christensens theory explains why many
disruptive innovations are not advanced technologies, How low-end disruption occurs over time.
which the technology mudslide hypothesis would lead one
to expect. Rather, they are often novel combinations of
Christensen distinguishes between low-end disruption,
existing o-the-shelf components, applied cleverly to a
which targets customers who do not need the full perfor-
small, edgling value network.
mance valued by customers at the high end of the market,
and new-market disruption, which targets customers
who have needs that were previously unserved by existing
22.2 Theory incumbents.[13]
Low-end disruption occurs when the rate at which
Christensen denes a disruptive innovation as a product
products improve exceeds the rate at which customers can
or service designed for a new set of customers.
adopt the new performance. Therefore, at some point the
performance of the product overshoots the needs of cer-
Generally, disruptive innovations were
tain customer segments. At this point, a disruptive tech-
technologically straightforward, consisting of
nology may enter the market and provide a product that
o-the-shelf components put together in a
has lower performance than the incumbent but that ex-
product architecture that was often simpler
ceeds the requirements of certain segments, thereby gain-
than prior approaches. They oered less of
ing a foothold in the market.
what customers in established markets wanted
and so could rarely be initially employed there. In low-end disruption, the disruptor is focused initially on
They oered a dierent package of attributes serving the least protable customer, who is happy with a
valued only in emerging markets remote from, good enough product. This type of customer is not willing
and unimportant to, the mainstream.[11] to pay premium for enhancements in product functional-
ity. Once the disruptor has gained a foothold in this cus-
Christensen argues that disruptive innovations can hurt tomer segment, it seeks to improve its prot margin. To
successful, well-managed companies that are responsive get higher prot margins, the disruptor needs to enter the
to their customers and have excellent research and de- segment where the customer is willing to pay a little more
velopment. These companies tend to ignore the markets for higher quality. To ensure this quality in its product,
most susceptible to disruptive innovations, because the the disruptor needs to innovate. The incumbent will not
markets have very tight prot margins and are too small do much to retain its share in a not-so-protable segment,
to provide a good growth rate to an established (sizable) and will move up-market and focus on its more attrac-
rm.[12] Thus, disruptive technology provides an example tive customers. After a number of such encounters, the
of an instance when the common business-world advice to incumbent is squeezed into smaller markets than it was
"focus on the customer" (or stay close to the customer, previously serving. And then, nally, the disruptive tech-
or listen to the customer) can be strategically counter- nology meets the demands of the most protable segment
productive. and drives the established company out of the market.
While Christensen argued that disruptive innovations can New market disruption occurs when a product ts a new
hurt successful, well-managed companies, O'Ryan coun- or emerging market segment that is not being served by
tered that constructive integration of existing, new, and existing incumbents in the industry.
22.4. HIGH-TECHNOLOGY EFFECTS
The extrapolation of the theory to all aspects of life has
been challenged,[14][15] as has the methodology of re-
lying on selected case studies as the principal form of
[14]
evidence. Jill Lepore points out that some companies
identied by the theory as victims of disruption a decade Joseph Bower[19] explained the process of how disruptive
or more ago, rather than being defunct, remain domi- technology, through its requisite support net, dramatically
nant in their industries today (including Seagate Tech- transforms a certain industry.
nology, U.S. Steel, and Bucyrus).[14] Lepore questions
whether the theory has been oversold and misapplied, as
if it were able to explain everything in every sphere of
life, including not just business but education and public
institutions. [14]
22.3 Disruptive technology
In 2009, Milan Zeleny described high technology as dis-
ruptive technology and raised the question of what is be-
ing disrupted. The answer, according to Zeleny, is the
support network of high technology.[16] For example, in-
troducing electric cars disrupts the support network for
gasoline cars (network of gas and service stations). Such
disruption is fully expected and therefore eectively re-
sisted by support net owners. In the long run, high (dis- The automobile was high technology with respect to the
ruptive) technology bypasses, upgrades, or replaces the horse carriage; however, it evolved into technology and -
outdated support network.
Technology, being a form of social relationship, always
evolves. No technology remains xed. Technology starts,
develops, persists, mutates, stagnates, and declines, just
like living organisms.[17] The evolutionary life cycle oc-
curs in the use and development of any technology. A
new high-technology core emerges and challenges ex-
isting technology support nets (TSNs), which are thus
forced to coevolve with it. New versions of the core are
designed and tted into an increasingly appropriate TSN,
with smaller and smaller high-technology eects. High
technology becomes regular technology, with more e-
cient versions tting the same support net. Finally, even
the eciency gains diminish, emphasis shifts to prod-
uct tertiary attributes (appearance, style), and technology
becomes TSN-preserving appropriate technology. This
technological equilibrium state becomes established and
xated, resisting being interrupted by a technological mu-
tation; then new high technology appears and the cycle is
repeated.
Regarding this evolving process of technology,
Christensen said:
The technological changes that damage
established companies are usually not radically
new or dicult from a technological point of
view. They do, however, have two important
characteristics: First, they typically present a
dierent package of performance attributes
ones that, at least at the outset, are not val-
ued by existing customers. Second, the per-
formance attributes that existing customers do
71
value improve at such a rapid rate that the new
technology can later invade those established
markets.[18]
When the technology that has the poten-
tial for revolutionizing an industry emerges,
established companies typically see it as
unattractive: its not something their main-
stream customers want, and its projected prot
margins arent sucient to cover big-company
cost structure. As a result, the new technol-
ogy tends to get ignored in favor of whats cur-
rently popular with the best customers. But
then another company steps in to bring the in-
novation to a new market. Once the disruptive
technology becomes established there, smaller-
scale innovation rapidly raise the technologys
performance on attributes that mainstream cus-
tomers value.[20]
nally into appropriate technology with a stable, unchang-
ing TSN. The main high-technology advance in the ong
is some form of electric carwhether the energy source
is the sun, hydrogen, water, air pressure, or traditional
charging outlet. Electric cars preceded the gasoline auto-
mobile by many decades and are now returning to replace
the traditional gasoline automobile.
Milan Zeleny described the above phenomenon.[21] He
also wrote that:
Implementing high technology is often re-
sisted. This resistance is well understood on
the part of active participants in the requisite
TSN. The electric car will be resisted by gas-
station operators in the same way automated
teller machines (ATMs) were resisted by bank
tellers and automobiles by horsewhip makers.
Technology does not qualitatively restructure
the TSN and therefore will not be resisted and
never has been resisted. Middle management
resists business process reengineering because
BPR represents a direct assault on the sup-
port net (coordinative hierarchy) they thrive
on. Teamwork and multi-functionality is re-
sisted by those whose TSN provides the com-
fort of narrow specialization and command-
driven work.[22]
22.4 High-technology eects
High technology is a technology core that changes the
72 CHAPTER 22. DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION

very architecture (structure and organization) of the com- human action.

ponents of the technology support net. High technology
therefore transforms the qualitative nature of the TSNs
tasks and their relations, as well as their requisite physical, 22.5 Practical example of disrup-
energy, and information ows. It also aects the skills
required, the roles played, and the styles of management tion
and coordinationthe organizational culture itself.
In the practical world, the popularization of personal
This kind of technology core is dierent from regular
computers illustrates how knowledge contributes to the
technology core, which preserves the qualitative nature
ongoing technology innovation. The original centralized
of ows and the structure of the support and only al-
concept (one computer, many persons) is a knowledge-
lows users to perform the same tasks in the same way,
defying idea of the prehistory of computing, and its in-
but faster, more reliably, in larger quantities, or more ef-
adequacies and failures have become clearly apparent.
ciently. It is also dierent from appropriate technol-
The era of personal computing brought powerful com-
ogy core, which preserves the TSN itself with the pur-
puters on every desk (one person, one computer). This
pose of technology implementation and allows users to
short transitional period was necessary for getting used
do the same thing in the same way at comparable lev-
to the new computing environment, but was inadequate
els of eciency, instead of improving the eciency of
[23] from the vantage point of producing knowledge. Ade-
performance.
quate knowledge creation and management come mainly
As for the dierence between high technology and low from networking and distributed computing (one person,
technology, Milan Zeleny once said: many computers). Each persons computer must form an
access point to the entire computing landscape or ecol-
" The eects of high technology always ogy through the Internet of other computers, databases,
breaks the direct comparability by changing and mainframes, as well as production, distribution, and
the system itself, therefore requiring new mea- retailing facilities, and the like. For the rst time, tech-
sures and new assessments of its productivity. nology empowers individuals rather than external hierar-
High technology cannot be compared and eval- chies. It transfers inuence and power where it optimally
uated with the existing technology purely on belongs: at the loci of the useful knowledge. Even though
the basis of cost, net present value or return hierarchies and bureaucracies do not innovate, free and
on investment. Only within an unchanging and empowered individuals do; knowledge, innovation, spon-
relatively stable TSN would such direct nan- taneity, and self-reliance are becoming increasingly val-
cial comparability be meaningful. For exam- ued and promoted.[25]
ple, you can directly compare a manual type-
writer with an electric typewriter, but not a
typewriter with a word processor. Therein lies 22.6 Examples
the management challenge of high technology.
"[24]
22.7 See also
However, not all modern technologies are high technolo-
gies. They have to be used as such, function as such, Blue Ocean Strategy
and be embedded in their requisite TSNs. They have
Creative destruction
to empower the individual because only through the in-
dividual can they empower knowledge. Not all informa- Culture lag
tion technologies have integrative eects. Some informa-
Hype cycle
tion systems are still designed to improve the traditional
hierarchy of command and thus preserve and entrench Killer application
the existing TSN. The administrative model of manage-
ment, for instance, further aggravates the division of task Leapfrogging
and labor, further specializes knowledge, separates man- List of emerging technologies
agement from workers, and concentrates information and
knowledge in centers. Obsolescence

As knowledge surpasses capital, labor, and raw materi- Pace of innovation

als as the dominant economic resource, technologies are Paradigm shift
also starting to reect this shift. Technologies are rapidly
shifting from centralized hierarchies to distributed net- Product lifecycle
works. Nowadays knowledge does not reside in a super-
Technology Readiness Level (NASA)
mind, super-book, or super-database, but in a complex
relational pattern of networks brought forth to coordinate Technology strategy
22.9. REFERENCES
22.8 Notes
[1] Christensen 1997, p. xviii. Christensen describes as rev-
olutionary innovations as discontinuous sustaining in-
novations.
[2] Bower, Joseph L. & Christensen, Clayton M. (1995)
[3] Assink, Marnix (2006). Inhibitors of disruptive in-
novation capability: a conceptual model. European
Journal of Innovation Management. 9 (2): 215233.
doi:10.1108/14601060610663587.
[4] Christensen 2003, p. 49.
[5] Christensen 1997, p. 47.
[6] Bower, Joseph L. & Christensen, Clayton M. (1995).
However the concept of new technologies leading to
wholesale economic change is not a new idea since Joseph
Schumpeter adapted the idea of creative destruction from
Karl Marx. Schumpeter (1949) in one of his examples
used the railroadization of the Middle West as it was initi-
ated by the Illinois Central. He wrote, The Illinois Cen-
tral not only meant very good business whilst it was built
and whilst new cities were built around it and land was cul-
tivated, but it spelled the death sentence for the [old] agri-
culture of the West."Disruptive Technologies: Catching
the Wave Harvard Business Review, JanuaryFebruary
1995
[7] Christensen 1997.
[8] Christensen 1997, p. 3.
[9] Christensen 2003.
[10] Johnson, Mark, Christensen, Clayton, et al., 2008, Rein-
venting Your Business Model, Harvard Business Review,
December 2008.
[11] Christensen 1997, p. 15.
[12] Christensen 1997, p. i-iii.
[13] Christensen 2003, p. 23-45.
[14] Lepore, Jill (2014-06-23), Annals of enterprise: The
disruption machine: What the gospel of innovation gets
wrong., The New Yorker. Published online 2014-06-17
under the headline 'What the Theory of Disruptive Inno-
vation Gets Wrong'.
[15] Weeks, Michael (2015), Is disruption theory wearing new
clothes or just naked? Analyzing recent critiques of disrup-
tive innovation theory. |Innovation: Management, Policy
& Practice 17:4, 417-428
[16] Zeleny, Milan. High Technology and Barriers to Innova-
tion: From Globalization to Localization. International
Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making.
World Scientic. 11: P 441.
[17] Oliver, Gassmann (May 2006). Opening up the innova-
tion process: towards an agenda. R&D Management. 36
(03): P 223366. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9310.2006.00437.
73
[18] Christensen, Clayton (January 1995). Disruptive Tech-
nologies Catching the Wave. Harvard Business Review:
P 3.
[19] HBS Faculty & Research.
[20] Bower, Joseph (May 2002). Disruptive Change. Har-
vard Business Review. 80 (05): P 95101.
[21] Zeleny, Milan (January 2009). Technology and High
Technology: Support Net and Barriers to Innovation.
Advanced Management Systems. 01 (01): P 821.
[22] Zeleny, Milan (September 2009). Technology and High
Technology: Support Net and Barriers to Innovation.
Acta Mechanica Slovaca. 36 (01): P 619.
[23] Masaaki, Kotabe; Scott Swan (January 2007). The role
of strategic alliances in high-technology new product de-
velopment. Strategic Management Journal. 16 (08):
621636. doi:10.1002/smj.4250160804.
[24] Zeleny, Milan (2006). Knowledge-information autopoi-
etic cycle: towards the wisdom systems. International
Journal of Management and Decision Making. 7 (1): P
318. doi:10.1504/IJMDM.2006.008168.
[25] Brown, Brad (March 2014). Views from the front lines
of the data-analytics revolution. McKinsey Quarterly.
[26] Bosman, Julie (13 March 2012). After 244 Years, En-
cyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses. The New York
Times. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
[27] Tartako, Joseph. Victim Of Wikipedia: Microsoft To
Shut Down Encarta. paidContent. Retrieved 1 April
2012.
[28] Sandstrm, Christian G. (2010). A revised perspective
on Disruptive Innovation Exploring Value, Networks
and Business models (Theisis submitted to Chalmers Uni-
versity of Technology, Gteborg, Sweden)" (PDF). Re-
trieved 2010-11-22.
[29] Christensen 1997, p. 3-28.
[30] Christensen 1997, pp. 6176.
[31] Christensen 2003, pp. 3739.
[32] Christensen 2003, p. 64.
[33] Knopper, Steve (2009). Appetite for self-destruction : the
spectacular crash of the record industry in the digital age.
New York: Free Press. ISBN 1-4165-5215-4.
[34] Concorde grounded for good. BBC News, 10 April
2003. 10 April 2003. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
22.9 References
Anthony, Scott D.; Johnson, Mark W.; Sineld,
Joseph V.; Altman, Elizabeth J. (2008). Innovators
Guide to Growth - Putting Disruptive Innovation to
Work. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 978-
1-59139-846-2.
74
Daniele Archibugi, Blade Runner Economics: Will
Innovation Lead the Economic Recovery?, Social
Science Research Network, January 29, 2015.
Archibugi, Daniele; Filippetti, Andrea; Frenz,
Marion (2013). Economic crisis and innova-
tion: Is destruction prevailing over accumula-
tion?". Research Policy. 42 (2): 303314.
doi:10.1016/j.respol.2012.07.002.
How to Identify and Build Disruptive New Busi-
nesses, MIT Sloan Management Review Spring 2002
Christensen, Clayton M. (1997), The innovators
dilemma: when new technologies cause great rms
to fail, Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard Busi-
ness School Press, ISBN 978-0-87584-585-2. (edit)
Christensen, Clayton M. & Overdorf, Michael.
(2000). Meeting the Challenge of Disruptive
Change Harvard Business Review, MarchApril
2000.
Christensen, Clayton M., Bohmer, Richard, &
Kenagy, John. (2000). Will Disruptive Innova-
tions Cure Health Care?" Harvard Business Review,
September 2000.
Christensen, Clayton M. (2003). The innovators
solution : creating and sustaining successful growth.
Harvard Business Press. ISBN 978-1-57851-852-4.
Christensen, Clayton M.; Scott, Anthony D.; Roth,
Erik A. (2004). Seeing Whats Next. Harvard Busi-
ness School Press. ISBN 978-1-59139-185-2.
Christensen, Clayton M., Baumann, Heiner, Rug-
gles, Rudy, & Sadtler, Thomas M. (2006). Disrup-
tive Innovation for Social Change Harvard Business
Review, December 2006.
Mountain, Darryl R., Could New Technologies
Cause Great Law Firms to Fail?
Mountain, Darryl R (2006). Disrupting con-
ventional law rm business models using docu-
ment assembly. International Journal of Law
and Information Technology. 15: 170191.
doi:10.1093/ijlit/eal019.
Tushman, M.L.; Anderson, P. (1986). Techno-
logical Discontinuities and Organizational Environ-
ments. Administrative Science Quarterly. 31: 439
465. doi:10.2307/2392832.
Eric Chaniot (2007). The Red Pill of Technology
Innovation Red Pill, October 2007.
CHAPTER 22. DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION
22.10 Further reading
Danneels, Erwin (2004). Disruptive Technology
Reconsidered: A Critique and Research Agenda
(PDF). Journal of Product Innovation Manage-
ment. 21 (4): 246258. doi:10.1111/j.0737-
6782.2004.00076.x.
Danneels, Erwin (2006). From the Guest Edi-
tor: Dialogue on The Eects of Disruptive Tech-
nology on Firms and Industries. Journal of
Product Innovation Management. 23 (1): 24.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2005.00174.x.
Roy, Raja (2014). Exploring the Boundary Condi-
tions of Disruption: Large Firms and New Product
Introduction With a Potentially Disruptive Technol-
ogy in the Industrial Robotics Industry. Engineer-
ing Management, IEEE Transactions on. 61 (1): 90,
100. doi:10.1109/tem.2013.2259590.
Roy, Raja; Cohen, S.K. (2015). Disruption in the
US machine tool industry: The role of inhouse users
and pre-disruption component experience in rm
response. Research Policy. 44 (8): 15551565.
doi:10.1016/j.respol.2015.01.004.
Weeks, Michael (2015). Is disruption theory wear-
ing new clothes or just naked? Analyzing re-
cent critiques of disruptive innovation theory In-
novation: Management, Policy & Practice 17:4,
417-428. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.
1080/14479338.2015.1061896
22.11 External links
Peer-reviewed chapter on Disruptive Innovation by
Clayton Christensen with public commentaries by
notable designers like Donald Norman
The Myth of Disruptive Technologies. Note that
Dvorks denition of disruptive technology de-
scribes the low cost disruption model, above. He
reveals the overuse of the term and shows how many
disruptive technologies are not truly disruptive.
The Disruptive Potential of Game Technolo-
gies: Lessons Learned from its Impact on the
Military Simulation Industry, by Roger Smith
in Research Technology Management (Septem-
ber/October 2006)
Disruptive Innovation Theory
Bibliography of Christensens Theory of Disruptive
Innovation as it relates to higher education
What does Disruption mean?
22.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 75

Diusion of Innovations, Strategy and Innova-

tions The D.S.I Framework by Francisco Rodrigues
Gomes, Academia.edu share research

CREATING THE FUTURE: Building Tomorrows

World

Lecture (video), VoIP as an example of disruptive

technology
Chapter 23

E.164

E.164 is an ITU-T recommendation, titled The inter- 23.1.1 Number structure for geographic
national public telecommunication numbering plan, that area
denes a numbering plan for the world-wide public
switched telephone network (PSTN) and some other data
networks.
23.1.2 Number structure for global ser-
vices
E.164 denes a general format for international telephone
numbers. Plan-conforming numbers are limited to a [2]
Figure 2
maximum of 15 digits, excluding the international call
prex.[1] The presentation of a number is usually prexed
with the plus sign (+), indicating that the number includes
the country calling code. When dialing, the number must 23.1.3 Number structure for networks
typically be prexed with the appropriate international
call prex (in place of the plus sign), which is a trunk code
to reach an international circuit from within the country 23.1.4 Number structure for groups of
of call origination. countries
The title of the original version and rst revision of the
E.164 standard was Numbering Plan for the ISDN Era. 23.2 Recommendations

23.2.1 E.163

E.163 was the former ITU-T recommendation for de-

scribing telephone numbers for the public switched tele-
23.1 Telephone number categories phone network (PSTN). In the United States, this was
formerly referred to as a directory number. E.163 was
withdrawn, and some recommendations were incorpo-
This recommendation provides the number structure and rated into revision 1 of E.164 in 1997.
functionality for the three categories of telephone num-
bers used for international public telecommunication:
For each of the categories, it details the components of 23.2.2 E.164.1
the numbering structure and the digit analysis required to
successfully route the calls. Annex A provides additional This recommendation describes the procedures and
information on the structure and function of E.164 num- criteria for the reservation, assignment, and reclamation
bers. Annex B provides information on network identi- of E.164 country codes and associated identication code
cation, service parameters, calling/connected line iden- (IC) assignments. The criteria and procedures are pro-
tity, dialing procedures, and addressing for Geographic- vided as a basis for the eective and ecient utiliza-
based ISDN calls. Specic E.164-based applications tion of the available E.164 numbering resources. Such
which dier in usage are dened in separate recommen- assignments require a collaborative eort between the
dations. ITU-TSB and the appropriate ITU-T study group to en-
The number categories are all based on a fteen-digit deavor to ensure that the assignments meet the needs of
numbering space. Before 1997, only twelve digits were the telecommunication community. The development of
allowed. The denition does not include any international these criteria and procedures are in accordance with the
call prexes, necessary for a call to reach international principles contained in E.190 and the numbering plan for-
circuits from inside the country of call origination. mats detailed in E.164.

76
23.4. SEE ALSO
23.2.3 E.164.2
This recommendation contains the criteria and proce-
dures for an applicant to be temporarily assigned a three-
digit identication code within the shared E.164 country
code +991 for the purpose of conducting an international
non-commercial trial.
23.2.4 E.164.3
This recommendation describes the principles, criteria,
and procedures for the assignment and reclamation of re-
sources within a shared E.164 country code for groups
of countries. These shared country codes will coexist
with all other E.164-based country codes assigned by the
ITU. The resource of the shared country code consists
of a country code and a group identication code (CC +
GIC) and provides the capability for a group of countries
to provide telecommunication services within the group.
The TSB is responsible for the assignment of the CC +
GIC.
23.3 DNS mapping of E.164 num-
bers
Main article: Telephone number mapping
Some national telephone bodies or telephone companies
have implemented an Internet-based database for their
numbering spaces. E.164 numbers may be used in the
Domain Name System (DNS) of the Internet in which
the second-level domain e164.arpa has been reserved for
telephone number mapping (ENUM). In the system, any
phone number may be mapped into a domain name using
a reverse sequence of subdomains for each digit. For ex-
ample, the telephone number +19995550123 translates
to the domain name 3.2.1.0.5.5.5.9.9.9.1.e164.arpa.[3]
When a number is mapped, a DNS query may be used
to locate the service facilities on the Internet that accept
and process telephone calls to the owner of record of the
number, using, for example, the Session Initiation Proto-
col (SIP), a call-signaling VoIP protocol whose SIP ad-
dresses are similar in format (user@domain...) to e-mail
addresses.
This allows a direct, end-to-end Internet connection with-
out passing to the public switched telephone network (and
back) and without incurring PSTN tolls.
As this is eectively a free call, there is little incen-
tive for carriers to promote e164 DNS service. The
e164.arpa domain is in production status as of 2013 only
in a few European nations (Austria, Czech Republic,
Finland, Germany, Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Romania,
Netherlands, United Kingdom).[4] Australia conducted
a trial in 2007, but then abandoned further support
77
of.1.6.e164.arpa.[5] Many nations have no .e164.arpa im-
plementation active.[6]
The Internet Telephony Users Association runs e164.org
as an alternate server, which relies on users submitting
their own PSTN numbers and corresponding URIs for
verication.[7] A VoIP PBX, such as Asterisk, may be
congured to resolve numbers in both databases, send-
ing only those not listed with a free Internet routing over
the PSTN.
23.4 See also
Carrier of Record
E.123
List of country calling codes
23.5 References
[1] ITU; ITU-T. The International Public Telecommunica-
tion Numbering Plan. ITU. p. 11. Retrieved 21 March
2014.
[2] https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=
T-REC-E.164-201011-I!!PDF-E&type=items
[3] Geo Huston. ENUM Mapping the E.164 Number
Space into the DNS. The Internet Protocol Journal.
Cisco Systems. Retrieved 26 October 2013. C1 control
character in |title= at position 6 (help)
[4] RIPE ENUM Working Group: Progress Matrix. Enum-
data.org. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
[5] ENUM trial. enum.com.au. Retrieved 26 October
2013.
[6] Russell Bryant, Leif Madsen, Jim Van Meggelen.
Asterisk: The Denitive Guide. Retrieved 26 October
2013.
[7] Joshua Brashars (13 August 2007). Asterisk Hacking. Re-
trieved 26 October 2013.
23.6 External links
Text of the recommendation and supplements
List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 as-
signed country codes as of 1 November 2011
List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 Di-
alling Procedures as of 15 December 2011
World Telephone Numbering Guide
Chapter 24

Elastix

Elastix is an unied communications server software that 24.2 Call center module
brings together IP PBX, email, IM, faxing and collabora-
tion functionality. It has a Web interface and includes Elastix 2.5 was the rst distribution that included a call
capabilities such as a call center software with predictive center module with a predictive dialer, released entirely
dialing. as free software. This module can be installed from
The Elastix 2.5 functionality is based on open source the same web-based Elastix interface through a module
projects including Asterisk, FreePBX, HylaFAX, loader. The call center module can handle incoming and
Openre and Postx. Those packages oer the PBX, outgoing campaigns. It can also optionally be made more
fax, instant messaging and email functions, respectively. powerful by adding common third party modules like
QueueMetrics [4] and WombatDialer.[5]
As of Elastix 5.0 all functionality is provided through
3CX, a software based private branch exchange (PBX)
based on the SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) standard.
It enables extensions to make calls via the public switched 24.3 History of the project
telephone network (PSTN) or via Voice over Internet Pro-
tocol (VoIP) services. Elastix 5.0 is an IP business phone Elastix was created and maintained by PaloSanto So-
system that supports standard SIP soft/hard phones, VoIP lutions, an Open Source support company based in
services and traditional PSTN phone lines. Ecuador. Elastix was released to the public for the rst
Elastix 2.5 is free software, released under the GNU Gen- time in March 2006. It was not a complete distribution
eral Public License. Elastix 5.0 is Proprietary released but a Web interface for CDR (Call Detail Records) re-
under the terms of the 3CX license porting. It was not until late December 2006 that Elastix
was released as a Linux distribution with asterisk, zaptel
and a number of other packages which were easily ad-
ministrated via a user friendly Web interface that caught
the communitys attention.
The Elastix 2.5 Linux distribution is based on CentOS,
which has binary compatibility with Red Hat Enterprise
24.1 Support for telephony hard- Linux.

ware
Elastix 2.5 has a good support for telephony hardware.[2]
It includes drivers for the major manufacturers like
Dinstar, OpenVox, Digium, Khomp,[3] Sangoma Tech-
nologies Corporation, Rhino Equipment, Xorcom, and
Yeastar. The most of these drivers are supported through
the zaptel project or modied versions of it. Other drivers
are supported by the mISDN project and other projects.
Elastix 2.5 also supports other phone brands thanks to the
SIP and IAX protocols that Asterisk implements. These
protocols are based on public available standards. For this
reason any manufacturer can build a product that supports
them. Some certied manufacturers are Ascom, Snom
and Yealink.
From its initial release until now the Elastix distro has
grown in popularity. The project was nominated for
two straight years (2007[6] and 2008[7] ) as nalist in the
SourceForge Community Choice Awards.
In 2016 the Elastix project was acquired by 3CX. With
this acquisition the Elastix Distro versioned at 5.0 was
switched to a branded Debian install with the 3CX plat-
form [8]
24.4 Similar software distributions
AsteriskNOW Uses FreePBX GUI Maintained by
Digium
FreePBX Distro Ocial Distro of the FreePBX

78
24.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 79

Project maintained by Sangoma Technologies Cor-

poration
PBX in a Flash Uses 3CX

trixbox Now End of Life, uses Forked version of

FreePBX was maintained by Fonality [9]

24.5 References
[1] Elastix.org. Elastix.org. Retrieved June 21, 2016.

[2] Elastix.org. Elastix.org. Retrieved June 21, 2016.

[3] Elastix - Certied Hardware. Archived from the original

on July 3, 2010. Retrieved June 21, 2016.

[4] Elastix Addons - QueueMetrics. Retrieved October 12,

2016.

[5] Elastix Addons - WombatDialer. Retrieved October 12,

2016.

[6] SourceForge Community Blog | 2007 Community

Choice Awards. Sourceforge.net. 2016-06-13. Re-
trieved 2016-06-21.

[7] SourceForge Community Blog | 2008 CCA: Finalists.

Sourceforge.net. 2016-06-13. Retrieved 2016-06-21.

[8] http://www.elastix.org/blog/elastix-5-powered-by-3cx/.
Retrieved 7 December 2016. Missing or empty |title=
(help)

[9] Four Linux distribution with Asterisk and FreePBX to

set up a VoIP PBX. En.wikinoticia.com. 2012-05-30.
Retrieved 2016-06-21.

24.6 External links

Ocial website
Chapter 25

Emergency service

Emergency services and rescue services[1] are organi-

zations which ensure public safety and health by address-
ing dierent emergencies. Some of these agencies exist
solely for addressing certain types of emergencies whilst
others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their nor-
mal responsibilities. Many of these agencies engage in
community awareness and prevention programs to help
the public avoid, detect, and report emergencies eec-
tively.
The availability of emergency services depends very
heavily on location, and may in some cases also rely on
the recipient giving payment or holding suitable insurance
or other surety for receiving the service.

25.1 Main emergency service func-

tions
There are three main emergency service functions:

Law enforcement enforcing the law to prevent

crime, investigate crime, reach out to the commu-
nity and write reports.

Fire departments protecting life and property

through the provision of reghting. Emergency Telephone in New York City

Emergency medical services providing

ambulances and sta to deal with medical
emergencies
In some countries such as the UK, these three functions
are performed by three separate organizations in a given
area. However, there are also many countries where re,
rescue and ambulance functions are all performed by a
single organization (re service based EMS).
Emergency services have one or more dedicated
emergency telephone numbers reserved for critical
emergency calls. In some countries, one number is used
for all the emergency services (e.g. 911 in the U.S., 999
in the UK). In some countries, each emergency service
has its own emergency number.
25.2 Other emergency services
These services can be provided by one of the core services
or by a separate government or private body.
Military to provide specialist services, such as
bomb disposal or to supplement emergency services
at times of major disaster, civil dispute or high de-
mand.
Coast guard Provide coastal patrols with a secu-
rity function at sea, tasked with maritime law en-
forcement and search and rescue functions.
Lifeboat Dedicated providers of rescue lifeboat

80
25.4. LOCATION-SPECIFIC EMERGENCY SERVICES 81

services, usually at sea (such as by the RNLI in the
United Kingdom).
Mountain rescue to provide search and rescue in
mountainous areas, and sometimes in other wilder-
ness environments.
Cave rescue to rescue people injured, trapped, or
lost during caving explorations.
Mine rescue specially trained and equipped to
rescue miners trapped by res, explosions, cave-ins,
toxic gas, ooding, etc.
Emergency social services
Community emergency response teams help or-
ganize facilities such as rest centers during large
emergencies
Disaster relief such as services provided by the
Red Cross and Salvation Army
Famine relief teams
Amateur radio communications groups provide
communications support during emergencies

Technical rescue other types of technical or Poison Control providing specialist support for
heavy rescue, but usually specic to a discipline poisoning
(such as swift water).
Animal control can assist or lead response to
Search and rescue can be discipline-specic, such emergencies involving animals
as urban, wildland, maritime, etc.
Forest Service
Wildland reghting to size-up, contain, extin-
guish, and mop-up wildres. St. John Ambulance / Red Cross / Order of Malta
Ambulance Corps Medical & First Aid Support
Bomb disposal to render safe hazardous explo-
sive ordnance, such as terrorist devices, unexploded
wartime bombs and other, explosive materials. 25.4 Location-specic emergency
Blood/organ transplant supply to provide organs services
or blood on an emergency basis, such as the National
Blood Service of the United Kingdom.
Some locations have emergency services dedicated to
Emergency management to provide and co- them, and whilst this does not necessarily preclude em-
ordinate resources during large-scale emergencies. ployees using their skills outside this area (or be used to
support other emergency services outside their area), they
Amateur radio emergency communications to are primarily focused on the safety or security of a given
provide communications support to other emer- geographical place.
gency services, such as RAYNET in the UK.
HAZ-MAT removal of hazardous materials. Park rangers looking after many emergencies
within their given area, including re, medical and
Air search providing aerial spotting for the emer- security issues
gency services, such as conducted by the Civil Air
Patrol in the US, or Sky Watch in the UK. Lifeguards charged with reacting to emergencies
within their own given remit area, usually a pool,
beach or open water area
25.3 Civil emergency services
These groups and organizations respond to emergencies 25.5 Cooperation
and provide other safety-related services either as a part
of their on-the-job duties, as part of the main mission of Eective emergency service management requires agen-
their business or concern, or as part of their hobbies. cies from many dierent services to work closely together
and to have open lines of communication. Most services
Public utilities safeguarding gas, electricity and do, or should, have procedures and liaisons in place to en-
water, which are all potentially hazardous if infras- sure this, although absence of these can be severely detri-
tructure fails mental to good working. There can sometimes be tension
between services for a number of other reasons, including
Emergency road service provide repair or recov- professional versus voluntary crew members, or simply
ery for disabled or crashed vehicles based on area or division.
Civilian Trac Ocers such as operated by the To aid eective communications, dierent services may
Highways Agency in the UK to facilitate clearup and share common practices and protocol for certain large-
trac ow at road trac collisions scale emergencies. In the UK, commonly used shared
82 CHAPTER 25. EMERGENCY SERVICE

protocols include CHALET and ETHANE while in the Emergency service response codes
US, the Department of Homeland Security has called
for nationwide implementation of the National Incident Emergency telephone number
Management System (NIMS),[2] of which the Incident Incident response team
Command System (ICS) is a part.[3]
Public safety

25.5.1 Disaster response technologies Rescue squad

Smart Emergency Response System (SERS)[4] prototype

was built in the SmartAmerica Challenge 2013-2014,[5] a 25.8 Sources
United States government initiative. SERS has been cre-
ated by a team of nine organizations. The project was [1] Collins dictionary
featured at the White House in June 2014 and described
by Todd Park (U.S. Chief Technology Ocer) as an ex- [2] Federal Emergency Management System: About NIMS
emplary achievement. [3] Federal Emergency Management System: Incident Com-
The SmartAmerica initiative challenges the participants mand System
to build cyber-physical systems as a glimpse of the future [4] Smart Emergency Response System , team website.
to save lives, create jobs, foster businesses, and improve
the economy. SERS primarily saves lives. The system [5] SmartAmerica Challenge , website.
provides the survivors and the emergency personnel with
[6] Video Smart Emergency Response System
information to locate and assist each other during a disas-
ter. SERS allows to submit help requests to a MATLAB- [7] Davis, Robert (20 May 2005). The price of just a few
based mission center connecting rst responders, apps, seconds lost: People die. USA Today. Retrieved 5
search-and-rescue dogs, a 6-feet-tall humanoid, robots, February 2013.
drones, and autonomous aircraft and ground vehicles.
The command and control center optimizes the available
resources to serve every incoming requests and generates
an action plan for the mission. The Wi-Fi network is cre-
ated on the y by the drones equipped with antennas. In
addition, the autonomous rotorcrafts, planes, and ground
vehicles are simulated with Simulink and visualized in a
3D environment (Google Earth) to unlock the ability to
observe the operations on a mass scale.[6]

25.6 Response time

A common measurement in benchmarking the ecacy
of emergency services is response time, the amount of
time that it takes for emergency responders to arrive at
the scene of an incident after the emergency response
system was activated. Due to the nature of emergencies,
fast response times are often a crucial component of the
emergency service system.[7]

25.7 See also

Civil Air Patrol

Civil defense

Common Alerting Protocol

Disaster relief

Emergency management
Chapter 26

Federated VoIP

Federated VoIP is a form of packetized voice telephony
that uses voice over IP between autonomous domains in
the public Internet without the deployment of central vir-
tual exchange points or switching centers for trac rout-
ing. Federated VoIP uses decentralized addressing sys-
tems, such as ENUM, for location and identity informa-
tion of participants and implements secure, trusted com-
munications (TLS) for identify verication.
is specied in Domain Certicates in the Session Ini-
tiation Protocol and the Extensible Messaging and
Presence Protocol (XMPP): Core (s13.7)
the Debian project describes federated VoIP as part
of their Unied communications initiative
the OpenTelecoms project describes federated VoIP
and gives various implementation examples

26.1 Background 26.3 Implementation

The traditional telephone networks are based on the prin- Implementation of federated VoIP involves a number of
ciple of point-to-point communications, for example, an initiatives:
oce building sends and receives phone calls over an
ISDN line to the telephone exchange. Early Voice over
IP deployments have copied this model, sending phone (optionally) registering existing telephone numbers
calls over SIP Trunking (a virtual equivalent of ISDN) in a well-known ENUM service, typically the
to an Internet telephony service provider (ITSP) (a vir- e164.arpa DNS domain.
tual telephone exchange). Such paradigms have striven obtaining an SSL/TLS certicate for the domain(s)
to emulate many of the aspects of traditional telephony,
such as the telephone number. installing a SIP proxy, an XMPP/Jabber server, or
both

installing IP phones, or softphone applications on

26.2 Federation computers or smartphones

Although the use of virtual exchanges (soft-switches) and

To achieve maximum success, most deployments involve
ITSPs has reduced the cost of telephony, they have re-
both SIP and Jabber, to ensure connectivity to any other
tained many constraints of traditional telephone systems.
party that supports only one or the other. This is not so
The fundamental principle of federated voice over IP is
dicult in practice, as a network that uses SIP internally
that it removes this concept of a virtual exchange, just as
can operate a Jabber gateway, and a network that uses
email has eliminated the concept of a centralized system
Jabber internally can operate a SIP gateway. In either
of post oces.
case, the SIP and Jabber addresses are in the form of
Although there is no formal specication for feder- email addresses and are almost always identical, so there
ated VoIP as a whole, the Session Initiation Protocol is no extra eort required for the user of the service.
(SIP) and Extensible Messaging and Presence Proto-
Various open-source VoIP server products provide de-
col (XMPP/Jabber) both specify similar and compatible
tailed instructions on how to implement federated
ways of implementing federated VoIP. In particular:
VoIP.[1][2]

the use of ENUM to identify the SIP or Jabber ad-

dresses associated with a phone number
26.4 See also
the use of X509 Digital certicates to allow the
caller and callee to prove their identity to each other SIP address

83
84 CHAPTER 26. FEDERATED VOIP

SIP Broker

iNum Initiative

26.5 References
[1] Using reSIProcate for Federated VoIP. reSIProcate.
2012. Retrieved 2012-05-11.

[2] Google Talk and ejabberd. ejabberd. 2006. Retrieved

2012-05-11.
Chapter 27
FreePBX
FreePBX is a web-based open source graphical user in-
terface (GUI) that manages Asterisk, a voice over IP and
telephony server.[1]
FreePBX is licensed under the GNU General Public Li-
cense version 3.[2] It is a component of the FreePBX Dis-
tro, which is an independently maintained Linux system
derived from the source code of the CentOS distribution,
having Asterisk pre-installed. It is also included in vari-
ous third-party distributions such as The FreePBX Distro
and AsteriskNow.
FreePBX was acquired by Schmooze.com in early
2013;[3] that rm was in turn taken over by Sangoma
Technologies Corporation on Jan 2, 2015.
27.1 Installation
FreePBX can be installed as standalone software, or as AudioCodes, Cisco Systems, Cyberdata, Digium,
part of a pre-congured FreePBX Distro that includes Grandstream, Mitel, Panasonic,
the operating system, the Asterisk PBX, FreePBX, and
assorted dependencies:[4]
FreePBX is included in open source distributions such as
The Ocial FreePBX Distro, AsteriskNOW, Elastix and
RasPBX
27.2 Development
The rst FreePBX release, version 0.2 (November 28,
2004), was named the Asterisk Management Portal
(AMP). The project was renamed to FreePBX for trade-
mark reasons, as Asterisk is a registered trademark of the
Digium corporation.
New releases of Asterisk have been accommodated by
various updates to FreePBX. Updates have included
new menus and support for additional capabilities such
as voice mail, calling queues, fax, multiple languages,
DAHDI and a local user directory.
Current versions are:
FreePBX 2.11 Completed 2013-05-14- Adds
support for Asterisk 11, Destination popOvers,
Module Admin Security Auditing, Chan Motif
Module, WebRTC User Control Panel[5]
FreePBX 12 STABLE Release 2014-06-23-
Adds support for Asterisk 12&13, New User Con-
trol Panel, Module Admin version control, PJSIP
Support
FreePBX 13 - Stable - adds responsive GUI, sup-
port for Asterisk 13, Call Event Logging CEL and
reporting, fwconsole CLI system management, En-
hanced Bulk User Management, expanded localiza-
tion support for audio and sound les, and a new
global search option.
FREEPBX 14 - Beta, in development
FreePBX supports numerous hardware manufac-
turers, including Aastra Technologies, Algo, AND,
[6]
Polycom, Sangoma,
Snom, Xorcom, and Yealink. FreePBX developers es-
timate the distro has been deployed in millions of active
PBX systems in over 220 countries and territories.[7]
27.3 References
[1] Madsen, Leif; Jim Van Meggelen; Russell Bryant (2013).
Asterisk: The Denitive Guide, 4th Edition (4th ed.).
O'Reilly Media. p. 800. ISBN 978-1-4493-3242-
6. FreePBX, the juggernaut of the Asterisk commu-
nity. This interface (which is at the heart of many of
the most popular Asterisk distributions, such as Aster-
iskNOW, Elastix, the FreePBX Distro, and PBX in a
Flash), is unarguably a very large part of why Asterisk has
been as successful as it has. With the FreePBX interface,
you can congure and manage many aspects of an Asterisk
system without touching a single conguration le. While
we purists may like everyone to work only with the con-
g les, we recognize that for many, learning Linux and
editing these les by hand is simply not going to happen.
For those folks, there is FreePBX, and it has our respect
for the important contributions it has made to the success
of Asterisk.
[2] FreePBX porject in OpenHub. BlackDuck. Retrieved
2016-08-29.
85
86 CHAPTER 27. FREEPBX

[3] Schmooze Com Acquires FreePBX & SIPSTATION.

Schmooze Com. February 22, 2013.

[4] Gomillion, David Merel, Barrie Dempster, David (2009).

Asterisk 1.6 build feature-rich telephony systems with
Asterisk. Birmingham, U.K.: Packt Pub. ISBN
9781847198631. Making Asterisk Easy to Manage; Cen-
tOS; Preparation and installation; What is FreePBX?;
FreePBX preparation and installation; FreePBX System
Status Dashboard; Tools

[5] Milestone 2.11 - FreePBX - Trac. FreePBX. Retrieved

2013-05-26.

[6] snom Phones Now Interoperable with Schmooze Com,

Inc. Unied Communications Systems (press release),
2012, PR Web

[7] Telephony features... TMC.net

27.4 External links

Ocial website

Documentation

Community Forum
Chapter 28

FreeSWITCH

FreeSWITCH is a free and open source communica- Apache Portable Runtime (APR and APR-Util)
tions software for the creation of voice and messaging
SQLite a lightweight implementation of a SQL en-
products. It is licensed under the Mozilla Public Li-
gine
cense (MPL), a free software license. Its core library,
libfreeswitch, is capable of being embedded into other PCRE Perl Compatible Regular Expressions
projects, as well as being used as a stand-alone applica-
tion. Soa-SIP an open-source SIP user agent library
libspeex Speex DSP library (replaced libresample
as of version 1.0.3)
28.1 History mod_spandsp for T.38 fax gateway or passthrough
are supported.
The FreeSWITCH project was rst announced in January libSRTP an open-source implementation of the
2006 at O'Reilly Media's ETEL Conference.[1] In June Secure Real-time Transport Protocol
2007, FreeSWITCH was selected by Truphone for use,[2]
and in August 2007, Gaboogie announced that it selected Not all of these software dependencies are required to
FreeSWITCH as its conferencing platform.[3] build the core freeswitch application, but are depen-
FreeSWITCHs rst ocial 1.0.0 release (Phoenix) was dencies of various external modules, such as codecs.
on May 26, 2008.[4] A minor 1.0.1 patch release came FreeSWITCH is a modular application, in which mod-
out on July 24, 2008.[5] At ClueCon 2012 Anthony Mi- ules can extend the functionality but the abstraction layer
nessale announced[6] the release of FreeSWITCH version prevents inter-module dependency. The goal is to ensure
[12]
[7]
1.2.0 and that the FreeSWITCH development team had that one module is not required to load another.
adopted separate stable (version 1.2) and development
(version 1.3) branches.
FreeSWITCH 1.4, released at early 2014, is the rst ver-
28.3 Features
sion support SIP over Websocket and WebRTC.
FreeSWITCH includes many modules that provide many
Also in 2014, Tuenti announced that it selected telephony applications, such as conferencing, XML-RPC
FreeSWITCH as a main component for its platform.[8] control of live calls, interactive voice response (IVR),
FreeSWITCH 1.6 is the rst version that supports video speech synthesis and speech recognition, public switched
transcoding and video conferencing. telephone network (PSTN) interfaces for analogue and
digital circuits, voice over IP protocols including Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP), Verto, Skinny Client Control
Protocol (SCCP), H.323, Extensible Messaging and Pres-
28.2 Design ence Protocol (XMPP), GoogleTalk, T.38 and others.[13]
FreeSWITCH provides an application programming in-
According to the lead designer, Anthony Minessale,[9] terface that exposes primitives for call control and IVR
FreeSWITCH is intended to be a softswitch that is built functionality. Applications may be written in the C lan-
on top of a solid core, driven by a state machine.[10] The guage, C++, Python, Perl, Lua, JavaScript, Java and Mi-
stated goals of the project include stability, scalability, crosoft .NET via Microsofts CLR or via Mono.[14]
and abstraction. Call control applications can use the Event Socket,
To reduce complexity, FreeSWITCH uses freely avail- which is an Internet socket-based communications fa-
able software libraries that perform needed functions. cility within FreeSWITCH providing a language inde-
Some dependencies are:[11] pendent interface. The Event Socket Library (ESL)

87
88 CHAPTER 28. FREESWITCH

and ESL-wrappers are available for Erlang, JavaScript, MP4 (passthrough)

Lua, Perl, PHP, Python, and Ruby.
As of FreeSWITCH version 1.4, support exists for FreeSWITCH 1.6 supports video transcoding.
WebRTC.[15]
H263
H264
28.4 Codec Support
VP8
FreeSWITCH supports a variety of audio codecs:[16] VP9

PCMU G.711 -law Some codecs are implemented in pass-through mode

only. Since the raw compressed data is passed through
PCMA G.711 A-law between callers without any processing, this allows sup-
port for some codecs that cannot be provided free of
G.722
charge due to patent or other licensing issues. In pass-
G.722.1 through mode, the codecs cannot be transcoded, i.e., both
callers must use the same codec and functions that touch
G.722.1c the media stream such as IVR are not supported.
G.726 The software supports hardware transcoding cards, such
as produced by Sangoma.[19] These implement codecs in
G.726 with AAL2 packing hardware, reducing the CPU usage of the server. Some
G.729 (passthrough) of these codecs are fully licensed, providing an alternative
to the pass-through options above.
G.729 (licensed, $10/channel)[17]
GSM
28.5 Operating and build system
CELT and Opus
support
iLBC
Debian linux is the preferred operating system as it
DVI4 (IMA ADPCM) provides the broadest support in its libraries neces-
BroadVoice sary to run FreeSWITCH unencumbered by licens-
ing restrictions
SILK
Other linux systems, such as RHEL and CentOS
Speex
Solaris 10 UNIX (Solaris Studio)
Codec2
FreeBSD (gmake)
LPC-10
OS X (gmake)
G.723.1 (passthrough only)
Windows (native)
AMR (passthrough only)
iSAC 28.6 Comparison with other tele-
FreeSWITCH 1.4 supports video codecs only in phony software
passthrough mode:[18]
Main article: Comparison of VoIP software
H261 (passthrough)
FreeSWITCH occupies a space between pure switches
H263 (passthrough)
that simply route calls, such as GnuGK and SER, and
H263+ (H263-1998) (passthrough) those that provide primarily PBX or IVR functionality,
such as Asterisk and its derivatives. FreeSWITCH pro-
H263++ (H263-2000) (passthrough) vides building blocks from which applications such as
H264 (passthrough) a PBX, a voicemail system, a conferencing system or a
calling card can be built using any of the supported
Theora (passthrough) languages.[20]
28.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 89

28.7 Derived products [16] https://freeswitch.org/confluence/display/

FREESWITCH/Audio+Codecs
FreeSWITCH is a core component in many PBX in a box [17] http://www.freeswitch.org/node/235
commercial products and open-source projects. Some of
the commercial products are hardware and software bun- [18] https://freeswitch.org/confluence/display/
dles, for which the manufacturer supports and releases the FREESWITCH/Video+Codecs
software as open source. [19] http://wiki.sangoma.com/sangoma-media-transcoding#
Examples are the Gemeinschaft (PBX) and the HWPBX sng_freeswitch_usage
with a CTI Client for FreeSWITCH. [20] FreeSWITCH Applications. Retrieved 30 January
2016.

28.8 See also

28.10 External links
List of SIP software other SIP related programs
FreeSWITCH Conuence documentation wiki
contains general information and documentation for
28.9 References the project itself

[1] Beyond Asterisk, The Future of Telephony. Whats

Next?". O'Reilly Media. 2006-01-25. Retrieved 2007-
10-06.

[2] Truphone Selects FreeSWITCH and TelcoBridges to En-

able VoIP Calls over WiFi on Mobile Phones (Press re-
lease). Truphone. June 5, 2007.

[3] Gaboogie Embraces Open Source For New Mobile

Group Calling and Conference Calling Solution. Gaboo-
gie. 2007-08-03. Retrieved 2007-10-06.

[4] FreeSWITCH 1.0.0 Phoenix Released!".

[5] FreeSWITCH 1.0.1 Phoenix Released!".

[6] ClueCon 2012 Keynote Address.

[7] Its Ocial! FreeSWITCH 1.2 Has Been Released..

[8] Tuenti+WebRTC (Voip2day 2014)".

[9] Gallagher, Kathleen (October 18, 2009). Flipping the

FreeSWITCH - Brookeld is home to revolutionary soft-
ware. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.

[10] An Interview with the Creator of FreeSWITCH.

O'Reilly Media. July 25, 2006.

[11] A complete list of dependencies can be found in the

dependencies page section of the FreeSWITCH docu-
mentation.

[12] FreeSWITCH Introduction. FreeSWITCH Wiki. Re-

trieved 29 January 2016.

[13] Modules. FreeSWITCH Documentation Wiki. 2016-

01-29. Retrieved 2007-10-07.

[14] Client and Developer Interfaces. FreeSWITCH Docu-

mentation Wiki. 2016-01-29. Retrieved 2007-10-07.

[15] FreeSWITCH Project Releases Version 1.4 Beta with

WebRTC Media Support. FreeSWITCH Ocial Web-
site. 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Chapter 29

GSM

For other uses, see GSM (disambiguation). 29.1 History

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications,
In 1982 work began to develop a European standard
for digital cellular voice telecommunications when the
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) set up the Groupe Spcial Mo-
bile committee and later provided a permanent technical-
support group based in Paris. Five years later, in 1987,
15 representatives from 13 European countries signed
a memorandum of understanding in Copenhagen to de-
velop and deploy a common cellular telephone system
across Europe, and EU rules were passed to make GSM
a mandatory standard.[4] The decision to develop a con-
tinental standard eventually resulted in a unied, open,
standard-based network which was larger than that in the
United States.[5][6][7][8]
The GSM logo is used to identify compatible handsets and equip-
ment. The dots symbolize three clients in the home network and In February 1987 Europe produced the very rst agreed
one roaming client.[1] GSM Technical Specication. Ministers from the four
big EU countries cemented their political support for
GSM with the Bonn Declaration on Global Information
Networks in May and the GSM MoU was tabled for sig-
originally Groupe SpcialMobile), is a standard devel- nature in September. The MoU drew-in mobile opera-
oped by the European Telecommunications Standards tors from across Europe to pledge to invest in new GSM
Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second- networks to an ambitious common date. It got GSM up-
generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile and-running fast.
phones, rst deployed in Finland in July 1991.[2] As of
2014 it has become the de facto global standard for mo- In this short 38-week period the whole of Europe (coun-
bile communications with over 90% market share, op- tries and industries) had been brought behind GSM in
erating in over 219 countries and territories.[3] a rare unity and speed guided by four public ocials:
Armin Silberhorn (Germany), Stephen Temple (UK),
2G networks developed as a replacement for rst gener-
Philippe Dupuis (France), and Renzo Failli (Italy).[9] In
ation (1G) analog cellular networks, and the GSM stan- 1989, the Groupe Spcial Mobile committee was trans-
dard originally described a digital, circuit-switched net- ferred from CEPT to the European Telecommunications
work optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This ex- Standards Institute (ETSI).[6][7][7][8]
panded over time to include data communications, rst by
circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport In parallel, France and Germany signed a joint develop-
via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE ment agreement in 1984 and were joined by Italy and the
(Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution or EGPRS). UK in 1986. In 1986 the European Commission pro-
posed reserving the 900 MHz spectrum band for GSM.
Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) The former Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri made
UMTS standards followed by fourth-generation (4G) the worlds rst GSM call on July 1, 1991, calling Kaa-
LTE Advanced standards, which do not form part of the rina Suonio (mayor of the city of Tampere) using a net-
ETSI GSM standard. work built by Telenokia and Siemens and operated by
GSM is a trademark owned by the GSM Association. It Radiolinja.[10] In the following year, 1992, saw the send-
may also refer to the (initially) most common voice codec ing of the rst short messaging service (SMS or text mes-
used, Full Rate. sage) message, and Vodafone UK and Telecom Finland

90
29.2. TECHNICAL DETAILS 91

signed the rst international roaming agreement. 29.2 Technical details

Work began in 1991 to expand the GSM standard to the
1800 MHz frequency band and the rst 1800 MHz net- Structure of a GSM network 1 2 3

PSTN
4 5 6

7 8 9

work became operational in the UK by 1993. Also that

# 0 *

PSTN
VLR
year, Telecom Australia became the rst network opera- ME: Mobile
Equipment
MT/TE
CS: Circuit
Switched
4

#
1 2

0
3

G
GMSC
B
tor to deploy a GSM network outside Europe and the rst MSC: Mobile
Switching Centre
D
HSS
Um Nc
practical hand-held GSM mobile phone became avail- Abis Nb 4

#
1 2

0
3

*
E 4

#
1 2

0
3

*
C
H
A
able. BSC:
CS-MGW
Mc
MSC server
HLR

F
AuC

SIM-ME
BTS: Base Base Station

In 1995, fax, data and SMS messaging services were SIM

Transceiver
Station
Controller Gb
Gc
Gf,Sv
Gd
EIR
ICC
launched commercially, the rst 1900 MHz GSM net- UE: User
Equipment
GERAN: GSM EDGE Radio
Access Network SGSN
Gn
Gi
SMS-GMSC
BSS: Base Station System GPRS PS: PS & CS
work became operational in the United States and GSM MS: Mobile Station AN: Access Network
Packet Switched Gp GGSN
CN: Core Network

subscribers worldwide exceeded 10 million. In the same Internet

year, the GSM Association formed. Pre-paid GSM SIM

cards were launched in 1996 and worldwide GSM sub-
The structure of a GSM network
scribers passed 100 million in 1998.[7]
In 2000 the rst commercial GPRS services were Main article: GSM services
launched and the rst GPRS-compatible handsets be-
came available for sale. In 2001 the rst UMTS (W-
CDMA) network was launched, a 3G technology that
is not part of GSM. Worldwide GSM subscribers ex- 29.2.1 Network structure
ceeded 500 million. In 2002 the rst Multimedia Mes-
saging Service (MMS) were introduced and the rst GSM The network is structured into a number of discrete sec-
network in the 800 MHz frequency band became opera- tions:
tional. EDGE services rst became operational in a net-
work in 2003 and the number of worldwide GSM sub- Base Station Subsystem the base stations and their
scribers exceeded 1 billion in 2004.[7] controllers explained
By 2005, GSM networks accounted for more than 75%
of the worldwide cellular network market, serving 1.5 bil- Network and Switching Subsystem the part of the
lion subscribers. In 2005 the rst HSDPA-capable net- network most similar to a xed network, sometimes
work also became operational. The rst HSUPA network just called the core network
launched in 2007. (High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) GPRS Core Network the optional part which al-
and its uplink and downlink versions are 3G technologies, lows packet-based Internet connections
not part of GSM.) Worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded
three billion in 2008.[7] Operations support system (OSS) network main-
The GSM Association estimated in 2010 that technolo- tenance
gies dened in the GSM standard serve 80% of the global
mobile market, encompassing more than 5 billion people
29.2.2 Base station subsystem
across more than 212 countries and territories, making
GSM the most ubiquitous of the many standards for cel-
Main article: Base Station subsystem
lular networks.[11]
GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell phones
Note that GSM is a second-generation (2G) standard connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicin-
employing Time-Division Multiple-Access (TDMA) ity. There are ve dierent cell sizes in a GSM network
spectrum-sharing, issued by the European Telecommu- macro, micro, pico, femto, and umbrella cells. The cov-
nications Standards Institute (ETSI). The GSM standard erage area of each cell varies according to the implemen-
does not include the 3G UMTS CDMA-based technology tation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells
nor the 4G LTE OFDMA-based technology standards is- where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or
sued by the 3GPP.[12] a building above average rooftop level. Micro cells are
Telstra in Australia has shut down its 2G GSM network cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level;
on December 1, 2016, which makes it the rst mobile net- they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small
work operator to decommission a GSM network.[13] The cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they
second mobile provider planning to shut down its GSM are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for
network (on January 1, 2017) is AT&T Mobility from the use in residential or small business environments and con-
United States.[14] Singapore will phase out 2G services by nect to the service providers network via a broadband in-
April 2017. ternet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shad-
owed regions of smaller cells and ll in gaps in coverage
between those cells.
92 CHAPTER 29. GSM

the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead
(for example in Canada and the United States). In rare
cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned
in some countries because they were previously used for
rst-generation systems.
Most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz
frequency band. For more information on worldwide
GSM frequency usage, see GSM frequency bands.
Regardless of the frequency selected by an operator, it is
divided into timeslots for individual phones. This allows
eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per
radio frequency. These eight radio timeslots (or burst pe-
riods) are grouped into a TDMA frame. Half-rate chan-
nels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The chan-
nel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the
frame duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a max-
imum of 2 watts in GSM 850/900 and 1 watt in GSM
1800/1900.

Voice codecs

GSM cell site antennas in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Ger-

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1
many kHz audio into between 6.5 and 13 kbit/s. Originally,
two codecs, named after the types of data channel they
were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (6.5 kbit/s)
Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based on
antenna gain, and propagation conditions from a couple linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being ef-
of hundred meters to several tens of kilometres. The cient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to
longest distance the GSM specication supports in prac- identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the
tical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these
implementations of the concept of an extended cell,[15] parts of the signal.
where the cell radius could be double or even more, de- As GSM was further enhanced in 1997[16] with the
pending on the antenna system, the type of terrain, and Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that
the timing advance. uses a full-rate channel. Finally, with the development
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec
achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and ro-
an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed bust against interference when used on full-rate channels,
through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from or less robust but still relatively high quality when used in
an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed an- good radio conditions on half-rate channel.
tenna system. These are typically deployed when signi-
cant call capacity is needed indoors, like in shopping cen-
ters or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since 29.2.3 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetra-
tion of the radio signals from any nearby cell. Main article: Subscriber Identity Module

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Iden-

GSM carrier frequencies
Main article: GSM frequency bands
GSM networks operate in a number of dierent carrier
frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges
for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most
2G GSM networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800
MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated,
tity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM
is a detachable smart card containing the users subscrip-
tion information and phone book. This allows the user
to retain his or her information after switching handsets.
Alternatively, the user can also change operators while
retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some
operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only
a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice
is known as SIM locking.
29.4. STANDARDS INFORMATION 93

29.2.4 Phone locking tions by impersonating another user to listen to voicemail,

make calls, or send text messages using a seven-year-old
Main article: SIM lock Motorola cellphone and decryption software available for
free online.[22]
Sometimes mobile network operators restrict handsets New attacks have been observed that take advantage of
that they sell for use with their own network. This is poor security implementations, architecture, and devel-
called locking and is implemented by a software feature of opment for smartphone applications. Some wiretapping
the phone. A subscriber may usually contact the provider and eavesdropping techniques hijack the audio input and
to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to output providing an opportunity for a third party to listen
remove the lock, or use software and websites to unlock in to the conversation.[23]
the handset themselves. It is possible to hack past a phone
GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data
locked by a network operator.
transmissions like browsing the web. The most com-
In some countries (e.g., Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, monly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in
Chile, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Lebanon, 2011.[24]
Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Poland, Singapore, South
The researchers revealed aws in the commonly used
Africa, Thailand) all phones are sold unlocked.[17]
GEA/1 and GEA/2 ciphers and published the open-
source gprsdecode software for sning GPRS net-
works. They also noted that some carriers do not encrypt
29.3 GSM security the data (i.e., using GEA/0) in order to detect the use of
trac or protocols they do not like (e.g., Skype), leav-
GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It ing customers unprotected. GEA/3 seems to remain rel-
has considered the user authentication using a pre-shared atively hard to break and is said to be in use on some more
key and challenge-response, and over-the-air encryption. modern networks. If used with USIM to prevent connec-
However, GSM is vulnerable to dierent types of attack, tions to fake base stations and downgrade attacks, users
each of them aimed at a dierent part of the network.[18] will be protected in the medium term, though migration
to 128-bit GEA/4 is still recommended.
The development of UMTS introduces an optional
Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses
a longer authentication key to give greater security, as
well as mutually authenticating the network and the user, 29.4 Standards information
whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network
(and not vice versa). The security model therefore oers The GSM systems and services are described in a set
condentiality and authentication, but limited authoriza- of standards governed by ETSI, where a full list is
tion capabilities, and no non-repudiation. maintained.[25]
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security.
The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers are used for
ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed 29.5 GSM open-source software
rst and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and
the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other coun- Several open-source software projects exist that provide
tries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algo- certain GSM features:
rithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a
ciphertext-only attack, and in January 2007, The Hackers gsmd daemon by Openmoko[26]
Choice started the A5/1 cracking project with plans to use
FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow ta- OpenBTS develops a Base transceiver station
[19]
ble attack. The system supports multiple algorithms so
The GSM Software Project aims to build a GSM an-
operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
alyzer for less than $1,000[27]
Since 2000, dierent eorts have been done in order
to crack the A5 encryption algorithms. Both A5/1 and OsmocomBB developers intend to replace the pro-
A5/2 algorithms are broken, and their cryptanalysis has prietary baseband GSM stack with a free software
been considered in the literature. As an example, Karsten implementation[28]
Nohl developed a number of rainbow tables (static values YateBTS develops a Base transceiver station [29]
which reduce the time needed to carry out an attack) and
have found new sources for known plaintext attacks.[20]
He said that it is possible to build a full GSM inter- 29.5.1 Issues with patents and open source
ceptor...from open-source components but that they had
not done so because of legal concerns.[21] Nohl claimed Patents remain a problem for any open-source GSM im-
that he was able to intercept voice and text conversa- plementation, because it is not possible for GNU or any
94
other free software distributor to guarantee immunity
from all lawsuits by the patent holders against the users.
Furthermore, new features are being added to the stan-
dard all the time which means they have patent protection
for a number of years.
The original GSM implementations from 1991 may now
be entirely free of patent encumbrances, however patent
freedom is not certain due to the United States rst to
invent system that was in place until 2012. The rst to
invent system, coupled with patent term adjustment
can extend the life of a U.S. patent far beyond 20 years
from its priority date. It is unclear at this time whether
OpenBTS will be able to implement features of that initial
specication without limit. As patents subsequently ex-
pire, however, those features can be added into the open-
source version. As of 2011, there have been no lawsuits
against users of OpenBTS over GSM use.
29.6 See also
Cellular network
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
Long Term Evolution (LTE)
Personal communications network (PCN)
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
MSISDN Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
Hando
Visitors Location Register (VLR)
Um interface
GSM-R (GSM-Railway)
GSM services
Cell Broadcast
GSM localization
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
NITZ Network Identity and Time Zone
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
Simulation of GSM networks
Standards
Comparison of mobile phone standards
GEO-Mobile Radio Interface
Intelligent Network
Parlay X
CHAPTER 29. GSM
RRLP Radio Resource Location Protocol
GSM 03.48 Security mechanisms for the
SIM application toolkit
RTP audio video prole
Enhanced Network Selection (ENS)
GSM frequency bands
GSM USSD codes Unstructured Supplementary
Service Data: list of all standard GSM codes for net-
work and SIM related functions
GSM forwarding standard features codes list of
call forward codes working with all operators and
phones
29.7 References
[1] Sauter, Martin (21 Nov 2013). The GSM Logo: The
Mystery of the 4 Dots Solved. Retrieved 23 Nov 2013.
[...] heres what [Yngve Zetterstrom, rapporteur of the
Maketing and Planning (MP) group of the MoU (Mem-
orandum of Understanding group, later to become the
GSM Association (GSMA)) in 1989] had to say to solve
the mystery: '[The dots symbolize] three [clients] in the
home network and one roaming client.' There you go, an
answer from the prime source!
[2] Anton A. Huurdeman, The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons, 31 juli 2003,
page 529
[3] GSM Global system for Mobile Communications. 4G
Americas. Retrieved 2014-03-22.
[4] EU Seeks To End Mandatory GSM for 900Mhz - Source
[5] Leader (7 September 2007). Happy 20th Birthday,
GSM. zdnet.co.uk. CBS Interactive. Archived from the
original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011. Before
GSM, Europe had a disastrous mishmash of national ana-
logue standards in phones and TV, designed to protect na-
tional industries but instead creating fragmented markets
vulnerable to big guns from abroad.
[6] GSM. etsi.org. European Telecommunications Stan-
dards Institute. 2011. Archived from the original on 5
May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011. GSM was designed
principally for voice telephony, but a range of bearer ser-
vices was dened...allowing circuit-switched data connec-
tions at up to 9600 bits/s.
[7] History. gsmworld.com. GSM Association. 2001.
Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved
5 May 2011. 1982 Groupe Speciale Mobile (GSM)
is formed by the Confederation of European Posts and
Telecommunications (CEPT) to design a pan-European
mobile technology.
29.8. FURTHER READING 95

[8] Cellular History. etsi.org. European Telecommunica-
tions Standards Institute. 2011. Archived from the origi-
nal on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011. The task was
entrusted to a committee known as Groupe Spcial Mo-
bile (GSMTM), aided by a permanent nucleus of tech-
nical support personnel, based in Paris.
[23] cPanel. Infosecurityguard.com. Retrieved 30 August
2010.
[24] Codebreaker Karsten Nohl: Why Your Phone Is Insecure
By Design. Forbes.com. 12 August 2011. Retrieved 13
August 2011.

[9] Who created GSM?". Stephen Temple. Retrieved 7 [25] GSM UMTS 3GPP Numbering Cross Reference.
April 2013. Before GSM, Europe had a disastrous mish- ETSI. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
mash of national analogue standards in phones and TV,
[26] Gsmd Openmoko. Wiki.openmoko.org. 8 February
designed to protect national industries but instead creating
2010. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
fragmented markets vulnerable to big guns from abroad.
[10] Maailman ensimminen GSM-puhelu [Worlds rst [27] The Hackers Choice Wiki. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
GSM call]. yle.. Yelisradio OY. 22 February 2008. [28] OsmocomBB. Bb.osmocom.org. Retrieved 22 April
Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 5 2010.
May 2011. Harri Holkeri made the rst call on the Ra-
diolinja (Elisas subsidiary) network, at the opening cere- [29] YateBTS. Legba Inc. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
mony in Helsinki on 07.01.1991.
[11] GSM World statistics. gsmworld.com. GSM Associa-
tion. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 May 2010. 29.8 Further reading
Retrieved 8 June 2010.
[12] Mobile technologies GSM. Retrieved 7 November Redl, Siegmund M.; Weber, Matthias K.; Oliphant,
2013. Malcolm W (February 1995). An Introduction to
GSM. Artech House. ISBN 978-0-89006-785-7.
[13] Telstra switches o GSM network. TeleGeography.
2016-12-02. Retrieved 2016-12-02. Redl, Siegmund M.; Weber, Matthias K.; Oliphant,
[14] 2G Sunset (PDF). ATT Mobility. Retrieved 10 August Malcolm W (April 1998). GSM and Personal
2016. Communications Handbook. Artech House Mobile
Communications Library. Artech House. ISBN
[15] Motorola Demonstrates Long Range GSM Capability 978-0-89006-957-8.
300% More Coverage With New Extended Cell.
Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Hillebrand, Friedhelm, ed. (December 2001). GSM
and UMTS, The Creation of Global Mobile Commu-
[16] GSM 06.51 version 4.0.1 (ZIP). ETSI. December 1997.
Retrieved 5 September 2007. nications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-
84322-2.
[17] Victoria Shannon (2007). iPhone Must Be Oered
Without Contract Restrictions, German Court Rules. Mouly, Michel; Pautet, Marie-Bernardette (June
The New York Times. Retrieved 2 February 2011. 2002). The GSM System for Mobile Communica-
tions. Telecom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-945592-
[18] Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses, Proceedings
of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Gen-
15-0.
eration Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies Salgues, Salgues B. (April 1997). Les tlcoms mo-
(NGMAST2008), pp.576581, Cardi, UK, September
biles GSM DCS. Hermes (2nd ed.). Hermes Sciences
2008, arXiv:1002.3175
Publications. ISBN 2866016068.
[19] The A5/1 Cracking Project. http://www.scribd.com.
Retrieved 3 Nov 2011. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help); External link in |publisher= (help)
29.9 External links
[20] Kevin J. O'Brien (28 December 2009). Cellphone En-
cryption Code Is Divulged. New York Times. GSM AssociationOcial industry trade group
[21] A5/1 Cracking Project. Archived from the original on representing GSM network operators worldwide
25 December 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
3GPP3G GSM standards development group
[22] Owano, Nancy (27 Dec 2011). GSM phones -- call them
unsafe, says security expert. Archived from the original
on 27 Dec 2011. Retrieved 27 Dec 2011. Nohl said that
he was able to intercept voice and text conversations by
impersonating another user to listen to their voice mails
or make calls or send text messages. Even more troubling
was that he was able to pull this o using a seven-year-
old Motorola cellphone and decryption software available
free o the Internet.
Chapter 30

Integrated Services Digital Network

ISDN redirects here. For other uses, see ISDN (disam-
biguation).
Not to be confused with SDN (Software-dened network-
ing).
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a
data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. In some countries,
ISDN found major market application for Internet ac-
cess, in which ISDN typically provides a maximum of
128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream
directions. Channel bonding can achieve a greater data
rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs
(six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
ISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical
layers in the context of the OSI model, or could be consid-
ered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3
of the OSI model. In common use, ISDN is often limited
to usage to Q.931 and related protocols, which are a set
of signaling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-
switched connections, and for advanced calling features
for the user. They were introduced in 1986.[2]
In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice,
video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group (room) videocon-
ferencing systems.

30.1 ISDN elements

ISDN telephone
Integrated services refers to ISDNs ability to deliver at
set of communication standards for simultaneous digital
minimum two simultaneous connections, in any com-
transmission of voice, video, data, and other network ser-
bination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single
vices over the traditional circuits of the public switched
line. Multiple devices can be attached to the line, and
telephone network. It was rst dened in 1988 in the
used as needed. That means an ISDN line can take
CCITT red book.[1] Prior to ISDN, the telephone sys-
care of most peoples complete communications needs
tem was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some
(apart from broadband Internet access and entertainment
special services available for data. The key feature of
television) at a much higher transmission rate, without
ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same
forcing the purchase of multiple analog phone lines. It
lines, adding features that were not available in the classic
also refers to integrated switching and transmission[3] in
telephone system. The ISDN standards dene several
that telephone switching and carrier wave transmission
kinds of access interfaces, such as Basic Rate Interface
are integrated rather than separate as in earlier technol-
(BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN
ogy.
(N-ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system,
which also provides access to packet switched networks, 30.2 Basic Rate Interface
designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data
over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in po-
tentially better voice quality than an analog phone can Main article: Basic Rate Interface
provide. It oers circuit-switched connections (for ei-
ther voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic Rate Inter-

96
30.4. BEARER CHANNELS 97

face (BRI), a 128 kbit/s service delivered over a pair of n*24B. D-channel backup allows for a second D chan-
standard telephone copper wires.[4] The 144 kbit/s pay- nel in case the primary fails. NFAS is commonly used on
load rate is broken down into two 64 kbit/s bearer chan- a T3.
nels ('B' channels) and one 16 kbit/s signaling channel ('D' PRI-ISDN is popular throughout the world, especially for
channel or data channel). This is sometimes referred to connecting private branch exchanges to the public net-
as 2B+D.[5] work.
The interface species the following network interfaces:
Even though many network professionals use the term
ISDN to refer to the lower-bandwidth BRI circuit, in
The U interface is a two-wire interface between the North America BRI is relatively uncommon whilst PRI
exchange and a network terminating unit, which is circuits serving PBXs are commonplace.
usually the demarcation point in non-North Ameri-
can networks.

The T interface is a serial interface between a com- 30.4 Bearer channels

puting device and a terminal adapter, which is the
digital equivalent of a modem.
The bearer channel (B) is a standard 64 kbit/s voice chan-
The S interface is a four-wire bus that ISDN con- nel of 8 bits sampled at 8 kHz with G.711 encoding. B-
sumer devices plug into; the S & T reference points Channels can also be used to carry data, since they are
are commonly implemented as a single interface la- nothing more than digital channels.
beled 'S/T' on a Network termination 1 (NT1). Each one of these channels is known as a DS0.
Most B channels can carry a 64 kbit/s signal, but some
The R interface denes the point between a non-
were limited to 56K because they traveled over RBS lines.
ISDN device and a terminal adapter (TA) which
This was commonplace in the 20th century, but has since
provides translation to and from such a device.
become less so.

BRI-ISDN is very popular in Europe but is much less

common in North America. It is also common in Japan
where it is known as INS64.[6][7] 30.5 Signaling channel

The signaling channel (D) uses Q.931 for signaling with

30.3 Primary Rate Interface the other side of the link.

Main article: Primary Rate Interface

30.6 X.25
The other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate In-
terface (PRI), which is carried over an E1 (2048 kbit/s)
in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 'B' channels of X.25 can be carried over the B or D channels of a BRI
64 kbit/s, one 'D' channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and line, and over the B channels of a PRI line. X.25 over
alarm channel of 64 kbit/s. This is often referred to as the D channel is used at many point-of-sale (credit card)
30B+D.[8] terminals because it eliminates the modem setup, and be-
cause it connects to the central system over a B chan-
In North America PRI service is delivered on one or more nel, thereby eliminating the need for modems and making
T1 carriers (often referred to as 23B+D) of 1544 kbit/s much better use of the central systems telephone lines.
(24 channels). A PRI has 23 'B' channels and 1 'D' chan-
nel for signalling (Japan uses a circuit called a J1, which is X.25 was also part of an ISDN protocol called Always
similar to a T1). Inter-changeably but incorrectly, a PRI On/Dynamic ISDN, or AO/DI. This allowed a user to
is referred to as T1 because it uses the T1 carrier format. have a constant multi-link PPP connection to the internet
A true T1 (commonly called Analog T1 to avoid confu- over X.25 on the D channel, and brought up one or two B
sion) uses 24 channels of 64 kbit/s of in-band signaling. channels as needed.
Each channel uses 56 kb for data and voice and 8 kb for
signaling and messaging. PRI uses out of band signaling
which provides the 23 B channels with clear 64 kb for
voice and data and one 64 kb 'D' channel for signaling
30.7 Frame Relay
and messaging. In North America, Non-Facility Associ-
ated Signalling allows two or more PRIs to be controlled In theory, Frame Relay can operate over the D channel
by a single D channel, and is sometimes called 23B+D + of BRIs and PRIs, but it is seldom, if ever, used.
98 CHAPTER 30. INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK
30.8 Consumer and industry per- 30.8.2 Countries
spectives
There is a second viewpoint: that of the telephone in-
dustry, where ISDN is a core technology. A telephone
network can be thought of as a collection of wires strung
between switching systems. The common electrical spec-
ication for the signals on these wires is T1 or E1. Be-
tween telephone company switches, the signaling is per-
formed via SS7. Normally, a PBX is connected via a T1
with robbed bit signaling to indicate on-hook or o-hook
conditions and MF and DTMF tones to encode the des-
tination number. ISDN is much better because messages
can be sent much more quickly than by trying to encode
numbers as long (100 ms per digit) tone sequences. This
results in faster call setup times. Also, a greater number
of features are available and fraud is reduced.
ISDN is also used as a smart-network technology in-
tended to add new services to the public switched tele-
phone network (PSTN) by giving users direct access
to end-to-end circuit-switched digital services and as a
backup or failsafe circuit solution for critical use data cir-
cuits.
30.8.1 ISDN and broadcast industry
ISDN is used heavily by the broadcast industry as a re-
liable way of switching low-latency, high-quality, long-
distance audio circuits. In conjunction with an appro-
priate codec using MPEG or various manufacturers pro-
prietary algorithms, an ISDN BRI can be used to send
stereo bi-directional audio coded at 128 kbit/s with 20
Hz 20 kHz audio bandwidth, although commonly the
G.722 algorithm is used with a single 64 kbit/s B chan-
nel to send much lower latency mono audio at the ex-
pense of audio quality. Where very high quality audio
is required multiple ISDN BRIs can be used in parallel to
provide a higher bandwidth circuit switched connection.
BBC Radio 3 commonly makes use of three ISDN BRIs
to carry 320 kbit/s audio stream for live outside broad-
casts. ISDN BRI services are used to link remote stu-
dios, sports grounds and outside broadcasts into the main
broadcast studio. ISDN via satellite is used by eld re-
porters around the world. It is also common to use ISDN
for the return audio links to remote satellite broadcast ve-
hicles.
In many countries, such as the UK and Australia, ISDN
has displaced the older technology of equalised ana-
logue landlines, with these circuits being phased out by
telecommunications providers. Use of IP-based stream-
ing codecs such as Comrex ACCESS and ipDTL is be- In 2013, Verizon announced it would no longer take
coming more widespread in the broadcast sector, using orders for ISDN service in the Northeastern United
broadband internet to connect remote studios.[9] States.[4]
United States and Canada
ISDN-BRI never gained popularity as a general use tele-
phone access technology in Canada and the US, and re-
mains a niche product. The service was seen as a solution
in search of a problem,[10] and the extensive array of op-
tions and features were dicult for customers to under-
stand and use. ISDN has long been known by derogatory
backronyms highlighting these issues, such as It Still Does
Nothing, Innovations Subscribers Don't Need, and I Still
Don't kNow.[11][12]
Once the concept of broadband Internet access came to
be associated with data rates incoming to the customer at
256 kbit/s or more,[lower-alpha 1] and alternatives like ADSL
grew in popularity, the consumer market for BRI did not
develop. Its only remaining advantage is that while ADSL
has a functional distance limitation and can use ADSL
loop extenders, BRI has a greater limit and can use re-
peaters. As such, BRI may be acceptable for customers
who are too remote for ADSL. Widespread use of BRI is
further stymied by some small North American CLECs
such as CenturyTel having given up on it and not provid-
ing Internet access using it.[16] However, AT&T in most
states (especially the former SBC/SWB territory) will still
install an ISDN BRI line anywhere a normal analog line
can be placed and the monthly charge is roughly $55.
ISDN-BRI is currently primarily used in industries
with specialized and very specic needs. High-end
videoconferencing hardware made by companies such as
Sony, Polycom, Tandberg, and LifeSize via the LifeSize
Networker[17] can bond up to 8 B-channels together (us-
ing a BRI circuit for every 2 channels) to provide digital,
circuit-switched video connections to almost anywhere in
the world. This is very expensive, and is being replaced
by IP-based conferencing, but where cost concern is less
of an issue than predictable quality and where a QoS-
enabled IP does not exist, BRI is the preferred choice.
Most modern non-VoIP PBXs use ISDN-PRI circuits.
These are connected via T1 lines with the central oce
switch, replacing older analog two-way and direct inward
dialing (DID) trunks. PRI is capable of delivering Calling
Line Identication (CLID) in both directions so that the
telephone number of an extension, rather than a com-
panys main number, can be sent. It is still commonly
used in recording studios, when a voice-over actor is in
one studio, but the director and producer are in a studio
at another location.[4] The ISDN protocol delivers chan-
nelized, not-over-the-Internet service, powerful call setup
and routing features, faster setup and tear down, superior
audio delity as compared to POTS (plain old telephone
service), lower delay and, at higher densities, lower cost.
30.8. CONSUMER AND INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVES 99

India France

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance Communica-
tions and Bharti Airtel are the largest communication
service providers, and oer both ISDN BRI and PRI
services across the country. Reliance Communications
and Bharti Airtel uses the DLC technology for provid-
ing these services. With the introduction of broadband
technology, the load on bandwidth is being absorbed by
ADSL. ISDN continues to be an important backup net-
work for point-to-point leased line customers such as
banks, Eseva Centers,[18] Life Insurance Corporation of
India, and SBI ATMs.
France Telecom oers ISDN services under their prod-
uct name Numeris (2 B+D), of which a professional Duo
and home Itoo version is available. ISDN is generally
known as RNIS in France and has widespread availability.
The introduction of ADSL is reducing ISDN use for data
transfer and Internet access, although it is still common in
more rural and outlying areas, and for applications such
as business voice and point-of-sale terminals.
Germany

Japan

On April 19, 1988, Japanese telecommunications com-

pany NTT began oering nationwide ISDN services
trademarked INS Net 64, and INS Net 1500, a fruition
of NTTs independent research and trial from the 1970s
of what it referred to the INS (Information Network
System).[19]
Previously, on April 1985, Japanese digital telephone ex-
change hardware made by Fujitsu was used to experimen-
tally deploy the worlds rst I interface ISDN. The I in- German stamp
terface, unlike the older and incompatible Y interface, is
what modern ISDN services use today. In Germany, ISDN was very popular with an installed
Since 2000, NTTs ISDN oering have been known as base of 25 million channels (29% of all subscriber lines
FLETs ISDN, incorporating the "FLETs" brand that in Germany as of 2003 and 20% of all ISDN channels
NTT uses for all of its ISP oerings. worldwide). Due to the success of ISDN, the number of
installed analog lines was decreasing. Deutsche Telekom
In Japan, the number of ISDN subscribers dwindled as (DTAG) oered both BRI and PRI. Competing phone
alternative technologies such as ADSL, cable Internet ac- companies often oered ISDN only and no analog lines.
cess, and ber to the home gained greater popularity. However, these operators generally oered free hard-
On November 2, 2010, NTT announced plans to migrate ware that also allows the use of POTS equipment, such
their backend from PSTN to the IP network from around as NTBAs[lower-alpha 2] with integrated terminal adapters.
2020 to around 2025. For this migration, ISDN services Because of the widespread availability of ADSL services,
will be retired, and ber optic services are recommended ISDN was primarily used for voice and fax trac.
as an alternative.[20]
Until 2007 ISDN (BRI) and ADSL/VDSL were often
bundled on the same line, mainly because the combi-
nation of ADSL with an analog line had no cost advan-
United Kingdom
tage over a combined ISDN-ADSL line. This advantage
diminished when vendors of ISDN technology stopped
In the United Kingdom, British Telecom (BT) provides manufacturing it and spare parts became hard to come by.
ISDN2e (BRI) as well as ISDN30 (PRI). Until April Since then phone companies started introducing cheaper
2006, they also oered services named Home Highway ADSL-only products using VoIP for telephony.[23]
and Business Highway, which were BRI ISDN-based ser-
vices that oered integrated analogue connectivity as well Since the introduction of VDSL2 using outdoor MSANs,
as ISDN. Later versions of the Highway products also ISDN became obsolete. Today new ISDN lines are not
included built-in universal serial bus (USB) sockets for available anymore in Germany and existing ISDN lines
direct computer access. Home Highway was bought by will be phased out until 2018 and replaced by G.992.3
[24]
many home users, usually for Internet connection, al- Annex J all digital mode ADSL.
though not as fast as ADSL, because it was available be-
fore ADSL and in places where ADSL does not reach.
Greece
In early 2015, BT announced their intention to retire the
UKs ISDN infrastructure by 2025.[21] OTE, the incumbent telecommunications operator, of-
100 CHAPTER 30. INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK

fers ISDN BRI (BRA) services in Greece. Following the Another alternative ISDN conguration can be used in
launch of ADSL in 2003, the importance of ISDN for which the B channels of an ISDN BRI line are bonded
data transfer began to decrease and is today limited to to provide a total duplex bandwidth of 128 kbit/s. This
niche business applications with point-to-point require- precludes use of the line for voice calls while the inter-
ments. net connection is in use. The B channels of several BRIs
can be bonded, a typical use is a 384K videoconferencing
channel.
30.8.3 International deployment
Using bipolar with eight-zero substitution encoding tech-
A study of the German Department of Science shows nique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels,
[25]

the following spread of ISDN-channels per 1,000 inhab- with the signaling (D) channels used for call setup and
itants in the year 2005: management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple
64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel (actu-
ally implemented as two simplex channels, one in each
Norway 401 direction) between the end parties, lasting until the call is
Denmark 339 terminated. There can be as many calls as there are bearer
channels, to the same or dierent end-points. Bearer
Germany 333 channels may also be multiplexed into what may be con-
sidered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process
Switzerland 331 called B channel BONDING, or via use of Multi-Link
Japan 240 PPP bundling or by using an H0, H11, or H12 channel
on a PRI.
UK 160 The D channel can also be used for sending and receiving
Finland 160 X.25 data packets, and connection to X.25 packet net-
work, this is specied in X.31. In practice, X.31 was
Sweden 135 only commercially implemented in UK, France, Japan
and Germany.
Italy 105

France 85
30.10 Reference points
Spain 58

United States 47
30.9 Congurations
In ISDN, there are two types of channels, B (for bearer)
and D (for data). B channels are used for data (which
may include voice), and D channels are intended for sig-
naling and control (but can also be used for data).
There are two ISDN implementations. Basic Rate Inter-
face (BRI), also called basic rate access (BRA) con-
sists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 kbit/s,
and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. To-
gether these three channels can be designated as 2B+D.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI), also called primary rate ac-
cess (PRA) in Europe contains a greater number of B
channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s.
The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the
nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with
an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe, In-
dia and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate
of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1). Broadband Integrated Services
Digital Network (BISDN) is another ISDN implementa-
tion and it is able to manage dierent types of services at
the same time. It is primarily used within network back-
bones and employs ATM.
A set of reference points are dened in the ISDN standard
to refer to certain points between the telco and the end
user ISDN equipment.
R denes the point between a non-ISDN terminal
equipment 2 (TE2) device and a terminal adapter
(TA) which provides translation to and from such a
device
S denes the point between the ISDN terminal
equipment 1 (TE1) or TA and a Network Termina-
tion Type 2 (NT2) device
T denes the point between the NT2 and network
termination 1 (NT1) devices.
Most NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT2
as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally
collapsed into the S/T reference point.
In North America, the NT1 device is considered
customer premises equipment (CPE) and must be main-
tained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided
to the customer. In other locations, the NT1 device is
maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided
to the customer. In India, service providers provide U in-
terface and an NT1 may be supplied by Service provider
as part of service oering.
30.13. SEE ALSO
30.11 Types of communications
Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64
kbit/s channels are pulse-code modulated voice calls, pro-
viding access to the traditional voice PSTN. This infor-
mation can be passed between the network and the user
end-point at call set-up time. In North America, ISDN is
now used mostly as an alternative to analog connections,
most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services
envisioned as being delivered over ISDN are now deliv-
ered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany
in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a
phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone with
few or no features. Meanwhile, features that were rst
available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Calling, Call
Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly avail-
able for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this
advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the
possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B
channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased pop-
ularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has
become less interesting as well, making ISDN unappeal-
ing to the private customer. However, ISDN is typically
more reliable than POTS, and has a signicantly faster
call setup time compared with POTS, and IP connections
over ISDN typically have some 3035ms round trip time,
as opposed to 120180ms (both measured with other-
wise unused lines) over 56k or V.34/V.92 modems, mak-
ing ISDN more reliable and more ecient for telecom-
muters.
Where an analog connection requires a modem, an ISDN
connection requires a terminal adapter (TA). The func-
tion of an ISDN terminal adapter is often delivered in
the form of a PC card with an S/T interface, and single-
chip solutions seem to exist, considering the plethora of
combined ISDN- and ADSL-routers.
ISDN is commonly used in radio broadcasting. Since
ISDN provides a high quality connection this assists in
delivering good quality audio for transmission in radio.
Most radio studios are equipped with ISDN lines as their
main form of communication with other studios or stan-
dard phone lines. Equipment made by companies such
as Telos/Omnia (the popular Zephyr codec), Comrex,
Tieline and others are used regularly by radio broadcast-
ers. Almost all live sports broadcasts on radio are back-
hauled to their main studios via ISDN connections.
30.12 Sample call
The following is an example of a Primary Rate
(PRI) ISDN call showing the Q.921/LAPD and the
Q.931/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what
was exchanged on the D-channel). The call is originating
from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out
to some other switch, possibly an end-oce LEC, who
101
terminates the call.
The rst line format is <time> <D-channel> <Transmit-
ted/Received> <LAPD/ISDN message ID>. If the mes-
sage is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the
message is attempted showing the various Information El-
ements that make up the message. All ISDN messages
are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that
started the call (local/remote). Following this optional de-
coding is a dump of the bytes of the message in <oset>
<hex> ... <hex> <ascii> ... <ascii> format.
The RR messages at the beginning prior to the call are the
keep alive messages. SETUP message indicate the start
of the call. Each message is acknowledged by the other
side with a RR.
10:49:47.33 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 a5 .... 10:49:47.34
21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 b9 .... 10:50:17.57 21/1/24 R
RR 0000 02 01 01 a5 .... 10:50:17.58 21/1/24 T RR 0000
02 01 01 b9 .... 10:50:24.37 21/1/24 T SETUP Call Refer-
ence : 000062-local Bearer Capability : CCITT, Speech, Cir-
cuit mode, 64 kbit/s Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID im-
plies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive Calling Party Number
: 8018023000 National number User-provided, not screened
Presentation allowed Called Party Number : 3739120 Type:
SUBSCRB 0000 00 01 a4 b8 08 02 00 3e 05 04 03 80 90 a2 18
03 .......>........ 0010 a9 83 85 6c 0c 21 80 38 30 31 38 30 32
33 30 30 ...l.!.801802300 0020 30 70 08 c1 33 37 33 39 31 32
30 0p..3739120 10:50:24.37 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 a6
.... 10:50:24.77 21/1/24 R CALL PROCEEDING Call Refer-
ence : 000062-local Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies
current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive 0000 02 01 b8 a6 08 02 80 3e
02 18 03 a9 83 85 .......>...... 10:50:24.77 21/1/24 T RR 0000
02 01 01 ba .... 10:50:25.02 21/1/24 R ALERTING Call Ref-
erence : 000062-local Progress Indicator : CCITT, Public net-
work serving local user, In-band information or an appropriate
pattern is now available 0000 02 01 ba a6 08 02 80 3e 01 1e 02
82 88 .......>..... 10:50:25.02 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 bc ....
10:50:28.43 21/1/24 R CONNECT Call Reference : 000062-
local 0000 02 01 bc a6 08 02 80 3e 07 .......>. 10:50:28.43
21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 be .... 10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T
CONNECT_ACK Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 00 01
a6 be 08 02 00 3e 0f .......>. 10:50:28.44 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00
01 01 a8 .... 10:50:35.69 21/1/24 T DISCONNECT Call Ref-
erence : 000062-local Cause : 16, Normal call clearing. 0000
00 01 a8 be 08 02 00 3e 45 08 02 8a 90 .......>E.... 10:50:35.70
21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 aa .... 10:50:36.98 21/1/24 R RE-
LEASE Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 02 01 be aa 08 02
80 3e 4d .......>M 10:50:36.98 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 c0
.... 10:50:36.99 21/1/24 T RELEASE COMPLETE Call Ref-
erence : 000062-local 0000 00 01 aa c0 08 02 00 3e 5a .......>Z
10:50:36.00 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 ac .... 10:51:06.10
21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 ad .... 10:51:06.10 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 c1 .... 10:51:36.37 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01
01 ad .... 10:51:36.37 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 c1 ....
30.13 See also
102 CHAPTER 30. INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK

30.13.1 Protocols 30.13.2 Other

ISDN User Part (ISUP) CAPI

ADSL
DSS1 (ETSI "Euro-ISDN, also used in many non-
European countries) ATM

DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2) B-ISDN

ETS 300 specication at ETSI Internet

IpDTL
NI-1 (US National ISDN Phase 1)
H.320
NI-2 (US National ISDN Phase 2) ETSI

4ESS (Lucent 4ESS specic protocol dened in List of device bandwidths

AT&T TR 41459)

INS-NET 64/1500 (Japanese national/NTT carrier- 30.14 Notes

specic protocol)
[1] Broadband Internet access: Although various minimum
DACS used in the UK by British Telecom it uses bandwidths have been used in denitions of broadband,
non standard D channel signalling for pair gain ranging up from 64 kbit/s up to 1.0 Mbit/s, the 2006
OECD report[13] is typical by dening broadband as hav-
ing download data transfer rates equal to or faster than
QSIG 256 kbit/s, while the United States FCC, as of 2008, de-
nes broadband as anything above 768 kbit/s.[14][15] The
Remote Operations Service Element protocol trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband denition
(ROSE) as the marketplace rolls out faster services.[15]

[2] Network Termination for ISDN Basic Access, little

Q.931 boxes that bridge the two-wire UK0 line to the four-wire
S0 bus.[22]
FTZ 1 TR 6 (obsolete German national protocol)

TS.013/TS.014 (obsolete Australian national proto- 30.15 References

col)
[1] Decina, M; Scace, E (May 1986). CCITT Recommen-
VN2/VN3/VN4 (obsolete French national proto- dations on the ISDN: A Review. CCITT Red Book. 4 (3):
cols) 32025. doi:10.1109/JSAC.1986.1146333. ISSN 0733-
8716.

Specications dening the physical layer and part of the [2] Aaron, R; Wyndrum, R (March 1986). Future
data link layers of ISDN: trends (PDF). IEEE Communications Maga-
zine. AT&T Bell Laboratories. 24 (3): 3843.
doi:10.1109/MCOM.1986.1093028. Retrieved 2
ISDN BRI: ITU-T I.430. September 2007.

ISDN PRI: ITU-T I.431. [3] Robin, G; Treves, S (July 1979). Pragmatic Introduction
of Digital Switching and Transmission in Existing Net-
works. IEEE Transactions on Communications. 27 (7):
From the point of view of the OSI architecture, an ISDN 1071. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1979.1094494.
line has a stack of three protocols
[4] Verizon: No Longer Taking Orders for ISDN Service in
Northeast Starting May 18. Talkers. March 28, 2013.
physical layer Retrieved April 6, 2013.

[5] What is ISDN?". Southwestern Bell. Retrieved April 6,

data link layer 2013.

network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly) [6] What Is Basic Rate Interface?". Retrieved April 6, 2013.
30.16. EXTERNAL LINKS 103

[7] ISDN\SwitchType. Microsoft. Retrieved April 6, 30.16 External links

2013.
Published recommendations available in English,
[8] Bellamy, John C. (2000). Digital Telephony (3 ed.). Wiley
French and Spanish (list), ITU.
Interscience. p. 496. ISBN 0-471-34571-7.
Fine, ISDN, Harvard.
[9] McCoy, Jason. IPDTL, Source-Connect vs Skype for
voice over talent. McCoy Productions. Retrieved 16 B, Ralph, ISDN.
March 2015.
ISDN, Roblee.
[10] ISDN: A Solution in Search of a Problem, Computing
Japan Magazine (article), SeptemberOctober 1995.

[11] Green, James Harry (26 October 2005). The Irwin Hand-
book of Telecommunications (5 ed.). McGraw-Hill Pro-
fessional. p. 770. ISBN 978-0-07-145222-9. Retrieved
12 May 2012.

[12] Bodin, Madeline; Dawson, Keith (3 January 2002). The

Call Center Dictionary: The Complete Guide to Call Center
& Customer Support Technology Solutions. Focal Press. p.
227. ISBN 978-1-57820-095-5. Retrieved 12 May 2012.

[13] Broadband Statistics (report), OECD, 2006.

[14] Martin, Kevin J, Statement of Chairman (MS Word doc),

US: FCC.

[15] FCC redenes broadband to mean 768 kbit/s, fast to

mean kinda slow"", Engadget, 2008-03-19.

[16] Disclaimer, Internet Access service oerings, Century-

Tel, You may not obtain Internet services over ISDN lines
(BRI or PRI), dedicated circuits or special service circuits.

[17] Networker, Infrastructure products, LifeSize.

[18] T, Radhakrishna. e-Seva: Enabling Bill Payment With-

out Queues (PDF). Real CIO World. 1 (1): 74. Retrieved
4 April 2015.

[19] NTT - " (in Japanese). JP: Denwakyoku.

|contribution= ignored (help)

[20] PTSN ~ ~" (PDF) (in

Japanese). JP: NTT East. November 2, 2010.

[21] BT Group plc Q3 2014/15 Results. Retrieved 27 June

2015.

[22] "Network Termination for ISDN Basic rate Access",

Wikipedia (in German), Wikimedia.

[23] Neuhetzki, Thorsten (24 Jan 2007). Arcor will ab Som-

mer Fernsehen per Internet anbieten. teltarif.de. Re-
trieved 7 May 2016. Arcor setzt im Endkundenbereich
auf NGN

[24] Niek Jan van Damme (16 March 2014). Deutsche

Telekom - 100% IP by 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2016.

[25] ISDN-Verbreitung, Studie (PDF), DE: BMBF, archived

from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-02.
Chapter 31

Interactive voice response

IVR redirects here. For other uses, see IVR (disam- integration (CTI) with IVR systems. IVR became vi-
biguation). tal for call centers deploying universal queuing and rout-
ing solutions and acted as an agent which collected cus-
tomer data to enable intelligent routing decisions. With
Interactive voice response (IVR) is a technology that
allows a computer to interact with humans through the improvements in technology, systems could use speaker-
independent voice recognition of a limited vocabulary in-
use of voice and DTMF tones input via keypad. In
telecommunications, IVR allows customers to interact stead of requiring the person to use DTMF signaling.
with a companys host system via a telephone keypad or Starting in the 2000s, voice response became more com-
by speech recognition, after which services can be in- mon and cheaper to deploy. This was due to increased
quired about through the IVR dialogue. IVR systems can CPU power and the migration of speech applications
respond with prerecorded or dynamically generated au- from proprietary code to the VXML standard.
dio to further direct users on how to proceed. IVR sys-
tems deployed in the network are sized to handle large
call volumes and also used for outbound calling, as IVR 31.2 Technology
systems are more intelligent than many predictive dialer
systems.[1]
DTMF decoding and speech recognition are used to inter-
IVR systems can be used for mobile purchases, bank- pret the callers response to voice prompts. DTMF tones
ing payments and services, retail orders, utilities, travel are entered via the telephone keypad.
information and weather conditions. A common mis-
Other technologies include using text-to-speech (TTS) to
conception refers to an automated attendant as an IVR.
speak complex and dynamic information, such as e-mails,
The terms are distinct and mean dierent things to tradi-
news reports or weather information. IVR technology is
tional telecommunications professionalsthe purpose of
also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-
an IVR is to take input, process it, and return a result,
free operation. TTS is computer generated synthesized
whereas the job of an automated attendant is to route
speech that is no longer the robotic voice traditionally as-
calls. The term voice response unit (VRU), is some-
sociated with computers. Real voices create the speech
times used as well.[2]
in fragments that are spliced together (concatenated) and
smoothed before being played to the caller.
An IVR can be deployed in several ways:
31.1 History
1. Equipment installed on the customer premises
Despite the increase in IVR technology during the 1970s,
the technology was considered complex and expensive 2. Equipment installed in the PSTN (public switched
for automating tasks in call centers.[3] Early voice re- telephone network)
sponse systems were DSP technology based and limited 3. Application service provider (ASP) / hosted IVR
to small vocabularies. In the early 1980s, Leon Ferbers
Perception Technology became the rst mainstream mar- An automatic call distributor (ACD) is often the rst
ket competitor, after hard drive technology (read/write point of contact when calling many larger businesses.
random-access to digitized voice data) had reached a cost An ACD uses digital storage devices to play greetings
eective price point. At that time, a system could store or announcements, but typically routes a caller without
digitized speech on disk, play the appropriate spoken prompting for input. An IVR can play announcements
message, and process the humans DTMF response. and request an input from the caller. This information
As call centers began to migrate to multimedia in the late can be used to prole the caller and route the call to an
1990s, companies started to invest in computer telephony agent with a particular skill set. (A skill set is a function

104
31.3. USAGE 105

applied to a group of call-center agents with a particular sentation layer (typically VoiceXML) can be automati-
skill.) cally generated. In addition, these tools normally provide
Interactive voice response can be used to front-end a call extension mechanisms for software integration, such as
center operation by identifying the needs of the caller. an HTTP interface to a web site and a Java interface for
Information can be obtained from the caller such as an connecting to a database.
account number. Answers to simple questions such as ac- In telecommunications, an audio response unit (ARU)
count balances or pre-recorded information can be pro- is a device that provides synthesized voice responses to
vided without operator intervention. Account numbers DTMF keypresses by processing calls based on (a) the
from the IVR are often compared to caller ID data for se- call-originator input, (b) information received from a
curity reasons and additional IVR responses are required database, and (c) information in the incoming call, such
if the caller ID does not match the account record.[4][5][6]as the time of day. ARUs increase the number of in-
IVR call ows are created in a variety of ways. A tra- formation calls handled and provide consistent quality in
ditional IVR depended upon proprietary programming information retrieval.
or scripting languages, whereas modern IVR applications
are generated in a similar way to Web pages, using stan-
dards such as VoiceXML,[7] CCXML,[8] SRGS[9] and
SSML.[10] The ability to use XML-driven applications al-
31.3 Usage
lows a web server to act as the application server, freeing
the IVR developer to focus on the call ow. IVR systems are used to service high call volumes, re-
duce cost and improve the customer experience. The use
IVR speech recognition interactions (call ows) are de-
of IVR and voice automation allows callers queries to be
signed using 3 approaches to prompt for - and recognize
resolved without the need for queueing and incurring the
- user input: directed dialogue, open-ended, and mixed
cost of a live agent. If callers do not nd the informa-
dialogue.[11][12][13]
tion they need or require further assistance, the calls are
A directed dialogue prompt communicates a set of valid often transferred to an agent. This produces an ecient
responses to the user (e.g. How can I help you? ... Say system, which allows agents have more time to deal with
something like, account balance, order status, or more op- complex interactions. When an IVR system answers mul-
tions"). An open-ended prompt does not communicate a tiple phone numbers, the use of DNIS ensures that the
set of valid responses (e.g. How can I help you?"). In correct application and language is executed. A single
both cases, the goal is to glean a valid spoken response large IVR system can handle calls for thousands of appli-
from the user. The key dierence is that with directed cations, each with its own phone numbers and script.
dialogue, the user is more likely to speak an option ex-
Call centers use IVR systems to identify and segment
actly as was communicated by the prompt (e.g. ac-
callers. The ability to identify customers allows services
count balance). With an open-ended prompt however,
to be tailored according to the customer prole. The
the user is likely to include extraneous words or phrases
caller can be given the option to wait in the queue, choose
(e.g. I was just looking at my bill and saw that my bal-
an automated service, or request a callback. The system
ance was wrong.). The open-ended prompt requires a
may obtain caller line identication (CLI) data from the
greater degree of natural language processing to extract
network to help identify or authenticate the caller. Ad-
the relevant information from the phrase (i.e. balance).
ditional caller authentication data could include account
Open-ended recognition also requires a larger grammar
number, personal information, password and biometrics
set, which accounts for a wider array of permutations of
(such as voice print). IVR also enables customer priori-
a given response (e.g. balance was wrong, wrong bal-
tization. In a system wherein individual customers may
ance, balance is high, high balance). Despite the
have a dierent status, the service will automatically pri-
greater amount of data and processing required for open-
oritize the individuals call and move customers to the
ended prompts, they are more interactively ecient, as
front of a specic queue.
the prompts themselves are typically much shorter.[11]
IVRs will also log call detail information into its own
A mixed dialogue approach involves shifting from open-
database for auditing, performance report, and future
ended to directed dialogue or vice-versa within the same
IVR system enhancements. CTI allows a contact cen-
interaction, as one type of prompt may be more eec-
ter or organization to gather information about the caller
tive in a given situation. Mixed dialog prompts must also
as a means of directing the inquiry to the appropriate
be able to recognize responses that are not relevant to
agent. CTI can transfer relevant information about the
the immediate prompt, for instance in the case of a user
individual customer and the IVR dialog from the IVR
deciding to shift to a function dierent from the current
to the agent desktop using a screen-pop, making for a
one.[13][12]
more eective and ecient service. Voice-activated di-
Higher level IVR development tools are available to fur- aling (VAD) IVR systems are used to automate routine
ther simplify the application development process. A call enquiries to switchboard or PABX (Private Automatic
ow diagram can be drawn with a GUI tool and the pre- Branch eXchange) operators, and are used in many hos-
106 CHAPTER 31. INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE

pitals and large businesses to reduce the caller waiting 31.4.1 Video
time. An additional function is the ability to allow ex-
ternal callers to page sta and transfer the inbound call The introduction of Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
to the paged person. IVR can be used to provide a more means that point-to-point communications are no longer
sophisticated voice mail experience to the caller. restricted to voice calls but can now be extended to mul-
timedia technologies such as video. IVR manufacturers
have extended their systems into IVVR (interactive voice
31.3.1 Banking and video response), especially for the mobile phone net-
works. The use of video gives IVR systems the ability to
Banking institutions are reliant on IVR systems for cus- implement multimodal interaction with the caller.
tomer engagement and to extend business hours to a 24/7 The introduction of full-duplex video IVR in the future
operation. Telephone banking allows customers to check will allow systems the ability to read emotions and facial
balances and transaction histories as well as to make pay- expressions. It may also be used to identify the caller, us-
ments and transfers. As online channels have emerged, ing technology such as Iris scan or other biometric means.
banking customer satisfaction has decreased.[14] Recordings of the caller may be stored to monitor certain
transactions, and can be used to reduce identity fraud.[16]

31.3.2 Medical
31.4.2 SIP contact center
IVR systems are used by pharmaceutical companies and
contract research organizations to conduct clinical trials With the introduction of SIP contact centers, call control
and manage the large volumes of data generated. The in a SIP contact center can be implemented by CCXML
caller will respond to questions in their preferred languagescripting, which is an adjunct to the VXML language
and their responses will be logged into a database and pos- used to generate modern IVR dialogues. As calls are
sibly recorded at the same time to conrm authenticity. queued in the SIP contact center, the IVR system can pro-
Applications include patient randomization and drug sup- vide treatment or automation, wait for a xed period, or
ply management. They are also used in recording patient play music. Inbound calls to a SIP contact center must be
diaries and questionnaires.[15] queued or terminated against a SIP end point; SIP IVR
systems can be used to replace agents directly by the use
IVR systems allow callers to obtain data relatively anony-
of applications deployed using BBUA (back-to-back user
mously. Hospitals and clinics have used IVR systems to
agents).
allow callers to receive anonymous access to test results.
This is information that could easily be handled by a per-
son but the IVR system is used to preserve privacy and
avoid potential embarrassment of sensitive information 31.4.3 Interactive messaging response
or test results. Users are given a passcode to access their (IMR)
results.
Due to the introduction of instant messaging (IM) in con-
tact centers, agents can handle up to 6 dierent IM con-
31.3.3 Surveying versations at the same time, which increases agent pro-
ductivity. IVR technology is being used to automate IM
Some of the largest installed IVR platforms are used for conversations using existing natural language processing
televoting on television game shows, such as Pop Idol and software. This diers from email handling as email au-
Big Brother, which can generate enormous call spikes. tomated response is based on key word spotting and IM
The network provider will often deploy call gapping in conversations are conversational. The use of text messag-
the PSTN to prevent network overload. IVR may also be ing abbreviations and smilies requires dierent grammars
used by survey organizations to ask more sensitive ques- to those currently used for speech recognition. IM is also
tions where the investigators are concerned that a respon- starting to replace text messaging on multimedia mobile
dent might feel less comfortable providing these answers handsets.
to a human interlocutor (such as questions about drug use
or sexual behavior). In some cases, an IVR system can
be used in the same survey in conjunction with a human 31.4.4 Hosted vs. on-premises IVR
interviewer.
With the introduction of web services into the contact
center, host integration has been simplied, allowing IVR
applications to be hosted remotely from the contact cen-
31.4 Developments ter. This has meant hosted IVR applications using speech
are now available to smaller contact centers across the
31.7. REFERENCES
globe and has led to an expansion of ASP (application
service providers).
IVR applications can also be hosted in the public net-
work, without contact center integration. Services in-
clude public announcement messages and message ser-
vices for small business. It is also possible to deploy two-
prong IVR services where the initial IVR application is
used to route the call to the appropriate contact center.
This can be used to balance loading across multiple con-
tact centers or provide business continuity in the event of
a system outage.
31.5 Criticism
IVR has historically received criticism for its diculty
to use and lack of appreciation of the callers needs as
well as objections to providing voice response to an auto-
mated system. However, modern IVR systems are able to
include caller context and provide personalized options.
Companies have also been criticized for using IVR to re-
duce operational costs as the solution replaces the need
for human agents to address voice inquiries.[17]
31.6 See also
Automated attendant
Automatic call distributor
Automatic number identication
Call avoidance
Call whisper
Dialog system
DNIS
Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF)
Electronic patient-reported outcome
Natural language
Speech recognition
Speech synthesis
Voice portal
The Voder
Voice-based marketing automation
Voice User Interface
107
31.7 References
[1] Tolentino, Jamie. Enhancing customer engagement with
interactive voice response. The Next Web.
[2] Khasnabish, Bhumip (2003-05-30). Implementing Voice
Over IP. Lexington, Massachusetts, USA: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. p. 203. ISBN 9780471216667. Retrieved 21
March 2012.
[3] Harrington, Anthony. History of a business revolution at
the end of a phone. Scotland On Sunday.
[4] Dave Roos. How Interactive Voice Response (IVR)
Works. How Stu Works.
[5] Interactive Voice Response. Genesys.
[6] What is an IVR and 6 Benets of Using One. Talkdesk.
[7] Voice Extensible Markup Language (VoiceXML) Ver-
sion 2.1. W3C.
[8] Voice Browser Call Control: CCXML Version 1.0.
W3C.
[9] Speech Recognition Grammar Specication Version
1.0. W3C.
[10] Speech Synthesis Markup Language (SSML) Version
1.0. W3C.
[11] Suendermann, David (2011). Advances in Commer-
cial Deployment of Spoken Dialog Systems. Berlin:
Springer Science+Business Media. p. 9-11. ISBN
9781441996107.
[12] Perez-Marin, Diana (2011). Conversational Agents and
Natural Language Interaction: Techniques and Eective
Practices. Hershey, Pennsylvania: IGI Global. p. 340.
ISBN 9781441996107.
[13] Presentation of Information - Aurally. W3C. Retrieved
26 October 2016.
[14] Comes, Sherry. Interactive Voice Response (IVR): The
missing link. IT Pro Protal.
[15] Lam MY, Lee H, Bright R, Korzenik JR, Sands BE
(2009). Validation of interactive voice response system
administration of the Short Inammatory Bowel Disease
Questionnaire. Inamm.Bowel.Dis. 15 (4): 599607.
doi:10.1002/ibd.20803. PMID 19023897.
[16] Goodbye IVR... Hello Visual IVR. No Jitter.
[17] Chat Bots Are Cool, But Will They Replace Humans?".
CMS Wire.
31.8 External links
Speech Technology / Telephony at DMOZ
Chapter 32

LinuxMCE

LinuxMCE (Linux Media Center Edition) is a free and 32.3 Architecture

open source software platform with a 10-foot user inter-
face designed to allow a computer to act as a home the- A LinuxMCE setup consists of two parts one Core and
ater PC (HTPC) for the living-room TV, personal video one or more Media Directors. The Core is the central
recorder, and home automation system. It allows control server and provides services throughout the home. It acts
of everything in the home, from lighting and climate to as the central media storage and catalog, it routes home
surveillance cameras and home security. It also includes automation messages and commands, and it provides net
a full-featured VoIP-compatible phone system with sup- boot images for the Media Directors. Each Media Di-
port for video conferencing. rector is connected to a screen (TV, computer screen or
projector) and optionally to other A/V equipment. All
media are presented through a Media Director. If the
32.1 Levels of implementation Core is also a Media Director (connected to a TV), it is
called a hybrid system. Media Directors can be booted
over the network from the Core. That way, only the Core
LinuxMCE may be used as a standalone home theater
needs to be updated and backed up to keep the whole sys-
PC (without any other home network connectivity), but
tem up-to-date.
it may also serve as a complete home LAN system in a
server/thin client conguration. In such a conguration, Most of the CPU-intensive processing is done on the
a central core server (a standard PC running Kubuntu) Core. Thus, the system requirements for a Media Di-
does most of the storage and processing functions, while rector are relatively small. This makes it easier to build a
peripheral PCs (and other devices) provide input and out- Media Director that is small and silent, and that ts in a
put services. Thin client PCs can netboot over the LAN to living room. The Core, on the other hand, can be placed
serve as Media Directors, which stream media content anywhere in a house. Accordingly, it may be built with
from the core to audiovisual devices which are connected a focus on price and performance instead of silence and
to these thin clients. appearance.
This home automation/multimedia LAN can be ex- This modular architecture allows LinuxMCE to use and
panded to include home automation systems, surveil- control any hardware connected to the Core and Media
lance cameras, high-tech remote controllers (called Or- Directors and to control it in a coordinated way. For
biters), and telephone PBX systems. The core server example, if a movie is started in the living room, Lin-
co-ordinates the functions of all the devices on the home uxMCE can dim the light in that room but also switch
LAN. The advanced networking capabilities of the Linux o radio playback on the Media Director in the oce.
OS allow this high level of network co-ordination. If an IP phone rings, LinuxMCE can show the number
on the screen and pause media playback while the call is
answered.

32.2 History
LinuxMCE was begun by Paul Webber as a fork of the 32.4 Software components
PlutoHome home automation software project. It was
adapted to run on top of a standard Linux distribution, The LinuxMCE package is installed on the Kubuntu
Kubuntu, as its base OS, rather than to exist as a custom OS, and utilizes open source applications such as
Linux distribution. Asterisk, Xine, MythTV, VDR, Firefox, VideoLAN and
Most of the core components, including the Orbiter (re- SlimServer. 64-bit versions of the LinuxMCE package
mote control) user interface, have undergone signicant are no longer under active development after 7.10.
improvements, and are licensed under the GPL. These programs have been given wrappers which allow

108
32.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 109

them to communicate with each other, and with the Ruby 25 minute demo video of LinuxMCE 0704
scripts that control the home automation components.
This communication is co-ordinated using a DCE (Data,
Commands, Events) protocol through a program called
the DCE Router. This added communications layer al-
lows trigger-command features such as pausing media
playback when an important phone call arrives, dimming
the lights while playing a movie, and allowing media play-
back to follow from computer to computer whenever a
Bluetooth enabled remote is carried between rooms.
The DCE communications protocol allows a single pro-
gram to present a standardized user interface, the Orbiter
UI, to the various devices and applications used within
the LinuxMCE system.
Currently, LinuxMCE uses the SVN system for col-
laborative updates. An active development community
for LinuxMCE has provided continuous developments in
2008, which has allowed the addition of a wide range of
devices to the current LinuxMCE version.

32.5 User interface

LinuxMCE user interface

LinuxMCE allows the user interface to be displayed in

several dierent resolutions, to accommodate the graph-
ics capabilities of the dierent devices (PCs, mobile
phones, webpads, PDAs) that can be used to display it.
Context-sensitive menus allow a single remote control to
control not only LinuxMCE menus, but also audiovisual
device functions.

32.6 See also

List of free television software

32.7 References

32.8 External links

Ocial website
Chapter 33

Media Gateway Control Protocol

Not to be confused with H.248/Megaco, a similar The media gateway control protocol architecture and its
protocol. methodologies and programming interfaces are described
in RFC 2805.[3]
The Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) is a MGCP is a master/slave protocol that allows a call con-
signaling and call control communications protocol used trol device such as a Call Agent to take control of a spe-
in voice over IP (VoIP) telecommunication systems. It cic port on a media gateway. In MGCP context media
implements the media gateway control protocol architec- gateway controller is referred to as call agent. This has
ture for controlling media gateways on Internet Protocol the advantage of centralized gateway administration and
(IP) networks connected to the public switched telephone provides for largely scalable IP Telephony solutions. The
network (PSTN).[1] The protocol is a successor to the distributed system is composed of a call agent, at least
Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP), which was one media gateway (MG) that performs the conversion
developed by Bellcore and Cisco, and the Internet Pro- of media signals between circuits and packets switched
tocol Device Control (IPDC).[2] networks, and at least one signaling gateway (SG) when
The methodology of MGCP reects the structure of the connected to the PSTN.
PSTN with the power of the network residing in a call MGCP assumes a call control architecture where there
control center softswitch which is analogous to the central is limited intelligence at the edge (endpoints, media gate-
oce in the telephone network. The endpoints are low- ways) and intelligence at the core Call Agent. The MGCP
intelligence devices, mostly executing control commands assumes that Call Agents, will synchronize with each
and providing result indications in response. The protocol other to send coherent commands and responses to the
represents a decomposition of other VoIP models, such as gateways under their control.
H.323, in which the H.323 Gatekeeper, have higher levels
The Call Agent uses MGCP to tell the media gateway
of signaling intelligence. which events should be reported to the Call Agent, how
MGCP is a text-based protocol consisting of commands endpoints should be inter-connected, and which signals
and responses. It uses the Session Description Protocol should be activated on the endpoints.
(SDP) for specifying and negotiating the media streams to MGCP also allows the Call Agent to audit the current
be transmitted in a call session and the Real-time Trans- state of endpoints on a media gateway.
port Protocol (RTP) for framing the media streams.
The media gateway uses MGCP to report events, such as
o-hook or dialed digits, to the Call Agent.
33.1 Architecture While any signaling gateway is usually on the same phys-
ical switch as a media gateway, there is no such need.
The Call Agent does not use MGCP to control the Sig-
naling Gateway; rather, SIGTRAN protocols are used to
backhaul signaling between the Signaling Gateway and
Call Agent.

33.1.1 Multiple call agents

Typically, a media gateway is congured with a list of Call

Agents from which it may accept programming (where
that list normally comprises only one or two Call Agents).
Gateway Control Protocol Relationship In principle, event notications may be sent to dierent

110
33.3. STANDARDS DOCUMENTS 111

Call Agents for each endpoint on the gateway (as pro- Three verbs are used by a call agent to manage the con-
grammed by the Call Agents, by setting the NotiedEn- nection between a media gateway.
tity parameter). In practice, however, it is usually desir-
able that at any given moment all endpoints on a gateway CRCX: Create Connection
should be controlled by the same Call Agent; other Call
Agents are available only to provide redundancy in the DLCX: Delete Connection. An endpoint may also
event that the primary Call Agent fails, or loses contact terminate a connection with this command.
with the media gateway. In the event of such a failure
MDCX: Modify Connection
it is the backup Call Agents responsibility to reprogram
the MG so that the gateway comes under the control of
the backup Call Agent. Care is needed in such cases; two One verb is used by a call agent to request notication of
Call Agents may know that they have lost contact with events on the endpoint, and to apply signals:
one another, but this does not guarantee that they are not
both attempting to control the same gateway. The abil- RQNT: Request for Notication
ity to audit the gateway to determine which Call Agent is
currently controlling can be used to resolve such conicts.One verb is used by a call agent to modify coding char-
MGCP assumes that the multiple Call Agents will main- acteristics expected by the line side of the endpoint:
tain knowledge of device state among themselves (pre-
sumably with an unspecied protocol) or rebuild it if nec- EPCF: Endpoint Conguration
essary (in the face of catastrophic failure). Its failover
features take into account both planned and unplanned One verb is used by an endpoint to indicate to the call
outages. agent that it has detected an event for which the call agent
had previously requested notication with the RQNT
command:
33.2 Protocol overview
NTFY: Notify
MGCP recognizes three essential elements of commu-
nication, the media gateway controller (call agent), the One verb is used by an endpoint to indicate to the call
media gateway endpoint, and connections between these agent that it is in the process of restarting:
entities. A media gateway may host multiple endpoints
and each endpoint should be able to engage in multiple RSIP: Restart In Progress
connections. Multiple connections on the endpoints sup-
port calling features such as call waiting and three-way
calling. 33.3 Standards documents
MGCP is a text-based protocol using a command and re-
sponse model. Commands and responses are encoded RFC 3435 - Media Gateway Control Protocol
in messages that are structured and formatted with the (MGCP) Version 1.0 (this supersedes RFC 2705)
whitespace characters space, horizontal tab, carriage re-
turn, and linefeed, and the colon and the full stop. Mes- RFC 3660 - Basic Media Gateway Control Protocol
sages are transmitted using the User Datagram Protocol (MGCP) Packages (informational)
(UDP). Media gateways use the port number 2427, and RFC 3661 - Media Gateway Control Protocol
call agents use 2727 by default. (MGCP) Return Code Usage
The message sequence of command (or request) and its
response is known as a transaction, which is identied by RFC 3064 - MGCP CAS Packages
the numerical Transaction Identier exchanged in each RFC 3149 - MGCP Business Phone Packages
transaction. The protocol specication denes nine stan-
dard commands that are distinguished by a four-letter RFC 3991 - Media Gateway Control Protocol
command verb: AUEP, AUCX, CRCX, DLCX, EPCF, (MGCP) Redirect and Reset Package
MDCX, NTFY, RQNT, and RSIP. Responses begin with
RFC 3992 - Media Gateway Control Protocol
a three-digit numerical response code that identies the
(MGCP) Lockstep State Reporting Mechanism (in-
outcome or result of the transaction.
formational)
Two verbs are used by a call agent to query the state of
an endpoint: RFC 2805 - Media Gateway Control Protocol Ar-
chitecture and Requirements
AUEP: Audit Endpoint
RFC 2897 - Proposal for an MGCP Advanced Au-
AUCX: Audit Connection dio Package
112 CHAPTER 33. MEDIA GATEWAY CONTROL PROTOCOL

33.4 Megaco
Another implementation of the media gateway control
protocol architecture is the H.248/Megaco protocol, a
collaboration of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(RFC 3525) and the International Telecommunication
Union (Recommendation H.248.1). Both protocols fol-
low the guidelines of the overlying media gateway control
protocol architecture, as described in RFC 2805. How-
ever, the protocols are incompatible due to dierences in
protocol syntax and underlying connection model.

33.5 See also

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
RTP audio video prole

33.6 References
[1] RFC 2805, Media Gateway Control Protocol Architecture
and Requirements, N. Greene, M. Ramalho, B. Rosen,
IETF, April 2000

[2] Level 3 Communications, Bellcore Announce Merger of

Protocol Specications for Voice Over IP. Level 3 Com-
munications. Retrieved 8 June 2012.

[3] RFC 2805, Media Gateway Control Protocol Architecture

and Requirements, N. Greene, M. Ramalho, B. Rosen,
The Internet Society (April 2000)

33.7 External links

MGCP Information Site Information related to
MGCP
H.248 Information Site Information related to
H.248/Megaco, including pointers to standards and
draft specications
Chapter 34

Media gateway control protocol

architecture

to the PSTN or vice versa, or may simply provide a means

to connect a telephone to a telecommunication system via
an IP network.
Originally, gateways were viewed as monolithic devices
that had call control, using protocols such as H.323 and
the Session Initiation Protocol, and hardware required to
control the PSTN interface. In 1998, the idea of splitting
the gateway into two logical parts was proposed: one part,
which contains the call control logic, is called the media
gateway controller (MGC) or call agent (CA), and the
Relationship of network components in a media gateway control other part, which interfaces with the PSTN, is called the
protocol architecture media gateway (MG). With this functional split, a new in-
terface existed between the MGC and the MG, requiring
a framework for communication between the elements,
The media gateway control protocol architecture is resulting in the media gateway control protocol architec-
a methodology of providing telecommunication services ture.
using decomposed multimedia gateways for transmitting
SIP and H.323 are signaling protocols, while media gate-
telephone calls between an Internet Protocol network and
way control protocols are device control protocols. The
traditional analog facilities of the public switched tele-
architectural dierence between SIP and H.323, and
phone network (PSTN).[1] The architecture was origi-
the media gateway control protocols is that the relation-
nally dened in RFC 2805 and has been used in sev-
ships between entities in SIP and H.323 are peer-to-peer,
eral prominent voice over IP (VoIP) protocol implemen-
while the relationships between entities in media gate-
tations, such as the Media Gateway Control Protocol
way control protocols use the master/slave (technology)
(MGCP) and Megaco (H.248), both successors to the ob-
model. SIP and H.323 handle call setup, connection,
solete Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP).
management, and tear-down of calls between like inter-
The architecture divides the functions required for the in- faces, whereas media gateway control protocols dene the
tegration of traditional telecommunication networks and mechanisms of setup of media paths and streams between
modern packet networks into several physical and logical IP and other networks.[2]
components, notably the media gateway, the media gate-
way controller, and signaling gateways. The interaction
between the media gateway and its controller is dened 34.1 Implementations
in the media gateway control protocol.
Media gateway protocols were developed based on the In- Several implementations of the media gateway control
ternet model of networking, the Internet Protocol Suite, protocol are in common use. The names of the best-
and are referred to as device control protocols. A me- known protocols are abbreviations of the protocol group:
dia gateway is a device that oers an IP interface and a
legacy telephone interface and that converts media, such The Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) was
as audio and video streams, between them. The legacy rst described in RFC 2705, and revised in RFC
telephone interface may be complex, such as an interface 3435.[3]
to a PSTN switch, or may be a simple interface to a tra-
ditional telephone. Depending on the size and purpose of Megaco, or H.248, or Megaco/H.248, was rst de-
the gateway, it may allow IP-originated calls to terminate scribed in RFC 3525, which was revised and ex-

113
114 CHAPTER 34. MEDIA GATEWAY CONTROL PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

tended in various specications, leading to its ob- 34.3 Protocols

solescence as explained in RFC 5125.[4][5]

The device control protocols evolved through several ver-

Although similar in architecture, MGCP and
H.248/Megaco are distinctly dierent protocols
and are not interoperable. H.248/Megaco and MGCP
protocols are complementary to H.323 and SIP, which
both may be referred to as intelligent endpoint protocols.
H.248/Megaco and MGCP may be referred to as device
control protocols.[6][7]
Other media gateway control protocols include the pre-
decessors of MGCP, namely the Simple Gateway Con-
trol Protocol (SGCP) and the Internet Protocol Device
Control (IPDC). A proprietary protocol using a similar
architecture is the Cisco Skinny Call Control Protocol
(SCCP).
34.2 Network elements
34.2.1 Media gateway
A media gateway is a device that converts media streams
in the form of digital data or analog signals in telecommu-
nication for services such as voice, video, and fax appli-
cations between two, usually dissimilar, interfaces using
dierent technologies. One of the technologies usually is
a packet, frame, or cell network.[1] For example, it may
convert voice telephone calls between a traditional ana-
log telephone to a digital format for transmission over an
Internet Protocol (IP) network, to facilitate voice over IP
communications.
34.2.2 Media gateway controller
A media gateway controller (MGC), also known as a
call agent, controls the media gateways. It monitors the
gateways for events, such as an o-hook state when a user
intends to initiate a telephone call, and issues requests
to the gateway to initiate or complete sessions, to alert
the called party, or to terminate a call. The protocols
used for this interaction between the gateway and its con-
troller have evolved through various types and versions.
The Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP) and the
Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) have been re-
placed by the Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
and Megaco, which is also known as H.248.
Some MGCs interface with other signaling protocols, Megaco is an evolution of MGCP. It is a combination
such as Signalling System No. 7 (SS7), for interconnec- of MGCP and MDCP, and was published as Standard in
tion with the traditional telephone system, H.323, and the RFC 3015 in November 2000. Megaco and MGCP are
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).
sions. MGCP emerged from a group now called the Inter-
national SoftSwitch Consortium. This group started early
with Level 3 Communications (through its acquisition of
Xcom) and Telcordia (BellCore).
In July 1998, Telcordia (Bellcore) and Cisco Systems cre-
ated a protocol called Simple Gateway Control Proto-
col (SGCP) for controlling Telephony Gateways from ex-
ternal call control elements.[8] Meanwhile, in mid-1998,
Level 3 created a Technical Advisory Council (TAC),
composed of a dozen leading communications equipment
manufacturers. The TAC proposed a device protocol
called Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) in Au-
gust 1998.[9] IPDC was intended to be used between a
media gateway and a media gateway controller. Me-
dia gateway were capable of acting as a voice over IP
gateway, voice over ATM gateway, dialup modem me-
dia gateway, circuit switch, or cross- connect. In Octo-
ber 1998, Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP) was
combined with Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC),
resulting in MGCP.[10]
MGCP was submitted to the IETFs MeGaCo working
group in October 1998.[11] In November 1998, Lucent
Technologies submitted a draft for third device protocol,
called Media Device Control Protocol (MDCP) to use by
media gateways and their controllers.[12] IETF merged
MGCP and MDCP and proposed a new and improved
protocol named MeGaCo protocol (also known as H.248)
in April 1999.[13]
The rst ocial version of MGCP is dened in RFC
2705 as informational. RFC 3435 obsoleted RFC 2705.
MGCP currently is purely informational rather than a
standard-track protocol, although it includes protocol
specication. Even while MGCP was still an Internet
Draft, many companies developed included MGCP with
their own development rather than wait for astandardized
protocol. Therefore, the decision was made to release
MGCP as an informational RFC in October 1999. IETF
development of MGCP has stopped, although companies
continue to implement MGCP,[14] driven by the eorts
of the PacketCable development of Network-based Call
Signaling.
Further standardization of MGCP eort was pursued
in the IETF, in the MEGACO working group, and
also in the ITU-T/SG16, under the code name H.GCP.
RFC 3015 standard tracks the MEGACO protocol (also
H.248) and
The motivation of Megaco was the need to satisfy various
requirements that were not addressed properly by MGCP.
dierent and not interoperable.
34.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
H.248 (H.248.1 Gateway Control Protocol version 3)
is published by International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication (ITU-T) as a protocol standard. The
ITU-T has published three versions of H.248.1. The
IETF published it as Gateway Control Protocol Version
1 in informational RFC 3525.
Both H.248 and MGCP are protocol for controlling me-
dia gateways using a media gateway controller or call [9] IPDC - Connection Control Protocol. IETF. August
agent. In a VoIP system, H.248 and MGCP are used with
SIP or H.323. SIP or H.323 provide intercommunication
[10] Level 3 Communications, Bellcore Announce Merger
between gateway controllers and MGCP is used to man-
[15]
age media establishment in the media gateways.
34.4 Standards documents
RFC 2805 Media Gateway Control Protocol Ar-
chitecture and Requirements, April 2000 (Informa-
tional)
RFC 2705 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) 8 June 2012.
Version 1.0, October 1999 (Informational) [14] Collins, Daniel (September 22, 2000). Chapter 6: Me-
RFC 3435 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
Version 1.0, (supersedes RFC 2705) (Informational)
RFC 3015 Megaco Protocol Version 1.0, November
2000, (Standard Track)
RFC 3525 Gateway Control Protocol Version 1, June
2003 (Obsoletes: RFC 3015) (Standard)
34.5 See also
Softswitch
RTP audio video prole
Voice over Internet Protocol
34.6 References
[1] RFC 2805, Media Gateway Control Protocol Architecture
and Requirements, N. Greene, M. Ramalho, B. Rosen,
IETF, April 2000
[2] Understanding VoIP Protocols. packetizer.com. Re-
trieved 2012-06-07.
[3] RFC 3435, Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) Ver-
sion 1.0, F. Andreasen, B. Foster, The Internet Society
(January 2003)
[4] RFC 3525, Gateway Control Protocol Version 1, C.
Groves, M. Pantaleo, T. Anderson, T. Taylor (editors),
The Internet Society (June 2003)
[5] RFC 5125, Reclassication of RFC 3525 to Historic, T.
Taylor, The IETF Trust (February 2008)
115
[6] title=Use of MEGACO vis--vis MGCP to build a Gate-
way Solution
[7] SIP core working group charter h2.48 history. packe-
tizer.comg. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
[8] Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP. IETF. 30
July 1998. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
1998. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
of Protocol Specications for Voice Over IPe. Level 3
Communications. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
[11] Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)". IETF. 27
October 1998. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
[12] Toward the PSTN/Internet Inter-Networking - MEDIA
DEVICE CONTROL PROTOCOL. IETF. November
1998. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
[13] MEGACO Protocol. IETF. 16 April 1999. Retrieved
dia Gateway Control and the Softswitch Architecture.
Big Compilation Book With Many Chapters and distinct
chapter authors. Book Publishers. pp. 239240. ISBN
0071363262.
[15] Media Gateway Control Protocol. telecomspace.com.
Retrieved 2012-06-07.
34.7 External links
Simple Gateway Control Protocol 1st Draft, IETF,
30 July 1998
Connection Control Protocol 1st Draft, IETF, Au-
gust 1998
Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)1st Draft,
IETF 27 October 1998
MEDIA DEVICE CONTROL PROTOCOL
(MDCP) 1st Draft, November 1998
MEGACO 1st Draft, IETF, April 1999
ITU-T H-series Recommendations
H.248.1 Base protocol specication , ITU-T
MGCP Information Site
H.248 Information Site
Implementing Media Gateway Control Protocols -
A RADVISION White Paper
A Description of MGCP and SIP Michael Lamy,
ADTRAN Enterprise Networks Division
Chapter 35

Message Session Relay Protocol

In computer networking, the Message Session Relay atlanta.example.com:7654 is the authority

Protocol (MSRP) is a protocol for transmitting a series
of related instant messages in the context of a commu- jshA7weztas is the session identier
nications session. An application instantiates the session
tcp is the transport
with the Session Description Protocol (SDP) over Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP) or other rendezvous methods.
The MSRP protocol is dened in RFC 4975.[1] MSRP 35.2 Usage in SIP
messages can also be transmitted by using intermedi-
aries peers, by using the relay extensions dened in RFC
4976.[2] MSRP can be used within a SIP session:

MSRP is used in the RCS context, especially for the

to do instant messaging in a one-to-one or one-to-
instant messaging, le transfer and photo sharing features.
many mode

35.1 Protocol design
MSRP has similar syntax as other IETF text based proto-
col such as SIP, HTTP and RTSP. Each message is either
a request or a response, uses URIs, a message contains
headers and a body that can carry any type of data, in-
cluding binary information. Unlike SIP, MSRP is much
simpler. The rst 2 headers must be To-Path and From-
Path and the last must be Content-Type, this signicantly
reduces the complexity of parsers. Messages must also
end with 7 dash ('-') characters, followed by a transac-
tion identier which appears in the rst line, these are fol-
lowed by a continuation ag, which is a single character
and end of line (CRLF). This last line at the end of mes-
sages makes it rather simple to nd and detect the mes-
sage boundaries. MSRP is not dened for connection-
less protocols, such as UDP, thus one be certain that a re-
sponse to a request would arrive on the same connection.
MSRP also relies on a reliable transport layer, that is,
guarantees delivery and maintains the order of the mes-
sages, which further simplies the protocol design.
An MSRP URI has a scheme (which is msrp or
msrps), authority, as dened by RFC 3986, which holds
the IP/domain name and possibly the port, an optional
session identier, the transport and additional optional
parameters. For example:
msrp://atlanta.example.com:7654/jshA7weztas;tcp
msrp is the scheme
to do an attachment le transfer
to do some photo sharing (e.g., Image Share) based
on prior exchange of capabilities between the user
endpoints
MSRP session is set up through SIPs oer-answer[3]
model. The SDP m-line media type is message and the
protocol is either TCP/MSRP for MSRP over TCP and
TCP/TLS/MSRP for MSRP over secure TLS. Further-
more, the MSRP URI is specied in a path attribute.
A full SDP example, as provided by the RFC:
v=0 o=alice 2890844526 2890844527 IN IP4 al-
ice.example.com s= - c=IN IP4 alice.example.com t=0
0 m=message 7394 TCP/MSRP * a=accept-types:
text/plain a=path:msrp://alice.example.com:
7394/2s93i9ek2a;tcp
The fact that MSRP contains the address and port and
at the same time the c-line holds the address and m-
line contain the port is a cause for ambiguity. Gener-
ally, other media types use the c-line and m-line to de-
scribe the address, but the MSRP RFC 4975 states this
information is actually specied by the MSRP path. This
may cause some devices to improperly set up the ses-
sion, in particular, a B2BUA may require to alter the path
per each MSRP message between the dierent devices.
To overcome this, RFC 6714 CEMA for MSRP [4]
changes the way CEMA-aware devices use SDP, which
makes CEMA-aware MSRP B2BUA implementations
much simpler and more ecient.

116
35.5. SEE ALSO 117

35.3 Implementations 35.5 See also

A generic and open source peer library is implemented in SIMPLE
the following programming languages:
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
35.3.1 Libraries
Rich Communication Suite (RCS)
Javas MSRP Peer library, which sprung[5] the fol-
lowing ports:

C#/.Net version

Java ME

Python MSRPlib

35.3.2 Clients

Blink is a cross platform SIP client with MSRP pro-

tocol support.

35.3.3 Servers

MSRP relay has an open source implementation

written in Python, here.

MSRP switch has an open source implementation

written in Python, here.

Kamailio SIP server has an embedded open source

MSRP relay written in C, here.

35.4 References

[1] RFC 4975, The Message Session Relay Protocol (MSRP),

B. Campbell (Ed.), R. Mahy (Ed.), C. Jennings (Ed.), The
Internet Society (September 2007)

[2] RFC 4976, Relay Extensions for the Message Session Relay
Protocol (MSRP), C. Jennings (Ed.), R. Mahy (Ed.), A. B.
Roach (Ed.), The Internet Society (September 2007)

[3] RFC 3264, An Oer/Answer Model with the Session

Description Protocol (SDP), IETF, The Internet Society
(2002)

[4] RFC 6714, Connection Establishment for Media Anchor-

ing (CEMA) For MSRP, C. Holmberg (Ed.), S. Blau (Ed.),
Ericsson (Ed.), E. Burger (Ed.), The Internet Society (Au-
gust 2012)

[5] MSRP Java peer library webpage

Chapter 36

Mobile network operator

A mobile network operator or MNO, also known as

a wireless service provider, wireless carrier, cellular
company, or mobile network carrier, is a provider of
services wireless communications that owns or controls
all the elements necessary to sell and deliver services to
an end user including radio spectrum allocation, wireless
network infrastructure, back haul infrastructure, billing,
customer care, provisioning computer systems and mar-
keting and repair organizations.
In addition to obtaining revenue by oering retail ser-
vices under its own brand, an MNO may also sell access
to network services at wholesale rates to mobile virtual
network operators.
A key dening characteristic of a mobile network opera-
tor is that an MNO must own or control access to a radio
spectrum license from a regulatory or government entity.
A second key dening characteristic of an MNO is that
an MNO must own or control the elements of the network
infrastructure necessary to provide services to subscribers
over the licensed spectrum.
A mobile network operator typically also has the nec-
essary provisioning, billing and customer care computer
systems and the marketing, customer care and engineer-
ing organizations needed to sell, deliver and bill for ser-
vices, however, an MNO can outsource any of these sys-
tems or functions and still be considered a mobile network
operator.

36.1 See also

List of mobile network operators

Mobile virtual network operator

Communications service provider

Telephone company
List of telephone operating companies

118
Chapter 37

Mobile phone operator

A mobile phone operator or wireless provider is a In 1958 development began on a similar service in the
telephone company that provides services for mobile USSR, the Altay system for motorists.[6] In 1963 the ser-
phone users. The operator gives a SIM card to the cus- vice started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30
tomer who inserts it into the mobile phone to gain access cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are
to the service. still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of
Russia.
There are two types of mobile operator:
In 1959 a private telephone company located in Brew-
a mobile network operator (9563620759) which ster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still
owns the underlying network and spectrum assets in business today) with the use of Motorola radio tele-
required to run the service. phone equipment and a private tower facility, oered to
the public mobile telephone services in that local area of
a mobile virtual network operator (MVNO) which NW Kansas.
buys wholesale service from an MNO and sells on In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic
to its own customers. phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10
(RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibi-
The worlds largest individual mobile operator by sub- tion. One base station, connected to one telephone wire
scribers is China Mobile with over 500 million mobile line, could serve up to six customers.
phone subscribers.[1] Over 50 mobile operators have over One of the rst successful public commercial mo-
10 million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile oper- bile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland,
ators had at least one million subscribers by the end of launched in 1971.
2009.[2] In February 2010, there were 4.6 billion mo-
bile phone subscribers, a number that is estimated to On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher
grow.Total mobilecellular subscriptions reached almost and executive, made the rst analog mobile phone call
6 billion by end 2011, corresponding to a global penetra- using a heavy prototype
[7]
model. He called Dr. Joel S.
tion of 86%. Engel of Bell Labs.
The rst commercially automated cellular network (the
1G generation) was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979.
The initial launch network covered the full metropolitan
37.1 History area of Tokyos over 20 million inhabitants with a cellular
network of 23 base stations. Within ve years, the NTT
Main article: History of mobile phones network had been expanded to cover the whole population
of Japan and became the rst nationwide 1G network.
Prior to 1973, cellular mobile phone technology was lim- Several other countries also launched 1G networks in the
ited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[3] The early 1980s including the UK, Mexico and Canada.
rst fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles In the 1990s, the 'second generation' (2G) mobile phone
was launched in Sweden in 1960 called MTA (mobile systems emerged, primarily using the GSM standard. In
telephone system A). Calls from the car were direct dial, 1991 the rst GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in
whereas incoming calls required an operator to determine Finland.
which base station the phone was currently at. In 1962, an
upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was in- American and Canadian wireless providers tend to subsi-
troduced. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, open- dize phones for consumers but tend to require 2 or 3 year
ing for several dierent brands of equipment and gaining contracts, while Asians and Europeans sell the phone [8]
at
commercial success. [4][5]
The network remained open un- full cost while the monthly fees charged are lower.
til 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.

119
120 CHAPTER 37. MOBILE PHONE OPERATOR

37.2 See also

List of mobile network operators

Mobile virtual network operator

Telephone company

List of telephone operating companies

37.3 References
[1] Tania Branigan (January 11, 2010). State owned
China Mobile is worlds biggest mobile phone operator.
Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved December
17, 2011.

[2] Source: wireless intelligence

[3] See Amos Joel patent 3,663,762.

[4] Mingtao Shi, Technology base of mobile cellular operators

in Germany and China, page 55

[5] Facts about the Mobile. A Journey through Time

[6] The rst Russian mobile phone

[7] Shiels, Maggie (April 21, 2003). BBC interview with

Martin Cooper. BBC News.

[8]
Chapter 38

Mobile telephony

38.1 History

Main articles: History of mobile phones and History of

the prepaid mobile phone

According to internal memos, American Telephone &

Telegraph discussed developing a wireless phone in 1915,
but were afraid that deployment of the technology could
undermine its monopoly on wired service in the U.S.[1]
Public mobile phone systems were rst introduced in the
years after the Second World War and made use of tech-
nology developed before and during the conict. The
rst system opened in St Louis, Missouri, USA in 1946
whilst other countries followed in the succeeding decades.
The UK introduced its 'System 1' manual radiotelephone
service as the South Lancashire Radiophone Service in
1958.[2] Calls were made via an operator using handsets
identical to ordinary phone handsets.[3] The phone itself
was a large box located in the boot (trunk) of the vehi-
cle containing valves and other early electronic compo-
nents. Although an uprated manual service ('System 3')
was extended to cover most of the UK, automation did
not arrive until 1981 with 'System 4'. Although this non-
cellular service, based on German B-Netz technology,
was expanded rapidly throughout the UK between 1982
and 1985 and continued in operation for several years be-
Mobile phone tower
fore nally closing in Scotland, it was overtaken by the
introduction in January 1985 of two cellular systems -
the British Telecom/Securicor 'Cellnet' service and the
Racal/Millicom/Barclays 'Vodafone' (from voice + data
+ phone) service. These cellular systems were based on
US Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) technol-
ogy, the modied technology being named Total Access
Mobile telephony is the provision of telephone services Communication System (TACS).
to phones which may move around freely rather than stay In 1947 Bell Labs was the rst to propose a cellular ra-
xed in one location. Mobile phones connect to a terres- dio telephone network. The primary innovation was the
trial cellular network of base stations (cell sites), whereas development of a network of small overlapping cell sites
satellite phones connect to orbiting satellites. Both net- supported by a call switching infrastructure that tracks
works are interconnected to the public switched telephone users as they move through a network and passes their
network (PSTN) to allow any phone in the world to be di- calls from one site to another without dropping the con-
aled. nection. In 1956 the MTA system was launched in
In 2010 there were estimated to be ve billion mobile cel- Sweden. The early eorts to develop mobile telephony
lular subscriptions in the world. faced two signicant challenges: allowing a great num-

121
122 CHAPTER 38. MOBILE TELEPHONY

ber of callers to use the comparatively few available fre- wireless email, the Nokia Communicator, was released in
quencies simultaneously and allowing users to seamlessly 1996, creating a new category of multi-use devices called
move from one area to another without having their calls smartphones. In 1999 the rst mobile internet service was
dropped. Both problems were solved by Bell Labs em- launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan under the i-Mode
ployee Amos Joel who, in 1970 applied for a patent for service. By 2007 over 798 million people around the
a mobile communications system.[4] However, a business world accessed the internet or equivalent mobile internet
consulting rm calculated the entire U.S. market for mo- services such as WAP and i-Mode at least occasionally
bile telephones at 100,000 units and the entire world- using a mobile phone rather than a personal computer.
wide market at no more than 200,000 units based on the
ready availability of pay telephones and the high cost of
constructing cell towers. As a consequence, Bell Labs 38.2 Cellular systems
concluded that the invention was of little or no conse-
quence, leading it not to attempt to commercialize the
Main articles: Cellular networks and Cellular frequencies
invention. The invention earned Joel induction into the
Mobile phones send and receive radio signals with any
National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2008.[5] The rst call
on a handheld mobile phone was made on April 3, 1973
by Martin Cooper, then of Motorola[6] to his opposite
number in Bell Labs who were also racing to be rst.
Bell Labs went on to install the rst trial cellular net-
work in Chicago in 1978. This trial system was licensed
by the FCC to ATT for commercial use in 1982 and, as
part of the divestiture arrangements for the breakup of
ATT, the AMPS technology was distributed to local tel-
cos. The rst commercial system opened in Chicago in
October 1983.[7][8] A system designed by Motorola also
operated in the Washington D.C./Baltimore area from
summer 1982 and became a full public service later the
following year.[9] Japans rst commercial radiotelephony
service was launched by NTT in 1978.
The rst fully automatic rst generation cellular system
was the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system, simul-
taneously launched in 1981 in Denmark, Finland, Nor-
Mobile phone subscriptions, not subscribers, per 100 inhabitants
way and Sweden.[10] NMT was the rst mobile phone net-
1997-2007
work featuring international roaming. The Swedish elec-
trical engineer sten Mkitalo started to work on this vi- number of cell site base stations tted with microwave
sion in 1966, and is considered as the father of the NMT antennas. These sites are usually mounted on a tower,
system and some consider him also the father of the cel- pole or building, located throughout populated areas,
lular phone.[11][12] then connected to a cabled communication network
The advent of cellular technology encouraged European and switching system. The phones have a low-power
countries to co-operate in the development of a pan- transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell
European cellular technology to rival those of the US and sites, normally not more than 8 to 13 km (approximately
Japan. This resulted in the GSM system, the initials orig- 5 to 8 miles) away. In areas of low coverage, a cellular re-
inally from the Groupe Spcial Mobile that was charged peater may be used, which uses a long distance high-gain
with the specication and development tasks but latterly dish antenna or yagi antenna to communicate with a cell
as the 'Global System for Mobile Communications. The tower far outside of normal range, and a repeater to re-
GSM standard eventually spread outside Europe and is broadcast on a small short-range local antenna that allows
now the most widely used cellular technology in the world any cellphone within a few meters to function properly.
and the de facto standard. The industry association, the When the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it reg-
GSMA, now represents 219 countries and nearly 800 mo- isters with the mobile telephone exchange, or switch, with
bile network operators.[13] There are now estimated to its unique identiers, and can then be alerted by the mo-
be over 5 billion phone subscriptions according to the bile switch when there is an incoming telephone call. The
"List of countries by number of mobile phones in use" handset constantly listens for the strongest signal being
(although some users have multiple subscriptions, or in- received from the surrounding base stations, and is able
active subscriptions), which also makes the mobile phone to switch seamlessly between sites. As the user moves
the most widely spread technology and the most common around the network, the "handos" are performed to al-
electronic device in the world.[14] low the device to switch sites without interrupting the call.
The rst mobile phone to enable internet connectivity and Cell sites have relatively low-power (often only one or two
38.3. USAGE 123

watts) radio transmitters which broadcast their presence

and relay communications between the mobile handsets
and the switch. The switch in turn connects the call to an-
other subscriber of the same wireless service provider or
to the public telephone network, which includes the net-
works of other wireless carriers. Many of these sites are
camouaged to blend with existing environments, partic-
ularly in scenic areas.
The dialogue between the handset and the cell site is a
stream of digital data that includes digitised audio (ex-
cept for the rst generation analog networks). The tech-
nology that achieves this depends on the system which
the mobile phone operator has adopted. The technolo-
gies are grouped by generation. The rst-generation sys-
tems started in 1979 with Japan, are all analog and include
AMPS and NMT. Second-generation systems, started in
1991 in Finland, are all digital and include GSM, CDMA
and TDMA.
The nature of cellular technology renders many phones
vulnerable to 'cloning': anytime a cell phone moves out of
coverage (for example, in a road tunnel), when the signal
is re-established, the phone sends out a 're-connect' signal
to the nearest cell-tower, identifying itself and signalling
that it is again ready to transmit. With the proper equip-
This Railfone found on some Amtrak trains in North America
ment, its possible to intercept the re-connect signal and uses cellular technology.
encode the data it contains into a 'blank' phonein all
respects, the 'blank' is then an exact duplicate of the real
phone and any calls made on the 'clone' will be charged
to the original account. This problem was widespread cording to the gures from Eurostat, the European
with the rst generation analogue technology, however Unions in-house statistical oce, Luxembourg had the
the modern digital standards such as GSM greatly im- highest mobile phone penetration rate at 158 mobile sub-
prove security and make cloning hard to achieve. scriptions per 100 people, closely followed by Lithuania
and Italy.[15] In Hong Kong the penetration rate reached
In an eort to limit the potential harm from having a
139.8% of the population in July 2007.[16] Over 50 coun-
transmitter close to the users body, the rst xed/mobile
tries have mobile phone subscription penetration rates
cellular phones that had a separate transmitter, vehicle-
higher than that of the population and the Western Euro-
mounted antenna, and handset (known as car phones and
pean average penetration rate was 110% in 2007 (source
bag phones) were limited to a maximum 3 watts Eective
Informa 2007). Canada currently has the lowest rates of
Radiated Power. Modern handheld cellphones which
mobile phone penetrations in the industrialised world at
must have the transmission antenna held inches from the
58%.
users skull are limited to a maximum transmission power
of 0.6 watts ERP. Regardless of the potential biological There are over ve hundred million active mobile phone
eects, the reduced transmission range of modern hand- accounts in China, as of 2007, but the total penetration
held phones limits their usefulness in rural locations as rate there still stands below 50%.[17] The total number
compared to car/bag phones, and handhelds require that of mobile phone subscribers in the world was estimated
cell towers are spaced much closer together to compen- at 2.14 billion in 2005.[18] The subscriber count reached
sate for their lack of transmission power. 2.7 billion by end of 2006 according to Informa, and 3.3
billion by November, 2007,[14] thus reaching an equiva-
lent of over half the planets population. Around 80% of
the worlds population has access to mobile phone cov-
38.3 Usage erage, as of 2006. This gure is expected to increase to
90% by the year 2010.[19]
38.3.1 By civilians In some developing countries with little landline tele-
phone infrastructure, mobile phone use has quadrupled
See also: List of mobile network operators in the last decade.[20] The rise of mobile phone technol-
ogy in developing countries is often cited as an example
An increasing number of countries, particularly in Eu- of the leapfrog eect. Many remote regions in the third
rope, now have more mobile phones than people. Ac- world went from having no telecommunications infras-
124 CHAPTER 38. MOBILE TELEPHONY

tructure to having satellite based communications sys- tracked from south of the Irish border to Omagh and
tems. At present, Africa has the largest growth rate of back on the day of the bombing, were considered of vital
cellular subscribers in the world,[21] its markets expand- importance.[28]
ing nearly twice as fast as Asian markets.[22] The avail- Further example of criminal investigations using mobile
ability of prepaid or 'pay-as-you-go' services, where the phones is the initial location and ultimate identication
subscriber is not committed to a long term contract, has of the terrorists of the 2004 Madrid train bombings. In
helped fuel this growth in Africa as well as in other con-the attacks, mobile phones had been used to detonate the
tinents. bombs. However, one of the bombs failed to detonate,
On a numerical basis, India is the largest growth market, and the SIM card in the corresponding mobile phone gave
adding about 6 million mobile phones every month.[23] It the rst serious lead about the terrorists to investigators.
currently has a mobile subscriber base of 937.06 million By tracking the whereabouts of the SIM card and cor-
mobile phones.[24] relating other mobile phones that had been registered in
those areas, police were able to locate the terrorists.[29]

38.3.2 Trac
Since the world is operating quickly to 3G and 4G net-
works, mobile trac through video is heading high. It is
expected that by end of 2018, the global trac will reach
an annual rate of 190 exabytes/year. This is the result
of people shifting to smart phones now-a-days. It is pre-
dicted by 2018, mobile trac will reach by 10 billion con-
nections with 94% trac comes from Smartphones, lap-
tops and tablets. Also 69% of mobile trac from Videos
since we have high denition screens available in smart
phones and 176.9 wearable devices to be at use. Appar-
ently, 4G will be dominating the trac by 51% of total
mobile data by 2018.[25]
38.3.3 By government agencies
Law enforcement
Main article: Lawful interception
Law enforcement have used mobile phone evidence in a
number of dierent ways. Evidence about the physical
location of an individual at a given time can be obtained
by triangulating the individuals cellphone between sev-
eral cellphone towers. This triangulation technique can
be used to show that an individuals cellphone was at a
certain location at a certain time. The concerns over ter-
rorism and terrorist use of technology prompted an in-
quiry by the British House of Commons Home Aairs
Select Committee into the use of evidence from mo-
bile phone devices, prompting leading mobile telephone
forensic specialists to identify forensic techniques avail-
able in this area.[26] NIST have published guidelines and
procedures for the preservation, acquisition, examina-
tion, analysis, and reporting of digital information present
on mobile phones can be found under the NIST Publica-
tion SP800-101.[27]
In the UK in 2000 it was claimed that recordings of mo- 38.4.1 Human health
bile phone conversations made on the day of the Omagh
bombing were crucial to the police investigation. In par- Main article: Mobile phone radiation and health
ticular, calls made on two mobile phones which were
Disaster response
The Finnish government decided in 2005 that the fastest
way to warn citizens of disasters was the mobile phone
network. In Japan, mobile phone companies provide
immediate notication of earthquakes and other natural
disasters to their customers free of charge.[30] In the
event of an emergency, disaster response crews can locate
trapped or injured people using the signals from their mo-
bile phones. An interactive menu accessible through the
phones Internet browser noties the company if the user
is safe or in distress. In Finland rescue services suggest
hikers carry mobile phones in case of emergency even
when deep in the forests beyond cellular coverage, as the
radio signal of a cellphone attempting to connect to a base
station can be detected by overying rescue aircraft with
special detection gear. Also, users in the United States
can sign up through their provider for free text messages
when an AMBER Alert goes out for a missing person in
their area.
However, most mobile phone networks operate close to
capacity during normal times, and spikes in call volumes
caused by widespread emergencies often overload the sys-
tem just when it is needed the most. Examples reported in
the media where this has occurred include the September
11, 2001 attacks, the 2003 Northeast blackouts, the 2005
London Tube bombings, Hurricane Katrina, the 2006
Hawaii earthquake, and the 2007 Minnesota bridge col-
lapse.
Under FCC regulations, all mobile telephones must be
capable of dialing emergency telephone numbers, regard-
less of the presence of a SIM card or the payment status
of the account.
38.4 Impact on Society
38.4. IMPACT ON SOCIETY
Since the introduction of mobile phones, concerns (both
scientic and public) have been raised about the potential
health impacts from regular use.[31] But by 2008, Amer-
ican mobile phones transmitted and received more text
messages than phone calls.[32] Numerous studies have re-
ported no signicant relationship between mobile phone
use and health, but the eect of mobile phone usage on
health continues to be an area of public concern.
For example, at the request of some of their customers,
Verizon created usage controls that meter service and
can switch phones o, so that children could get some
sleep.[32] There have also been attempts to limit use by
persons operating moving trains or automobiles, coaches
when writing to potential players on their teams, and
movie theater audiences.[32] By one measure, nearly 40%
of automobile drivers aged 16 to 30 years old text while
driving, and by another, 40% of teenagers said they could
text blindfolded.[32]
18 studies have been conducted on the link between cell
phones and brain cancer; A review of these studies found
that cell phone use of 10 years or more give a consis-
tent pattern of an increased risk for acoustic neuroma and
glioma.[33] The tumors are found mostly on the side of
the head that the mobile phone is in contact with. In July
2008, Dr. Ronald Herberman, director of the University
of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, warned about the radiation
from mobile phones. He stated that there was no deni-
tive proof of the link between mobile phones and brain
tumors but there was enough studies that mobile phone
usage should be reduced as a precaution.[34] To reduce
the amount of radiation being absorbed hands free de-
vices can be used or texting could supplement calls. Calls
could also be shortened or limit mobile phone usage in ru-
ral areas. Radiation is found to be higher in areas that are
located away from mobile phone towers.[35]
According to Reuters, The British Association of Derma-
tologists is warning of a rash occurring on peoples ears or
cheeks caused by an allergic reaction from the nickel sur-
face commonly found on mobile devices exteriors. There
is also a theory it could even occur on the ngers if some-
one spends a lot of time text messaging on metal menu
buttons. In 2008, Lionel Bercovitch of Brown University
in Providence, Rhode Island, and his colleagues tested 22
popular handsets from eight dierent manufacturers and
found nickel on 10 of the devices.[36]
38.4.2 Human behaviour
Culture and customs
Between the 1980s and the 2000s, the mobile phone has
gone from being an expensive item used by the business
elite to a pervasive, personal communications tool for the
general population. In most countries, mobile phones
outnumber land-line phones, with xed landlines num-
bering 1.3 billion but mobile subscriptions 3.3 billion at
125
Cellular phones allow people to communicate from almost any-
where at their leisure.
the end of 2007.
In many markets from Japan and South Korea, to Eu-
rope, to Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong,
most children age 8-9 have mobile phones and the new
accounts are now opened for customers aged 6 and 7.
Where mostly parents tend to give hand-me-down used
phones to their youngest children, in Japan already new
cameraphones are on the market whose target age group
is under 10 years of age, introduced by KDDI in February
2007. The USA also lags on this measure, as in the US so
far, about half of all children have mobile phones.[37] In
many young adults' households it has supplanted the land-
line phone. Mobile phone usage is banned in some coun-
tries, such as North Korea and restricted in some other
countries such as Burma.[38]
Given the high levels of societal mobile phone service
penetration, it is a key means for people to communicate
with each other. The SMS feature spawned the "texting"
sub-culture amongst younger users. In December 1993,
the rst person-to-person SMS text message was trans-
mitted in Finland. Currently, texting is the most widely
used data service; 1.8 billion users generated $80 bil-
lion of revenue in 2006 (source ITU). Many phones oer
Instant Messenger services for simple, easy texting. Mo-
bile phones have Internet service (e.g. NTT DoCoMo's i-
mode), oering text messaging via e-mail in Japan, South
Korea, China, and India. Most mobile internet access is
much dierent from computer access, featuring alerts,
weather data, e-mail, search engines, instant messages,
and game and music downloading; most mobile internet
access is hurried and short.
Because mobile phones are often used publicly, social
norms have been shown to play a major role in the us-
age of mobile phones.[39] Furthermore, the mobile phone
can be a fashion totem custom-decorated to reect the
owners personality[40] and may be a part of their self-
identity.[39] This aspect of the mobile telephony business
is, in itself, an industry, e.g. ringtone sales amounted to
$3.5 billion in 2005.[41] Mobile phone use on aircraft is
starting to be allowed with several airlines already oer-
ing the ability to use phones during ights. Mobile phone
use during ights used to be prohibited and many airlines
126
still claim in their in-plane announcements that this pro-
hibition is due to possible interference with aircraft radio
communications. Shut-o mobile phones do not interfere
with aircraft avionics. The recommendation why phones
should not be used during take-o and landing, even on
planes that allow calls or messaging, is so that passengers
pay attention to the crew for any possible accident situa-
tions, as most aircraft accidents happen on take-o and
landing.
Etiquette
Main article: Cell Phone Etiquette
Mobile phone use can be an important matter of social
discourtesy: phones ringing during funerals or weddings;
in toilets, cinemas and theatres. Some book shops, li-
braries, bathrooms, cinemas, doctors oces and places
of worship prohibit their use, so that other patrons will
not be disturbed by conversations. Some facilities install
signal-jamming equipment to prevent their use, although
in many countries, including the US, such equipment is
illegal.
Many US cities with subway transit systems underground
are studying or have implemented mobile phone recep-
tion in their underground tunnels for their riders, and
trains, particularly those involving long-distance services,
often oer a quiet carriage where phone use is prohib-
ited, much like the designated non-smoking carriage of
the past. Most schools in the United States and Europe
and Canada have prohibited mobile phones in the class-
room, or in school in an eort to limit class disruptions.
A working group made up of Finnish telephone com-
panies, public transport operators and communications
authorities has launched a campaign to remind mobile
phone users of courtesy, especially when using mass
transitwhat to talk about on the phone, and how to.
In particular, the campaign wants to impact loud mo-
bile phone usage as well as calls regarding sensitive
matters.[42]
Use by drivers
Main articles: Mobile phones and driving safety and
Handsfree
The use of mobile phones by people who are driving
has become increasingly common, for example as part
of their job, as in the case of delivery drivers who are
calling a client, or socially as for commuters who are chat-
ting with a friend. While many drivers have embraced the
convenience of using their cellphone while driving, some
jurisdictions have made the practice against the law, such
as Australia, the Canadian provinces of British Columbia,
Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and
CHAPTER 38. MOBILE TELEPHONY
Labrador as well as the United Kingdom, consisting of
a zero-tolerance system operated in Scotland and a warn-
ing system operated in England, Wales, and Northern Ire-
land. Ocials from these jurisdictions argue that using a
mobile phone while driving is an impediment to vehicle
operation that can increase the risk of road trac acci-
dents.
Studies have found vastly dierent relative risks (RR).
Two separate studies using case-crossover analysis each
calculated RR at 4,[43][44] while an epidemiological
cohort study found RR, when adjusted for crash-risk ex-
posure, of 1.11 for men and 1.21 for women.[45]
A simulation study from the University of Utah Profes-
sor David Strayer compared drivers with a blood alcohol
content of 0.08% to those conversing on a cell phone,
and after controlling for driving diculty and time on
task, the study concluded that cell phone drivers exhibited
greater impairment than intoxicated drivers.[46] Meta-
analysis by The Canadian Automobile Association[47] and
The University of Illinois[48] found that response time
while using both hands-free and hand-held phones was
approximately 0.5 standard deviations higher than nor-
mal driving (i.e., an average driver, while talking on a
cell phone, has response times of a driver in roughly the
40th percentile).
Driving while using a hands-free device is not safer than
driving while using a hand-held phone, as concluded by
case-crossover studies.[44][43] epidemiological studies,[45]
simulation studies,[46] and meta-analysis.[47][48] Even
with this information, California initiated new Wireless
Communications Device Law (eective January 1, 2009)
makes it an infraction to write, send, or read text-based
communication on an electronic wireless communica-
tions device, such as a cell phone, while driving a mo-
tor vehicle. Two additional laws dealing with the use of
wireless telephones while driving went into eect July
1, 2008. The rst law prohibits all drivers from us-
ing a handheld wireless telephone while operating a mo-
tor vehicle. The law allows a driver to use a wireless
telephone to make emergency calls to a law enforce-
ment agency, a medical provider, the re department, or
other emergency services agency. The base ne for the
FIRST oense is $20 and $50 for subsequent convic-
tions. With penalty assessments, the ne can be more
than triple the base ne amount.[49] videos about Cali-
fornia cellular phone laws; with captions (California Ve-
hicle Code [VC] 23123). Motorists 18 and over may
use a hands-free device. The second law eective July
1, 2008, prohibits drivers under the age of 18 from us-
ing a wireless telephone or hands-free device while op-
erating a motor vehicle (VC 23124)The consistency of
increased crash risk between hands-free and hand-held
phone use is at odds with legislation in over 30 countries
that prohibit hand-held phone use but allow hands-free.
Scientic literature is mixed on the dangers of talking on
a phone versus those of talking with a passenger, with
the Accident Research Unit at the University of Notting-
38.4. IMPACT ON SOCIETY 127

ham nding that the number of utterances was usually
higher for mobile calls when compared to blindfolded
and non-blindfolded passengers,[50] but the University of
Illinois meta-analysis concluding that passenger conver-
sations were just as costly to driving performance as cell
phone ones.[48]
hibiting the use of mobile phones, due to possible safety
issues. However, it is unlikely that mobile phone use can
cause any problems,[53] and in fact petrol station employ-
ees have themselves spread the rumour about alleged in-
cidents.

38.4.3 Environmental impacts

Use on aircraft
See also: Electronic waste
Main article: Mobile phones on aircraft Like all high structures, cellular antenna masts pose a

As of 2007, several airlines are experimenting with

base station and antenna systems installed on the air-
plane, allowing low power, short-range connection of any
phones aboard to remain connected to the aircrafts base
station.[51] Thus, they would not attempt connection to
the ground base stations as during take o and landing.
Simultaneously, airlines may oer phone services to their
travelling passengers either as full voice and data services,
or initially only as SMS text messaging and similar ser-
vices. The Australian airline Qantas is the rst airline to
run a test aeroplane in this conguration in the autumn of
2007. Emirates has announced plans to allow limited mo-
bile phone usage on some ights. However, in the past,
commercial airlines have prevented the use of cell phones
and laptops, due to the assertion that the frequencies emit- Cellular antenna disguised to look like a tree
ted from these devices may disturb the radio waves con-
tact of the airplane. hazard to low ying aircraft. Towers over a certain height
On March 20, 2008, an Emirates ight was the rst time or towers that are close to airports or heliports are nor-
voice calls have been allowed in-ight on commercial mally required to have warning lights. There have been
airline ights. The breakthrough came after the Euro- reports that warning lights on cellular masts, TV-towers
pean Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the United and other high structures can attract and confuse birds.
Arab Emirates-based General Civil Aviation Authority US authorities estimate that millions of birds are killed
(GCAA) granted full approval for the AeroMobile system near communication towers in the country each year.[54]
to be used on Emirates. Passengers were able to make Some cellular antenna towers have been camouaged to
and receive voice calls as well as use text messaging. The
make them less obvious on the horizon, and make them
system automatically came into operation as the Airbus look more like a tree.
A340-300 reached cruise altitude. Passengers wanting to
use the service received a text message welcoming them An example of the way mobile phones and mobile net-
to the AeroMobile system when they rst switched their works have sometimes been perceived as a threat is the
phones on. The approval by EASA has established that widely reported and later discredited claim that mobile
GSM phones are safe to use on airplanes, as the AeroMo- phone masts are associated with the Colony Collapse Dis-
bile system does not require the modication of aircraft order (CCD) which has reduced bee hive numbers by
components deemed sensitive, nor does it require the up to 75% in many areas, especially near cities in the
use of modied phones. US. The Independent newspaper cited a scientic study
claiming it provided evidence for the theory that mobile
In any case, there are inconsistencies between practices phone masts are a major cause in the collapse of bee
allowed by dierent airlines and even on the same airline populations, with controlled experiments demonstrating
in dierent countries. For example, Delta Air Lines may a rapid and catastrophic eect on individual hives near
allow the use of mobile phones immediately after land- masts.[55] Mobile phones were in fact not covered in the
ing on a domestic ight within the US, whereas they may study, and the original researchers have since emphati-
state not until the doors are open on an international cally disavowed any connection between their research,
ight arriving in the Netherlands. In April 2007 the US mobile phones, and CCD, specically indicating that the
Federal Communications Commission ocially prohib- Independent article had misinterpreted their results and
ited passengers use of cell phones during a ight.[52] created a horror story.[56][57] While the initial claim of
In a similar vein, signs are put up in many countries, such damage to bees was widely reported, the corrections to
as Canada, the UK and the U.S., at petrol stations pro- the story were almost non-existent in the media.
128 CHAPTER 38. MOBILE TELEPHONY

There are more than 500 million used mobile phones in 38.5.2 Incoming call charges
the US sitting on shelves or in landlls,[58] and it is esti-
mated that over 125 million will be discarded this year In the early days of mobile telephony, the operators (car-
alone. The problem is growing at a rate of more than two riers) charged for all air time consumed by the mobile
million phones per week, putting tons of toxic waste into phone user, which included both outbound and inbound
landlls daily. Several companies oer to buy back and telephone calls. As mobile phone adoption rates in-
recycle mobile phones from users. In the United States creased, competition between operators meant that some
many unwanted but working mobile phones are donated decided not to charge for incoming calls in some markets
to womens shelters to allow emergency communication. (also called calling party pays).
The European market adopted a calling party pays model
throughout the GSM environment and soon various other
38.5 Tari models GSM markets also started to emulate this model.
In Hong Kong, Singapore, Canada, and the United States,
See also: GSM services Voice charges, Mobile Internet, it is common for the party receiving the call to be charged
and at rate per minute, although a few carriers are beginning to oer
unlimited received phone calls. This is called the Re-
ceiving Party Pays model. In China, it was reported that
both of its two operators will adopt the caller-pays ap-
proach as early as January 2007.[59]
One disadvantage of the receiving party pays systems is
that phone owners keep their phones turned o to avoid
receiving unwanted calls, which results in the total voice
usage rates (and prots) in Calling Party Pays countries
outperform those in Receiving Party Pays countries.[60]
To avoid the problem of users keeping their phone turned
o, most Receiving Party Pays countries have either
switched to Calling Party Pays, or their carriers oer ad-
ditional incentives such as a large number of monthly
minutes at a suciently discounted rate to compensate
for the inconvenience.
Note that when a user roaming in another country,
international roaming taris apply to all calls received,
regardless of the model adopted in the home country.[61]

Mobile phone shop in Uganda

38.6 See also
Cellular network
Mobile Internet
38.5.1 Payment methods
Mobile phone
There are two principal ways to pay for mobile telephony:
the 'pay-as-you-go' model where conversation time is pur- OpenBTS
chased and added to a phone unit via an Internet account
or in shops or ATMs, or the contract model where bills
are paid by regular intervals after the service has been 38.7 References
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[49] Domain, Public. Text Messaging Law Eective January

1, 2009 Cellular Phone Laws Eective July 1, 2008. Cal-
ifornia Department of Motor Vehicles. California, USA:
State of California. Retrieved 19 August 2013.

[50] David Crundall; Manpreet Bains; Peter Chapman;

Georey Underwood (2005). Regulating conver-
sation during driving: a problem for mobile tele-
phones?" (PDF). Transportation Research, Part F: Traf-
c Psychology and Behaviour. 8F (3): 197211.
doi:10.1016/j.trf.2005.01.003.

[51] Europe closer to allowing in-ight cellphone use. En-

gadget. Retrieved 2011-07-11.

[52] FCC says 'no' to mobile phones on planes. Yahoo News,

April 3, 2007.

[53] Mobile Phones and Service Stations: Rumour, Risk and

Precaution, by Adam Burgess (2007) Diogenes 213 54: 1

[54] Communication Towers and the Fish and Wildlife Ser-

vice. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2007-
09-26.

[55] Lean, Georey; Shawcross, Harriet (2007-04-15). Are

mobile phones wiping out our bees?". The Independent.
UK. Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[56] Eric Sylvers (2007-04-22). Wireless: Case of the disap-

pearing bees creates a buzz about cellphones. Interna-
tional Herald Tribune.

[57] Chloe Johnson (2007-04-22). Researchers: Often-cited

study doesn't relate to bee colony collapse. Fosters On-
line.

[58] Associated Press (May 7, 2002). Study: Cell Phone

Waste Harmful. Wired. Retrieved 2011-07-11.

[59] Amy Gu, Mainland mobile services to be cheaper, South

China Morning Post, December 18, 2006, Page A1.

[60] OECD.org

[61] REGULATORY AND MARKET ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 39

Mobile VoIP

Mobile VoIP or simply mVoIP is an extension of mobil- (albeit at low rates) and allowing a user to watch TV.
ity to a Voice over IP network. Two types of communi- Mobile VoIP users were predicted to exceed 100 million
cation are generally supported: cordless/DECT/PCS pro- by 2012 and InStat projects 288 million subscribers by
tocols for short range or campus communications where 2013.[1][2]
all base stations are linked into the same LAN, and wider
The mobile operator industry business model conicts
area communications using 3G/4G protocols. with the expectations of Internet users that access is free
There are several methodologies that allow a mobile and fast without extra charges for visiting specic sites,
handset to be integrated into a VoIP network. One im- however far away they may be hosted. Because of this,
plementation turns the mobile device into a standard SIP most innovations in mobile VoIP will likely come from
client, which then uses a data network to send and receive campus and corporate networks, open source projects like
SIP messaging, and to send and receive RTP for the voice Asterisk, and applications where the benets are high
path. This methodology of turning a mobile handset into enough to justify expensive experiments (medical, mil-
a standard SIP client requires that the mobile handset sup- itary, etc.).
port, at minimum, high speed IP communications. In
this application, standard VoIP protocols (typically SIP)
are used over any broadband IP-capable wireless network 39.1 Technologies
connection such as EVDO rev A (which is symmetrical
high speed both high speed up and down), HSPA, Wi-
Mobile VoIP, like all VoIP, relies on SIP the standard
Fi or WiMAX.
used by most VoIP services, and now being implemented
Another implementation of mobile integration uses a on mobile handsets and smartphones and an increasing
soft-switch like gateway to bridge SIP and RTP into the number of cordless phones.
mobile networks SS7 infrastructure. In this implementa-
UMA the Unlicensed Mobile Access Generic Access
tion, the mobile handset continues to operate as it always
Network allows VoIP to run over the GSM cellular back-
has (as a GSM or CDMA based device), but now it can
bone.
be controlled by a SIP application server which can now
provide advanced SIP-based services to it. Several ven- When moving between IP-based networks, as is typically
dors oer this kind of capability today. the case for outdoor applications, two other protocols are
required:
Mobile VoIP will require a compromise between econ-
omy and mobility. For example, voice over Wi-Fi oers
potentially free service but is only available within the IEEE 802.21 hando, permitting one network to do
coverage area of a single Wi-Fi access point. Cordless call setup and initial trac, handing o to another
protocols oer excellent voice support and even support when the rst is about to fall out of range - the un-
base station hando, but require all base stations to com- derlying network need not be IP-based, but typically
municate on one LAN as the hando protocol is generally the IP stream is guaranteed a certain Quality of Ser-
not supported by carriers or most devices. vice (QoS) during the hando process

High speed services from mobile operators using EVDO
rev A or HSPA may have better audio quality and ca-
pabilities for metropolitan-wide coverage including fast
handos among mobile base stations, yet may cost more
than Wi-Fi-based VoIP services.
As device manufacturers exploited more powerful pro-
cessors and less costly memory, smartphones became ca-
pable of sending and receiving email, browsing the web
IEEE 802.11u call initiation when the initial contact
with a network is not one that the user has subscribed
to or been in contact with before.
For indoor or campus (cordless phone equivalent) use,
the IEEE P1905 protocol establishes QoS guarantees
for home area networks: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 3G, 4G
and wired backbones using AC powerline network-
ing/HomePlug/IEEE P1901, Ethernet and Power over

131
132 CHAPTER 39. MOBILE VOIP

Ethernet/IEEE 802.3af/IEEE 802.3at, MoCA and G.hn. 39.2.2 2006

In combination with IEEE 802.21, P1905 permits a call
to be initiated on a wired phone and transferred to a wire- In the summer of 2006, a SIP (Session Initiation Pro-
less one and then resumed on a wired one, perhaps with tocol) stack was introduced and a VoIP client in Nokia
additional capabilities such as videoconferencing in an- E-series dual-mode Wi-Fi handsets (Nokia E60, Nokia
other room. In this case the use of mobile VoIP enables E61, Nokia E70). The SIP stack and client have since
a continuous conversation that originates, and ends with, been introduced in many more E and N-series dual-mode
a wired terminal device. Wi-Fi handsets, most notably the Nokia N95 which has
An older technology, PCS base station hando, speci- been very popular in Europe. Various services use these
es equivalent capabilities for cordless phones based on handsets.
800, 900, 2.4, 5.8 and DECT. While these capabili-
ties were not widely implemented, they did provide the
functional specication for hando for modern IP-based 39.2.3 2008
telephony. A phone can in theory oer both PCS cord-
less and mobile VoIP and permit calls to be handed o In spring 2008 Nokia introduced a built in SIP VoIP
from traditional cordless to cell and back to cordless if client for the very rst time to the mass market device
both the PCS and UMA/SIP/IEEE standards suites are (Nokia 6300i) running Series 40 operating system. Later
implemented. Some specialized long distance cordless that year (Nokia 6260 Slide was introduced introducing
vendors like Senao attempted this but it has not gener- slightly updated SIP VoIP client. Nokia maintains a list
ally caught on. A more popular approach has been full- of all phones that have an integrated VoIP client in Forum
[3]
spectrum handsets that can communicate with any wire- Nokia.
less network including mobile VoIP, DECT and satellite Aircells battle with some companies allowing VoIP calls
phone networks, but which have limited hando capabil- on ights is another example of the growing conict
ities between networks. The intent of IEEE 802.21 and of interest between incumbent operators and new VoIP
IEEE 802.11u is that they be added to such phones run- operators.[4]
ning iPhone, QNX, Android or other smartphone operat-
ing systems, yielding a phone that is capable of communi-
cating with literally any digital network and maintaining
39.2.4 2009
a continuous call at high reliability at a low access cost.
Most VoIP vendors implement proprietary technologies By January 2009 OpenWRT was capable of supporting
that permit such hando between equipment of their mobile VoIP applications via Asterisk running on a USB
own manufacture, e.g. the Viera system from Panasonic. stick. As OpenWRT runs on most Wi-Fi routers, this
Typically providing mobility costs more, e.g., the Pana- radically expanded the potential reach of mobile VoIP ap-
sonic VoIP cordless phone system (KX-TGP) costs ap- plications. Users reported acceptable results using G.729
proximately three times more than its popular DECT codecs and connections to a main NAT/Firewall router
PSTN equivalent (KX-TGA). Some companies, includ- with a NAT=yes and canreinvite=no.. As such, my aster-
ing Cisco, oer adapters for analog/DECT phones as al- isk will stay in the audio path and can't redirect the RTP
ternatives to their expensive cordless. media stream (audio) to go directly from the caller to the
callee. Minor problems were also reported: Whenever
there is an I/O activities ... i.e. reading the Flash space
(mtdblockd process), this will create some hick-ups (or
39.2 Industry history temporarily losing audio signals). The combination of
OpenWRT and Asterisk is intended as an open source
replacement for proprietary PBXes.
39.2.1 2005
The company xG Technology, Inc. had a mobile VoIP
Early experiments proved that VoIP was practical and and data system operating in the license-free ISM 900
could be routed by Asterisk even on low-end routers like MHz band (902 MHz 928 MHz). xMax is an end-
the Linksys WRT54G series. Suggesting a mesh network to-end Internet Protocol (IP) system infrastructure that
(e.g. WDS) composed of such cheap devices could simi- is currently deployed in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.[5]
larly support roaming mobile VoIP phones. These exper-
iments, and others for IP roaming such as Sputnik, were
the beginning of the 5G protocol suite including IEEE 39.2.5 2010
802.21 and IEEE 802.11u. At this time, some mobile
operators attempted to restrict IP tethering and VoIP use In January 2010 Apple Inc. updated the iPhone developer
on their networks, often by deliberately introducing high SDK to allow VoIP over cellular networks. iCall became
latency into data communications making it useless for the rst App Store app to enable VoIP on the iPhone and
voice trac. iPod Touch over cellular 3G networks.
39.3. SEE ALSO 133

In second half of 2010 Nokia introduced three new As of late 2011, most cellular data networks were still
dualmode WiFi capable Series40 handsets (Nokia X3- extremely high latency and eectively useless for VoIP.
02, Nokia C3-01 and, Nokia C3-01 Gold Edition) with IP-only providers such as Voipstream had begun to serve
integrated SIP VoIP that supports HD voice (AMR-WB). urban areas, and alternative approaches such as OpenBTS
(open source GSM) were competing with mobile VoIP.
In November 2011, Nokia introduced Nokia Asha 303
39.2.6 2011
with integrated SIP VoIP client that can operate both over
WiFi and 3G networks.
The mainstreaming of VoIP in the small business market
led to the introduction of more devices extending VoIP to
business cordless users. 39.2.7 2012
Panasonic introduced the KX-TGP base station support-
ing up to 6 cordless handsets , essentially a VoIP comple- In February 2012, Nokia introduced Nokia Asha 302 and
ment to its popular KX-TGA analog phones which like- in June Nokia Asha 311 both with integrated SIP VoIP
wise support up to 4 cordless handsets. However, un- client that can operate both over WiFi and 3G networks.
like the analog system which supports only four handsets
in one conference on one line, the TGP supports 3 si-
multaneous network conversations and up to 8 SIP reg- 39.2.8 2014
istrations (e.g. up to 8 DID lines or extensions), as well
as an Ethernet pass-through port to hook up computers By September 2014, mobile-enabled VoIP (VoLTE) had
on the same drop. In its publicity Panasonic specically been launched by T-Mobile US across its national net-
[6]
mentions Digium (founded by the creator of Asterisk), its work and by AT&T Mobility in a few markets. Ver-
product Switchvox and Asterisk itself. izon plans to launch its VoLTE service in the coming
weeks, according to media reports in August, 2014.[7] It
Several router manufacturers including TRENDnet and provides HD Voice, which increases mobile voice qual-
Netgear released sub-$300 Power over Ethernet switches ity, and permits optional use of video calling and front
aimed at the VoIP market. Unlike industry standard and rear-facing cameras. In the future, Verizons VoLTE
switches that provided the full 30 watts of power per is expected to also permit video sharing, chat functional-
port, these allowed under 50 watts of power to all four ity, and le transfers.
PoE ports combined. This made them entirely suitable
for VoIP and other low-power use (Motorola Canopy or
security camera or Wi-Fi APs) typical of a SOHO appli-
cation, or supporting an 8-line PBX, especially in com- 39.3 See also
bination with a multi-line handset such as the Panasonic
KX-TGP (which does not require a powered port). IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), a set of specica-
tions from 3GPP for delivering VoIP and other IP
Accordingly, by the end of 2011, for under US$3000 it
multimedia to cellular users
was possible to build an oce VoIP system based entirely
on cordless technology capable of several hundred me- Fixed mobile convergence
ters reach and on Power over Ethernet dedicated wired
phones, with up to 8 DID lines and 3 simultaneous con- MoIP
versations per base station, with 24 handsets each capable
of communicating on any subset of the 8 lines, plus an un- Voice over IP
limited number of softphones running on computers and Vowlan VoIP over a Wi-Fi network
laptops and smartphones. This compared favourably to
proprietary PBX technology especially as VoIP cordless VoLGA Forum Voice over LTE via Generic Ac-
was far cheaper than PBX cordless. cess
Cisco also released the SPA112, an Analog Telephone List of SIP software
Adapter (ATA) to connect one or two standard RJ-11
telephones to an Ethernet, in November 2011, retailing List of VoIP companies
for under US$50. This was a competitive response to
major cordless vendors such as Panasonic moving into the
business VoIP cordless market Cisco had long dominated, 39.4 References
as it suppressed the market for the cordless makers native
VoIP phones and permitted Cisco to argue the business
[1] Mobile VoIP From Minute Stealing to Wheeling and
case to spend more on switches and less on terminal de-
Dealing (PDF). Global Vision. 2010-08-11. Retrieved
vices. However, this solution would not permit the analog 2010-09-09.
phones to access every line of a multi-line PBX, only one
hardwired line per phone. [2] VoIP user gures. Retrieved October 9, 2012.
134 CHAPTER 39. MOBILE VOIP

[3] Forum Nokia - VoIP details

[4] Aircell: On U.S. Planes, VoIP Will Be Muted GigaOm

August 26, 2008

[5] Introducing xMax - The Worlds First Mobile VoIP Net-

work Microwave Journal Blog October 5, 2009

[6] Mike Dano, FierceWireless, After VoLTE, what is the

future of the telephone call?" Mobile Internet Solutions,
September 4, 2014

[7] Phil Goldstein, Verizon to launch VoLTE in the 'coming

weeks,' will enable native video calling August 26, 2014
Chapter 40

Modem

This article is about network hardware. For the political using phase shift keying.
party, see MoDem.
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a network hard-

40.1 Dialup modem

40.1.1 History

Acoustic coupler modem

ware device that modulates one or more carrier wave sig-

nals to encode digital information for transmission and
demodulates signals to decode the transmitted informa-
tion. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmit- TeleGuide terminal
ted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital
data. Modems can be used with any means of transmit- News wire services in the 1920s used multiplex devices
ting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Athat satised the denition of a modem. However, the
common type of modem is one that turns the digital data modem function was incidental to the multiplexing func-
of a computer into modulated electrical signal for trans- tion, so they are not commonly included in the history
mission over telephone lines and demodulated by another of modems. Modems grew out of the need to con-
modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data. nect teleprinters over ordinary phone lines instead of the
Modems are generally classied by the amount of data more expensive leased lines which had previously been
they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed used for current loopbased teleprinters and automated
in bits per second (symbol bit/s, sometimes abbreviated telegraphs.
bps), or bytes per second (symbol B/s). Modems can Mass-produced modems in the United States began as
also be classied by their symbol rate, measured in baud. part of the SAGE air-defense system in 1958 (the year
The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number the word modem was rst used[1] ), connecting terminals
of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For at various airbases, radar sites, and command-and-control
example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency centers to the SAGE director centers scattered around
shift keying with two possible frequencies, corresponding the U.S. and Canada. SAGE modems were described by
to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry AT&Ts Bell Labs as conforming to their newly published
300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the orig- Bell 101 dataset standard. While they ran on dedicated
inal ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive telephone lines, the devices at each end were no dier-
four distinct symbols (two bits per symbol), transmitted ent from commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101, 110
1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per second (600 baud) baud modems.

135
136
The 201A and 201B Data-Phones were synchronous
modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying
(PSK). The 201A operated half-duplex at 2,000 bit/s
over normal phone lines, while the 201B provided full
duplex 2,400 bit/s service on four-wire leased lines, the
send and receive channels each running on their own set
of two wires.
The famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also intro-
duced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex ser-
vice at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines. Frequency-shift
keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at
1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmit-
ting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2
gave an important boost to the use of remote low-speed
terminals such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR and KSR,
and the IBM 2741. AT&T reduced modem costs by in-
troducing the originate-only 113D and the answer-only
113B/C modems.
Acoustic couplers
See also: Acoustic coupler
For many years, the Bell System (AT&T) maintained a
The Novation CAT acoustically coupled modem
monopoly on the use of its phone lines and what devices
could be connected to them. However, the seminal Hush-
a-Phone v. FCC case of 1956 concluded it was within the
FCCs jurisdiction to regulate the operation of the Bell
System. The FCC found that as long as a device was not
electronically attached to the system, it would not threaten
its integrity. This led to a number of devices that mechan-
ically connected to the phone through a standard handset.
Since most handsets were supplied by Western Electric
and thus of a standard design, acoustic couplers were rel-
atively easy to build. This type of connection was used
for many devices, such as answering machines.
Acoustically coupled Bell 103A-compatible 300 bit/s
modems were common during the 1970s. Well-known
models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-
Jacobson, the latter spun o from an in-house project at
Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International). An
CHAPTER 40. MODEM
even lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, de-
signed to be built using parts from electronics scrap and
surplus stores.
In December 1972, Vadic introduced the VA3400, no-
table for full-duplex operation at 1,200 bit/s over the
phone network. Like the 103A, it used dierent fre-
quency bands for transmit and receive. In November
1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem to compete
with Vadic. It was similar in design, but used the lower
frequency set for transmission. One could also use the
212A with a 103A modem at 300 bit/s. According to
Vadic, the change in frequency assignments made the
212 intentionally incompatible with acoustic coupling,
thereby locking out many potential modem manufactur-
ers. In 1977, Vadic responded with the VA3467 triple
modem, an answer-only modem sold to computer cen-
ter operators that supported Vadics 1,200-bit/s mode,
AT&Ts 212A mode, and 103A operation.
Carterfone and direct connection
The Hush-a-Phone decision applied only to mechanical
connections, but the Carterfone decision of 1968, led
to the FCC introducing a rule setting stringent AT&T-
designed tests for electronically coupling a device to the
phone lines. This opened the door to direct-connect
modems that plugged directly into the phone line rather
than via a handset. However, the cost of passing the tests
was considerable, and acoustically coupled modems re-
mained common into the early 1980s.
The rapidly falling prices of electronics in the late 1970s
led to an increasing number of direct-connect models
around 1980. In spite of being directly connected, these
modems were generally operated like their earlier acous-
tic versions dialling and other phone-control operations
were completed by hand, using an attached handset. A
small number of modems added the ability to automat-
ically answer incoming calls, or automatically place an
outgoing call to a single number, but even these limited
features were relatively rare or limited to special models
in a lineup. When more exible solutions were needed,
3rd party "dialers" were used to automate calling, nor-
mally using a separate serial port to communicate with
the dialler, which would then control the modem through
a private electrical connection.
The introduction of microcomputer systems with inter-
nal expansion slots made the rst software-controllable
modems common. Slot connections gave the computer
complete access to the modems memory or I/O chan-
nels, which allowed software to send commands to the
modem, not just data. This led to a series of popular
modems for the S-100 bus and Apple II computers that
could directly dial the phone, answer incoming calls, and
hang up the phone, the basic requirements of a bulletin
board system (BBS). The seminal CBBS was created on
an S-100 machine with a Hayes internal modem, and a
40.1. DIALUP MODEM 137

number of similar systems followed. was used. In this system the two tones for any one side
of the connection are sent at similar frequencies as in the
300 bit/s systems, but slightly out of phase. Voiceband
The Smartmodem and the rise of BBSs modems generally remained at 300 and 1,200 bit/s (V.21
and V.22) into the mid-1980s. A V.22bis 2,400-bit/s sys-
tem similar in concept to the 1,200-bit/s Bell 212 signal-
ing was introduced in the U.S., and a slightly dierent one
in Europe. The limited available frequency range meant
the symbol rate of 1,200 bit/s modems was still only 600
baud (symbols per second). The bit rate increases were
achieved by dening four or eight distinct symbols, which
allowed the encoding of two or three bits per symbol in-
stead of only 1. The use of smaller shifts had the draw-
The original model 300-baud Smartmodem back of making each symbol more vulnerable to interfer-
ence, but improvements in phone line quality at the same
The next major advance in modems was the Hayes Smart- time helped compensate for this. By the late 1980s, most
modem, introduced in 1981. The Smartmodem was an modems could support all of these standards and 2,400-
otherwise standard 103A 300-bit/s direct-connect mo- bit/s operation was becoming common.
dem, but it was attached to a small microcontroller that
watched the data stream for certain character strings rep-
resenting commands. This allowed both data and com- Proprietary standards
mands to be sent through a single serial port. The now-
standard Hayes command set included instructions for Many other standards were also introduced for special
picking up and hanging up the phone, dialing numbers, purposes, commonly using a high-speed channel for re-
and answering calls, among others. This was similar to ceiving, and a lower-speed channel for sending. One typ-
the commands oered by the internal modems, but un- ical example was used in the French Minitel system, in
like them, the Smartmodem could be connected to any which the users terminals spent the majority of their time
computer with an RS-232 port, which was practically ev- receiving information. The modem in the Minitel termi-
ery microcomputer built. nal thus operated at 1,200 bit/s for reception, and 75 bit/s
The introduction of the Smartmodem made communica- for sending commands back to the servers.
tions much simpler and more easily accessed. This pro- Three U.S. companies became famous for high-speed
vided a growing market for other vendors, who licensed versions of the same concept. Telebit introduced its Trail-
the Hayes patents and competed on price or by adding blazer modem in 1984, which used a large number of
features. Through the 1980s, a number of new higher- 36 bit/s channels to send data one-way at rates up to
speed modems, rst 1,200 and then 2,400 bit/s, greatly 18,432 bit/s. A single additional channel in the reverse
improved the responsiveness of the online systems, and direction allowed the two modems to communicate how
made le transfer practical. This led to rapid growth of much data was waiting at either end of the link, and the
online services with their large le libraries, which in turn modems could change direction on the y. The Trail-
gave more reason to own a modem. The rapid update of blazer modems also supported a feature that allowed them
modems led to a similar rapid increase in BBS use, which to spoof the UUCP g protocol, commonly used on Unix
was helped by the fact that BBSs could control the modem systems to send e-mail, and thereby speed UUCP up by a
simply by sending strings, rather than talking to a device tremendous amount. Trailblazers thus became extremely
driver that was dierent for every direct-connect modem. common on Unix systems, and maintained their domi-
nance in this market well into the 1990s.
1200 and 2400 bit/s USRobotics (USR) introduced a similar system, known
as HST, although this supplied only 9,600 bit/s (in early
The 300 bit/s modems used audio frequency-shift keying versions at least) and provided for a larger backchannel.
to send data. In this system the stream of 1s and 0s in Rather than oer spoong, USR instead created a large
computer data is translated into sounds which can be eas- market among Fidonet users by oering its modems to
ily sent on the phone lines. In the Bell 103 system, the BBS sysops at a much lower price, resulting in sales to end
originating modem sends 0s by playing a 1,070 Hz tone, users who wanted faster le transfers. Hayes was forced
and 1s at 1,270 Hz, with the answering modem transmit- to compete, and introduced its own 9,600-bit/s standard,
ting its 0s on 2,025 Hz and 1s on 2,225 Hz. These fre- Express 96 (also known as Ping-Pong), which was gener-
quencies were chosen carefully; they are in the range that ally similar to Telebits PEP. Hayes, however, oered nei-
suers minimum distortion on the phone system and are ther protocol spoong nor sysop discounts, and its high-
not harmonics of each other. speed modems remained rare.
In the 1,200 bit/s and faster systems, phase-shift keying A common feature of these high-speed modems was the
138
concept of fallback, or speed hunting, allowing them to
communicate with less-capable modems. During the call
initiation, the modem would transmit a series of signals
and wait for the remote modem to respond. They would
start at high speeds and get progressively slower until
there was a response. Thus, two USR modems would be
able to connect at 9,600 bit/s, but, when a user with a
2,400 bit/s modem called in, the USR would fall back to
the common 2,400 bit/s speed. This would also happen if
a V.32 modem and a HST modem were connected. Be-
cause they used a dierent standard at 9,600 bit/s, they
would fall back to their highest commonly supported stan-
dard at 2,400 bit/s. The same applies to V.32bis and
14,400 bit/s HST modem, which would still be able to
communicate with each other at 2,400 bit/s.
Echo cancellation, 9600 and 14,400
USRobotics Sportster 14,400 Fax modem (1994)
Echo cancellation was the next major advance in modem
design.
Local telephone lines use the same wires to send and re-
ceive data, which results in a small amount of the outgoing
signal being reected back. This is useful for people talk-
ing on the phone, as it provides a signal to the speaker that
their voice is making it through the system. However, this
reected signal causes problems for the modem, which is
unable to distinguish between a signal from the remote
modem and the echo of its own signal. This was why ear-
lier modems split the signal frequencies into answer and
originate"; the modem could then ignore any signals in
the frequency range it was using for transmission. Even
with improvements to the phone system allowing higher
speeds, this splitting of available phone signal bandwidth
still imposed a half-speed limit on modems.
Echo cancellation eliminated this problem. During the
call setup and negotiation period, both modems send a
series of unique tones and then listen for them to return
through the phone system. They measure the total delay
time and then set up a local delay loop to the same time.
Once the connection is completed, they send their signals
CHAPTER 40. MODEM
into the phone lines as normal, but also into the delay,
which is inverted. The signal returning through the echo
meets the inverted version coming from the delay line,
and cancels out the echo. This allowed both modems to
use the full spectrum available, doubling the speed.
Additional improvements were introduced via the
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) encoding
system. Previous systems using phase shift keying (PSK)
encoded two bits (or sometimes three) per symbol by
slightly delaying or advancing the signals phase relative
to a set carrier tone. QAM used a combination of phase
shift and amplitude to encode four bits per symbol.
Transmitting at 1,200 baud produced the 4,800 bit/s
V.27ter standard, the same working at a base rate of
2,400 baud produced the 9,600 bit/s V.32. The carrier
frequency was 1,650 Hz in both systems. For many
years, most engineers considered this rate to be the limit
of data communications over telephone networks.
The introduction of these higher-speed systems also led
to the digital fax machine during the 1980s. Digital faxes
are simply an image format sent over a high-speed (com-
monly 14.4 kbit/s) modem. Software running on the host
computer can convert any image into fax format, which
can then be sent using the modem. Such software was at
one time an add-on, but has since become largely univer-
sal.
Breaking the 9.6 kbit/s barrier
In 1980, Gottfried Ungerboeck from IBM Zurich Re-
search Laboratory applied channel coding techniques to
search for new ways to increase the speed of modems.
His results were astonishing but only conveyed to a few
colleagues.[2] In 1982, he agreed to publish what is now a
landmark paper in the theory of information coding. By
applying parity check coding to the bits in each symbol,
and mapping the encoded bits into a two-dimensional di-
amond pattern, Ungerboeck showed that it was possible
to increase the speed by a factor of two with the same
error rate. The new technique was called mapping by set
partitions, now known as trellis modulation.
Error correcting codes, which encode code words (sets of
bits) in such a way that they are far from each other, so
that in case of error they are still closest to the original
word (and not confused with another) can be thought of
as analogous to sphere packing or packing pennies on a
surface: the further two bit sequences are from one an-
other, the easier it is to correct minor errors.
V.32 modems operating at 9600 bit/s were expensive and
were only starting to enter the market in the early 1990s
when V.32bis was standardized. Rockwell International's
chip division developed a new driver chip set incorporat-
ing the standard and aggressively priced it. Supra, Inc. ar-
ranged a short-term exclusivity arrangement with Rock-
well, and developed the SupraFAXmodem 14400 based
on it. Introduced in January 1992 at $399 (or less), it was
40.1. DIALUP MODEM
half the price of the slower V.32 modems already on the V.34/28.8
market. This led to a price war, and by the end of the year
V.32 was dead, never having been really established, and
V.32bis modems were widely available for $250.
V.32bis was so successful that the older high-speed stan-
dards had little to recommend them. USR fought back
with a 16,800 bit/s version of HST, while AT&T intro-
duced a one-o 19,200 bit/s method they referred to as V.34 modem with RS-232 serial port
V.32ter, but neither non-standard modem sold well.
V.34 modem in the shape of an internal ISA card
V.34 data/fax modem as PC card for notebooks
139
kbit/s and 33.6 kbit/s
External
Any interest in these proprietary improvements was de-
stroyed during the lengthy introduction of the 28,800 bit/s
V.34 standard. While waiting, several companies de-
cided to release hardware and introduced modems they
referred to as V.FAST. In order to guarantee compati-
bility with V.34 modems once the standard was ratied
(1994), the manufacturers were forced to use more ex-
ible parts, generally a DSP and microcontroller, as op-
posed to purpose-designed ASIC modem chips.
The ITU standard V.34 represents the culmination of
the joint eorts. It employs the most powerful coding
techniques including channel encoding and shape encod-
ing. From the mere four bits per symbol (9.6 kbit/s), the
new standards used the functional equivalent of 6 to 10
bits per symbol, plus increasing baud rates from 2,400
to 3,429, to create 14.4, 28.8, and 33.6 kbit/s modems.
This rate is near the theoretical Shannon limit. When
calculated, the Shannon capacity of a narrowband line is
bandwidth log2 (1 + Pu /Pn ) , with Pu /Pn the (lin-
ear) signal-to-noise ratio. Narrowband phone lines have
a bandwidth of 3,000 Hz so using Pu /Pn = 1000 (SNR
= 30 dB), the capacity is approximately 30 kbit/s.[3]
Without the discovery and eventual application of trellis
modulation, maximum telephone rates using voice-
bandwidth channels would have been limited to 3,429
baud 4 bit/symbol = approximately 14 kbit/s using tra-
ditional QAM.
Using digital lines and PCM (V.90/92)
During the late 1990s, Rockwell-Lucent and USRobotics
introduced competing technologies based upon the dig-
ital transmission used in telephony networks. The stan-
dard digital transmission in modern networks is 64 kbit/s
but some networks use a part of the bandwidth for re-
mote oce signaling (e.g. to hang up the phone), limit-
ing the eective rate to 56 kbit/s DS0. This new technol-
ogy was adopted into ITU standards V.90 and is com-
mon in modern computers. The 56 kbit/s rate is only
possible from the central oce to the user site (down-
link). In the United States, government regulation lim-
its the maximum power output, resulting in a maximum
data rate of 53.3 kbit/s. The uplink (from the user to the
central oce) still uses V.34 technology at 33.6 kbit/s.
USRobotics began work on the technology rst, call-
ing theirs X2 because 56k was twice the speed of 28k
modems. USRobotics held a 40-percent share of the re-
140
Modem bank at an ISP
tail modem market, and Rockwell International held an
80-percent share of the modem chipset market. Con-
cerned with being shut out of the market, Rockwell began
work on a rival 56k technology and joined with Lucent
and Motorola on what it called K56Flex or Flex. Both
technologies reached the market around February 1997;
although problems with K56Flex modems were noted
in product reviews through July, within six months they
worked equally well with variations dependent on local
connection characteristics. The retail price of the 56K
modems was about US$200, compared to $100 for 33K
modems. Separate equipment was required by Internet
service providers (ISPs) to support the incompatible tech-
nologies, with costs varying depending on whether their
current equipment could be upgraded. About half of all
ISPs oered 56K support by October 1997. Consumer
CHAPTER 40. MODEM
sales were relatively low, which USRobotics and Rock-
well attributed to conicting standards.[4]
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) an-
nounced the draft of a new 56 kbit/s standard, V.90, in
February 1998, with strong industry support. Incompat-
ible with either existing standard, it was an amalgam of
both which was designed to allow both types of modem
to be converted to it by a rmware upgrade. This V.90
standard was approved in September 1998, and widely
adopted by ISPs and consumers.[4]
Later in V.92, the digital PCM technique was applied to
increase the upload speed to a maximum of 48 kbit/s, but
at the expense of download rates. A 48 kbit/s upstream
rate would reduce the downstream as low as 40 kbit/s due
to echo on the telephone line. To avoid this problem,
V.92 modems oer the option to turn o the digital up-
stream and instead use a 33.6 kbit/s analog connection, in
order to maintain a high digital downstream of 50 kbit/s
or higher.[5] V.92 also adds two other features. The rst
is the ability for users who have call waiting to put their
dial-up Internet connection on hold for extended periods
of time while they answer a call. The second feature is the
ability to quickly connect to ones ISP. This is achieved
by remembering the analog and digital characteristics of
the telephone line, and using this saved information when
reconnecting.
Using compression to exceed 56 kbit/s
V.42, V.42bis and V.44 standards allow the modem to
transmit data faster than its basic rate would imply. For
instance, a 53.3 kbit/s connection with V.44 can transmit
up to 53.3 6 = 320 kbit/s using pure text. However,
the compression ratio tends to vary due to noise on the
line, or due to the transfer of already-compressed les
(ZIP les, JPEG images, MP3 audio, MPEG video).[6]
At some points the modem will be sending compressed
les at approximately 50 kbit/s, uncompressed les at
160 kbit/s, and pure text at 320 kbit/s, or any value in
between.[7]
In such situations a small amount of memory in the mo-
dem, a buer, is used to hold the data while it is being
compressed and sent across the phone line, but in order
to prevent overow of the buer, it sometimes becomes
necessary to tell the computer to pause the datastream.
This is accomplished through hardware ow control us-
ing extra lines on the modemcomputer connection. The
computer is then set to supply the modem at some higher
rate, such as 320 kbit/s, and the modem will tell the com-
puter when to start or stop sending data.
Compression by the ISP As telephone-based 56k
modems began losing popularity, some Internet service
providers such as Netzero/Juno, Netscape, and others
started using pre-compression to increase the throughput
and maintain their customer base. The server-side com-
40.2. BROADBAND 141

pression operates much more eciently than the on-the- 40.1.2 Popularity
y compression done by modems due to the fact these
compression techniques are application-specic (JPEG, A CEA study in 2006, found that dial-up Internet access
text, EXE, etc.). The website text, images, and Flash ex- is declining in the U.S. In 2000, dial-up Internet connec-
ecutables are compacted to approximately 4%, 12%, and tions accounted for 74% of all U.S. residential Internet
30%, respectively. The drawback of this approach is a connections. The US demographic pattern for dial-up
loss in quality, which causes image content to become modem users per capita has been more or less mirrored
pixelated and smeared. ISPs employing this approach of- in Canada and Australia for the past 20 years.
ten advertise it as accelerated dial-up. Dial-up modem use in the US had dropped to 60% by
These accelerated downloads are now integrated into the 2003, and in 2006, stood at 36%. Voiceband modems
Opera and Amazon Silk web browsers, using their own were once the most popular means of Internet access in
server-side text and image compression. the U.S., but with the advent of new ways of accessing
the Internet, the traditional 56K modem is losing pop-
ularity. The dial-up modem is still widely used by cus-
Softmodem tomers in rural areas, where DSL, cable, satellite, or ber
optic service is not available, or they are unwilling to pay
what these companies charge.[14] In its 2012 annual re-
port, AOL showed it still collects around US$700 million
in fees from dial-up users: about three million people.

40.2 Broadband

A PCI Winmodem/softmodem (on the left) next to a traditional

ISA modem (on the right)

Main article: Softmodem

A Winmodem or softmodem is a stripped-down modem

that replaces tasks traditionally handled in hardware with
software. In this case the modem is a simple interface
designed to act as a digital-to-analog and an analog-to-
digital converter. Softmodems are cheaper than tradi-
tional modems because they have fewer hardware compo-
nents. However, the software generating and interpreting DSL modem
the modem tones to be sent to the softmodem uses many
ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) modems, a
system resources. For online gaming, this can be a real
more recent development, are not limited to the tele-
concern. Another problem is the lack of cross-platform
phones voiceband audio frequencies. Standard twisted-
compatibility, meaning that non-Windows operating sys-
pair telephone cable can, for short distances, carry signals
tems (such as Linux) often do not have an equivalent
with much higher frequencies than the cables maximum
driver to operate the modem.
frequency rating. ADSL broadband takes advantage of
this capability. However, ADSLs performance gradually
List of dialup speeds declines as the telephone cables length increases. This
limits ADSL broadband service to subscribers within a
These values are maximum values, and actual values may relatively short distance of the telephone exchange.
be slower under certain conditions (for example, noisy Cable modems use infrastructure originally intended to
phone lines).[8] For a complete list see the companion ar- carry television signals and therefore designed from the
ticle list of device bandwidths. A baud is one symbol per outset to carry higher frequencies. A single cable can
second; each symbol may encode one or more data bits. carry radio and television signals at the same time as
142 CHAPTER 40. MODEM

broadband internet service without interference. Newer Smart modems come with media access controllers in-
types of broadband modems are also available, including side, which prevents random data from colliding and
satellite and power line modems. resends data that is not correctly received. Smart
Most consumers did not know about networking and modems typically require more bandwidth than transpar-
routers when broadband became available. However, ent modems, and typically achieve higher data rates. The
many people knew that a modem connected a computer IEEE 802.11 standard denes a short range modulation
to the Internet over a telephone line. To take advantage scheme that is used on a large scale throughout the world.
of consumers familiarity with modems, companies called
these devices broadband modems rather than using less
40.3.1 WiFi and WiMax
familiar terms such as adapter, interface, transceiver, or
bridge. In fact, broadband modems t the denition of The WiFi and WiMax standards use wireless mobile
modem because they use complex waveforms to carry dig- broadband modems operating at microwave frequencies.
ital data. They use more advanced technology than dial-
up modems: typically they can modulate and demodulate
hundreds of channels simultaneously or use much wider 40.3.2 Mobile broadband
channels than dial-up modems.
See also: Mobile broadband and Mobile broadband mo-
dem
40.3 Radio Modems which use a mobile telephone system (GPRS,

Direct broadcast satellite, WiFi, and mobile phones all

use modems to communicate, as do most other wire-
less services today. Modern telecommunications and data
networks also make extensive use of radio modems where
long distance data links are required. Such systems are an
important part of the PSTN, and are also in common use
for high-speed computer network links to outlying areas
where bre is not economical.
Even where a cable is installed, it is often possible to
get better performance or make other parts of the sys-
tem simpler by using radio frequencies and modulation
techniques through a cable. Coaxial cable has a very
large bandwidth, but signal attenuation becomes a major
problem at high data rates if a baseband digital signal is
used. By using a modem, a much larger amount of dig-
ital data can be transmitted through a single wire. Digi-
tal cable television and cable Internet services use radio
frequency modems to provide the increasing bandwidth Huawei HSPA+ Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO) USB wireless
needs of modern households. Using a modem also allows modem from Movistar Colombia
for frequency-division multiple access to be used, making
full-duplex digital communication with many users pos- UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax, etc.), are known as
sible using a single wire. mobile broadband modems (sometimes also called wire-
less modems). Wireless modems can be embedded in-
Wireless modems come in a variety of types, bandwidths, side a laptop or appliance, or be external to it. Exter-
and speeds. Wireless modems are often referred to as nal wireless modems are connect cards, USB modems
transparent or smart. They transmit information that is for mobile broadband and cellular routers. A connect
modulated onto a carrier frequency to allow many simul- card is a PC Card or ExpressCard which slides into
taneous wireless communication links to work simultane- a PCMCIA/PC card/ExpressCard slot on a computer.
ously on dierent frequencies. USB wireless modems use a USB port on the laptop in-
Transparent modems operate in a manner similar to their stead of a PC card or ExpressCard slot. A USB modem
phone line modem cousins. Typically, they were half du- used for mobile broadband Internet is also sometimes re-
plex, meaning that they could not send and receive data at ferred to as a dongle.[15] A cellular router may have an ex-
the same time. Typically transparent modems are polled ternal datacard (AirCard) that slides into it. Most cellular
in a round robin manner to collect small amounts of data routers do allow such datacards or USB modems. Cel-
from scattered locations that do not have easy access to lular routers may not be modems by denition, but they
wired infrastructure. Transparent modems are most com- contain modems or allow modems to be slid into them.
monly used by utility companies for data collection. The dierence between a cellular router and a wireless
40.5. HOME NETWORKING 143

modem is that a cellular router normally allows multiple 40.4.1 QAM16

people to connect to it (since it can route data or support
multi-point to multi-point connections), while a modem 16QAM uses a 16-point constellation to send four bits
is designed for one connection. per baud. Speeds are usually on the order of 200 or 400
gigabit/sec. [20] [21]
Most of GSM wireless modems come with an integrated
SIM cardholder (i.e., Huawei E220, Sierra 881, etc.) and
some models are also provided with a microSD memory
40.4.2 QAM64
slot and/or jack for additional external antenna such as
Huawei E1762 and Sierra Wireless Compass 885.[16][17]
64QAM uses a 64-point constellation to send six bits per
The CDMA (EVDO) versions do not use R-UIM cards,
baud. Although suppliers have announced components,
but use Electronic Serial Number (ESN) instead.
announcements of installation are rare.[22][23] Speeds of
The cost of using a wireless modem varies from country 65 Terabit-per-second have been observed.[24]
to country. Some carriers implement at rate plans for
unlimited data transfers. Some have caps (or maximum
limits) on the amount of data that can be transferred per 40.5 Home networking
month. Other countries have plans that charge a xed
rate per data transferredper megabyte or even kilobyte
of data downloaded; this tends to add up quickly in to- Although the name modem is seldom used in this case,
days content-lled world, which is why many people are modems are also used for high-speed home networking
pushing for at data rates. applications, especially those using existing home wiring.
One example is the G.hn standard, developed by ITU-T,
The faster data rates of the newest wireless modem tech- which provides a high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) Local area
nologies (UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax) are also con- network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone
sidered to be broadband wireless modems and compete lines and coaxial cables). G.hn devices use orthogonal
with other broadband modems below. frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) to modulate a
Until the end of April 2011, worldwide shipments of USB digital signal for transmission over the wire.
modems surpassed embedded 3G and 4G modules by 3:1 The phrase "null modem" was used to describe attaching
because USB modems can be easily discarded, but em- a specially wired cable between the serial ports of two
bedded modems could start to gain popularity as tablet personal computers. Basically, the transmit output of one
sales grow and as the incremental cost of the modems computer was wired to the receive input of the other; this
shrinks, so by 2016, the ratio may change to 1:1.[18] was true for both computers. The same software used
Like mobile phones, mobile broadband modems can be with modems (such as Procomm or Minicom) could be
SIM locked to a particular network provider. Unlocking used with the null modem connection.
a modem is achieved the same way as unlocking a phone,
by using an 'unlock code'.
40.6 Voice modem
40.3.3 Residential gateways Voice modems are regular modems that are capable of
recording or playing audio over the telephone line. They
Some devices referred to as broadband modems are are used for telephony applications. See Voice modem
residential gateways, integrating the functions of a mo- command set for more details on voice modems. This
dem, network address translation (NAT) router, Ethernet type of modem can be used as an FXO card for Private
switch, WiFi access point, DHCP server, rewall, among branch exchange systems (compare V.92).
others. Some residential gateway oer a so-called
bridged mode, which disables the built-in routing func-
tion and makes the device function similarly to a plain 40.7 Brands
modem. This bridged mode is separate from RFC 1483
bridging.
3Com

Conexant
40.4 Optical modems Creative Labs

Hayes
Fiber optic systems can be upgraded by the use of
Quadrature amplitude modulation. The modulator and Multitech
demodulator are separate components rather than a sin-
gle assembly as with most modems. [19] Netcomm
144 CHAPTER 40. MODEM

Netgear 40.9 References

Prentice [1] Modem entry.
Radio Shack [2] IEEE History Center. Gottfried Ungerboeck Oral His-
tory. Archived from the original on June 25, 2007. Re-
TP-Link trieved 2008-02-10.
US Robotics [3] Held, Gilbert (2000). Understanding Data Communica-
tions: From Fundamentals to Networking Third Edition.
Zoom Technologies New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 6869.
ZyXEL [4] Greenstein, Shane; Stango, Victor (2006). Standards and
Public Policy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129132.
ISBN 978-1-139-46075-0.
40.8 See also [5] V.92 - News & Updates. November and October 2000
updates. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
56 kbit/s line
[6] Modem compression: V.44 against V.42bis. Digit-
Automatic negotiation (or handshake) life.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10.

[7] Re: Modems FAQ at the Wayback Machine (archived

BBN Technologies (developed the rst model in
January 4, 2007) - Wolfgang Henke.
1963)
[8] tsbmail (2011-04-15). Data communication over the
Broadband: satellite modem, ADSL, cablemodem, telephone network. Itu.int. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
PLC
[9] 29.2 Historical Modem Protocols. tldp.org. Retrieved
Command and Data modes (modem) 2014-02-10.

Device driver [10] concordia.ca Data Communication and Computer

Networks (PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-10.
DHCP
[11] Group 3 Facsimile Communication. garretwilson.com.
Ethernet 2013-09-20. Retrieved 2014-02-10.

Fax demodulator [12] upatras.gr - Implementation of a V.34 modem on a Dig-

ital Signal Processor (PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-10.
Internet outdial
[13] Jones, Les. Bonding: 112K, 168K, and beyond.
TCP/IP 56K.COM.

[14] Suzanne Choney. AOL still has 3.5 million dial-up

ITU V-series telephone network modem standards,
subscribers - Technology on NBCNews.com. Way-
including V.92 back.archive.org. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
K56ex [15] What is a USB modem?". Vergelijkmobielinternet.nl.
Retrieved 17 September 2012.
List of device bandwidths
[16] HUAWEI E1762,HSPA/UMTS 900/2100 Support
Modulation 2Mbps (5.76Mbps ready) HSUPA and 7.2Mbps HSDPA
services. 3gmodem.com.hk. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
Plug and play
[17] Sierra Wireless Compass 885 HSUPA 3G modem. The
RJ-11 (TelCo Interface Port Model Number) Register. Retrieved 2014-02-10.

Router (computing) [18] Lawson, Stephen (May 2, 2011). Laptop Users Still Pre-
fer USB Modems. PCWorld. IDG Consumer & SMB.
Wake-on-ring Retrieved 2016-08-13.

Rockwell (Chipset) [19] Michel, Stephanie (September 19, 2013). Which optical
modulation scheme best ts my application?". LIGHT-
X2 (Chipset) WAVE.

Zeroconf [20] Michael Kassner (February 10, 2015). Researchers dou-

ble throughput of long-distance ber optics. TechRepub-
List of modem standards lic.
40.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 145

[21] Bengt-Erik Olsson; Anders Djupsjbacka; Jonas Mrtens-

son; Arne Alping (6 Dec 2011). 112 Gbit/s RF-assisted
dual carrier DP-16-QAM transmitter using optical phase
modulator (PDF). OPTICS EXPRESS. Optical Society of
America.

[22] Stephen Hardy (March 17, 2016). ClariPhy targets 400G

with new 16-nm DSP silicon. LIGHTWAVE.

[23] ClariPhy Shatters Fiber and System Capacity Barriers

with Industrys First 16nm Coherent Optical Networking
Platform. optics.org. 17 Mar 2016.

[24] Nokia Bell Labs achieve 65 Terabit-per-second transmis-

sion record for transoceanic cable systems. Noika. 12
October 2016.

40.10 External links

Hayes-compatible Modems and AT Commands
from the Serial Data Communications Program-
ming Wikibook
International Telecommunications Union ITU: Data
communication over the telephone network
Columbia University - Protocols Explained at the
Wayback Machine (archived June 19, 2006) no
longer available, archived version

Basic handshakes & modulations V.22, V.22bis,

V.32 and V.34 handshakes

Getting connected: a history of modems techradar

Data/FAX Modem Transmission Modulation Sys-
tems baud rates and modulation schemes
Chapter 41

Multi-frequency signaling

In telephony, multi-frequency signaling (MF) is a voice, modem or fax data across that same 64-kbit chan-
signaling system that was introduced by the Bell System nel previously used for the in-band MF signaling.
after World War II. It uses a combination of tones for ad-
dress (phone number) and supervision signaling. The sig-
naling is sent in-band over the same channel as the bearer
channel used for voice trac.
41.2 Demise
Multi-frequency signaling is a precursor of modern
In-band signalling began to disappear as electronic
DTMF signaling (TouchTone), now used for subscriber
switching systems displaced mechanical switchgear.
signalling. DTMF uses eight frequencies.
Out-of-band Common Channel Signaling (CCS) became
nearly universal at the end of the 20th century in the
United States. Benets include higher connection estab-
41.1 Operation lishment rate, better fraud security and features such as
Caller ID
Digits are represented by two simultaneous tones selected Some 911 Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs) still
from a set of ve (MF 2/5), six (MF 2/6), or eight (MF use the MF format to identify the calling party to the
2/8) frequencies. The frequency combinations are played, PSAP when processing calls from Mobile Telephone
one at a time for each digit, to the remote multi-frequency Switching Oces (MTSOs) and land telephone oces.[1]
receiver in a distant telephone exchange. MF was used for This is based on an earlier system which used MF to iden-
signaling in trunking applications. tify the calling party to a feature group 'D' (101xxxx) al-
Using MF signaling, the originating telephone switching ternate long distance provider.
oce sends a starting signal such as a seizure (o-hook) Other countries may still use a version of in-band signal-
by toggling the AB bits. After the initial seizure, the ter- ing.
minating oce acknowledges a ready state by responding [2]
with a wink (short duration seizure) and then goes back MF signaling includes R2 signaling, R1 (in North
on-hook (wink start). The originating oce sends the America), and Signaling System No. 5.
destination digits to the terminating switch.
The R2 signalling suite, in use in the middle to late 20th
century, included a compelled signalling version of mul- 41.3 See also
tifrequency register signalling
MF signalling tones were vulnerable to being spoofed us- two-out-of-ve code
ing blue boxes which generated a 2600 hertz tone to dis-
connect a toll call in progress and provided an operator- blue box
style MF keypad to dial another call using the same trunk.
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling
MF and other in-band signaling systems dier from
Signaling System 7 (SS7) in that the routing digits are
out-pulsed in MF format in the same voiceband channel
used for voice. The dialing user cannot detect these dig- 41.4 References
its being out-pulsed because the audio connection is not
established all the way to the users handset or device un- [1] http://www.nena.org/?page=EnhanceMF_Signaling
til after the connection is established with the terminating
switch. Following a full connection, the same audio chan- [2] ITU-T Recommendation Q.310-Q.332 - Specication of
nel is connected to the user in order to communicate the Signalling System R1

146
41.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 147

41.5 External links

Speeding Speech, a 1950s Bell System lm, de-
picts a 2-1-1 long distance operator manually enter-
ing a number on an MF keypad just prior to the in-
troduction of direct distance dialing. The keypad,
visible at 0:01:41 and 0:05:20, has two columns of
ve digits plus KP (key pulse) and ST (start).
Chapter 42

Orange box

This article is about the tool used to spoof caller ID. For
the video game compilation, see The Orange Box.

An orange box is a piece of hardware or software that

generates caller ID frequency-shift keying (FSK) signals
to spoof caller ID information on the targets caller ID ter-
minal. It takes advantage of call waiting caller ID (also
called o-hook caller ID) by mimicking the phone com-
panys central oce equipment and sending the call wait-
ing tone followed by the audible caller ID data. An orange
box can also be used to spoof Caller ID information sent
after an incoming call rings, if the user has direct access
to the targets phone line. One proposal to accomplish
this involves an orange box used in conjunction with a
magenta box, which in combination is called a vermilion
box.
In software engineering, an orange box is any mechanism
that records the sequence of events leading to a crash,
in analogy to the ight data recorder (FDR) in airplanes,
which is typically housed in an orange box to ensure visi-
bility in the wreckage after a crash. The FDR is popularly
known as a black box.

42.1 See also

Blue box

42.2 References

42.3 Further reading

Orange Boxing at ArtOfHacking.com

Vermilion Box at ArtOfHacking.com

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Chapter 43
Packet switching
Packet switching is a digital networking communica-
tions method that groups all transmitted data into suit-
ably sized blocks, called packets, which are transmitted
via a medium that may be shared by multiple simultane-
ous communication sessions. Packet switching increases
network eciency, robustness and enables technological
convergence of many applications operating on the same
network.
Packets are composed of a header and payload. Infor-
mation in the header is used by networking hardware to
direct the packet to its destination where the payload is An animation demonstrating data packet switching across a net-
extracted and used by application software.
Starting in the late 1950s, American computer scien-
tist Paul Baran developed the concept Distributed Adap-
tive Message Block Switching with the goal to provide
a fault-tolerant, ecient routing method for telecom-
munication messages as part of a research program at
the RAND Corporation, funded by the US Depart-
ment of Defense.[1] This concept contrasted and con-
tradicted then-established principles of pre-allocation of
network bandwidth, largely fortied by the development
of telecommunications in the Bell System. The new
concept found little resonance among network imple-
menters until the independent work of British computer
scientist Donald Davies at the National Physical Labo-
ratory (United Kingdom) in the late 1960s. Davies is
credited with coining the modern name packet switching
and inspiring numerous packet switching networks in the
decade following, including the incorporation of the con-
cept in the early ARPANET in the United States.[2]
43.1 Concept
A simple denition of packet switching is:
The routing and transferring of data by
means of addressed packets so that a channel is
occupied during the transmission of the packet
only, and upon completion of the transmission
the channel is made available for the transfer of
other trac[3][4]
work
Packet switching features delivery of variable bit rate
data streams, realized as sequences of packets, over a
computer network which allocates transmission resources
as needed using statistical multiplexing or dynamic band-
width allocation techniques. As they traverse network
nodes, such as switches and routers, packets are re-
ceived, buered, queued, and transmitted (stored and for-
warded), resulting in variable latency and throughput de-
pending on the link capacity and the trac load on the
network.
Packet switching contrasts with another principal net-
working paradigm, circuit switching, a method which
pre-allocates dedicated network bandwidth specically
for each communication session, each having a constant
bit rate and latency between nodes. In cases of billable
services, such as cellular communication services, circuit
switching is characterized by a fee per unit of connec-
tion time, even when no data is transferred, while packet
switching may be characterized by a fee per unit of infor-
mation transmitted, such as characters, packets, or mes-
sages.
Packet mode communication may be implemented
with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (packet
switches or routers). Packets are normally forwarded by
intermediate network nodes asynchronously using rst-
in, rst-out buering, but may be forwarded according to
some scheduling discipline for fair queuing, trac shap-
ing, or for dierentiated or guaranteed quality of service,
such as weighted fair queuing or leaky bucket. In case of a
shared physical medium (such as radio or 10BASE5), the
149
150 CHAPTER 43. PACKET SWITCHING

packets may be delivered according to a multiple access of 1024 bits. In 1966, Davies proposed that a network
scheme. should be built at the laboratory to serve the needs of NPL
and prove the feasibility of packet switching. The NPL
Data Communications Network entered service in 1970.

43.2 History The rst computer network and packet switching network
deployed for computer resource sharing was the Octopus
Network at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
In the late 1950s, the US Air Force established a wide that began connecting four Control Data 6600 computers
area network for the Semi-Automatic Ground Environ- to several shared storage devices (including an IBM 2321
ment (SAGE) radar defense system. They sought a sys- Data Cell[10] in 1968 and an IBM Photostore[11] in 1970)
tem that might survive a nuclear attack to enable a re- and to several hundred Teletype Model 33 ASR terminals
sponse, thus diminishing the attractiveness of the rst for time sharing use starting in 1968.[12]
strike advantage by enemies.[5]
In 1973, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn wrote the specica-
Leonard Kleinrock conducted early research in queueing tions for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), an inter-
theory which proved important in packet switching, and networking protocol for sharing resources using packet-
published a book in the related eld of digital message switching among the nodes.
switching (without the packets) in 1961; he also later
played a leading role in building and management of the
worlds rst packet-switched network, the ARPANET.
The concept of switching small blocks of data was rst
43.3 Connectionless and
explored independently by Paul Baran at the RAND Cor- connection-oriented modes
poration in the US and Donald Davies at the National
Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the UK in the early to mid-
Packet switching may be classied into connectionless
1960s.Abbate 2000 packet switching, also known as datagram switching,
Baran developed the concept of distributed adaptive mes- and connection-oriented packet switching, also known as
sage block switching during his research at the RAND virtual circuit switching.
Corporation for the US Air Force into communications Examples of connectionless protocols are Ethernet,
networks, that could survive nuclear wars,[6] rst pre- Internet Protocol (IP), and the User Datagram Proto-
sented to the Air Force in the summer of 1961 as brief- col (UDP). Connection-oriented protocols include X.25,
ing B-265,[5] later published as RAND report P-2626 in Frame Relay, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS),
1962,[7] and nally in report RM 3420 in 1964.[8] Report and the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
P-2626 described a general architecture for a large-scale,
distributed, survivable communications network. The In connectionless mode each packet includes complete
work focuses on three key ideas: use of a decentralized addressing information. The packets are routed individ-
network with multiple paths between any two points, di- ually, sometimes resulting in dierent paths and out-of-
viding user messages into message blocks, later called order delivery. Each packet is labeled with a destina-
packets, and delivery of these messages by store and for- tion address, source address, and port numbers. It may
ward switching. also be labeled with the sequence number of the packet.
This precludes the need for a dedicated path to help the
Barans work was known to Robert Taylor and J.C.R. packet nd its way to its destination, but means that much
Licklider at the Information Processing Technology Of-
more information is needed in the packet header, which is
ce, who advocated wide area networks, and it inuenced therefore larger, and this information needs to be looked
Lawrence Roberts to adopt the technology in the devel-
up in power-hungry content-addressable memory. Each
opment of the ARPANET. packet is dispatched and may go via dierent routes; po-
Starting in 1965, Donald Davies at the National Physi- tentially, the system has to do as much work for every
cal Laboratory, UK, independently developed the same packet as the connection-oriented system has to do in con-
message routing methodology as developed by Baran. He nection set-up, but with less information as to the applica-
called it packet switching, a more accessible name than tions requirements. At the destination, the original mes-
Barans, and proposed to build a nationwide network in sage/data is reassembled in the correct order, based on
the UK.[9] He gave a talk on the proposal in 1966, af- the packet sequence number. Thus a virtual connection,
ter which a person from the Ministry of Defence (MoD) also known as a virtual circuit or byte stream is provided
told him about Barans work. A member of Davies team to the end-user by a transport layer protocol, although in-
(Roger Scantlebury) met Lawrence Roberts at the 1967 termediate network nodes only provides a connectionless
ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles and network layer service.
suggested it for use in the ARPANET. Connection-oriented transmission requires a setup phase
Davies had chosen some of the same parameters for his in each involved node before any packet is transferred to
original network design as did Baran, such as a packet size establish the parameters of communication. The packets
43.5. X.25 VS. FRAME RELAY
include a connection identier rather than address infor-
mation and are negotiated between endpoints so that they
are delivered in order and with error checking. Address
information is only transferred to each node during the
connection set-up phase, when the route to the destina-
tion is discovered and an entry is added to the switching
table in each network node through which the connection
passes. The signaling protocols used allow the application
to specify its requirements and discover link parameters.
Acceptable values for service parameters may be negoti-
ated. Routing a packet requires the node to look up the
connection id in a table. The packet header can be small,
as it only needs to contain this code and any information,
such as length, timestamp, or sequence number, which is
dierent for dierent packets.
43.4 Packet switching in networks
Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the
channel capacity available in digital telecommunication
networks such as computer networks, to minimize the
transmission latency (the time it takes for data to pass
across the network), and to increase robustness of com-
munication.
The best-known use of packet switching is the Internet
and most local area networks. The Internet is imple-
mented by the Internet Protocol Suite using a variety
of Link Layer technologies. For example, Ethernet and
Frame Relay are common. Newer mobile phone tech-
nologies (e.g., GPRS, i-mode) also use packet switching.
X.25 is a notable use of packet switching in that, de-
spite being based on packet switching methods, it pro-
vided virtual circuits to the user. These virtual circuits
carry variable-length packets. In 1978, X.25 provided the
rst international and commercial packet switching net-
work, the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS).
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also is a virtual cir-
cuit technology, which uses xed-length cell relay con-
nection oriented packet switching.
Datagram packet switching is also called connection-
less networking because no connections are established.
Technologies such as Multiprotocol Label Switching
(MPLS) and the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP)
create virtual circuits on top of datagram networks.
Virtual circuits are especially useful in building robust
failover mechanisms and allocating bandwidth for delay-
sensitive applications.
MPLS and its predecessors, as well as ATM, have been
called fast packet technologies. MPLS, indeed, has
been called ATM without cells.[13] Modern routers,
however, do not require these technologies to be able
to forward variable-length packets at multigigabit speeds
across the network.
151
43.5 X.25 vs. Frame Relay
Both X.25 and Frame Relay provide connection-oriented
operations. X.25 provides it via the network layer of
the OSI Model, whereas Frame Relay provides it via
level two, the data link layer. Another major dier-
ence between X.25 and Frame Relay is that X.25 re-
quires a handshake between the communicating parties
before any user packets are transmitted. Frame Relay
does not dene any such handshakes. X.25 does not de-
ne any operations inside the packet network. It only
operates at the user-network-interface (UNI). Thus, the
network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes
inside the network. X.25 does specify some limited re-
transmission procedures at the UNI, and its link layer
protocol (LAPB) provides conventional HDLC-type link
management procedures. Frame Relay is a modied ver-
sion of ISDNs layer two protocol, LAPD and LAPB. As
such, its integrity operations pertain only between nodes
on a link, not end-to-end. Any retransmissions must be
carried out by higher layer protocols. The X.25 UNI
protocol is part of the X.25 protocol suite, which con-
sists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model. It was
widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks
during the 1980s and early 1990s, to provide a standard-
ized interface into and out of packet networks. Some
implementations used X.25 within the network as well,
but its connection-oriented features made this setup cum-
bersome and inecient. Frame relay operates princi-
pally at layer two of the OSI Model. However, its ad-
dress eld (the Data Link Connection ID, or DLCI) can
be used at the OSI network layer, with a minimum set
of procedures. Thus, it rids itself of many X.25 layer 3
encumbrances, but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond
a node-to-node layer two link protocol. The simplicity
of Frame Relay makes it faster and more ecient than
X.25. Because Frame relay is a data link layer proto-
col, like X.25 it does not dene internal network rout-
ing operations. For X.25 its packet IDs---the virtual cir-
cuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to
network addresses. The same is true for Frame Relays
DLCI. How this is done is up to the network provider.
Frame Relay, by virtue of having no network layer pro-
cedures is connection-oriented at layer two, by using the
HDLC/LAPD/LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode
(SABM). X.25 connections are typically established for
each communication session, but it does have a feature
allowing a limited amount of trac to be passed across
the UNI without the connection-oriented handshake. For
a while, Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs
across wide area networks. However, X.25 and well as
Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Pro-
tocol (IP) at the network layer, and the Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) and or versions of Multi-Protocol
Label Switching (MPLS) at layer two. A typical cong-
uration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS.
<Uyless Black, X.25 and Related Protocols, IEEE Com-
puter Society, 1991> <Uyless Black, Frame Relay Net-
152 CHAPTER 43. PACKET SWITCHING

works, McGraw-Hill, 1998> <Uyless Black, MPLS and BNRNET

Label Switching Networks, Prentice Hall, 2001> < Uy-
less Black, ATM, Volume I, Prentice Hall, 1995> BNRNET was a network which Bell Northern Research
developed for internal use. It initially had only one host
but was designed to support many hosts. BNR later made
major contributions to the CCITT X.25 project.[17]
43.6 Packet-switched networks
The history of packet-switched networks can be divided CYCLADES
into three overlapping eras: early networks before the in-
troduction of X.25 and the OSI model, the X.25 era when The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French
many postal, telephone, and telegraph companies intro- research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin.
duced networks with X.25 interfaces, and the Internet era. First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore
alternatives to the early ARPANET design and to sup-
port network research generally. It was the rst net-
43.6.1 Early networks work to make the hosts responsible for reliable delivery of
data, rather than the network itself, using unreliable data-
grams and associated end-to-end protocol mechanisms.
ARPANET and SITA HLN became operational in 1969.
Concepts of this network inuenced later ARPANET
Before the introduction of X.25 in 1973,[14] about twenty
architecture.[18][19]
dierent network technologies had been developed. Two
fundamental dierences involved the division of functions
and tasks between the hosts at the edge of the network and
the network core. In the datagram system, the hosts have DECnet
the responsibility to ensure orderly delivery of packets.
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is an example of a DECnet is a suite of network protocols created by Digital
datagram protocol. In the virtual call system, the network Equipment Corporation, originally released in 1975 in or-
guarantees sequenced delivery of data to the host. This der to connect two PDP-11 minicomputers. It evolved
results in a simpler host interface with less functionality into one of the rst peer-to-peer network architectures,
than in the datagram model. The X.25 protocol suite uses thus transforming DEC into a networking powerhouse in
this network type. the 1980s. Initially built with three layers, it later (1982)
evolved into a seven-layer OSI-compliant networking
protocol. The DECnet protocols were designed entirely
by Digital Equipment Corporation. However, DECnet
Appletalk
Phase II (and later) were open standards with published
specications, and several implementations were devel-
AppleTalk was a proprietary suite of networking proto- oped outside DEC, including one for Linux.[20]
cols developed by Apple Inc. in 1985 for Apple Mac-
intosh computers. It was the primary protocol used by
Apple devices through the 1980s and 90s. AppleTalk in-
DDX-1
cluded features that allowed local area networks to be es-
tablished ad hoc without the requirement for a centralized
This was an experimental network from Nippon PTT. It
router or server. The AppleTalk system automatically as-
mixed circuit switching and packet switching. It was suc-
signed addresses, updated the distributed namespace, and
ceeded by DDX-2.[21]
congured any required inter-network routing. It was a
plug-n-play system.[15][16]
AppleTalk versions were also released for the IBM PC EIN ne COST II
and compatibles, and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk sup-
port was available in most networked printers, especially European Informatics Network was a project to link sev-
laser printers, some le servers and routers. AppleTalk eral national networks. It became operational in 1976.
support was terminated in 2009, replaced by TCP/IP
protocols.[15]
EPSS

ARPANET The Experimental Packet Switching System (EPSS) was

an experiment of the UK Post Oce. Ferranti supplied
The ARPANET was a progenitor network of the Internet the hardware and software. The handling of link control
and the rst network to run the TCP/IP suite using packet messages (acknowledgements and ow control) was dif-
switching technologies. ferent from that of most other networks.[22][23]
43.6. PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORKS 153

GEIS computer systems at the University of Michigan in Ann

Arbor and Wayne State University in Detroit.[29] In
As General Electric Information Services (GEIS), October 1972 connections to the CDC mainframe at
General Electric was a major international provider Michigan State University in East Lansing completed the
of information services. The company originally de- triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to
signed a telephone network to serve as its internal (albeit host interactive connections the network was enhanced to
continent-wide) voice telephone network. support terminal to host connections, host to host batch
In 1965, at the instigation of Warner Sinback, a data net- connections (remote job submission, remote printing,
work based on this voice-phone network was designed batch le transfer), interactive le transfer, gateways to
to connect GEs four computer sales and service centers the Tymnet and Telenet public data networks, X.25 host
(Schenectady, New York, Chicago, and Phoenix) to fa- attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet
cilitate a computer time-sharing service, apparently the attached hosts, and eventually TCP/IP and additional
worlds rst commercial online service. (In addition to public universities in Michigan join the network.[29][30]
selling GE computers, the centers were computer ser- All of this set the stage for Merits role in the NSFNET
vice bureaus, oering batch processing services. They project starting in the mid-1980s.
lost money from the beginning, and Sinback, a high-level
marketing manager, was given the job of turning the busi- NPL
ness around. He decided that a time-sharing system,
based on Kemneys work at Dartmouthwhich used a Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory, UK
computer on loan from GEcould be protable. Warner made many important contributions to the theory of
was right.) packet switching. NPL built a single node network to
After going international some years later, GEIS created a connect sundry hosts at NPL.[31]
network data center near Cleveland, Ohio. Very little has
been published about the internal details of their network.
(Though it has been stated by some that Tymshare copied OCTOPUS
the GEIS system to create their network, Tymnet.) The
design was hierarchical with redundant communication Octopus was a local network at Lawrence Livermore Na-
links. [24] [25] tional Laboratory. It connected sundry hosts at the lab
to interactive terminals and various computer peripherals
including a bulk storage system. [32] [33] [34]
IPSANET

IPSANET was a semi-private network constructed by Philips Research

I. P. Sharp Associates to serve their time-sharing cus-
tomers. It became operational in May 1976.
IPX/SPX
Philips Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey devel-
oped a packet switching network for internal use. It was
a datagram network with a single switching node. [35]

The Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and Sequenced PUP

Packet Exchange (SPX) are Novell networking protocols
derived from Xerox Network Systems IDP and SPP pro-
tocols, respectively. They were used primarily on net-
works using the Novell NetWare operating systems.[26]
Merit Network
Merit Network, Inc., an independent non-prot
501(c)(3) corporation governed by Michigans public
universities,[27] was formed in 1966 as the Michigan
Educational Research Information Triad to explore com-
puter networking between three of Michigans public
universities as a means to help the states educational and
economic development.[28] With initial support from the
State of Michigan and the National Science Foundation
(NSF), the packet-switched network was rst demon-
strated in December 1971 when an interactive host to
host connection was made between the IBM mainframe
PARC Universal Packet (PUP or Pup) was one of the
two earliest internetwork protocol suites; it was created
by researchers at Xerox PARC in the mid-1970s. The
entire suite provided routing and packet delivery, as well
as higher level functions such as a reliable byte stream,
along with numerous applications. Further developments
led to Xerox Network Systems (XNS).[36]
RCP
RCP was an experimental network created by the French
PTT. It was used to gain experience with packet switch-
ing technology before the specication of Transpac was
frozen. RCP was a virtual-circuit network in contrast to
CYCLADES which was based on datagrams. RCP em-
phasised terminal to host and terminal to terminal con-
nection; CYCLADES was concerned with host-to-host
154 CHAPTER 43. PACKET SWITCHING

communication. TRANSPAC was introduced as an X.25 Tymnet

network. RCP inuenced the specication of X.25 [37]
[38] [39]
Tymnet was an international data communications net-
work headquartered in San Jose, CA that utilized vir-
tual call packet switched technology and used X.25,
RETD SNA/SDLC, BSC and ASCII interfaces to connect host
computers (servers)at thousands of large companies, ed-
ucational institutions, and government agencies. Users
Red Especial de Transmisin de Datos was a network de-
typically connected via dial-up connections or dedicated
veloped by Compaa Telefnica Nacional de Espaa. It
async connections. The business consisted of a large pub-
became operational in 1972 and thus was the rst public
[40] [41] [42] lic network that supported dial-up users and a private
network.
network business that allowed government agencies and
large companies (mostly banks and airlines) to build their
own dedicated networks. The private networks were of-
SCANNET ten connected via gateways to the public network to reach
locations not on the private network. Tymnet was also
The experimental packet-switched Nordic telecommu- connected to dozens of other public networks in the U.S.
nication network SCANNET was implemented in Nordic and internationally via X.25/X.75 gateways. (Interesting
technical libraries in 70s, and it included rst Nordic note: Tymnet was not named after Mr. Tyme. Another
electronic journal Extemplo. Libraries were also among employee suggested the name.) [48] [49]
rst ones in universities to accommodate microcomput-
ers for public use in early 80s. [43]
XNS

Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was a protocol suite pro-

SITA HLN mulgated by Xerox, which provided routing and packet
delivery, as well as higher level functions such as a reliable
SITA is a consortium of airlines. Their High Level Net- stream, and remote procedure calls. It was developed
work became operational in 1969 at about the same time from PARC Universal Packet (PUP).[50][51]
as ARPANET. It carried interactive trac and message-
switching trac. As with many non-academic networks
very little has been published about it. [44] 43.6.2 X.25 era

There were two kinds of X.25 networks. Some such as

IBM Systems Network Architecture
IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is IBM's pro-
prietary networking architecture created in 1974. An
IBM customer could acquire hardware and software from
IBM and lease private lines from a common carrier to
construct a private network.[45]
Telenet
Telenet was the rst FCC-licensed public data network in
the United States. It was founded by former ARPA IPTO
director Larry Roberts as a means of making ARPANET
technology public. He had tried to interest AT&T in buy-
ing the technology, but the monopolys reaction was that
this was incompatible with their future. Bolt, Beranack
and Newman (BBN) provided the nancing. It initially
used ARPANET technology but changed the host inter-
face to X.25 and the terminal interface to X.29. Telenet
designed these protocols and helped standardize them in
the CCITT. Telenet was incorporated in 1973 and started
operations in 1975. It went public in 1979 and was then
sold to GTE.[46][47]
DATAPAC and TRANSPAC were initially implemented
with an X.25 external interface. Some older networks
such as TELENET and TYMNET were modied to pro-
vide a X.25 host interface in addition to older host con-
nection schemes. DATAPAC was developed by Bell
Northern Research which was a joint venture of Bell
Canada (a common carrier) and Northern Telecom (a
telecommunications equipment supplier). Northern Tele-
com sold several DATAPAC clones to foreign PTTs in-
cluding the Deutsche Bundespost. X.75 and X.121 al-
lowed the interconnection of national X.25 networks. A
user or host could call a host on a foreign network by in-
cluding the DNIC of the remote network as part of the
destination address.
AUSTPAC
AUSTPAC was an Australian public X.25 network oper-
ated by Telstra. Started by Telecom Australia in the early
1980s, AUSTPAC was Australias rst public packet-
switched data network, supporting applications such as
on-line betting, nancial applications the Australian
Tax Oce made use of AUSTPAC and remote termi-
nal access to academic institutions, who maintained their
43.6. PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORKS 155

connections to AUSTPAC up until the mid-late 1990s in Iberpac

some cases. Access can be via a dial-up terminal to a
PAD, or, by linking a permanent X.25 node to the net- Iberpac is the Spanish public packet-switched network,
work. providing X.25 services. Iberpac is run by Telefonica.

ConnNet JANET

ConnNet was a packet-switched data network operated by JANET was the UK academic and research network,
the Southern New England Telephone Company serving linking all universities, higher education establishments,
the state of Connecticut. publicly funded research laboratories. The X.25 network
was based mainly on GEC 4000 series switches, and run
X.25 links at up to 8 Mbit/s in its nal phase before being
Datanet 1 converted to an IP based network. The JANET network
grew out of the 1970s SRCnet (later called SERCnet) net-
Datanet 1 was the public switched data network operated work.
by the Dutch PTT Telecom (now known as KPN). Strictly
speaking Datanet 1 only referred to the network and the
connected users via leased lines (using the X.121 DNIC PSS
2041), the name also referred to the public PAD service
Telepad (using the DNIC 2049). And because the main Packet Switch Stream (PSS) was the UK Post Oce
Videotex service used the network and modied PAD de- (later to become British Telecom) national X.25 network
vices as infrastructure the name Datanet 1 was used for with a DNIC of 2342. British Telecom renamed PSS un-
these services as well. Although this use of the name was der its GNS (Global Network Service) name, but the PSS
incorrect all these services were managed by the same name has remained better known. PSS also included pub-
people within one department of KPN contributed to the lic dial-up PAD access, and various InterStream gateways
confusion.[52] to other services such as Telex.

Datapac Transpac

DATAPAC was the rst operational X.25 network Transpac was the national X.25 network in France. It was
(1976). It covered major Canadian cities and was even- developed locally at about the same time as DATAPAC in
tually extended to smaller centres. Canada. The development was done by the French PTT
and inuenced by the experimental RCP network. It be-
gan operation in 1978.[54]
Datex-P

Deutsche Bundespost operated this national network in VENUS-P

Germany. The technology was acquired from Northern
Telecom. VENUS-P was an international X.25 network that oper-
ated from April 1982 through March 2006. At its sub-
scription peak in 1999, VENUS-P connected 207 net-
Eirpac works in 87 countries.[55]

Eirpac is the Irish public switched data network support-

ing X.25 and X.28. It was launched in 1984, replacing Venepaq
Euronet. Eirpac is run by Eircom.
Venepaq is the national X.25 public network in
Venezuela. It is run by Cantv and allow direct connection
HIPA-NET and dial up connections. Provides nationalwide access at
very low cost. It provides national and international ac-
Hitachi designed a private network system for sale as a cess. Venepaq allow connection from 19.2 kbit/s to 64
turnkey package to multi-national organizations. In addi- kbit/s in direct connections, and 1200, 2400 and 9600
tion to providing X.25 packet switching, message switch- bit/s in dial up connections.
ing software was also included. Messages were buered
at the nodes adjacent to the sending and receiving ter-
minals. Switched virtual calls were not supported, but 43.6.3 Internet era
through the use of logical ports an originating terminal
could have a menu of pre-dened destination terminals. When Internet connectivity was made available to any-
[53]
one who could pay for an ISP subscription, the distinc-
156
tions between national networks blurred. The user no
longer saw network identiers such as the DNIC. Some
older technologies such as circuit switching have resur-
faced with new names such as fast packet switching. Re-
searchers have created some experimental networks to
complement the existing Internet.
CSNET
The Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a com-
puter network funded by the U.S. National Science Foun-
dation (NSF) that began operation in 1981. Its purpose
was to extend networking benets, for computer science
departments at academic and research institutions that
could not be directly connected to ARPANET, due to
funding or authorization limitations. It played a signif-
icant role in spreading awareness of, and access to, na- NSFNET regional networks
tional networking and was a major milestone on the path
to development of the global Internet.[56][57]
Internet2
Internet2 is a not-for-prot United States computer
networking consortium led by members from the
research and education communities, industry, and
government.[58] The Internet2 community, in partner-
ship with Qwest, built the rst Internet2 Network, called
Abilene, in 1998 and was a prime investor in the National
LambdaRail (NLR) project.[59] In 2006, Internet2 an-
nounced a partnership with Level 3 Communications to
launch a brand new nationwide network, boosting its ca-
[60]
pacity from 10 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s. In October, 2007,
Internet2 ocially retired Abilene and now refers to its
new, higher capacity network as the Internet2 Network.
NSFNET
NSFNET Trac 1991, NSFNET backbone nodes are shown at
the top, regional networks below, trac volume is depicted from
purple (zero bytes) to white (100 billion bytes), visualization by
NCSA using trac data provided by the Merit Network.
CHAPTER 43. PACKET SWITCHING
Main article: NSFNET
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)
was a program of coordinated, evolving projects spon-
sored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) begin-
ning in 1985 to promote advanced research and education
networking in the United States.[61] NSFNET was also the
name given to several nationwide backbone networks op-
erating at speeds of 56 kbit/s, 1.5 Mbit/s (T1), and 45
Mbit/s (T3) that were constructed to support NSFs net-
working initiatives from 1985-1995. Initially created to
link researchers to the nations NSF-funded supercom-
puting centers, through further public funding and private
industry partnerships it developed into a major part of the
Internet backbone.
In addition to the ve NSF supercomputer centers,
NSFNET provided connectivity to eleven regional net-
works and through these networks to many smaller re-
gional and campus networks in the United States. The
NSFNET regional networks were:[62][63]
BARRNet, the Bay Area Regional Research Net-
work in Palo Alto, California;
CERFNET, California Education and Research
Federation Network in San Diego, California, serv-
ing California and Nevada;
CICNet, the Committee on Institutional Coopera-
tion Network via the Merit Network in Ann Arbor,
Michigan and later as part of the T3 upgrade via
Argonne National Laboratory outside of Chicago,
serving the Big Ten Universities and the University
of Chicago in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Min-
nesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin;
Merit/MichNet in Ann Arbor, Michigan serving
Michigan, formed in 1966, still in operation as of
2016;[64]
MIDnet in Lincoln, Nebraska serving Arkansas,
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and
South Dakota;
NEARNET, the New England Academic and
Research Network in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
added as part of the upgrade to T3, serving Con-
necticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, and Vermont, established in late
1988, operated by BBN under contract to MIT,
BBN assumed responsibility for NEARNET on 1
July 1993;[65]
NorthWestNet in Seattle, Washington, serving
Alaska, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon,
and Washington, founded in 1987;[66]
43.7. SEE ALSO 157

NYSERNet, New York State Education and Re- one of the rst ever production OC-48c (2.5 Gbit/s) IP
search Network in Ithaca, New York; links in February 1999 and went on to upgrade the entire
backbone to OC-48c.[73]
JVNCNet, the John von Neumann National Super-
computer Center Network in Princeton, New Jersey, In June 1999 MCI WorldCom introduced vBNS+ which
serving Delaware and New Jersey; allowed attachments to the vBNS network by organiza-
tions that were not approved by or receiving support from
SESQUINET, the Sesquicentennial Network in NSF.[74] After the expiration of the NSF agreement, the
Houston, Texas, founded during the 150th anniver- vBNS largely transitioned to providing service to the gov-
sary of the State of Texas; ernment. Most universities and research centers migrated
to the Internet2 educational backbone. In January 2006,
SURAnet, the Southeastern Universities Research when MCI and Verizon merged,[75] vBNS+ became a ser-
Association network in College Park, Maryland and vice of Verizon Business.[76]
later as part of the T3 upgrade in Atlanta, Geor-
gia serving Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Vir- 43.7 See also
ginia, sold to BBN in 1994; and
Circuit switching
Westnet in Salt Lake City, Utah and Boulder, Col-
orado, serving Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, CompuServe
Utah, and Wyoming.
Message switching

National LambdaRail Optical burst switching

The National LambdaRail was launched in September Packet radio

2003. It is a 12,000-mile high-speed national computer Public data network
network owned and operated by the U.S. research and
education community that runs over ber-optic lines. It Public switched data network
was the rst transcontinental 10 Gigabit Ethernet net-
work. It operates with high aggregate capacity of up to Store and forward
1.6 Tbit/s and a high 40 Gbit/s bitrate, with plans for 100
Gbit/s.[67][68] Time-Driven Switching - a buerless approach to
packet switching

TransPAC, TransPAC2, and TransPAC3 Transmission delay

Virtual circuit
TransPAC2 and TransPAC3, continuations of the
TransPAC project, a high-speed international Internet Virtual private network
service connecting research and education networks
in the Asia-Pacic region to those in the US.[69][70]
TransPAC is part of the NSFs International Research
Network Connections (IRNC) program.[71]
43.8 References
[1] Paul Baran, On Distributed Communications, Volume I
Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) XI, Rand Corporation Research Report, August 1964

The Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
came on line in April 1995 as part of a National
Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored project to pro-
vide high-speed interconnection between NSF-sponsored
supercomputing centers and select access points in the
United States.[72] The network was engineered and op-
erated by MCI Telecommunications under a cooperative
agreement with the NSF. By 1998, the vBNS had grown
to connect more than 100 universities and research and
engineering institutions via 12 national points of presence
with DS-3 (45 Mbit/s), OC-3c (155 Mbit/s), and OC-12c
(622 Mbit/s) links on an all OC-12c backbone, a substan-
tial engineering feat for that time. The vBNS installed
[2] Larry Roberts, The Evolution of Packet Switching, Invited
paper, IEEE, November 1978.
[3] Martin Weik - Fiber Optics Standard Dictionary Springer
Science & Business Media 6 Dec 2012, 1219 pages, ISBN
1461560233 [Retrieved 2015-08-04]
[4] National Telecommunication Information Administration
- Telecommunications: Glossary of Telecommunications
Terms published by Government Institutes 1 Apr 1997,
480 pages, ISBN 1461732328, Volume 1037, Part 3 of
Federal Standard [Retrieved 2015-08-04]
[5] Stewart, Bill (2000-01-07). Paul Baran Invents Packet
Switching. Living Internet. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
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[6] Baran, Paul (May 27, 1960). Reliable Digital Com-
munications Using Unreliable Network Repeater Nodes
(PDF). The RAND Corporation: 1. Retrieved July 7,
2016.
[7] Baran, Paul (1962). RAND Paper P-2626.
[8] On Distributed Communications
[9] Davies, D. W. (17 March 1986), Oral History 189: D.
W. Davies interviewed by Martin Campbell-Kelly at the
National Physical Laboratory, Charles Babbage Institute
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, retrieved 21 July
2014
[10] The IBM 2321 Data Cell Drive, Columbia University
Computing History
[11] The IBM 1360 Photostore, Lawrence Livermore Labora-
tory Computing History
[12] Mendicino, Samuel (1970-11-30). Octopus: The
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Network. Retrieved
2009-05-06.
[13] Interview with the author (of an MPLS-based VPN arti-
cle), G. Pildush
[14] Taylor, Steve; Jim Metzler (2008). Vint Cerf on why
TCP/IP was so long in coming.
[15] A History of Macintosh Networking, Alan Oppen-
heimer, MacWorld Expo, January 2004
[16] Inside AppleTalk, Second Edition, Gursharan Sidhu,
Richard Andrews and Alan Oppenheiner, Addison-
Wesley, 1989, ISBN 0-201-55021-0
[17] Martel, C. C.; J. M. Cunningham; M. S. Grush-
cow. THE BNR NETWORK: A CANADIAN EXPE-
RIENCE WITH PACKET SWITCHING TECHNOL-
OGY. IFIP Congress 1974. pp. 1014.
[18] A Technical History of CYCLADES. Technical Histo-
ries of the Internet & other Network Protocols. Computer
Science Department, University of Texas Austin.
[19] The Cyclades Experience: Results and Impacts, Zim-
mermann, H., Proc. IFIP'77 Congress, Toronto, August
1977, pp. 465469
[20] Digital Equipment Corporation, Nineteen Fifty-Seven to
the Present, Digital Equipment Corporation, 1978, page
53. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
[21] Wood, David C. (1975). A SURVEY OF THE CAPA-
BILITIES OF 8 PACKET SWITCHING NETWORKS.
Proceedings of Symposium on Computer Networks. pp. 1
7.
[22] Bright, Roy D.; Smith, Michael A. (1973).
EXPERIMENTAL PACKET SWITCHING PROJECT
OF THE UK POST OFFICE. Proceedings of the
NATO Advanced Study Institute on Computer Communi-
cation Networks. Sussex, United Kingdom: Noordho
International Publishing. pp. 43544.
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[23] Pearson, DJ; Wilkin, D (1974). Some Design Aspects
of a public packet switching network. Proceedings of the
2nd ICCC 74. pp. 199213.
[24] Kirstein, Peter T. (1973). A SURVEY OF PRESENT
AND PLANNED GENERAL PURPOSE EUROPEAN
DATA AND COMPUTER NETWORKS. Proceedings
of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Computer Com-
munication Networks. Sussex, United Kingdom: Noord-
ho International Publishing.
[25] Schwartz, Mischa; Boorstyn, Rober R.; Pick-
holtz, Raymond L. (November 1972). Terminal-
Oriented Computer-Communication Networks.
Proceedings of the IEEE. 60 (11): 140823.
doi:10.1109/proc.1972.8912.
[26] Maintaining IPX Compatibility During a Migration to
TCP/IP on a NetWare Network, Rich Lee, Novell, 1
March 1998. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
[27] Merit receives administrative services under an agreement
with the University of Michigan.
[28] A Chronicle of Merits Early History, John Mulcahy, 1989,
Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
[29] Merit Network Timeline: 19701979, Merit Network,
Ann Arbor, Michigan
[30] Merit Network Timeline: 19801989, Merit Network,
Ann Arbor, Michigan
[31] Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P.T. (1974). The Na-
tional Physical Laboratory Data Communications Net-
work. Proceedings of the 2nd ICCC 74. pp. 223228.
[32] Mendicino, Samuel F. (1972). 1970 OCTOPUS: THE
LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY NET-
WORK. COMPUTER NETWORKS. Englewood Clis,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc.: 95100.
[33] Pehrson, David L. (1970). AN ENGINEERING VIEW
OF THE LRL OCTOPUS COMPUTER NETWORK.
[34] Fletcher, John G. (1975). Principles of Design in the
Octopus Computer network.
[35] Burnett, D.J.; Sethi, H.R. Packet Switching at
Philips Research Laboratories. Computer Networks.
North-Holland Publishing Company. 1: 341348.
doi:10.1016/0376-5075(77)90010-1.
[36] David R. Boggs; John F. Shoch; Edward A. Taft; Robert
M. Metcalfe (April 1980). Pup: An Internetwork Archi-
tecture. IEEE Transactions on Communications. 28 (4):
612624. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094684.
[37] Desprs, R. (1974). RCP, THE EXPERIMENTAL
PACKET-SWITCHED DATA TRANSMISSION SER-
VICE OF THE FRENCH PTT. Proceedings of ICCC
74. pp. 17185.
[38] Bache, A.; Matras, Y. (1976). Fundamental Choices
in the Development of RCP, the Experimental Packet-
Switching Data Transmission Service of the French PTT.
Proceedings of ICCC 76. pp. 31116.
43.8. REFERENCES
[39] Bache, A.; L. Guillou; H. Layec; B. Long; Y. Matras
(1976). RCP, the Experimental Packet-Switched Data
Transmission Service of the French PTT: History, Con-
nections, Control. Proceedings of ICCC 76.
[40] Alarcia, G.; Herrera, S. (1974). C.T.N.E.'s PACKET
SWITCHING NETWORK. ITS APPLICATIONS.
Proceedings of 2nd ICCC 74. pp. 163170.
[41] Cuenca, L. (1980). A PUBLIC PACKET SWITCHING
DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK: EIGHT
YEARS OF OPERATING EXPERIENCE. Conference
Record of ICC 80. IEEE. pp. 39.3.139.3.5.
[42] Lavandera, Luis (1980). ARCHITECTURE, PROTO-
COLS AND PERFORMANCE OF RETD. Conference
Record of ICC 80. IEEE. pp. 28.4.128.4.5.
[43] Haarala, Arja-Riitta. Libraries as key players at the local
level.
[44] Chretien, G.J.; Konig, W.M.; Rech, J.H. (1973). The
SITA Network. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced
Study Institute on Computer Communication Networks.
Sussex, United Kingdom: Noordho International Pub-
lishing. pp. 373396.
[45] Sundstrom, R.J.; G.D. Schultz (1980). 1980 SNA'S First
Six Years: 1974-1980. Proceedings of 5th ICCC 80. pp.
578585.
[46] Electronic post for switching data. Timothy Johnson.
New Scientist. May 13, 1976
[47] Mathison, S.L. Roberts, L.G.; Walker, P.M., The history
of telenet and the commercialization of packet switching
in the U.S., Communications Magazine, IEEE, May 2012
[48] TYMES, LA ROY W. TYMNET A terminal oriented
communication network. Proceedings of the SJCC 1971.
38. pp. 21116.
[49] TYMES, LA ROY W. (April 1981). Routing and Flow
Control in TYMNET. IEEE Transactions on Communi-
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[50] Xerox System Integration Standard - Internet Transport
Protocols, Xerox, Stamford, 1981.
[51] Chapter 12: Xerox Network Systems, AIX Version
4.3 Communications Programming Concepts, International
Business Machines, October 1997.
[52] H.J. Steneker: Graduation Report on X.25 data services
in GSM network Electrical Engineering - TUE, 16 May
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2011
[53] Tomaru, K.; T. Kato; S.I. Yamaguchi (1980). A Private
Packet Network and Its Application in A Worldwide In-
tegrated Communication Network. Proceedings of ICCC
'80. pp. 51722.
[54] X.25 Virtual Circuits - Transpac in France - Pre-Internet
Data Networking.
[55] KDDI to Close VENUS-P International Public Data
Communications Service, KDDI, 9 November 2005.
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[56] The InternetFrom Modest Beginnings. NSF website.
Retrieved September 30, 2011.
[57] Douglas Comer (October 1983). History and overview
of CSNET. Communications. Association for Comput-
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[58] About Internet2, Retrieved on 2009-06-26
[59] Optical networking: The next generation, Marguerite
Reardon, CNET News, October 11, 2004
[60] Speedy Internet2 gets 10x boost, Anick Jesdanun (AP),
USAToday.com, October 11, 2007, Retrieved 26 June
2009.
[61] NSFNET: The Partnership That Changed The World,
Web site for an event held to celebrate the NSFNET,
November 2007
[62] Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling
the End of an Era, Susan R. Harris and Elise Gerich,
ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996
[63] NSFNET: The Community, panel presentation slides,
Doug Gale moderator, NSFNET: The Partnership That
Changed The World, 29 November 2007
[64] MeritWho, What, and Why, Part One: The Early Years,
1964-1983, Eric M. Aupperle, Merit Network, Inc., in
Library Hi Tech, vol. 16, No. 1 (1998)
[65] BBN to operate NEARnet, MIT News, 14 July 1993
[66] About NorthWestNet, NorthWestNet User Services In-
ternet Resource Guide, NorthWestNet Academic Comput-
ing Consortium, Inc., 24 March 1992 accessed 3 July
2012
[67] Michael Feldman (October 28, 2008). National Lamb-
daRail Opens for Business. HPCwire. Retrieved June 6,
2013.
[68] About NLR, National LambdaRail, 3 September 2013.
[69] International TransPAC2 Inaugurated, HPC Wire, 8
April 2005.
[70] TransPAC website. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
[71] TransPAC3 - Asia-US High Performance International
Networking, International Research Network Connec-
tions Program (IRNC), U.S. National Science Founda-
tion, October 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
[72] NSF Solicitation 93-52 - Network Access Point Man-
ager, Routing Arbiter, Regional Network Providers, and
Very High Speed Backbone Network Services Provider
for NSFNET and the NREN(SM) Program, May 6, 1993
[73] vBNS: not your fathers Internet, John Jamison, Randy
Nicklas, Greg Miller, Kevin Thompson, Rick Wilder,
Laura Cunningham and Chuck Song, IEEE Spectrun, Vol-
ume 35 Issue 7 (July 1998), pp. 38-46.
[74] MCI WorldCom Introduces Next Generation vBNS+ For
All Higher Education And Research Organizations, Ver-
izon Business News, June 23, 1999
160 CHAPTER 43. PACKET SWITCHING

[75] Verizon and MCI Close Merger, Creating a Stronger Norberg, Arthur; O'Neill, Judy E. Transforming
Competitor for Advanced Communications Services, Computer Technology: Information Processing for
Verizon Business News, January 6, 2006 the Pentagon, 1962-1982 (Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, 1996)
[76] vBNS+, at http://www.verizonbusiness.com Home > So-
lutions > Government > Federal Government > Contract
Vehicles > FTS2001 Bridge > Products
43.10 External links
43.8.1 Bibliography Oral history interview with Paul Baran. Charles
Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Min-
Leonard Kleinrock, Information Flow in Large neapolis. Baran describes his working environment
Communication Nets, (MIT, Cambridge, May 31, at RAND, as well as his initial interest in surviv-
1961) Proposal for a Ph.D. Thesis able communications, and the evolution, writing and
distribution of his eleven-volume work, On Dis-
Leonard Kleinrock. Information Flow in Large
tributed Communications. Baran discusses his in-
Communication Nets (RLE Quarterly Progress Re- teraction with the group at ARPA who were respon-
port, July 1961)
sible for the later development of the ARPANET.
Leonard Kleinrock. Communication Nets: Stochastic Packet Switching History and Design, site reviewed
Message Flow and Delay (McGraw-Hill, New York, by Baran, Roberts, and Kleinrock
1964)
Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet
Paul Baran et al., On Distributed Communications,
Volumes I-XI (RAND Corporation Research Docu- A Brief History of the Internet
ments, August, 1964)
Hobbes Internet Timeline v8.1, Robert H'obbes
Paul Baran, On Distributed Communications: Zakon, Zakon Group LLC
I Introduction to Distributed Communications
20+ articles on packet switching in the 70s
Network (RAND Memorandum RM-3420-
PR. August 1964) An Introduction to Packet Switched Networks,
Phrack, 05/3/88
Paul Baran, On Distributed Communications Net-
works, (IEEE Transactions on Communications
Systems, Vol. CS-12 No. 1, pp. 19, March 1964) This article is based on material taken from the Free On-
line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
D. W. Davies, K. A. Bartlett, R. A. Scantlebury, and and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
P. T. Wilkinson, A digital communications network GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
for computers giving rapid response at remote termi-
nals (ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Prin-
ciples. October 1967)

R. A. Scantlebury, P. T. Wilkinson, and K. A.

Bartlett, The design of a message switching Centre
for a digital communication network (IFIP 1968)

Larry Roberts and Tom Merrill, Toward a Coopera-

tive Network of Time-Shared Computers (Fall AFIPS
Conference. October 1966)

Lawrence Roberts, The Evolution of Packet Switch-

ing (Proceedings of the IEEE, November, 1978)

43.9 Further reading

Abbate, Janet (2000), Inventing the Internet, MIT
Press, ISBN 9780262511155

Hafner, Katie Where Wizards Stay Up Late (Simon

and Schuster, 1996) pp 5267
Chapter 44
Peer-to-peer SIP
Peer-to-peer SIP (P2P-SIP) is an implementation of a tured peer-to-peer approaches,[6] as well as unstructured
distributed voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) or instant peer-to-peer architectures.[7]
messaging communications application using a peer-to-
peer (P2P) architecture in which session control between
communication end points is facilitated with the Session 44.2 Standards
Initiation Protocol (SIP).
44.1 SIP in a P2P architecture
In a pure peer-to-peer application architecture no cen-
tral servers are required,[1] whereas traditional SIP tele-
phony networks have relied on using centrally deployed
and managed SIP servers, in analogy to the centralized
switching architecture of the public switched telephone
network (PSTN).[2][3] P2P application design can im-
prove scalability[4] and survivability in the event of central
network outages.
The Session Initiation Protocol is in principle a client-
server protocol, however it has been described in anal-
ogy to the P2P relationship, called a dialog, which is de-
ned by a unique combination of SIP protocol parameters
(To-tag, From-tag, Call-ID).[3] Both endpoints of a com-
munication session implement a user-agent server and a
user-agent client, which enables any two user agents to
communicate directly with one another without the me-
diation of another a central switching system. SIP also
provides facilities of registering (REGISTER request) the
network location of a user agent with other SIP elements
and subscription (SUBSCRIBE request) and notication
(NOTIFY request) features for event tracking between
user agents.
Based on these inherent SIP features it is possible to con-
struct a peer-to-peer network of SIP nodes.
In another approach, SIP over P2P, the SIP location ser-
vice is replaced by conventional P2P overlay network-
ing approach, such as the OverSim framework.[5] In this
model, the overlay network is used for service or node dis-
covery and rendezvous. The search key in such a mecha-
nism is the Uniform Resource Identier (URI) of a user
agent. This URI requires resolution to a particular device
or Uniform Resource Locator (URL) that must be per-
formed in real time. P2P-SIP systems may employ struc-
161
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is conduct-
ing a working group (P2PSIP) that develops standards-
track specications for P2P-SIP.[8] This eort is based on
using the REsource LOcation And Discovery (RELOAD)
Base Protocol[9] a peer-to-peer (P2P) signaling proto-
col for use on the Internet. The P2P signaling pro-
tocol provides the network nodes that form an overlay
network with abstract storage, messaging, and security
services.[10][11]
44.3 See also
Peer-to-Peer Protocol (P2PP)
Skype
44.4 References
[1] Rdiger Schollmeier, A Denition of Peer-to-Peer Net-
working for the Classication of Peer-to-Peer Architectures
and Applications, Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Peer-to-Peer Computing, IEEE (2002).
[2] D.A. Bryan; B.B. Lowekamp; C. Jennings (15 June 2005).
SOSIMPLE: A Serverless, Standards-based, P2P SIP Com-
munication System. Orlando, FL: IEEE. pp. 4249. ISBN
0-7695-2525-3.
[3] RFC 3261, SIP: Session Initiation Protocol, J. Rosenberg,
H. Schulzrinne, G. Camarillo, A. Johnston, J. Peterson,
R. Sparks, M. Handley, E. Schooler, The Internet Society
(June 2002)
[4] Rdiger Schollmeier, Gero Schollmeier (September 5
7, 2002), Why Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Does Scale: An Anal-
ysis of P2P Trac Patterns, Proceedings of the IEEE
2002 International Conference on Peer-to-Peer Comput-
ing (P2P2002), Linkping, Sweden
162 CHAPTER 44. PEER-TO-PEER SIP

[5] Ingmar Baumgart; Bernhard Heep; Stephan Krause (May

2007). OverSim: A Flexible Overlay Network Sim-
ulation Framework (PDF). Proceedings of 10th IEEE
Global Internet Symposium (GI '07) in conjunction with
IEEE INFOCOM 2007, Anchorage, AK, USA.

[6] Wolfgang Kellerer; Gerald Kunzmann; Rdiger

Schollmeier; Stefan Zls (2007), Structured peer-to-peer
systems for telecommunications and mobile environments,
Elsevier, doi:10.1016/j.aeue.2005.10.005

[7] Chien-Ming Cheng; Shiao-Li Tsao; Jin-Chang Chou (7

September 2007), Unstructured Peer-to-Peer Session Initi-
ation Protocol for Mobile Environment, 3, IEEE 18th In-
ternational Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile
Radio Communications, 2007 (PIMRC 2007)., pp. 15

[8] C. Jennings, B. Lowekamp, E. Rescorla, S. Baset, H.

Schulzrinne, T. C. Schmidt (Ed.) (July 2013). A SIP
Usage for RELOAD. IETF Trust.

[9] C. Jennings, B. Lowekamp (Ed.), E. Rescorla, S. Baset, H.

Schulzrinne (7 March 2009). REsource LOcation And
Discovery (RELOAD) Base Protocol. IETF Trust.

[10] A. Knauf, T. C. Schmidt (Ed.), G. Hege, M. Waehlisch

(August 2013). A Usage for Shared Resources in
RELOAD (ShaRe)". IETF Trust.

[11] A. Knauf, T. C. Schmidt (Ed.), G. Hege, M. Waehlisch

(August 2013). A RELOAD Usage for Distributed Con-
ference Control (DisCo)". IETF Trust.

44.5 External links

The OverSim home page

P2PSIP demonstrator based on P2PNS

Ingmar Baumgart; Bernhard Heep; Stephan Krause
(September 2007). A P2PSIP Demonstrator Pow-
ered by OverSim (PDF). Proceedings of 7th IEEE
International Conference on Peer-to-Peer Comput-
ing (P2P2007), Galway, Ireland.

K. Singh; H. Schulzrinne (2004). Peer-to-Peer In-

ternet Telephony using SIP (PDF). New York, NY:
Columbia University.

A code library for P2P over SIP: Sip2Peer project.

Chapter 45

Personal identication number

For the number used by governments to identify citizens, 45.1 History

see National identication number.
A personal identication number (PIN, pronounced The PIN originated with the introduction of the ATM
in 1967, as an ecient way for banks to dispense cash
to their customers. The rst ATM system was that
of Barclays in London, in 1967; it accepted cheques
with machine-readable encoding, rather than cards, and
matched the PIN to the cheque.[2][3][4] 1972, Lloyds
Bank issued the rst bank card to feature an information-
encoding magnetic strip, using a PIN for security.[5]
In 2006, James Goodfellow, the inventor who patented
the rst personal identication number, was awarded an
OBE in the Queens Birthday Honours.[6]
A personal identication number sent to its user in a letter. The
darkened paper ap prevents the number from being read by
holding the unopened envelope to the light.
45.2 PIN length

pin"; often redundantly PIN number) is a numeric The international standard for nancial services PIN
password used to authenticate a user to a system. management, ISO 95641, allows for PINs from four up
to twelve digits, but recommends that for usability reasons
PINs may be used with banking systems to authenticate
the card issuer not assign a PIN longer than six digits.[7]
the identity of the cardholder, but are also used in other,
The inventor of the ATM, John Shepherd-Barron, had
non-nancial systems.
at rst envisioned a six-digit numeric code, but his wife
Usually, both a private PIN and public user identier is could only remember four digits, and that has become the
required to authenticate a user to the system. In these most commonly used length in many places,[3] although
situations, typically the user is required to provide a non- banks in Switzerland and many other countries require a
condential user identier or token (the user ID) and a six-digit PIN .
condential PIN to gain access to the system. Upon re-
ceiving the user ID and PIN, the system looks up the
PIN based upon the user ID and compares the looked- 45.3 PIN validation
up PIN with the received PIN. The user is granted access
only when the number entered matches with the number
stored in the system. Hence, despite the name, a PIN does There are several main methods of validating PINs. The
not personally identify the user.[1] The PIN is not printed operations discussed below are usually performed within
or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the a hardware security module (HSM).
cardholder during automated teller machine (ATM) and
point of sale (POS) transactions (such as those that com-
45.3.1 IBM 3624 method
ply with EMV), and in card not present transactions, such
as over the Internet or for phone banking. One of the earliest ATM models was the IBM 3624,
PINs may also be used in contexts other than ATM or which used the IBM method to generate what is termed a
POS transactions, such as door access, Internet transac- natural PIN. The natural PIN is generated by encrypting
tions, or to log in to a restricted website. In such cases, the primary account number (PAN), using an encryption
the PIN may simply be a password, and not necessarily key generated specically for the purpose.[8] This key is
associated with a specic card. sometimes referred to as the PIN generation key (PGK).

163
164 CHAPTER 45. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION NUMBER

This PIN is directly related to the primary account num- index (PVKI, chosen from one to six) and the required
ber. To validate the PIN, the issuing bank regenerates the PIN value to make a 64 bit number, the PVKI selects a
PIN using the above method, and compares this with the validation key (PVK, of 128 bits) to encrypt this number.
entered PIN. From this encrypted value, the PVV is found.[11]
Natural PINs can not be user selectable because they are To validate the PIN, the issuing bank calculates a PVV
derived from the PAN. If the card is reissued with a new value from the entered PIN and PAN and compares this
PAN, a new PIN must be generated. value to the reference PVV. If the reference PVV and the
Natural PINs allow banks to issue PIN reminder letters calculated PVV match, the correct PIN was entered.
as the PIN can be generated. Unlike the IBM method, the VISA method doesn't derive
a PIN. The PVV value is used to conrm the PIN entered
at the terminal, was also used to generate the reference
45.3.2 IBM 3624 + oset method PVV. The PIN used to generate a PVV can be randomly
generated or user selected or even derived using the IBM
To allow user selectable PINs it is possible to store a PIN method.
oset value. The oset is found by subtracting natural
PIN from the customer selected PIN using modulo 10.[9]
For example, if the natural PIN is 1234, and the user 45.4 PIN security
wishes to have a PIN of 2345, the oset is 1111.
The oset can be stored either on the card track data,[10] Financial PINs are often four-digit numbers in the
or in a database at the card issuer. range 0000-9999, resulting in 10,000 possible numbers.
To validate the PIN, the issuing bank calculates the natu- Switzerland issues six-digit PINs by default.
ral PIN as in the above method, then adds the oset and Some systems set up default PINs and most allow the cus-
compares this value to the entered PIN. tomer to set up a PIN or to change the default one, and on
some a change of PIN on rst access is mandatory. Cus-
tomers are usually advised not to set up a PIN based on
45.3.3 VISA method their or their spouses birthdays, on driver license num-
bers, consecutive or repetitive numbers, or some other
schemes. Some nancial institutions do not give out or
permit PINs where all digits are identical (such as 1111,
2222, ...), consecutive (1234, 2345, ), numbers that
start with one or more zeroes, or the last four digits of the
cardholders social security number or birth date.
Many PIN verication systems allow three attempts,
thereby giving a card thief a putative 0.03% probability of
guessing the correct PIN before the card is blocked. This
holds only if all PINs are equally likely and the attacker
has no further information available, which has not been
the case with some of the many PIN generation and ver-
ication algorithms that nancial institutions and ATM
manufacturers have used in the past.[12]
Research has been done on commonly used PINs.[13] The
result is that without forethought, a sizable portion of
users may nd their PIN vulnerable. Armed with only
four possibilities, hackers can crack 20% of all PINs. Al-
low them no more than fteen numbers, and they can tap
When using this credit card terminal, a VISA cardholder swipes the accounts of more than a quarter of card-holders.[14]
or inserts their credit card, and enters their PIN on the keypad Breakable PINs can worsen with length, to wit:

The VISA method is used by many card schemes and is
not VISA-specic. The VISA method generates a PIN
verication value (PVV). Similar to the oset value, it
can be stored on the cards track data, or in a database at
the card issuer. This is called the reference PVV.
The VISA method takes the rightmost eleven digits of the
PAN excluding the checksum value, a PIN validation key
The problem with guessable PINs surpris-
ingly worsens when customers are forced to
use additional digits, moving from about a 25%
probability with fteen numbers to more than
30% (not counting 7-digits with all those phone
numbers). In fact, about half of all 9-digit
PINs can be reduced to two dozen possibili-
45.8. REFERENCES 165

ties, largely because more than 35% of all peo-
ple use the all too tempting 123456789. As
for the remaining 64%, theres a good chance
they're using their Social Security Number,
which makes them vulnerable. (Social Secu-
rity Numbers contain their own well-known
patterns.)[14]
45.4.1 Implementation aws
In 2002 two PhD students at Cambridge University, Pi-
otr Zieliski and Mike Bond, discovered a security aw
in the PIN generation system of the IBM 3624, which
was duplicated in most later hardware. Known as the
decimalization table attack, the aw would allow some-
one who has access to a banks computer system to de-
termine the PIN for an ATM card in an average of 15
guesses.[15][16]
45.8 References
[1] Your ID number is not a password, Webb-site.com, 8
November 2010
[2] Jarunee Wonglimpiyara, Strategies of Competition in the
Bank Card Business (2005), p. 1-3.
[3] The man who invented the cash machine. BBC. 2007-
06-25. Retrieved 2014-06-15.
[4] ATM inventor John Shepherd-Barron dies at 84. Los
Angeles Times. 19 May 2010 via Associated Press.
[5] Jarunee Wonglimpiyara, Strategies of Competition in the
Bank Card Business (2005), p. 5.
[6] Royal honour for inventor of Pin. BBC. 2006-06-16.
Retrieved 2007-11-05.
[7] ISO 9564-1:2011 Financial services Personal Identi-
cation Number (PIN) management and security Part 1:
Basic principles and requirements for PINs in card-based
systems, clause 8.1 PIN length

45.5 Reverse PIN hoax [8] 3624 PIN Generation Algorithm. IBM.

[9] PIN Oset Generation Algorithm. IBM.

Main article: ATM SafetyPIN software
[10] Track format of magnetic stripe cards. Gae.ucm.es.

Rumours have been in e-mail circulation claiming that in [11] PVV Generation Algorithm. IBM.
the event of entering a PIN into an ATM backwards, po- [12] Kuhn, Markus (July 1997). Probability theory for pick-
lice will be instantly alerted as well as money being ordi- pockets ec-PIN guessing (PDF). Retrieved 2006-11-
narily issued as if the PIN had been entered correctly.[17] 24.
The intention of this scheme would be to protect victims
of muggings; however, despite the system being proposed [13] Nick Berry (28 September 2012). The most common pin
numbers: is your bank account vulnerable?". Guardian
for use in some US states,[18][19] there are no ATMs cur-
newspaper website. Retrieved 2013-02-25.
rently in existence that employ this software.
[14] Lundin, Leigh (2013-08-04). PINs and Passwords, Part
1. Passwords. Orlando: SleuthSayers. Armed with only
four possibilities, hackers can crack 20% of all PINs.
45.6 Mobile phone passcodes
[15] Zieliski, P & Bond, M (February 2003). Decimalisation
table attacks for PIN cracking (PDF). University of Cam-
A mobile phone may be PIN protected. If enabled, the bridge Computer Laboratory. Retrieved 2006-11-24.
PIN (also called a passcode) for GSM mobile phones can
be between four and eight digits[20] and is recorded in [16] Media coverage. University of Cambridge Computer
the SIM card. If such a PIN is entered incorrectly three Laboratory. Retrieved 2006-11-24.
times, the SIM card is blocked until a personal unblocking [17] Reverse PIN Panic Code. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
code (PUC or PUK), provided by the service operator, is
entered. If the PUC is entered incorrectly ten times, the [18] Full Text of SB0562 Illinois General Assembly, accessed
SIM card is permanently blocked, requiring a new SIM 2011-07-20
card from the mobile carrier service.
[19] sb379_SB_379_PF_2.html Senate Bill 379 Georgia Gen-
eral Assembly, published 2006, accessed 2011-07-20

[20] 082251615790 GSM 02.17 Subscriber Identity Modules,

45.7 See also Functional Characteristics, version 3.2.0, February 1992,
clause 3.1.3
ATM SafetyPIN software

Card security code

Transaction authentication number

Chapter 46

Primary Rate Interface

The Primary Rate Interface (PRI) is a
telecommunications interface standard used on an
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) for carrying
multiple DS0 voice and data transmissions between the
network and a user.
PRI is the standard for providing telecommunication ser-
vices to oces. It is based on the T-carrier (T1) line in
the US and Canada, and the E-carrier (E1) line in Europe.
The T1 line consists of 24 channels, while an E1 has 32.
PRI provides a varying number of channels depending
on the standards in the country of implementation. In
North America and Japan it consists of 23xB (B chan-
nels (bearer channels)) and 1xD (D channel (data[1] chan-
nel)) (23 64-kbit/s digital channels + 1 64-kbit/s signal-
ing/control channel) on a T1 (1.544 Mbit/s). In Europe
and Australia it is 30B + D[2] on an E1 2.048 Mbit/s. One
timeslot(0) on the E1 is used for synchronization purposes
and is not considered to be a B or D channel. The D-
channel typically uses timeslot 16 on an E1, vs timeslot
24 for a T1.
46.1 Fractional T1
Each B-channel carries data, voice, and other services.
The D-channel carries control and signaling information.
Larger connections are possible using PRI pairing. A
dual T1-PRI could have 24 + 23 = 47 B-channels and
1 D-channel (often called 47B + D), but more com-
monly has 46 B-channels and 2 D-channels thus providing
a backup signaling channel. The concept applies to E1s
as well and both can include more than 2 PRIs. When
conguring multiple T1s as ISDN-PRIs, its possible to
use NFAS (non-facility associated signalling) to enable
one or two D-channels to support additional B-channels
on separate T1 circuits.
46.3 Application
The Primary Rate Interface channels are typically used
by medium to large enterprises with digital PBXs to pro-
vide them digital access to the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN). The 23 (or 30) B-channels can be used
exibly and reassigned when necessary to meet special
needs such as video conferences. The Primary Rate user
is hooked up directly to the telephone company central
oce.

Fewer active B channels (also called bearer channels) can PRI channels and direct inward dialing are also common
be used for a fractional T1. Bearer channels may also be as a means of delivering inbound calls to voice over IP
known as user channels. More channels can be used with gateways from the PSTN.
more T1s, within certain design limits.[3]

46.4 See also

46.2 PRI and BRI
Non-Facility Associated Signalling
The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) pre-
scribes two levels of service:[4] H channel

D channel
BRI, the Basic Rate Interface: two 64-kbit/s B
channels and one 16-kbit/s D channel, intended for B channel
homes and small enterprises
Caller ID spoong
PRI, the Primary Rate Interface for large organiza-
tions, with one 64-kbit/s D channel and 23 (1.536 DHEC
Mbit/s T1, a.k.a. 23B + D) or 30, 64-kbit/s B
channels (2.048 Mbit/s E1, a.k.a. 30B + D).

166
46.5. REFERENCES 167

46.5 References
[1] https://books.google.com/books?id=
0LyDQgAACAAJ&dq=newton%27s+telecom+
dictionary+16th+edition

[2] https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-I.412-198811-I/en

[3] Denition: T1. LSU Grok. Retrieved 18 June 2015.

[4] A Technical Coverage of Primary Rate Interface (PRI)".

ISPFast. Retrieved 18 June 2015.

This article incorporates public domain material

from the General Services Administration document
Federal Standard 1037C.
Chapter 47
Public switched telephone network
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is
the aggregate of the worlds circuit-switched telephone
networks that are operated by national, regional, or lo-
cal telephony operators, providing infrastructure and ser-
vices for public telecommunication. The PSTN consists
of telephone lines, ber optic cables, microwave trans-
mission links, cellular networks, communications satel-
lites, and undersea telephone cables, all interconnected by
switching centers, thus allowing most telephones to com-
municate with each other. Originally a network of xed-
line analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost
entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile
and other networks, as well as xed telephones.[1]
The technical operation of the PSTN adheres to the stan-
dards created by the ITU-T. These standards allow dier-
ent networks in dierent countries to interconnect seam-
lessly. The E.163 and E.164 standards provide a single
global address space for telephone numbers. The com-
bination of the interconnected networks and the single
numbering plan allow telephones around the world to dial
each other.
47.1 History (USA)
The rst telephones had no network but were in private
use, wired together in pairs. Users who wanted to talk to
dierent people had as many telephones as necessary for
the purpose. A user who wished to speak whistled loudly
into the transmitter until the other party heard.
However, a bell was added soon for signaling, so an at-
tendant no longer need wait for the whistle, and then a
switch hook. Later telephones took advantage of the ex-
change principle already employed in telegraph networks.
Each telephone was wired to a local telephone exchange,
and the exchanges were wired together with trunks. Net-
works were connected in a hierarchical manner until they
spanned cities, countries, continents and oceans. This
was the beginning of the PSTN, though the term was not
used for many decades. In some countries, however, the job of providing tele-
Automation introduced pulse dialing between the phone phone networks fell to government as the investment re-
and the exchange, and then among exchanges, followed quired was very large and the provision of telephone ser-
by more sophisticated address signaling including multi- vice was increasingly becoming an essential public utility.
168
frequency, culminating in the SS7 network that connected
most exchanges by the end of the 20th century.
The growth of the PSTN meant that teletrac engineer-
ing techniques needed to be deployed to deliver quality
of service (QoS) guarantees for the users. The work of
A. K. Erlang established the mathematical foundations of
methods required to determine the capacity requirements
and conguration of equipment and the number of per-
sonnel required to deliver a specic level of service.
In the 1970s the telecommunications industry began im-
plementing packet switched network data services using
the X.25 protocol transported over much of the end-to-
end equipment as was already in use in the PSTN.
In the 1980s the industry began planning for digital ser-
vices assuming they would follow much the same pattern
as voice services, and conceived a vision of end-to-end
circuit switched services, known as the Broadband Inte-
grated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN). The B-ISDN
vision has been overtaken by the disruptive technology of
the Internet.
At the turn of the 21st century, the oldest parts of the
telephone network still use analog technology for the last
mile loop to the end user. However, digital technologies
such as DSL, ISDN, FTTx, and cable modems have be-
come more common in this portion of the network.
Several large private telephone networks are not linked
to the PSTN, usually for military purposes. There are
also private networks run by large companies which are
linked to the PSTN only through limited gateways, such
as a large private branch exchange (PBX).
47.2 Operators
The task of building the networks and selling services to
customers fell to the network operators. The rst com-
pany to be incorporated to provide PSTN services was
the Bell Telephone Company in the United States.
47.5. SEE ALSO 169

For example, the General Post Oce in the United King- one end to another via telephone exchanges. The call is
dom brought together a number of private companies to switched using a call set up protocol (usually ISUP) be-
form a single nationalized company. In recent decades tween the telephone exchanges under an overall routing
however, these state monopolies were broken up or sold strategy.
o through privatization. The call is carried over the PSTN using a 64 kbit/s chan-
nel, originally designed by Bell Labs. The name given
to this channel is Digital Signal 0 (DS0). The DS0 cir-
47.3 Regulation cuit is the basic granularity of circuit switching in a tele-
phone exchange. A DS0 is also known as a timeslot be-
In most countries, the central has a regulator dedicated to cause DS0s are aggregated in time-division multiplexing
monitoring the provision of PSTN services in that coun- (TDM) equipment to form higher capacity communica-
try. Their tasks may be for example to ensure that end tion links.
customers are not over-charged for services where mo- A Digital Signal 1 (DS1) circuit carries 24 DS0s on a
nopolies may exist. They may also regulate the prices North American or Japanese T-carrier (T1) line, or 32
charged between the operators to carry each others traf- DS0s (30 for calls plus two for framing and signaling) on
c. an E-carrier (E1) line used in most other countries. In
modern networks, the multiplexing function is moved as
close to the end user as possible, usually into cabinets at
47.4 Technology the roadside in residential areas, or into large business
premises.
47.4.1 Network topology These aggregated circuits are conveyed from the initial
multiplexer to the exchange over a set of equipment col-
Main article: PSTN network topology lectively known as the access network. The access net-
work and inter-exchange transport use synchronous opti-
The PSTN network architecture had to evolve over the cal transmission, for example, SONET and Synchronous
years to support increasing numbers of subscribers, calls, Digital Hierarchy (SDH) technologies, although some
connections to other countries, direct dialing and so on. parts still use the older PDH technology.
The model developed by the United States and Canada Within the access network, there are a number of refer-
was adopted by other nations, with adaptations for local ence points dened. Most of these are of interest mainly
markets. to ISDN but one the V reference point is of more
The original concept was that the telephone exchanges general interest. This is the reference point between a
are arranged into hierarchies, so that if a call cannot be primary multiplexer and an exchange. The protocols at
handled in a local cluster, it is passed to one higher up this reference point were standardized in ETSI areas as
for onward routing. This reduced the number of connect- the V5 interface.
ing trunks required between operators over long distances
and also kept local trac separate.
47.4.3 Impact on IP standards
However, in modern networks the cost of transmission
and equipment is lower and, although hierarchies still ex-
Voice quality over PSTN networks was used as the bench-
ist, they are much atter, with perhaps only two layers.
mark for the development of the Telecommunications
Industry Association's TIA-TSB-116 standard on voice-
47.4.2 Digital channels quality recommendations for IP telephony, to determine
acceptable levels of audio delay and echo.[2]
Main article: Telephone exchange

As described above, most automated telephone ex- 47.5 See also

changes now use digital switching rather than mechani-
cal or analog switching. The trunks connecting the ex- Internet area network (IAN)
changes are also digital, called circuits or channels. How-
ever analog two-wire circuits are still used to connect the Managed facilities-based voice network
last mile from the exchange to the telephone in the home
(also called the local loop). To carry a typical phone call Plain old telephone service (POTS)
from a calling party to a called party, the analog audio
signal is digitized at an 8 kHz sample rate with 8-bit res- PSTN network topology
olution using a special type of nonlinear pulse code mod-
ulation known as G.711. The call is then transmitted from Via Net Loss
170 CHAPTER 47. PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK

47.6 References
[1] Kushnick, Bruce (7 January 2013). What Are the Pub-
lic Switched Telephone Networks, 'PSTN' and Why You
Should Care?". Hungton Post Blog. Retrieved 11 April
2014.

[2] TIA TSB-116. Global.ihs.com. Retrieved 2011-11-20.

47.7 External links

Chapter 48

Public-safety answering point

come voting members of the National Emergency Num-

ber Association (NENA). Emergency dispatchers work-
ing in PSAPs can become certied with the National
Academies of Emergency Dispatch (NAED), and a
PSAP can become an NAED Accredited Center of Ex-
cellence.
Each PSAP has a 'real' telephone number that is called
when the emergency number (911) is dialed. The
telecommunications operator is responsible for associat-
ing all landline numbers with the most applicable (often
the nearest) PSAP, so that when emergency number is
dialed, the call is automatically routed to the most suit-
able PSAP. PSAPs can be subject to changes includ-
ing new contact information and changing coverage area.
Public-safety answering point in Krakw, Poland Commercial products exist that purport to keep pace with
these changes and allow the telecommunications operator
A public-safety answering point (PSAP), sometimes to associate numbers with the relevant PSAP based upon
called public-safety access point, is a call center re- their physical address associated with that number.
sponsible for answering calls to an emergency telephone In other countries, this is the responsibility of other types
number for police, reghting, and ambulance services. of local government, and the particular setup of the
Trained telephone operators are also usually responsible telephone network dictates how such calls are handled.
for dispatching these emergency services. Most PSAPs
are now capable of caller location for landline calls, and There is also now the ability to answer text messages at
many can handle mobile phone locations as well (some- some PSAPs, which is useful in areas where weak signal
times referred to as phase II location), where the mobile strength due to distance from the nearest cell site causes
phone company has a handset location system. Some can fringe reception, resulting in blocked or dropped calls.
also use voice broadcasting, where outgoing voice mail Since SMS messages only require an instant to send, a
can be sent to many phone numbers at once, in order to brief peak in radio propagation (such as due to changing
alert people to a local emergency such as a chemical spill. cloud cover) is often enough to get a message sent. Text
messages are also useful for the deaf, as it does not require
In the United States, the county or a large city usually a TTY device.
handles this responsibility. As a division of a U.S. state,
counties are generally bound to provide this and other
emergency services even within the municipalities, unless
the municipality chooses to opt out and have its own sys- 48.1 NENA i3 Solution
tem, sometimes along with a neighboring jurisdiction. If
a city operates its own PSAP, but not its own particular The National Emergency Number Association (NENA)
emergency service (for example, city police but county long-term solution for emergency calling, referred to as
re), it may be necessary to relay the call to the PSAP the i3 Solution, assumes end-to-end Internet Protocol
that does handle that type of call. The U.S. requires caller (IP) signaling from the Voice over IP (VoIP) endpoint
location capability on the part of all phone companies, in- to an IP-enabled Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP),
cluding mobile ones, but there is no federal law requiring with callback and caller location information provided
PSAPs to be able to receive such information. to the PSAP with the call. While the i3 Solution as-
There are roughly 6100 primary and secondary PSAPs sumes end-to-end IP connectivity, and it is expected that
in the U.S.[1] Personnel working for PSAPs can be- an increasing number of PSAPs will evolve to support i3

171
172 CHAPTER 48. PUBLIC-SAFETY ANSWERING POINT

functionality over time, legacy PSAPs must continue to North American Numbering Plan
be supported as originating networks and the Emergency
Services infrastructure migrate toward IP. Next Generation 9-1-1
Public safety department
48.1.1 Legacy PSAP Gateway
The Legacy PSAP Gateway is a functional element of the 48.3 References
i3 Solution architecture that supports the interconnection
of the i3 ESInet with legacy PSAPs. The Legacy PSAP [1] NENA Fast Facts
Gateway is expected to provide interworking and other
[2] GR-3166, Legacy Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP)
functionality necessary for emergency calls routed via an Gateway Generic Requirements
i3 Emergency Services IP Network (ESInet) to be de-
livered to and handled by legacy PSAPs without requir-
ing changes to legacy PSAP Customer Premises Equip-
ment (CPE). Calls routed via an i3 ESInet and delivered
48.4 External links
to a legacy PSAP must undergo signaling interworking
(i.e., at the Legacy PSAP Gateway) to convert the in- MapInfo PSAP Pro
coming IP-based (i.e., Session Initiation Protocol [SIP])
The Development of 9-1-1 and Wireless 9-1-1
signaling supported by the ESInet to the traditional Multi-
Overview, from NENAs website
Frequency (MF) or Enhanced Multi-Frequency (E-MF)
signaling supported by the legacy PSAP. Functionality Enhanced 911 PSAP Registry from the Federal
must also be applied by the Legacy PSAP Gateway to Communications Commission website
emergency call originations to allow the legacy PSAP to
experience call delivery, Automatic Location Identica- NAED website
tion (ALI) data retrieval, and feature activation the same
way as they do today.
The Legacy PSAP Gateway must also support an ALI
interface over which it can receive and respond to ALI
queries from legacy PSAPs. Interfaces to a Location
Information Server (LIS) and a Legacy Network Gate-
way must also be supported by the Legacy PSAP Gate-
way so that it can perform a de-referencing operation if
the SIP signaling from the ESInet includes a location-by-
reference. In addition, the Legacy PSAP Gateway must
support an interface to an Emergency Call Routing Func-
tion (ECRF) in the i3 ESInet to support certain emer-
gency call transfer scenarios. The Legacy PSAP Gateway
may also support interfaces to Call Information Databases
(CIDBs) to support access to additional non-location data
associated with the emergency call, if a reference to such
data is provided in incoming SIP signaling.
Telcordia GR-3166, Legacy Public Safety Answering
Point (PSAP) Gateway Generic Requirements,[2] addresses
the external signaling interfaces that must be supported
by the Legacy PSAP Gateway, including a SIP interface
over which emergency calls will be delivered to it via the
i3 ESInet, and traditional MF and/or E-MF interfaces to
legacy PSAPs for call delivery.

48.2 See also

9-1-1

112 (emergency telephone number)

Enhanced 911
Chapter 49
Pulse dialing
The Western Electric model 500 rotary dial telephone was a
pulse-dialing instrument.
Pulse dialing is a signaling technology in
telecommunications in which a direct current local
loop circuit is interrupted according to a dened coding
system for each signal transmitted, usually a digit. This
lends the method the often used name loop disconnect
dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing,
decadic dialing, each of the ten arabic numerals are
encoded in a sequence of up to ten pulses. The most
common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one
to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses.
Historically, the most common device to produce such
pulse trains is the rotary dial of the telephone, lending
the technology another name, rotary dialing.
The pulse repetition rate was historically determined
based on the response time needed for electromechanical
switching systems to operate reliably. Most telephone
systems used the nominal rate of ten pulses per second,
but operator dialing within and between central oces
often used pulse rates up to twenty per second.
49.1 Early automatic exchanges
When electromechanical switching system were still in
Automatic telephone exchange systems were developed use, the current pulses generated by the rotary dial on
in the late 19th and early 20th century. For identication, the local loop operated electrical relays in the switches at
173
telephone subscribers were assigned a telephone number
unique to each circuit. Various methods evolved to sig-
nal the desired destination telephone number for a tele-
phone call directly dialed by the subscriber. An automatic
switch-hook was designed by Hilborne Roosevelt.[1]
The rst commercial automatic telephone exchange, de-
signed by Almon Brown Strowger, opened in La Porte,
Indiana on 3 November 1892, and used two telegraph-
type keys on the telephone, which had to be operated the
correct number of times to control the vertical and hor-
izontal relay magnets in the exchange. But the use of
separate keys with separate conductors to the exchange
was not practical. The most common signaling system
became a system of using direct-current pulse trains gen-
erated in the telephone sets of subscribers by interrupting
the single-pair wire loop of the telephone circuit.
49.2 Rotary dial
Strowger also led the rst patent for a rotary dial in 1891.
The rst dials worked by direct, forward action. The
pulses were sent as the user rotated the dial to the nger
stop starting at a dierent position for each digit transmit-
ted. Operating the dial error-free required smooth rotary
motion of the nger wheel by the user, but was found
as too unreliable. This mechanism was soon rened to
include a recoil spring and a centrifugal governor to con-
trol the recoil speed. The user selected a digit to be di-
aled by inserting a nger into the corresponding hole and
rotated the dial to the nger stop. When released from
this position, the dial pulsing contacts were opened and
closed repeatedly, thus interrupting the loop current in a
pattern on the return to the home position. The exchange
switch decoded the pattern for each digit thus transmitted
by stepping relays or by accumulation in digit registers.
49.3 Pulse rate and coding
174 CHAPTER 49. PULSE DIALING

the central oce. The mechanical nature of these relays As pulse dialing is achieved by interruption of the local
and the loop capacitance, aecting pulse shape, gener- loop, it was in principle possible to dial a telephone num-
ally limited the speed of operation, the pulsing rate, to ber by rapidly tapping, i.e. depressing, the switch hook
ten pulses per second. the corresponding number of times for each digit at ap-
The specications of the Bell System in the US required proximately ten taps per second. However, many tele-
service personnel to adjust dials in customer stations to phone makers implemented a slow switch hook release
a precision of 9.5 to 10.5 pulses per second (pps), but to prevent rapid switching.
the tolerance of the switching equipment was generally In the United Kingdom, it used to be possible to make
between 8 and 11 pps.[2] The British (BPO, later Post calls from coin-box phones (payphones) by tapping the
Oce Telecommunications) standard for Strowger ex- switch hook without depositing coins. A person caught
changes was 10 impulses per second (allowable range 7 tapping could be charged with 'abstracting electricity'
to 12) and a 66% break ratio (allowable range 63% to from the General Post Oce and several cases were pros-
72%)[3] ecuted under this oence.
In most countries one pulse is used for the digit 1, two In popular culture, tapping was used in the lm Red
pulses for 2, and so on, with ten pulses for the digit 0; this Dragon as a way for prisoner Hannibal Lecter to dial out
makes the code unary, excepting the digit 0. Exceptions on a phone with no dialing mechanism.
to this are: Sweden (example dial), with one click for 0,
two clicks for 1, and so on; and New Zealand with ten
clicks for 0, nine clicks for 1, etc. Oslo, the capital city of 49.5 Successors
Norway, used the New Zealand system, but the rest of the
country did not. Systems that used this encoding of the
It was recognized as early as the 1940s that faster, more
10 digits in a sequence of up to 10 pulses, are sometimes
accurate dialing could be done with push buttons, but
known as decadic dialing systems.
this was too unreliable in customer trials until transis-
Some later switching systems used digit registers which tors transformed the industry. In 1963, the Bell Sys-
doubled the allowable pulse rate to 20 pulses per second, tem introduced to the public its dual-tone multi-frequency
and the inter-digital pause could be reduced as the switch (DTMF) technology under the name Touch-Tone, which
selection did not have to be completed during the pause. was a trademark in the U.S. until 1984.[4] The Touch-
These included some Crossbar systems, the later version Tone system used push-button telephones. In the decades
(7A2) of the Rotary system, and the earlier 1970s stored after 1963, pulse dialing was gradually phased out as the
program control exchanges. primary dialing method to the central oce, but many
In some telephones, the pulses may be heard in the re- systems still support rotary telephones today. Some key-
ceiver as clicking sounds. However, in general, such pad telephones have a switch for the selection of tone or
eects were undesirable and telephone designers sup- pulse dialing.
pressed them by mechanical means with o-normal Mobile telephones and most voice-over-IP systems use
switches on the dial, or greatly attenuated them by elec- out-of-band signaling and do not send any digits until the
trical means with a varistor connected across the receiver. entire number has been keyed by the user. Many VoIP
systems are based on the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP),
which uses a form of Uniform Resource Identiers (URI)
49.4 Switch-hook dialing for addressing, instead of digits alone.

49.6 See also

Strowger switch

Federal Standard 1037C

49.7 References
[1] Isa Carrington Cabell (1900). "Roosevelt, Nicholas I.".
Appletons Cyclopdia of American Biography.

[2] AT&T Specication No. 4566, February 1926, p.113

[3] J. Atkinson, Telephony Volume 1, p.142 (1948, Pitman,

British (BPO) Type 232 phone of 1932 London)
49.7. REFERENCES 175

[4] The Trademark Electronic Search System on the U.S.

Patent and Trademark Oce web site shows the trade-
mark with serial number 72109459, registered 1962-09-
04 and canceled 1984-03-13.
Chapter 50

Pulse-code modulation

PCM redirects here. For other uses, see PCM (disam- characters punched in paper tape to send samples of im-
biguation). ages quantized to 5 levels; whether this is considered
PCM or not depends on how one interprets pulse code,
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to but it involved transmission of quantized samples.
digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the stan- In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a
dard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, facsimile machine which transmitted its signal using 5-bit
digital telephony and other digital audio applications. In PCM, encoded by an opto-mechanical analog-to-digital
a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is sam- converter.[7] The machine did not go into production.[8]
pled regularly at uniform intervals, and each sample is British engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of previous work,
quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in
steps. 1937 while working for International Telephone and Tele-
Linear pulse-code modulation (LPCM) is a specic graph in France. He described the theory and advantages,
type of PCM where the quantization levels are lin- but no practical application resulted. Reeves led for a
early uniform.[5] This is in contrast to PCM encodings French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in
where quantization levels vary as a function of ampli- 1943.[9] By this time Reeves had started working at the
tude (as with the A-law algorithm or the -law algorithm). Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE).[8]
Though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to The rst transmission of speech by digital techniques, the
describe data encoded as LPCM.
SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level
A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine Allied communications during World War II. In 1943 the
the streams delity to the original analog signal: the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system
sampling rate, which is the number of times per second became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as al-
that samples are taken; and the bit depth, which deter- ready proposed by Alec Reeves. In 1949 for the Canadian
mines the number of possible digital values that can be Navys DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a work-
used to represent each sample. ing PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized
radar data over long distances.[10]
PCM in the late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-
50.1 History ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding
perforations.[11][12] As in an oscilloscope, the beam was
swept horizontally at the sample rate while the vertical de-
Early electrical communications started to sample signals
ection was controlled by the input analog signal, causing
in order to interlace samples from multiple telegraphy
the beam to pass through higher or lower portions of the
sources and to convey them over a single telegraph ca-
perforated plate. The plate collected or passed the beam,
ble. The American inventor Moses G. Farmer conveyed
producing current variations in binary code, one bit at a
telegraph time-division multiplexing (TDM) as early as
time. Rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodalls
1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used
later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray
an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division mul-
code, and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan
tiplexing multiple telegraph signals; he also applied this
beam instead of a scanning beam.
technology to telephony. He obtained intelligible speech
from channels sampled at a rate above 35004300 Hz; In the United States, the National Inventors Hall of Fame
[13]
lower rates proved unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but has honored Bernard M. Oliver and Claude Shan-
[14] [15]
pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) rather than PCM. non as the inventors of PCM, as described in
Communication System Employing Pulse Code Mod-
In 1920 the Bartlane cable picture transmission system,
ulation, U.S. Patent 2,801,281 led in 1946 and 1952,
named after its inventors Harry G. Bartholomew and
granted in 1956. Another patent by the same title was
Maynard D. McFarlane,[6] used telegraph signaling of

176
50.4. DEMODULATION 177

led by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948: U.S. 15

Patent 2,437,707. The three of them published The Phi- 14
losophy of PCM in 1948.[16] 13
12
11
10
9
50.2 Implementations 8
7
6
PCM is the method of encoding generally used for un- 5
compressed audio, although there are other methods such 4
as pulse-density modulation (used also on Super Audio 3
CD). 2
1
0
The 4ESS switch introduced time-division switch-
ing into the US telephone system in 1976, based on Sampling and quantization of a signal (red) for 4-bit LPCM
medium scale integrated circuit technology.[17]

LPCM is used for the lossless encoding of audio data 11, 13, 14, 15, 15, 15, 14, etc. Encoding these values
in the Compact disc Red Book standard (informally as binary numbers would result in the following set of
also known as Audio CD), introduced in 1982. nibbles: 1000 (23 1+22 0+21 0+20 0=8+0+0+0=8),
AES3 (specied in 1985, upon which S/PDIF is 1000, 1001, 1011, 1101, 1110, 1111, 1111, 1111, 1110,
based) is a particular format using LPCM. etc. These digital values could then be further processed
or analyzed by a digital signal processor. Several PCM
On PCs, PCM and LPCM often refer to the format streams could also be multiplexed into a larger aggre-
used in WAV (dened in 1991) and AIFF audio con- gate data stream, generally for transmission of multiple
tainer formats (dened in 1988). LPCM data may streams over a single physical link. One technique is
also be stored in other formats such as AU, raw au- called time-division multiplexing (TDM) and is widely
dio format (header-less le) and various multimedia used, notably in the modern public telephone system.
container formats. The PCM process is commonly implemented on a single
LPCM has been dened as a part of the DVD (since integrated circuit generally referred to as an analog-to-
1995) and Blu-ray (since 2006) standards.[18][19][20] digital converter (ADC).
It is also dened as a part of various digital video
and audio storage formats (e.g. DV since 1995,[21]
AVCHD since 2006[22] ). 50.4 Demodulation
LPCM is used by HDMI (dened in 2002), a single-
cable digital audio/video connector interface for To recover the original signal from the sampled data, a
transmitting uncompressed digital data. demodulator can apply the procedure of modulation
in reverse. After each sampling period, the demodula-
RF64 container format (dened in 2007) uses tor reads the next value and shifts the output signal to
LPCM and also allows non-PCM bitstream stor- the new value. As a result of these transitions, the sig-
age: various compression formats contained in the nal has a signicant amount of high-frequency energy
RF64 le as data bursts (Dolby E, Dolby AC3, DTS, caused by aliasing. To remove these undesirable fre-
MPEG-1/MPEG-2 Audio) can be disguised as quencies and leave the original signal, the demodulator
PCM linear.[23] passes the signal through analog lters that suppress en-
ergy outside the expected frequency range (greater than
the Nyquist frequency fs /2 ).[note 1] The sampling theo-
50.3 Modulation rem shows PCM devices can operate without introduc-
ing distortions within their designed frequency bands if
In the diagram, a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and they provide a sampling frequency twice that of the input
quantized for PCM. The sine wave is sampled at regu- signal. For example, in telephony, the usable voice fre-
lar intervals, shown as vertical lines. For each sample, quency band ranges from approximately 300 Hz to 3400
one of the available values (on the y-axis) is chosen by Hz. Therefore, per the NyquistShannon sampling the-
some algorithm. This produces a fully discrete represen- orem, the sampling frequency (8 kHz) must be at least
tation of the input signal (blue points) that can be eas- twice the voice frequency (4 kHz) for eective recon-
ily encoded as digital data for storage or manipulation. struction of the voice signal.
For the sine wave example at right, we can verify that The electronics involved in producing an accurate analog
the quantized values at the sampling moments are 8, 9, signal from the discrete data are similar to those used for
178 CHAPTER 50. PULSE-CODE MODULATION

generating the digital signal. These devices are Digital- 50.7 Digitization as part of the
to-analog converters (DACs). They produce a voltage or
current (depending on type) that represents the value pre-
PCM process
sented on their digital inputs. This output would then gen-
erally be ltered and amplied for use. In conventional PCM, the analog signal may be processed
(e.g., by amplitude compression) before being digitized.
Once the signal is digitized, the PCM signal is usually sub-
jected to further processing (e.g., digital data compres-
50.5 Standard sampling precision sion).
and rates PCM with linear quantization is known as Linear PCM
(LPCM).[28]
Common sample depths for LPCM are 8, 16, 20 or 24 Some forms of PCM combine signal processing with cod-
bits per sample.[1][2][3][24] ing. Older versions of these systems applied the process-
ing in the analog domain as part of the analog-to-digital
LPCM encodes a single sound channel. Support for mul- process; newer implementations do so in the digital do-
tichannel audio depends on le format and relies on in- main. These simple techniques have been largely ren-
terweaving or synchronization of LPCM streams.[5][25] dered obsolete by modern transform-based audio com-
While two channels (stereo) is the most common for- pression techniques.
mat, some can support up to 8 audio channels (7.1
surround).[2][3] DPCM encodes the PCM values as dierences be-
Common sampling frequencies are 48 kHz as used with tween the current and the predicted value. An algo-
DVD format videos, or 44.1 kHz as used in Compact rithm predicts the next sample based on the previous
discs. Sampling frequencies of 96 kHz or 192 kHz can samples, and the encoder stores only the dierence
be used on some newer equipment, with the higher value between this prediction and the actual value. If the
equating to 6.144 megabit per second for two channels prediction is reasonable, fewer bits can be used to
at 16-bit per sample value, but the benets have been represent the same information. For audio, this type
debated.[26] The bitrate limit for LPCM audio on DVD- of encoding reduces the number of bits required per
Video is also 6.144 Mbit/s, allowing 8 channels (7.1 sur- sample by about 25% compared to PCM.
round) 48 kHz 16-bit per sample = 6,144 kbit/s.
Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variant of DPCM
There is a L32 bit PCM,[27] and there are many sound that varies the size of the quantization step, to al-
cards that support it. low further reduction of the required bandwidth for
a given signal-to-noise ratio.
Delta modulation is a form of DPCM which uses
50.6 Limitations one bit per sample.

In telephony, a standard audio signal for a single phone

There are potential sources of impairment implicit in any call is encoded as 8,000 analog samples per second, of 8
PCM system: bits each, giving a 64 kbit/s digital signal known as DS0.
The default signal compression encoding on a DS0 is ei-
Choosing a discrete value that is near but not exactly ther -law (mu-law) PCM (North America and Japan) or
at the analog signal level for each sample leads to A-law PCM (Europe and most of the rest of the world).
quantization error.[note 2] These are logarithmic compression systems where a 12 or
13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped into an 8-
bit value. This system is described by international stan-
Between samples no measurement of the signal
dard G.711. An alternative proposal for a oating point
is made; the sampling theorem guarantees non-
representation, with 5-bit mantissa and 3-bit radix, was
ambiguous representation and recovery of the sig-
abandoned.
nal only if it has no energy at frequency fs/2 or
higher (one half the sampling frequency, known as Where circuit costs are high and loss of voice quality is ac-
the Nyquist frequency); higher frequencies will gen- ceptable, it sometimes makes sense to compress the voice
erally not be correctly represented or recovered. signal even further. An ADPCM algorithm is used to map
a series of 8-bit -law or A-law PCM samples into a se-
As samples are dependent on time, an accurate clock ries of 4-bit ADPCM samples. In this way, the capacity
is required for accurate reproduction. If either the of the line is doubled. The technique is detailed in the
encoding or decoding clock is not stable, its fre- G.726 standard.
quency drift will directly aect the output quality Later it was found that even further compression was pos-
of the device.[note 3] sible and additional standards were published. Some of
50.10. SEE ALSO 179

these international standards describe systems and ideas

ing evolved alongside two analog methods, pulse width
which are covered by privately owned patents and thusmodulation and pulse position modulation, in which the
use of these standards requires payments to the patent
information to be encoded is represented by discrete sig-
holders. nal pulses of varying width or position, respectively. In
Some ADPCM techniques are used in Voice over IP com- this respect, PCM bears little resemblance to these other
munications. forms of signal encoding, except that all can be used in
time division multiplexing, and the numbers of the PCM
codes are represented as electrical pulses. The device
that performs the coding and decoding function in a tele-
50.8 Encoding for serial transmis- phone, or other, circuit is called a codec.
sion
Main article: Line code 50.10 See also
See also: T-carrier and E-carrier
AES3
PCM can be either return-to-zero (RZ) or non-return-to-
zero (NRZ). For a NRZ system to be synchronized using Beta encoder
in-band information, there must not be long sequences
of identical symbols, such as ones or zeroes. For binary Equivalent pulse code modulation noise
PCM systems, the density of 1-symbols is called ones-
density.[29] G.711 ITU-T standard for audio companding. It
is primarily used in telephony.
Ones-density is often controlled using precoding tech-
niques such as Run Length Limited encoding, where the
NyquistShannon sampling theorem
PCM code is expanded into a slightly longer code with
a guaranteed bound on ones-density before modulation
Pulse-density modulation
into the channel. In other cases, extra framing bits are
added into the stream which guarantee at least occasional
Quantization (signal processing)
symbol transitions.
Another technique used to control ones-density is the use Sampling (signal processing)
of a scrambler polynomial on the raw data which will
tend to turn the raw data stream into a stream that looks Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) One
pseudo-random, but where the raw stream can be recov- method of measuring quantization error.
ered exactly by reversing the eect of the polynomial. In
this case, long runs of zeroes or ones are still possible
on the output, but are considered unlikely enough to be
within normal engineering tolerance. 50.11 Notes
In other cases, the long term DC value of the modulated
signal is important, as building up a DC oset will tend to [1] Some systems use digital ltering to remove some of the
aliasing, converting the signal from digital to analog at a
bias detector circuits out of their operating range. In this
higher sample rate such that the analog anti-aliasing lter
case special measures are taken to keep a count of the cu-
is much simpler. In some systems, no explicit ltering is
mulative DC oset, and to modify the codes if necessary done at all; as its impossible for any system to reproduce
to make the DC oset always tend back to zero. a signal with innite bandwidth, inherent losses in the sys-
Many of these codes are bipolar codes, where the pulses tem compensate for the artifacts or the system simply
can be positive, negative or absent. In the typical alternate does not require much precision.
mark inversion code, non-zero pulses alternate between
[2] Quantization error swings between -q/2 and q/2. In the
being positive and negative. These rules may be violated
ideal case (with a fully linear ADC) it is uniformly dis-
to generate special symbols used for framing or other spe-
tributed over this interval, with zero mean and variance of
cial purposes. q2 /12.

[3] A slight dierence between the encoding and decoding

50.9 Nomenclature
The word pulse in the term pulse-code modulation refers
to the pulses to be found in the transmission line. This
perhaps is a natural consequence of this technique hav-
clock frequencies is not generally a major concern; a small
constant error is not noticeable. Clock error does become
a major issue if the clock is not stable, however. A drift-
ing clock, even with a relatively small error, will cause very
obvious distortions in audio and video signals, for exam-
ple.
180
50.12 References
[1] Alvestrand, Harald Tveit; Salsman, James (May 1999).
RFC 2586 The Audio/L16 MIME content type. The
Internet Society. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[2] Casner, S. (March 2007). RFC 4856 Media Type Reg-
istration of Payload Formats in the RTP Prole for Audio
and Video Conferences Registration of Media Type au-
dio/L8. The IETF Trust. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[3] Bormann, C.; Casner, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Ogawa, A. (Jan-
uary 2002). RFC 3190 RTP Payload Format for 12-bit
DAT Audio and 20- and 24-bit Linear Sampled Audio.
The Internet Society. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[4] Audio Media Types. Internet Assigned Numbers Au-
thority. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[5] Linear Pulse Code Modulated Audio (LPCM)". Library
of Congress. Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[6] The Bartlane Transmission System. DigicamHis-
tory.com. Archived from the original on February 10,
2010. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
[7] U.S. patent number 1,608,527; also see p. 8, Data conver-
sion handbook, Walter Allan Kester, ed., Newnes, 2005,
ISBN 0-7506-7841-0.
[8] John Vardalas (June 2013), Pulse Code Modulation: It all
Started 75 Years Ago with Alec Reeves, IEEE
[9] US 2272070
[10] Porter, Arthur. So Many Hills to Climb (2004) Beckham
Publications Group
[11] R. W. Sears, Electron Beam Deection Tube for Pulse
Code Modulation, Bell Sys. Tech. J., Vol. 27 pp. 4457
[12] W. M. Goodall, Television by Pulse Code Modulation,
Bell Sys. Tech. J., Vol. 30 pp. 3349, 1951.
[13] Bernard Oliver. National Inventors Hall of Fame. Re-
trieved February 6, 2011.
[14] Claude Shannon. National Inventors Hall of Fame. Re-
trieved February 6, 2011.
[15] National Inventors Hall of Fame announces 2004 class of
inventors. Science Blog. February 11, 2004. Retrieved
February 6, 2011.
[16] B. M. Oliver; J. R. Pierce & C. E. Shannon (Nov 1948).
The Philosophy of PCM. Proceeding of the IRE. 36
(11): 13241331. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1948.231941.
ISSN 0096-8390.
[17] Cambron, G. Keith, Global Networks: Engineering, Op-
erations and Design, Page 345, John Wiley & Sons, Oct
17, 2012.
[18] Blu-ray Disc Association (March 2005), White paper Blu-
ray Disc Format 2.B Audio Visual Application Format
Specications for BD-ROM (PDF), retrieved 2009-07-26
[19] DVD Technical Notes (DVD Video Book B) Audio
data specications. 1996-07-21. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
CHAPTER 50. PULSE-CODE MODULATION
[20] Jim Taylor. DVD Frequently Asked Questions (and An-
swers) Audio details of DVD-Video. Retrieved 2010-
03-20.
[21] How DV works. Archived from the original on 2007-
12-06. Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[22] AVCHD Information Website AVCHD format speci-
cation overview. Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[23] EBU (July 2009), EBU Tech 3306 MBWF / RF64: An
Extended File Format for Audio (PDF), retrieved 2010-
01-19
[24] RFC 3108 Conventions for the use of the Session De-
scription Protocol (SDP) for ATM Bearer Connections.
May 2001. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[25] PCM, Pulse Code Modulated Audio. Library of
Congress. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
[26] 24/192 Music Downloads, and why they do not make
sense. Chris Monty Montgomery. Retrieved 2013-03-
16.
[27] http://www.ypass.net/blog/2010/01/
pcm-audio-part-1-what-is-pcm/. Missing or empty
|title= (help)
[28] Linear Pulse Code Modulated Audio (LPCM)". The Li-
brary of Congress. Retrieved March 21, 2010.
[29] Stallings, William, Digital Signaling Techniques, Decem-
ber 1984, Vol. 22, No. 12, IEEE Communications Mag-
azine
50.13 Further reading
Franklin S. Cooper; Ignatius Mattingly (1969).
Computer-controlled PCM system for investiga-
tion of dichotic speech perception. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America. 46: 115.
doi:10.1121/1.1972688.
Ken C. Pohlmann (1985). Principles of Digital Au-
dio (2nd ed.). Carmel, Indiana: Sams/Prentice-Hall
Computer Publishing. ISBN 0-672-22634-0.
D. H. Whalen, E. R. Wiley, Philip E. Rubin, and
Franklin S. Cooper (1990). The Haskins Laborato-
ries pulse code modulation (PCM) system. Behav-
ior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers.
22 (6): 550559. doi:10.3758/BF03204440.
Bill Waggener (1995). Pulse Code Modulation Tech-
niques (1st ed.). New York, NY: Van Nostrand
Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-01436-8.
Bill Waggener (1999). Pulse Code Modulation Sys-
tems Design (1st ed.). Boston, MA: Artech House.
ISBN 0-89006-776-7.
50.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 181

50.14 External links

PCM description on MultimediaWiki

Ralph Miller and Bob Badgley invented multi-level

PCM independently in their work at Bell Labs on
SIGSALY: U.S. Patent 3,912,868 led in 1943: N-
ary Pulse Code Modulation.

Information about PCM: A description of PCM

with links to information about subtypes of this for-
mat (for example Linear Pulse Code Modulation),
and references to their specications.
Summary of LPCM Contains links to information
about implementations and their specications.
How to control internal/external hardware using Mi-
crosofts Media Control Interface Contains infor-
mation about, and specications for the implemen-
tation of LPCM used in WAV les.
RFC 4856 Media Type Registration of Payload
Formats in the RTP Prole for Audio and Video
Conferences audio/L8 and audio/L16 (March
2007)
RFC 3190 RTP Payload Format for 12-bit DAT
Audio and 20- and 24-bit Linear Sampled Audio
(January 2002)

RFC 3551 RTP Prole for Audio and Video Con-

ferences with Minimal Control L8 and L16 (July
2003)
Chapter 51

Quality of service

Quality of service (QoS) is the overall performance of of service guarantees are important if the network capac-
a telephony or computer network, particularly the per- ity is insucient, especially for real-time streaming mul-
formance seen by the users of the network. To quan- timedia applications such as voice over IP, multiplayer
titatively measure quality of service, several related as- online games and IPTV, since these often require xed
pects of the network service are often considered, such bit rate and are delay sensitive, and in networks where
as error rates, bit rate, throughput, transmission delay, the capacity is a limited resource, for example in cellular
availability, jitter, etc. data communication.
In the eld of computer networking and other packet- A network or protocol that supports QoS may agree on a
switched telecommunication networks, quality of service trac contract with the application software and reserve
refers to trac prioritization and resource reservation capacity in the network nodes, for example during a ses-
control mechanisms rather than the achieved service qual- sion establishment phase. During the session it may mon-
ity. Quality of service is the ability to provide dierent itor the achieved level of performance, for example the
priority to dierent applications, users, or data ows, or data rate and delay, and dynamically control scheduling
to guarantee a certain level of performance to a data ow. priorities in the network nodes. It may release the re-
Quality of service is particularly important for the trans- served capacity during a tear down phase.
port of trac with special requirements. In particular, A best-eort network or service does not support quality
developers have introduced technology to allow computer of service. An alternative to complex QoS control mech-
networks to become as useful as telephone networks for anisms is to provide high quality communication over a
audio conversations, as well as supporting new applica- best-eort network by over-provisioning the capacity so
tions with even stricter service demands. that it is sucient for the expected peak trac load. The
resulting absence of network congestion reduces or elim-
inates the need for QoS mechanisms.
51.1 Denitions QoS is sometimes used as a quality measure, with many
alternative denitions, rather than referring to the abil-
ity to reserve resources. Quality of service sometimes
In the eld of telephony, quality of service was dened by refers to the level of quality of service, i.e. the guaran-
the ITU in 1994.[1] Quality of service comprises require- teed service quality.[3] High QoS is often confused with
ments on all the aspects of a connection, such as service a high level of performance or achieved service quality,
response time, loss, signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk, echo, for example high bit rate, low latency and low bit error
interrupts, frequency response, loudness levels, and so on. probability.
A subset of telephony QoS is grade of service (GoS) re-
quirements, which comprises aspects of a connection re- An alternative and disputable denition of QoS, used es-
lating to capacity and coverage of a network, for exam- pecially in application layer services such as telephony
ple guaranteed maximum blocking probability and out- and streaming video, is requirements on a metric that
age probability.[2] reects or predicts the subjectively experienced quality.
In this context, QoS is the acceptable cumulative ef-
In the eld of computer networking and other packet- fect on subscriber satisfaction of all imperfections aect-
switched telecommunication networks, teletrac engi- ing the service. Other terms with similar meaning are
neering refers to trac prioritization and resource reser- the quality of experience (QoE) subjective business con-
vation control mechanisms rather than the achieved ser- cept, the required user perceived performance,[4] the
vice quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide required degree of satisfaction of the user or the tar-
dierent priority to dierent applications, users, or data geted number of happy customers. Examples of mea-
ows, or to guarantee a certain level of performance to a sures and measurement methods are mean opinion score
data ow. For example, a required bit rate, delay, jitter, (MOS), perceptual speech quality measure (PSQM) and
packet loss or bit error rates may be guaranteed. Quality

182
51.4. APPLICATIONS
perceptual evaluation of video quality (PEVQ). See also Errors Sometimes packets are corrupted due to bit er-
Subjective video quality.
51.2 History
Conventional Internet routers and LAN switches oper- Latency It might take a long time for each packet to
ate on a best eort basis. This equipment is less ex-
pensive, less complex and faster and thus more popu-
lar than competing more complex technologies that pro-
vided QoS mechanisms. There were four Type of ser-
vice bits and three Precedence bits provided in each
IP packet header, but they were not generally respected.
These bits were later re-dened as Dierentiated services
code points (DSCP).
Jitter Packets from the source will reach the destination
With the advent of IPTV and IP telephony, QoS mecha-
nisms are increasingly available to the end user.
A number of attempts for layer 2 technologies that add
QoS tags to the data have gained popularity in the past.
Examples are frame relay, asynchronous transfer mode
(ATM) and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) (a
technique between layer 2 and 3). Despite these network Out-of-order delivery When a collection of related
technologies remaining in use today, this kind of network
lost attention after the advent of Ethernet networks. To-
day Ethernet is, by far, the most popular layer 2 tech-
nology. Ethernet uses 802.1p to signal the priority of a
frame.
51.3 Qualities of trac
In packet-switched networks, quality of service is af-
fected by various factors, which can be divided into hu-
man and technical factors. Human factors include:
stability of service, availability of service, delays, user 51.4 Applications
information. Technical factors include: reliability, scal-
ability, eectiveness, maintainability, grade of service, A dened quality of service may be desired or required
etc.[5]
Many things can happen to packets as they travel from
origin to destination, resulting in the following problems
as seen from the point of view of the sender and receiver:
Low throughput Due to varying load from disparate
users sharing the same network resources, the bit
rate (the maximum throughput) that can be provided
to a certain data stream may be too low for realtime
multimedia services if all data streams get the same
scheduling priority.
Dropped packets The routers might fail to deliver
(drop) some packets if their data loads are cor-
rupted, or the packets arrive when the router buers
are already full. The receiving application may ask
for this information to be retransmitted, possibly
causing severe delays in the overall transmission.
183
rors caused by noise and interference, especially
in wireless communications and long copper wires.
The receiver has to detect this and, just as if the
packet was dropped, may ask for this information
to be retransmitted.
reach its destination, because it gets held up in long
queues, or it takes a less direct route to avoid conges-
tion. This is dierent from throughput, as the delay
can build up over time, even if the throughput is al-
most normal. In some cases, excessive latency can
render an application such as VoIP or online gaming
unusable.
with dierent delays. A packets delay varies with
its position in the queues of the routers along the
path between source and destination and this posi-
tion can vary unpredictably. This variation in delay
is known as jitter and can seriously aect the quality
of streaming audio and/or video.
packets is routed through a network, dierent pack-
ets may take dierent routes, each resulting in a dif-
ferent delay. The result is that the packets arrive in
a dierent order than they were sent. This problem
requires special additional protocols responsible for
rearranging out-of-order packets to an isochronous
state once they reach their destination. This is espe-
cially important for video and VoIP streams where
quality is dramatically aected by both latency and
lack of sequence.
for certain types of network trac, for example:
Streaming media specically
Internet protocol television (IPTV)
Audio over Ethernet
Audio over IP
IP telephony also known as Voice over IP (VoIP)
Videoconferencing
Telepresence
Storage applications such as iSCSI and FCoE
Circuit Emulation Service
Safety-critical applications such as remote surgery
where availability issues can be hazardous
184 CHAPTER 51. QUALITY OF SERVICE

Network operations support systems either for the connection to a dierent ISP. Under high load condi-
network itself, or for customers business critical tions, however, VoIP may degrade to cell-phone quality
needs or worse. The mathematics of packet trac indicate that
network requires just 60% more raw capacity under con-
Online games where real-time lag can be a factor servative assumptions.[6]
Industrial control systems protocols such as The amount of over-provisioning in interior links re-
Ethernet/IP which are used for real-time control of quired to replace QoS depends on the number of users
machinery and their trac demands. This limits usability of over-
provisioning. Newer more bandwidth intensive applica-
These types of service are called inelastic, meaning that tions and the addition of more users results in the loss of
they require a certain minimum bit rate and a certain over-provisioned networks. This then requires a physical
maximum latency to function. By contrast, elastic ap- update of the relevant network links which is an expen-
plications can take advantage of however much or little sive process. Thus over-provisioning cannot be blindly
bandwidth is available. Bulk le transfer applications that assumed on the Internet.
rely on TCP are generally elastic.

51.5.2 IP and Ethernet eorts

51.5 Mechanisms
Circuit switched networks, especially those intended for
voice transmission, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) or GSM, have QoS in the core protocol and do
not need additional procedures to achieve it. Shorter data
units and built-in QoS were some of the unique selling
points of ATM for applications such as video on demand.
When the expense of mechanisms to provide QoS is
justied, network customers and providers can enter
into a contractual agreement termed a service level
agreement (SLA) which species guarantees for the
ability of a network/protocol to give guaranteed per-
formance/throughput/latency bounds based on mutually
agreed measures, usually by prioritizing trac. In other
approaches, resources are reserved at each step on the
network for the call as it is set up.
51.5.1 Over-provisioning
An alternative to complex QoS control mechanisms is to
provide high quality communication by generously over-
provisioning a network so that capacity is based on peak
trac load estimates. This approach is simple for net-
works with predictable peak loads. The performance is
reasonable for many applications. This might include de-
manding applications that can compensate for variations
in bandwidth and delay with large receive buers, which
is often possible for example in video streaming. Over-
provisioning can be of limited use, however, in the face of
transport protocols (such as TCP) that over time exponen-
tially increase the amount of data placed on the network
until all available bandwidth is consumed and packets are
dropped. Such greedy protocols tend to increase latency
and packet loss for all users.
Commercial VoIP services are often competitive with
traditional telephone service in terms of call quality even
though QoS mechanisms are usually not in use on the
users connection to their ISP and the VoIP providers
Unlike single-owner networks, the Internet is a series
of exchange points interconnecting private networks.[7]
Hence the Internets core is owned and managed by a
number of dierent network service providers, not a
single entity. Its behavior is much more stochastic or
unpredictable. Therefore, research continues on QoS
procedures that are deployable in large, diverse networks.
There are two principal approaches to QoS in modern
packet-switched IP networks, a parameterized system
based on an exchange of application requirements with
the network, and a prioritized system where each packet
identies a desired service level to the network.
Integrated services (IntServ) implements the pa-
rameterized approach. In this model, applications
use the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) to
request and reserve resources through a network.
Dierentiated services (DiServ) implements the
prioritized model. DiServ marks packets accord-
ing to the type of service they desire. In response
to these markings, routers and switches use various
queueing strategies to tailor performance to expec-
tations. Dierentiated services code point (DSCP)
markings use the rst 6 bits in the ToS eld (now re-
named as the DS Byte) of the IP(v4) packet header.
Early work used the integrated services (IntServ) philoso-
phy of reserving network resources. In this model, appli-
cations used the Resource reservation protocol (RSVP) to
request and reserve resources through a network. While
IntServ mechanisms do work, it was realized that in a
broadband network typical of a larger service provider,
Core routers would be required to accept, maintain, and
tear down thousands or possibly tens of thousands of
reservations. It was believed that this approach would not
scale with the growth of the Internet, and in any event was
antithetical to the notion of designing networks so that
Core routers do little more than simply switch packets at
the highest possible rates.
51.6. END-TO-END QUALITY OF SERVICE 185

In response to these markings, routers and switches use RSVP-TE

various queuing strategies to tailor performance to re-
quirements. At the IP layer, DSCP markings use the 6 Frame relay
bits in the IP packet header. At the MAC layer, VLAN
X.25
IEEE 802.1Q and IEEE 802.1p can be used to carry es-
sentially the same information. Some ADSL modems
Routers supporting DiServ congure their network
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
scheduler to use multiple queues for packets awaiting
transmission from bandwidth constrained (e.g., wide IEEE 802.1p
area) interfaces. Router vendors provide dierent capa-
bilities for conguring this behavior, to include the num- IEEE 802.1Q
ber of queues supported, the relative priorities of queues,
IEEE 802.11e
and bandwidth reserved for each queue.
In practice, when a packet must be forwarded from an HomePNA Home networking over coax and phone
interface with queuing, packets requiring low jitter (e.g., wires
VoIP or videoconferencing) are given priority over pack-
ets in other queues. Typically, some bandwidth is al- The ITU-T G.hn standard provides QoS by means
located by default to network control packets (such as of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities
Internet Control Message Protocol and routing proto- (CFTXOPs) which are allocated to ows which re-
cols), while best eort trac might simply be given what- quire QoS and which have negotiated a contract
ever bandwidth is left over. with the network controller. G.hn also supports non-
QoS operation by means of Contention-based Time
At the Media Access Control (MAC) layer, VLAN IEEE Slots.
802.1Q and IEEE 802.1p can be used to distinguish be-
tween Ethernet frames and classify them. Queueing the- Audio Video Bridging
ory models have been developed on performance analysis
and QoS for MAC layer protocols.[8][9]
Cisco IOS NetFlow and the Cisco Class Based QoS 51.6 End-to-end quality of service
(CBQoS) Management Information Base (MIB) are mar-
keted by Cisco Systems. [10] End-to-end quality of service can require a method of co-
One compelling example of the need for QoS on the ordinating resource allocation between one autonomous
Internet relates to congestion collapse. The Internet system and another. The Internet Engineering Task
relies on congestion avoidance protocols, as built into Force (IETF) dened the Resource Reservation Proto-
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), to reduce traf- col (RSVP) for bandwidth [12]
reservation, as a proposed
c under conditions that would otherwise lead to melt- standard in 1997. RSVP is an end-to-end bandwidth
down. QoS applications such as VoIP and IPTV, be- reservation protocol. The trac engineering version,
cause they require largely constant bitrates and low la- RSVP-TE, is used in many networks to establish trac-
tency, so they cannot use TCP and cannot otherwise re- engineered Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) label-
duce their trac rate to help prevent congestion. QoS switched paths. The IETF also dened Next Steps in Sig-
[13]
contracts limit trac that can be oered to the Inter- naling (NSIS) with QoS signalling as a target. NSIS is
net and thereby enforce trac shaping that can prevent it a development and simplication of RSVP.
from becoming overloaded, and are hence an indispens- Research consortia such as end-to-end quality of ser-
able part of the Internets ability to handle a mix of real- vice support over heterogeneous networks (EuQoS, from
time and non-real-time trac without meltdown. 2004 through 2007)[14] and fora such as the IPsphere
Forum[15] developed more mechanisms for handshaking
QoS invocation from one domain to the next. IPsphere
51.5.3 Protocols dened the Service Structuring Stratum (SSS) signaling
bus in order to establish, invoke and (attempt to) assure
The type of service (ToS) eld in the IP(v4) header network services. EuQoS conducted experiments to inte-
(now superseded by DiServ) grate Session Initiation Protocol, Next Steps in Signaling
Dierentiated services (DiServ) and IPspheres SSS with an estimated cost of about 15.6
million Euro and published a book.[16][17]
Integrated services (IntServ) A research project Multi Service Access Everywhere
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) (MUSE) dened another QoS concept in a rst phase
from January 2004 through February 2006, and a sec-
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) provides ond phase from January 2006 through 2007.[18][19][20]
eight QoS classes[11] Another research project named PlaNetS was proposed
186
for European funding circa 2005.[21] A broader Euro-
pean project called Architecture and design for the fu-
ture Internet known as 4WARD had a budgest estimated
at 23.4 million Euro and was funded from January 2008
through June 2010.[22] It included a Quality of Service
Theme and published a book.[23][24] Another European
project, called WIDENS (Wireless Deployable Network
System) [25] proposed a bandwidth reservation approach
for mobile wireless multirate adhoc networks.[26]
In the services domain, end-to-end Quality of Service
has also been discussed in the case of composite services
(consisting of atomic services) or applications (consist-
ing of application components).[27][28] Moreover, in cloud
computing end-to-end QoS has been the focus of various
research eorts aiming at the provision of QoS guaran-
tees across the cloud service models.[29]
51.7 Circumvention
Strong cryptography network protocols such as Secure several reasons:
Sockets Layer, I2P, and virtual private networks obscure
the data transferred using them. As all electronic com-
merce on the Internet requires the use of such strong cryp-
tography protocols, unilaterally downgrading the perfor-
mance of encrypted trac creates an unacceptable haz-
ard for customers. Yet, encrypted trac is otherwise un-
able to undergo deep packet inspection for QoS.
Protocols like ICA and RDP may encapsulate other traf-
c (e.g. printing, video streaming) with varying require-
ments that can make optimization dicult.
51.8 Doubts about quality of ser-
vice over IP
The Internet2 project found, in 2001, that the QoS proto-
cols were probably not deployable inside its Abilene Net-
work with equipment available at that time.[30] Equip-
ment available at the time relied on software to imple-
ment QoS. The group also predicted that logistical, -
nancial, and organizational barriers will block the way
toward any bandwidth guarantees by protocol modica- 51.10 Standards
tions aimed at QoS.[31] They believed that the economics
would encourage network providers to deliberately erode Quality of service in the eld of telephony, was rst
the quality of best eort trac as a way to push customers dened in 1994 in the ITU-T Recommendation E.800.
to higher priced QoS services. Instead they proposed This denition is very broad, listing 6 primary compo-
over-provisioning of capacity as more cost-eective at the nents: Support, Operability, Accessibility, Retainability,
time.[30][31]
The Abilene network study was the basis for the testi-
mony of Gary Bachula to the US Senate Commerce Com-
mittee's hearing on Network Neutrality in early 2006. He
expressed the opinion that adding more bandwidth was
more eective than any of the various schemes for ac-
complishing QoS they examined.[32]
CHAPTER 51. QUALITY OF SERVICE
Bachulas testimony has been cited by proponents of a law
banning quality of service as proof that no legitimate pur-
pose is served by such an oering. This argument is de-
pendent on the assumption that over-provisioning isn't a
form of QoS and that it is always possible. Cost and other
factors aect the ability of carriers to build and maintain
permanently over-provisioned networks.
51.9 Mobile (cellular) QoS
Main article: Mobile QoS
Mobile cellular service providers may oer mobile
QoS to customers just as the xed line PSTN services
providers and Internet Service Providers (ISP) may of-
fer QoS. QoS mechanisms are always provided for circuit
switched services, and are essential for non-elastic ser-
vices, for example streaming multimedia.
Mobility adds complication to the QoS mechanisms, for
A phone call or other session may be interrupted af-
ter a handover, if the new base station is overloaded.
Unpredictable handovers make it impossible to give
an absolute QoS guarantee during a session initia-
tion phase.
The pricing structure is often based on per-minute
or per-megabyte fee rather than at rate, and may be
dierent for dierent content services.
A crucial part of QoS in mobile communications is
Grade of Service, involving outage probability (the
probability that the mobile station is outside the ser-
vice coverage area, or aected by co-channel in-
terference, i.e. crosstalk), blocking probability (the
probability that the required level of QoS can not be
oered) and scheduling starvation. These perfor-
mance measures are aected by mechanisms such
as mobility management, radio resource manage-
ment, admission control, fair scheduling, channel-
dependent scheduling etc.
Integrity and Security.[1] A 1995 recommendation X.902
included a denition is the OSI reference model.[33] In
1998 the ITU published a document discussing QoS in
the eld of data networking. X.641 oers a means of de-
veloping or enhancing standards related to QoS and pro-
vide concepts and terminology that will assist in main-
taining the consistency of related standards.[34]
51.13. REFERENCES 187

Some QoS-related IETF Request For Comments (RFC)s Quality of experience (QoE)
are Denition of the Dierentiated services Field (DS
Series of tubes
Field) in the IPv4 and IPv6 Headers, RFC 2474 , and
Resource ReSerVation Protocol (RSVP), RFC 2205 ; both Streaming media
these are discussed above. The IETF has also published
two RFCs giving background on QoS: Next Steps for the Subjective video quality
IP QoS Architecture, RFC 2990 , and IAB Concerns Re- Tiered Internet
garding Congestion Control for Voice Trac in the Inter-
net, RFC 3714 . Trac classication
The IETF has also published Conguration Guidelines for Trac shaping
DiServ Service Classes, RFC 4594 as an informative or
best practices document about the practical aspects of
designing a QoS solution for a DiServ network. They 51.13 References
try to identify which types of applications are commonly
run over an IP network to group them into trac classes,
[1] E.800: Terms and denitions related to quality of service
study what treatment do each of these classes need from and network performance including dependability. ITU-
the network, and suggest which of the QoS mechanisms T Recommendation. August 1994. Retrieved October 14,
commonly available in routers can be used to implement 2011. Updated September 2008 as Denitions of terms
those treatments. related to quality of service

[2] Teletrac Engineering Handbook Archived January 11,

2007, at the Wayback Machine. ITU-T Study Group 2
51.11 Open source software (350 pages, 448MiB)(It uses abbreviation GoS instead of
QoS)
Linux Advanced Routing & Trac Control (from
2000 to 2005)[35] [3] Real-time reconguration for guaranteeing QoS provi-
sioning levels in Grid environments Future Generation
Linux Bandwidth Arbitrator (2003 through Computer Systems, Volume 25, Issue 7, July 2009, Pages
2005)[36] 779784, Elsevier

[4] Leonard Franken. Quality of Service Management: A

Zero Shell[37]
Model-Based Approach. PhD thesis, Centre for Telem-
mod_qos adding QoS to the Apache HTTP Server atics and Information Technology, 1996.

[5] Peuhkuri M., IP Quality of Service, Helsinki University

of Technology, Laboratory of Telecommunications Tech-
51.12 See also nology, 1999.

[6] Yuksel, M.; Ramakrishnan, K. K.; Kalyanaraman,

Application service architecture S.; Houle, J. D.; Sadhvani, R. (2007). IEEE
International Workshop on Quality of Service
Best-eort (IWQoS'07)" (PDF). Evanston, IL, USA: 109112.
doi:10.1109/IWQOS.2007.376555. ISBN 1-4244-1185-
BSSGP
8. |contribution= ignored (help)
Buerbloat [7] An Evening With Robert Kahn Archived December 19,
2008, at the Wayback Machine., from Computer History
Class of service
Museum, 9 Jan 2007
Deep packet inspection (DPI)
[8] Bianchi, Giuseppe (2000). Performance analysis of the
Grade of service (GoS) IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination function. IEEE
Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. 18 (3):
LEDBAT 535. doi:10.1109/49.840210.

Low Latency Queuing (LLQ) [9] Shi, Zhefu; Beard, Cory; Mitchell, Ken (2009).
Analytical Models for Understanding Misbe-
Mean opinion score (MOS) havior and MAC Friendliness in CSMA Net-
works. Performance Evaluation. 66 (910): 469.
Micro Transport Protocol doi:10.1016/j.peva.2009.02.002.

Network neutrality [10] Ben Erwin (December 16, 2008). How To Manage QoS
In Your Environment, Part 1 of 3. Network Performance
QPPB Daily video. NetQoS. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
188
[11] VoIP on MPLS. Search Unied Communications. Re-
trieved 12 March 2012.
[12] Bob Braden ed. L. Zhang, S. Berson, S. Herzog, S.
Jamin (September 1997), Resource ReSerVation Protocol
(RSVP), IETF, RFC 2205
[13] Next Steps in Signaling Charter
[14] EuQoS - End-to-end Quality of Service support over
heterogeneous networks. Project website. 20042006.
Archived from the original on April 30, 2007. Retrieved
October 12, 2011.
[15] IPSphere: Enabling Advanced Service Delivery Archived
January 13, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
[16] End-to-end quality of service support over heterogeneous
networks. Project description. European Community Re-
search and Development Information Service. Retrieved
October 12, 2011.
[17] Torsten Braun; Thomas Staub (2008). End-to-end quality
of service over heterogeneous networks. Springer. ISBN
978-3-540-79119-5.
[18] Multi Service Access Everywhere (MUSE)". Project
website. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
[19] Multi Service Access Everywhere. Project description.
European Community Research and Development Infor-
mation Service. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
[20] Multi Service Access Everywhere. Project description.
European Community Research and Development Infor-
mation Service. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
[21] PlaNetS QoS Solution. Project website. Archived from
the original on November 12, 2009. Retrieved October
12, 2011.
[22] 4WARD: Architecture and design for the future Inter-
net. Project description. European Community Research
and Development Information Service. Retrieved Octo-
ber 15, 2011.
[23] Going 4WARD (PDF). Project newsletter. June 2010.
Retrieved October 15, 2011.
[24] Lus M. Correia; Joao Schwarz (FRW) da Silva (January
30, 2011). Architecture and Design for the Future Internet:
4WARD EU Project. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-9345-
5.
[25] Wireless Deployable Network System. Project descrip-
tion. European Union. Retrieved May 23, 2012.
[26] R. Guimaraes; L. Cerd; J. M. Barcelo-Ordinas; J. Garcia-
Vidal; M. Voorhaen; C. Blondia (March 2009). Quality
of Service through Bandwidth Reservation on Multirate
Ad-doc Wireless Networks. Ad Hoc Networks. 7 (2):
388400. doi:10.1016/j.adhoc.2008.04.002.
[27] D. Kyriazis, K. Tserpes, A. Menychtas, A. Litke, T. Var-
varigou, An innovative Workow Mapping Mechanism for
Grids in the frame of Quality of Service, Elsevier Future
Generation Computer Systems, Vol. 24, Iss. 6, pp. 498-
511, 2008
CHAPTER 51. QUALITY OF SERVICE
[28] Q. Sun, S. Wang, H. Zou, F. Yang, QSSA: A QoS-aware
Service Selection Approach, International Journal of Web
and Grid Services, pp.147 - 169, 2011
[29] D Kyriazis, A Menychtas, G Kousiouris, K Oberle, T
Voith, M Boniface, E Oliveros, T Cucinotta, S Berger,
A Real-time Service Oriented Infrastructure, International
Conference on Real-Time and Embedded Systems (RTES
2010), Singapore, November 2010
[30] Benjamin Teitelbaum, Stanislav Shalunov (May 3, 2002).
Why Premium IP Service Has Not Deployed (and Prob-
ably Never Will)". Draft Informational Document. Inter-
net2 QoS Working Group. Archived from the original on
September 12, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
[31] Andy Oram (June 11, 2002). A Nice Way to Get Net-
work Quality of Service?". Platform Independent column.
O'Reilly. Archived from the original on September 12,
2010. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
[32] Gary Bachula (February 7, 2006). Testimony of Gary
R. Bachula, Vice President, Internet2 (PDF). pp. 23.
Retrieved October 15, 2011.
[33] X.902:Information technology Open Distributed Pro-
cessing Reference model: Foundations. ITU-T Rec-
ommendation. November 1995. Retrieved October 14,
2011. Updated October 2009.
[34] X.641: Information technology - Quality of service:
framework. ITU-T Recommendation. December 1997.
[35] Advanced Routing & Trac Control HOWTO. August
21, 2005. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
[36] Linux Bandwidth Arbitrator. APConnections. Re-
trieved October 14, 2011.
[37] Fulvio Ricciardi. QoS and Trac Shaping in Transpar-
ent Bridge mode. Router/Bridge Linux Firewall website.
ZeroShell Net Services. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
51.14 Further reading
Deploying IP and MPLS QoS for Multiservice Net-
works: Theory and Practice by John Evans, Clarence
Filsls (Morgan Kaufmann, 2007, ISBN 0-12-
370549-5)
Lelli, F. Maron, G. Orlando, S. Client Side Estima-
tion of a Remote Service Execution. 15th Interna-
tional Symposium on Modeling, Analysis, and Sim-
ulation of Computer and Telecommunication Sys-
tems, 2007. MASCOTS '07.
QoS Over Heterogeneous Networks by Mario March-
ese (Wiley, 2007, ISBN 978-0-470-01752-4)
XiPeng Xiao (September 8, 2008). Technical, Com-
mercial and Regulatory Challenges of QoS: An Inter-
net Service Model Perspective. Morgan Kaufmann.
ISBN 978-0-12-373693-2.
51.15. EXTERNAL LINKS 189

Integrated Services in the Internet Architecture: an

Overview, RFC 1633

An Architecture for Dierentiated services, RFC

2475
RSVP-TE: Extensions to RSVP for LSP Tunnels, RFC
3209

51.15 External links

Nate Hoy. Implementing QoS. Vonage Forum.
Retrieved October 14, 2011.

Ciscos Internetworking Technology Handbook

Henning Schulzrinne (January 9, 2008). Network
Quality of Service. Columbia University faculty
website. Retrieved October 14, 2011.

Quality of Service. Microsoft TechNet. March 31,

2011. Retrieved October 14, 2011.

Web Camera QoS Analysis Tool. FishyCam. Oc-

tober 31, 2012. Retrieved November 16, 2012.
Chapter 52

Real-time Transport Protocol

The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a network are built on the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).[3] Other
protocol for delivering audio and video over IP networks. transport protocols specically designed for multimedia
RTP is used extensively in communication and enter- sessions are SCTP[5] and DCCP,[6] although, as of 2010,
tainment systems that involve streaming media, such as they are not in widespread use.
telephony, video teleconference applications, television RTP was developed by the Audio/Video Transport work-
services and web-based push-to-talk features.
ing group of the IETF standards organization. RTP is
RTP typically runs over User Datagram Protocol (UDP). used in conjunction with other protocols such as H.323
RTP is used in conjunction with the RTP Control Proto- and RTSP.[2] The RTP standard denes a pair of proto-
col (RTCP). While RTP carries the media streams (e.g., cols: RTP and RTCP. RTP is used for transfer of mul-
audio and video), RTCP is used to monitor transmission timedia data, and the RTCP is used to periodically send
statistics and quality of service (QoS) and aids synchro- control information and QoS parameters.[7]
nization of multiple streams. RTP is one of the technical RTP is also used in the transport layer of WebRTC.
foundations of Voice over IP and in this context is often
used in conjunction with a signaling protocol such as the
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) which establishes con-
52.1.1 Protocol components
nections across the network.
RTP was developed by the Audio-Video Transport The RTP specication describes two sub-protocols, RTP
Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force and RTCP.
(IETF) and rst published in 1996 as RFC 1889, super-
The data transfer protocol, RTP, facilitates the transfer
seded by RFC 3550 in 2003.
of real-time data. Information provided by this proto-
col include timestamps (for synchronization), sequence
numbers (for packet loss and reordering detection) and
52.1 Overview the payload format which indicates the encoded format
of the data.[8]
RTP is designed for end-to-end, real-time, transfer of The control protocol RTCP is used to specify quality of
streaming media. The protocol provides facilities for service (QoS) feedback and synchronization between the
jitter compensation and detection of out of sequence ar- media streams. The bandwidth of RTCP trac compared
rival in data, which are common during transmissions to RTP is small, typically around 5%.[8][9]
on an IP network. RTP allows data transfer to multiple RTP sessions are typically initiated between communi-
destinations through IP multicast.[1] RTP is regarded as cating peers using a signaling protocol, such as H.323,
the primary standard for audio/video transport in IP net- the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), or Jingle (XMPP).
works and is used with an associated prole and payload These protocols may use the Session Description Proto-
format.[2] col to negotiate the parameters for the sessions.
Real-time multimedia streaming applications require
timely delivery of information and often can tolerate
some packet loss to achieve this goal. For example, loss 52.1.2 Sessions
of a packet in audio application may result in loss of a
fraction of a second of audio data, which can be made un- An RTP session is established for each multimedia
noticeable with suitable error concealment algorithms.[3] stream. A session consists of an IP address with a pair of
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), although stan- ports for RTP and RTCP. For example, audio and video
dardized for RTP use,[4] is not normally used in RTP streams use separate RTP sessions, enabling a receiver to
applications because TCP favors reliability over timeli- deselect a particular stream.[10] The ports which form a
ness. Instead the majority of the RTP implementations session are negotiated using other protocols such as RTSP

190
52.3. PACKET HEADER
(using SDP in the setup method)[11] and SIP.
The specication recommends that RTP port numbers
are chosen to be even and that each associated RTCP port
be the next higher odd number.[12]:68 However, a single
port is chosen for RTP and RTCP in applications that
multiplex the protocols.[13] RTP and RTCP typically use
unprivileged UDP ports (1024 to 65535),[14] but may also
use other transport protocols, most notably, SCTP and
DCCP, as the protocol design is transport independent.
52.2 Proles and payload formats
See also: RTP audio video prole
One of the design considerations of RTP is to carry a
range of multimedia formats and allow new formats with-
out revising the RTP standard. The design of RTP is
based on the architectural principle known as application
level framing (ALF). The information required by a spe-
cic applications needs is not included in the generic
RTP header, but is instead provided through RTP pro-
les and payload formats.[7] For each class of application
(e.g., audio, video), RTP denes a prole and one or more
associated payload formats.[7] A complete specication
of RTP for a particular application usage requires prole
and payload format specications.[12]:71
The prole denes the codecs used to encode the payload
data and their mapping to payload format codes in the
eld Payload Type (PT) of the RTP header. Each prole
is accompanied by several payload format specications,
each of which describes the transport of a particular en-
coded data.[2] The audio payload formats include G.711,
G.723, G.726, G.729, GSM, QCELP, MP3, and DTMF,
and the video payload formats include H.261, H.263,[15]
H.264, and MPEG-4.[15][16]
Examples of RTP Proles include:
The RTP prole for Audio and video conferences
with minimal control (RFC 3551) denes a set of
static payload type assignments, and a mechanism
for mapping between a payload format, and a pay-
load type identier (in header) using Session De-
scription Protocol (SDP).
The Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP)
(RFC 3711) denes a prole of RTP that provides
cryptographic services for the transfer of payload
data.[17]
The experimental Control Data Prole for RTP
(RTP/CDP[18] ) for machine-to-machine communi-
cations.
191
52.3 Packet header
The RTP header has a minimum size of 12 bytes. After
the header, optional header extensions may be present.
This is followed by the RTP payload, the format of which
is determined by the particular class of application.[19]
The elds in the header are as follows:
Version: (2 bits) Indicates the version of the proto-
col. Current version is 2.[20]
P (Padding): (1 bit) Used to indicate if there are
extra padding bytes at the end of the RTP packet.
A padding might be used to ll up a block of cer-
tain size, for example as required by an encryption
algorithm. The last byte of the padding contains the
number of padding bytes that were added (including
itself).[12]:12[20]
X (Extension): (1 bit) Indicates presence of an Ex-
tension header between standard header and payload
data. This is application or prole specic.[20]
CC (CSRC count): (4 bits) Contains the number
of CSRC identiers (dened below) that follow the
xed header.[12]:12
M (Marker): (1 bit) Used at the application level
and dened by a prole. If it is set, it means that
the current data has some special relevance for the
application.[12]:13
PT (Payload type): (7 bits) Indicates the format of
the payload and determines its interpretation by the
application. This is specied by an RTP prole. For
example, see RTP Prole for audio and video con-
ferences with minimal control (RFC 3551).[21]
Sequence number: (16 bits) The sequence num-
ber is incremented by one for each RTP data packet
sent and is to be used by the receiver to detect packet
loss and to restore packet sequence. The RTP does
not specify any action on packet loss; it is left to
the application to take appropriate action. For ex-
ample, video applications may play the last known
frame in place of the missing frame.[22] According
to RFC 3550, the initial value of the sequence num-
ber should be random to make known-plaintext at-
tacks on encryption more dicult.[12]:13 RTP pro-
vides no guarantee of delivery, but the presence of
sequence numbers makes it possible to detect miss-
ing packets.[1]
Timestamp: (32 bits) Used to enable the receiver
to play back the received samples at appropriate in-
tervals. When several media streams are present,
the timestamps are independent in each stream, and
may not be relied upon for media synchronization.
192 CHAPTER 52. REAL-TIME TRANSPORT PROTOCOL

The granularity of the timing is application spe- RFC 4103, RTP Payload Format for Text Conversa-
cic. For example, an audio application that sam- tion
ples data once every 125 s (8 kHz, a common sam-
ple rate in digital telephony) would use that value as RFC 3640, RTP Payload Format for Transport of
its clock resolution. The clock granularity is one of MPEG-4 Elementary Streams
the details that is specied in the RTP prole for an RFC 6416, RTP Payload Format for MPEG-4 Au-
application.[22] dio/Visual Streams
SSRC: (32 bits) Synchronization source identier RFC 2250, RTP Payload Format for
uniquely identies the source of a stream. The syn- MPEG1/MPEG2 Video
chronization sources within the same RTP session
will be unique.[12]:15 RFC 4175, RTP Payload Format for Uncompressed
Video
CSRC: (32 bits each) Contributing source IDs enu-
merate contributing sources to a stream which has RFC 6295, RTP Payload Format for MIDI
been generated from multiple sources.[12]:15
RFC 4696, An Implementation Guide for RTP MIDI
Header extension: (optional) The rst 32-bit word
RFC 7587, RTP Payload Format for the Opus Speech
contains a prole-specic identier (16 bits) and a
and Audio Codec
length specier (16 bits) that indicates the length of
the extension (EHL = extension header length) in RFC 7656, A Taxonomy of Semantics and Mech-
32-bit units, excluding the 32 bits of the extension anisms for Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
header.[12]:17 Sources

52.4 RTP-based systems 52.6 See also

A functional network-based system includes other pro- Secure Real-time Transport Protocol
tocols and standards in conjunction with RTP. Protocols
such as SIP, Jingle, RTSP, H.225 and H.245 are used for Real Time Streaming Protocol
session initiation, control and termination. Other stan- Real Data Transport
dards, such as H.264, MPEG and H.263, are used to en-
code the payload data as specied via RTP Prole.[23] ZRTP
An RTP sender captures the multimedia data, then en-
codes, frames and transmits it as RTP packets with ap-
propriate timestamps and increasing sequence numbers. 52.7 Notes
Depending on the RTP prole in use, the sender may set
the Payload Type eld. The RTP receiver captures the [1] Bits are ordered most signicant to least signicant; bit
RTP packets, detects missing packets, and may reorder oset 0 is the most signicant bit of the rst octet. Octets
packets. It decodes the frames according to the payload are transmitted in network order. Bit transmission order
format and presents the stream to its user.[23] is medium dependent.

52.5 Standards documents 52.8 References

[1] Daniel Hardy (2002). Network. De Boeck Universit. p.
RFC 1889, RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-
298.
Time Applications, Obsoleted by RFC 3550.
[2] Perkins 2003, p. 55
RFC 3550, Standard 64, RTP: A Transport Protocol
for Real-Time Applications [3] Perkins 2003, p. 46

RFC 3551, Standard 65, RTP Prole for Audio and
Video Conferences with Minimal Control
RFC 3190, RTP Payload Format for 12-bit DAT Au-
dio and 20- and 24-bit Linear Sampled Audio
RFC 6184, RTP Payload Format for H.264 Video
[4] RFC 4571
[5] Farrel, Adrian (2004). The Internet and its protocols.
Morgan Kaufmann. p. 363. ISBN 978-1-55860-913-6.
[6] Ozaktas, Haldun M.; Levent Onural (2007). THREE-
DIMENSIONAL TELEVISION. Springer. p. 356. ISBN
978-3-540-72531-2.
52.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 193

[7] Larry L. Peterson (2007). Computer Networks. Morgan JRTPLIB, a C++ RTP library
Kaufmann. p. 430. ISBN 1-55860-832-X.
Managed Media Aggregation: .NET C# RFC com-
[8] Perkins 2003, p. 56 pliant implementation of RTP / RTCP written in
completely managed code.
[9] Peterson 2007, p. 435

[10] Zurawski, Richard (2004). RTP, RTCP and RTSP pro- LScube project, providing a full streaming suite in-
tocols. The industrial information technology handbook. cluding experimental SCTP capability
CRC Press. pp. 287. ISBN 978-0-8493-1985-3.

[11] RFC 4566: SDP: Session Description Protocol, M. Hand-

ley, V. Jacobson, C. Perkins, IETF (July 2006)

[12] RFC 3550

[13] Multiplexing RTP Data and Control Packets on a Single

Port. IETF. April 2010. RFC 5761. https://tools.ietf.
org/html/rfc5761. Retrieved November 21, 2015.

[14] Collins, Daniel (2002). Transporting Voice by using IP.

Carrier grade voice over IP. McGraw-Hill Professional.
pp. 47. ISBN 0-07-136326-2.

[15] Chou, Philip A.; Mihaela van der Schaar (2007). Multi-
media over IP and wireless networks. Academic Press. pp.
514. ISBN 0-12-088480-1.

[16] Perkins 2003, p. 60

[17] Perkins 2003, p. 367

[18] Breese, Finley (2010). Serial Communication over

RTP/CDP. BoD - Books on Demand. pp. . ISBN 978-
3-8391-8460-8.

[19] Peterson 2007, p. 430

[20] Peterson 2007, p. 431

[21] Perkins 2003, p. 59

[22] Peterson, p.432

[23] Perkins 2003, pp. 1113

Perkins, Colin (2003), RTP, Addison-Wesley, ISBN

978-0-672-32249-5

Peterson, Larry L.; Davie, Bruce S. (2007), Com-

puter Networks (4 ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN
978-0-12-374013-7

RTP. Network Protocols Handbook. Javvin Tech-

nologies. 2005. ISBN 978-0-9740945-2-6.

RTP. Broadband Networks. Ministry of Human

resources, India. 2008.

52.9 External links

oRTP, RTP library from Linphone written in C

Henning Schulzrinnes RTP page (including FAQ)

GNU ccRTP
Chapter 53

Sampling (signal processing)

function is given by the sequence:

s(nT), for integer values of n.

The sampling frequency or sampling rate, f , is the av-

erage number of samples obtained in one second (samples
per second), thus f = 1/T.
Reconstructing a continuous function from samples is
done by interpolation algorithms. The Whittaker
Shannon interpolation formula is mathematically equiv-
alent to an ideal lowpass lter whose input is a sequence
of Dirac delta functions that are modulated (multiplied)
Signal sampling representation. The continuous signal is repre- by the sample values. When the time interval between
sented with a green colored line while the discrete samples are adjacent samples is a constant (T), the sequence of delta
indicated by the blue vertical lines. functions is called a Dirac comb. Mathematically, the
modulated Dirac comb is equivalent to the product of the
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a comb function with s(t). That purely mathematical ab-
[2]
continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A com- straction is sometimes referred to as impulse sampling.
mon example is the conversion of a sound wave (a con- Most sampled signals are not simply stored and recon-
tinuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a discrete-time structed. But the delity of a theoretical reconstruction
signal). is a customary measure of the eectiveness of sampling.
A sample is a value or set of values at a point in time That delity is reduced when s(t) contains frequency com-
and/or space. ponents whose periodicity is smaller than 2 samples; or
equivalently the ratio of cycles to samples exceeds (see
A sampler is a subsystem or operation that extracts sam- Aliasing). The quantity cycles/sample f samples/sec
ples from a continuous signal. = f /2 cycles/sec (hertz) is known as the Nyquist frequency
A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples equivalent of the sampler. Therefore, s(t) is usually the output of
to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the a lowpass lter, functionally known as an anti-aliasing
desired points. lter. Without an anti-aliasing lter, frequencies higher
than the Nyquist frequency will inuence the samples in a
way that is misinterpreted by the interpolation process.[3]
53.1 Theory
53.2 Practical considerations
See also: NyquistShannon sampling theorem
In practice, the continuous signal is sampled using an
Sampling can be done for functions varying in space, analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a device with various
time, or any other dimension, and similar results are ob- physical limitations. This results in deviations from the
tained in two or more dimensions. theoretically perfect reconstruction, collectively referred
For functions that vary with time, let s(t) be a continu- to as distortion.
ous function (or signal) to be sampled, and let sampling Various types of distortion can occur, including:
be performed by measuring the value of the continuous
function every T seconds, which is called the sampling Aliasing. Some amount of aliasing is inevitable be-
interval or the sampling period.[1] Then the sampled cause only theoretical, innitely long, functions can

194
53.3. APPLICATIONS 195

have no frequency content above the Nyquist fre- While modern systems can be quite subtle in their meth-
quency. Aliasing can be made arbitrarily small by ods, the primary usefulness of a digital system is the abil-
using a suciently large order of the anti-aliasing ity to store, retrieve and transmit signals without any loss
lter. of quality.
Aperture error results from the fact that the sample
is obtained as a time average within a sampling re- Sampling rate
gion, rather than just being equal to the signal value
at the sampling instant. In a capacitor-based sample A commonly seen measure of sampling is S/s, which
and hold circuit, aperture error is introduced be- stands for Samples per second. As an example, 1 MS/s
cause the capacitor cannot instantly change voltage is one million samples per second.
thus requiring the sample to have non-zero width.
When it is necessary to capture audio covering the entire
Jitter or deviation from the precise sample timing 2020,000 Hz range of human hearing,[4] such as when
intervals. recording music or many types of acoustic events, audio
waveforms are typically sampled at 44.1 kHz (CD), 48
Noise, including thermal sensor noise, analog circuit kHz, 88.2 kHz, or 96 kHz.[5] The approximately double-
noise, etc. rate requirement is a consequence of the Nyquist theo-
Slew rate limit error, caused by the inability of the rem. Sampling rates higher than about 50 kHz to 60 kHz
ADC input value to change suciently rapidly. cannot supply more usable information for human listen-
ers. Early professional audio equipment manufacturers
Quantization as a consequence of the nite precision chose sampling rates in the region of 50 kHz for this rea-
of words that represent the converted values. son.
Error due to other non-linear eects of the mapping There has been an industry trend towards sampling rates
of input voltage to converted output value (in addi- well beyond the basic requirements: such as 96 kHz and
tion to the eects of quantization). even 192 kHz[6] This is in contrast with laboratory experi-
ments, which have failed to show that ultrasonic frequen-
Although the use of oversampling can completely elim- cies are audible to human observers; however in some
inate aperture error and aliasing by shifting them out of cases ultrasonic sounds do interact with and modulate the
the pass band, this technique cannot be practically used audible part of the frequency spectrum (intermodulation
above a few GHz, and may be prohibitively expensive at distortion).[7] It is noteworthy that intermodulation dis-
much lower frequencies. Furthermore, while oversam- tortion is not present in the live audio and so it represents
pling can reduce quantization error and non-linearity, it an articial coloration to the live sound.[8] One advantage
cannot eliminate these entirely. Consequently, practical of higher sampling rates is that they can relax the low-pass
ADCs at audio frequencies typically do not exhibit alias- lter design requirements for ADCs and DACs, but with
ing, aperture error, and are not limited by quantization modern oversampling sigma-delta converters this advan-
error. Instead, analog noise dominates. At RF and mi- tage is less important.
crowave frequencies where oversampling is impractical
The Audio Engineering Society recommends 48 kHz
and lters are expensive, aperture error, quantization er-
sampling rate for most applications but gives recognition
ror and aliasing can be signicant limitations.
to 44.1 kHz for Compact Disc and other consumer uses,
Jitter, noise, and quantization are often analyzed by mod- 32 kHz for transmission-related applications, and 96 kHz
eling them as random errors added to the sample values. for higher bandwidth or relaxed anti-aliasing ltering.[9]
Integration and zero-order hold eects can be analyzed as
A more complete list of common audio sample rates is:
a form of low-pass ltering. The non-linearities of either
ADC or DAC are analyzed by replacing the ideal linear
function mapping with a proposed nonlinear function. Bit depth

See also: Audio bit depth

53.3 Applications
53.3.1 Audio sampling
Digital audio uses pulse-code modulation and digital sig-
nals for sound reproduction. This includes analog-to-
digital conversion (ADC), digital-to-analog conversion
(DAC), storage, and transmission. In eect, the sys-
tem commonly referred to as digital is in fact a discrete-
time, discrete-level analog of a previous electrical analog.
Audio is typically recorded at 8-, 16-, and 24-bit
depth, which yield a theoretical maximum Signal-to-
quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) for a pure sine wave of,
approximately, 49.93 dB, 98.09 dB and 122.17 dB.[13]
CD quality audio uses 16-bit samples. Thermal noise
limits the true number of bits that can be used in quan-
tization. Few analog systems have signal to noise ratios
(SNR) exceeding 120 dB. However, digital signal pro-
cessing operations can have very high dynamic range,
196 CHAPTER 53. SAMPLING (SIGNAL PROCESSING)

consequently it is common to perform mixing and mas- data. The 3D grid is assumed to represent a continuous
tering operations at 32-bit precision and then convert to region of 3D space. Volume rendering is common in me-
16 or 24 bit for distribution. dial imaging, X-ray computed tomography (CT/CAT),
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) are some examples. It is also used
Speech sampling
for Seismic tomography and other applications.
Speech signals, i.e., signals intended to carry only hu-
man speech, can usually be sampled at a much lower
rate. For most phonemes, almost all of the energy is con-
tained in the 100 Hz4 kHz range, allowing a sampling
rate of 8 kHz. This is the sampling rate used by nearly
all telephony systems, which use the G.711 sampling and
quantization specications.

53.3.2 Video sampling

Standard-denition television (SDTV) uses either 720 by
480 pixels (US NTSC 525-line) or 704 by 576 pixels (UK
PAL 625-line) for the visible picture area.
High-denition television (HDTV) uses 720p (progres- The top 2 graphs depict Fourier transforms of 2 dierent func-
sive), 1080i (interlaced), and 1080p (progressive, also tions that produce the same results when sampled at a particular
known as Full-HD). rate. The baseband function is sampled faster than its Nyquist
rate, and the bandpass function is undersampled, eectively con-
In digital video, the temporal sampling rate is dened the
verting it to baseband. The lower graphs indicate how identical
frame rate or rather the eld rate rather than the no- spectral results are created by the aliases of the sampling process.
tional pixel clock. The image sampling frequency is the
repetition rate of the sensor integration period. Since the
integration period may be signicantly shorter than the
time between repetitions, the sampling frequency can be
dierent from the inverse of the sample time:
53.4 Undersampling
50 Hz PAL video
60 / 1.001 Hz ~= 59.94 Hz NTSC video Main article: Undersampling
Video digital-to-analog converters operate in the mega-
hertz range (from ~3 MHz for low quality composite When a bandpass signal is sampled slower than its
video scalers in early games consoles, to 250 MHz or Nyquist rate, the samples are indistinguishable from sam-
more for the highest-resolution VGA output). ples of a low-frequency alias of the high-frequency sig-
nal. That is often done purposefully in such a way that
When analog video is converted to digital video, a dier- the lowest-frequency alias satises the Nyquist criterion,
ent sampling process occurs, this time at the pixel fre- because the bandpass signal is still uniquely represented
quency, corresponding to a spatial sampling rate along and recoverable. Such undersampling is also known as
scan lines. A common pixel sampling rate is: bandpass sampling, harmonic sampling, IF sampling, and
direct IF to digital conversion.[14]
13.5 MHz CCIR 601, D1 video

Spatial sampling in the other direction is determined by

the spacing of scan lines in the raster. The sampling rates
and resolutions in both spatial directions can be measured 53.5 Oversampling
in units of lines per picture height.
Spatial aliasing of high-frequency luma or chroma video Main article: Oversampling
components shows up as a moir pattern.

Oversampling is used in most modern analog-to-digital

53.3.3 3D sampling converters to reduce the distortion introduced by practi-
cal digital-to-analog converters, such as a zero-order hold
The process of volume rendering samples a 3D grid of instead of idealizations like the WhittakerShannon in-
voxels to produce 3D renderings of sliced (tomographic) terpolation formula.[15]
53.9. CITATIONS
53.6 Complex sampling
Complex sampling (I/Q sampling) is the simultaneous
sampling of two dierent, but related, waveforms, re-
sulting in pairs of samples that are subsequently treated
as complex numbers.[note 1] When one waveform , s(t),
is the Hilbert transform of the other waveform , s(t),
def
the complex-valued function, sa (t) = s(t) + j s(t),
is called an analytic signal, whose Fourier transform is
zero for all negative values of frequency. In that case, the
Nyquist rate for a waveform with no frequencies B can
be reduced to just B (complex samples/sec), instead of 2B
(real samples/sec).[note 2] More apparently, the equivalent
baseband waveform, sa (t) ej2 2 t , also has a Nyquist
B
rate of B, because all of its non-zero frequency content is
shifted into the interval [-B/2, B/2).
Although complex-valued samples can be obtained as de-
scribed above, they are also created by manipulating sam-
ples of a real-valued waveform. For instance, the equiv-
alent baseband waveform can be created without explic-
itly
[ computing s(t), by
] processing the product sequence
, s(nT ) ej2 2 T n ,
B
[note 3]
through a digital lowpass
lter whose cuto frequency is B/2.[note 4] Computing
only every other sample of the output sequence reduces
the sample-rate commensurate with the reduced Nyquist
rate. The result is half as many complex-valued samples
as the original number of real samples. No information
is lost, and the original s(t) waveform can be recovered,
if necessary.
53.7 See also
Downsampling
Upsampling
Multidimensional sampling
Sample rate conversion
Digitizing
Sample and hold
Beta encoder
Kell factor
Bit rate
53.8 Notes
[1] Sample-pairs are also sometimes viewed as points on a
constellation diagram.
197
[2] When the complex sample-rate is B, a frequency com-
ponent at 0.6 B, for instance, will have an alias at
0.4 B, which is unambiguous because of the constraint
that the pre-sampled signal was analytic. Also see
Aliasing#Complex sinusoids
[3] When s(t) is sampled at the Nyquist frequency (1/T = 2B),
the product sequence simplies to [s(nT ) (j)n ] .
[4] The sequence of complex numbers is convolved with the
impulse response of a lter with real-valued coecients.
That is equivalent to separately ltering the sequences of
real parts and imaginary parts and reforming complex
pairs at the outputs.
53.9 Citations
[1] Martin H. Weik (1996). Communications Standard Dic-
tionary. Springer. ISBN 0412083914.
[2] Rao, R. Signals and Systems. Prentice-Hall Of India Pvt.
Limited. ISBN 9788120338593.
[3] C. E. Shannon, Communication in the presence of
noise, Proc. Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 37, no.1,
pp. 1021, Jan. 1949. Reprint as classic paper in: Proc.
IEEE, Vol. 86, No. 2, (Feb 1998)
[4] Frequency Range of Human Hearing. The Physics Fact-
book.
[5] Self, Douglas (2012). Audio Engineering Explained. Tay-
lor & Francis US. pp. 200, 446. ISBN 0240812735.
[6] Digital Pro Sound. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[7] Colletti, Justin (February 4, 2013). The Science of Sam-
ple Rates (When Higher Is BetterAnd When It Isn't)".
Trust Me I'm A Scientist. Retrieved February 6, 2013.
[8] David Griesinger. Perception of mid frequency and high
frequency intermodulation distortion in loudspeakers, and
its relationship to high-denition audio. Archived from
the original (Powerpoint presentation) on 2008-05-01.
[9] AES5-2008: AES recommended practice for professional
digital audio - Preferred sampling frequencies for applica-
tions employing pulse-code modulation, Audio Engineer-
ing Society, 2008, retrieved 2010-01-18
[10] http://www.voipsupply.com/cisco-hd-voice[]
[11] The restoration procedure - part 1. Restoring78s.co.uk.
Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved
2011-01-18. For most records a sample rate of 22050 in
stereo is adequate. An exception is likely to be recordings
made in the second half of the century, which may need
a sample rate of 44100.
[12] Zaxcom digital wireless transmitters. Zaxcom.com.
Retrieved 2011-01-18.
[13] MT-001: Taking the Mystery out of the Infamous For-
mula, SNR=6.02N + 1.76dB, and Why You Should
Care (PDF).
198 CHAPTER 53. SAMPLING (SIGNAL PROCESSING)

[14] Walt Kester (2003). Mixed-signal and DSP design tech-

niques. Newnes. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7506-7611-3. Re-
trieved 8 January 2014.

[15] William Morris Hartmann (1997). Signals, Sound, and

Sensation. Springer. ISBN 1563962837.

53.10 Further reading

Matt Pharr and Greg Humphreys, Physically Based
Rendering: From Theory to Implementation, Morgan
Kaufmann, July 2004. ISBN 0-12-553180-X. The
chapter on sampling (available online) is nicely writ-
ten with diagrams, core theory and code sample.

53.11 External links

Journal devoted to Sampling Theory

I/Q Data for Dummies A page trying to answer the

question Why I/Q Data?

Sampling of analog signals Interactive presentation

in a web-demo. Institute of Telecommunications,
University of Stuttgart
Chapter 54

Satellite phone

to a regular mobile phone while some prototype satellite

phones have no distinguishable dierence from an ordi-
nary smartphone.[1][2] Satphones are popular on expedi-
tions into remote areas where terrestrial cellular service
is unavailable.
A xed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may
include large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a
steerable microwave antenna on the mast that automat-
ically tracks the overhead satellites. Smaller installations
using VoIP over a two-way satellite broadband service
such as BGAN or VSAT bring the costs within the reach
of leisure vessel owners. Internet service satellite phones
have notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be
possible to get a consistent signal near a window or in the
top oor of a building if the roof is suciently thin. The
phones have connectors for external antennas that can be
installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also al-
low for the use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile
phone systems.

54.1 Satellite phone network

54.1.1 Geosynchronous satellites

Some satellite phones use satellites in geostationary or-

Satellite phone (Inmarsat) in use in Nias, Indonesia in April 2005 bit, which are meant to remain in a xed position in the
sky. These systems can maintain near-continuous global
coverage with only three or four satellites, reducing the
A satellite telephone, satellite phone, or satphone is a launch costs. The satellites used for these systems are
type of mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites very heavy (approx. 5000 kg) and expensive to build and
instead of terrestrial cell sites. They provide similar launch. The satellites sit at an altitude of 35,786 kilo-
functionality to terrestrial mobile telephones; voice, short metres (22,236 mi); a noticeable delay is present while
messaging service and low-bandwidth internet access are making a phone call or using data services due to the large
supported through most systems. distance from users. The amount of bandwidth available
Depending on the architecture of a particular system, on these systems is substantially higher than that of the
coverage may include the entire Earth or only specic re- low Earth orbit (LEO) systems; all three active systems
gions. provide portable satellite Internet using laptop-sized ter-
The mobile equipment, also known as a terminal, varies minals with speeds ranging from 60 to 512 kbit per sec-
widely. Early satellite phone handsets had a size and ond (kbps).
weight comparable to that of a late-1980s or early- Geostationary satellites have a limitation of use in lati-
1990s mobile phone, but usually with a large retractable tude, generally 70 degrees north of the equator to 70 de-
antenna. More recent satellite phones are similar in size grees south of the equator. This is a result of look angles

199
200 CHAPTER 54. SATELLITE PHONE

being so low on the horizon increasing the chances of ter- Two such systems, both based in the United States,
restrial and other interference from sources in the same started in the late 1990s, but soon went into bankruptcy
frequency bands. after failing to gain enough subscribers to fund launch
Another disadvantage of geostationary satellite systems is costs. They are now operated by new owners who bought
that in many areaseven where a large amount of open the assets for a fraction of their original cost and are now
sky is presentthe line-of-sight between the phone and both planning to launch replacement constellations sup-
the satellite is broken by obstacles such as steep hills and porting higher bandwidth. Data speeds for current net-
forest. The user will need to nd an area with line-of-sight works are between 2200 bit/s and 9600 bit/s using a satel-
lite handset.
before using the phone. This is not the case with LEO ser-
vices: even if the signal is blocked by an obstacle, one can
wait a few minutes until another satellite passes overhead, Globalstar: A network covering most of the worlds
but a moving LEO satellite may drop a call when line of landmass using 44 active satellites. However, many
sight is lost. areas are left without coverage since a satellite must
be in range of an Earth station. Satellites y in an
ACeS: This small regional operator provides voice inclined orbit of 52 degrees, so polar regions cannot
and data services in East Asia, South Asia, and be covered. The network went into limited commer-
Southeast Asia using a single satellite. cial service at the end of 1999

Inmarsat: The oldest satellite phone operator,
founded in 1979. It originally provided large xed
installations for ships, but has recently entered the
market of hand-held phones in a joint venture with
ACeS. The company operates eleven satellites. Cov-
erage is available on most of the Earth, except polar
regions.
Thuraya: Established in 1997, Thurayas satellites
provide coverage across Europe, Africa, the Middle
East, Asia and Australia. Tracking
Iridium: A network operating 66 satellites in a polar
orbit that claims coverage everywhere on Earth.
Commercial service started in November 1998 and
fell into Chapter 11 bankruptcy in August 1999.[4]
In 2001, service was re-established by Iridium Satel-
lite LLC. Radio cross-links are used between satel-
lites to relay data to the nearest satellite with a con-
nection to an Earth station.

MSAT / SkyTerra: An American satellite phone LEO systems have the ability to track a mobile units loca-
company that uses equipment similar to Inmarsat, tion using Doppler shift calculations from the satellite.[5]
but plans to launch a service using hand-held devices
However, this method can be inaccurate by tens of kilo-
in the Americas similar to Thuraya's. meters. On some Iridium hardware the coordinates can
be extracted using AT commands, while recent Global-
Terrestar: Satellite phone system for North America star handsets will display them on the screen.[6]
ICO Global Communications: A satellite phone Most VSAT terminals can be reprogrammed in-eld us-
company which has launched a single geosyn- ing AT-commands to bypass automatic acquisition of
chronous satellite which is not yet active. GPS coordinates and instead accept manually injected
GPS coordinates.
54.1.2 Low Earth orbit
LEO telephones utilize LEO (low Earth orbit) satellite 54.2 Countries with restrictions on
technology. The advantages include providing worldwide use of satellite phones
wireless coverage with no gaps. LEO satellites orbit the
Earth in high speed, low altitude orbits with an orbital In some countries, possession of a satellite phone is
time of 70100 minutes, an altitude of 640 to 1120 kilo- illegal.[7] Their signals will usually bypass local telecoms
meters (400 to 700 miles), and provide coverage cells systems, hindering censorship and wiretapping attempts.
of about (at a 100-minute orbital period) 2800 km in These countries tend to score low on the Democracy in-
radius (about 1740 mi). Since the satellites are not dex, with the exception of India, so a ban can be the result
geostationary, they move with respect to the ground. At of the states desire for mass surveillance or that it lacks
least one satellite must have line-of-sight to every cover- the technology to intercept satellite phone trac.
age area at all times to guarantee coverage. Depending on
the positions of both the satellite and terminal, a usable
pass of an individual LEO satellite will typically last 415 Burma[8]
minutes on average;[3] thus, a constellation of satellites is China
required to maintain coverage (as is done with Iridium,
Globalstar, and others). Cuba[9][10]
54.5. COST OF A SATELLITE PHONE 201

India only Inmarsat-based satellite services are 54.5 Cost of a satellite phone
permitted within territories and areas under Indian
jurisdiction. Import and operation of all other
satellite services, including Thuraya and Iridium,
is illegal.[11] International shipping is obligated to
comply with Indian Directorate-General of Ship-
ping (DGS) Order No. 02 of 2012 which makes
the unauthorised import and operation of Thuraya,
Iridium and other such satellite phones illegal in wa-
ters which are within Indian jurisdiction. The leg-
islation to this eect is Section 6 of Indian Wire-
less Act and Section 20 of Indian Telegraph Act.
International Long Distance(ILD) licence and No
Objection Certicate (NOC) issued by Indian De-
partment of Telecommunications (DOT) is manda-
tory for satellite communication services on Indian
territory.[12][13][14][15]
Satphones on display
North Korea
While it is possible to obtain used handsets for the Thu-
Russia in 2012, new regulations governing the use raya, Iridium, and Globalstar networks for approximately
of satellite phones inside Russia or its territories US$200, the newest handsets are quite expensive. The
were developed to ght terrorism by enabling the Iridium 9505A, released in 2001, sold in March 2010 for
Russian government to intercept calls.[16] These reg- over US$1,000.[18] Satellite phones are purpose-built for
ulations allow non-Russian visitors to register their one particular network and cannot be switched to other
SIM cards for use within Russian territory for up to networks, the price of handsets varies with network per-
six months. formance. If a satellite phone provider encounters trou-
ble with its network, handset prices will fall, then in-
crease once new satellites are launched. Similarly, hand-
set prices will increase when calling rates are reduced.
54.3 Security concerns Among the most expensive satellite phones are
BGAN terminals, often costing several thousand
All modern satellite phone networks encrypt voice trac US dollars.[19][20] These phones provide broadband
to prevent eavesdropping. In 2012, a team of academic Internet and voice communications. Satellite phones
security researchers reverse-engineered the two major are sometimes subsidised by the provider if one signs a
proprietary encryption algorithms in use.[17] One algo- post-paid contract, but subsidies are usually only a few
rithm (used in GMR-1 phones) is a variant of the A5/2 al- hundred US dollars or less.
gorithm used in GSM (used in common mobile phones),
Since most satellite phones are built under license or the
and both are vulnerable to cipher-text only attacks. The
manufacturing of handsets is contracted out to OEMs,
GMR-2 standard introduced a new encryption algorithm
operators have a large inuence over the selling price.
which the same research team also cryptanalysed suc-
Satellite networks operate under proprietary protocols,
cessfully. Thus satellite phones are not recommended for
making it dicult for manufacturers to independently
high-security applications.
make handsets.

54.4 One-way services 54.6 Virtual country codes

Some satellite phone networks provide a one-way paging See also: Global Mobile Satellite System and
channel to alert users in poor coverage areas (such as in- International Networks (country code)
doors) of the incoming call. When the alert is received on
the satellite phone it must be taken to an area with better Satellite phones are usually issued with numbers in a spe-
coverage before the call can be accepted. cial country calling code.
Globalstar provides a one-way data uplink service, typi- Inmarsat satellite phones are issued with codes +870. In
cally used for asset tracking. the past, additional country codes were allocated to dif-
Iridium operates a one-way pager service as well as the ferent satellites, but the codes +871 to +874 were phased
call alert feature. out at the end of 2008 leaving Inmarsat users with the
202 CHAPTER 54. SATELLITE PHONE

same country code, regardless of which satellite their ter- Terrestrial cell antennas and networks can be damaged by
minal is registered with.[21] natural disasters. Satellite telephony can avoid this prob-
Low Earth orbit systems including some of the de- lem and be useful during natural disasters. Satellite phone
funct ones have been allocated number ranges in the networks themselves are prone to congestion as satellites
International Telecommunications Union's Global Mo- and spot beams cover a large area with relatively few voice
bile Satellite System virtual country code +881. Iridium channels.
satellite phones are issued with codes +881 6 and +881
7. Globalstar, although allocated +881 8 and +881 9 use
U.S. telephone numbers except for service resellers lo- 54.9 See also
cated in Brazil, which use the +881 range.
Small regional satellite phone networks are allocated Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN)
numbers in the +882 code designated for "international Satellite internet
networks" which is not used exclusively for satellite phone
networks. Telecommunications

Globalstar
54.7 Calling cost Thuraya

Inmarsat
The cost of making voice calls from a satellite phone
varies from around $0.15 to $2 per minute, while calling Iridium Communications
them from landlines and regular mobile phones is more
expensive. Costs for data transmissions (particularly
broadband data) can be much higher. Rates from land- 54.10 References
lines and mobile phones range from $3 to $14 per minute
with Iridium, Thuraya[22] and Inmarsat being some of the
most expensive networks to call. The receiver of the call Notes
pays nothing, unless they are being called via a special
reverse-charge service. [1] New Satellite Phone Runs Windows Mobile. Gearlog.

Making calls between dierent satellite phone networks is
often similarly expensive, with calling rates of up to $15
per minute.
Calls from satellite phones to landlines are usually around
$0.80 to $1.50 per minute unless special oers are used.
Such promotions are usually bound to a particular geo-
graphic area where trac is low.
Most satellite phone networks have pre-paid plans, with
vouchers ranging from $100 to $5,000.
[2] CTIA 2008: MSV Makes Lost Satellite Phone Real.
Gearlog.
[3] Delay/Disruption-Tolerant Network Testing Using a
LEO Satellite (PDF). NASA.
[4] Jaejoo Lim; Richard Klein; Jason Thatcher (2005).
Good technology, bad management: A case study of the
satellite phone industry (PDF). Journal of Information
Technology Management. Association of Management.
XVI (2). ISSN 1042-1319.

[5]

54.8 Use in disaster response [6] Globalstar GSP-1700 manual (PDF). Retrieved August
1, 2009.

See also: Cascading failure [7] Hossain, Moazzem (September 24, 2002). Bangladesh
jails Indian rebel chief. BBC. Retrieved January 4, 2010.

Most mobile telephone networks operate close to capac- [8] Dobie, Michael (September 28, 2007). Junta tightens
ity during normal times, and large spikes in call vol- media screw. BBC. Retrieved January 4, 2010.
umes caused by widespread emergencies often overload
[9] Administrator. SHIPMENTS SHALL NOT CON-
the systems when they are needed most. Examples re-
TAIN. co.cu.
ported in the media where this has occurred include the
1999 zmit earthquake, the September 11 attacks, the [10] Alan Gross
2006 Hawaii earthquake, the 2003 Northeast blackouts,
Hurricane Katrina,[23] the 2007 Minnesota bridge col- [11] Subject: Illegal use of Satellite Phones in India regard-
ing. Archived from the original on February 8, 2014.
lapse, the 2010 Chile earthquake, and the 2010 Haiti
Retrieved January 28, 2015.
earthquake. Reporters and journalists have also been us-
ing satellite phones to communicate and report on events [12] Recommendation : Telecom Regulatory Authority of In-
in war zones such as Iraq. dia. trai.gov.in.
54.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 203

[13] Restrictions on the use of Satellite Phone Carrier Ser-

vices Licensing Department of Telecommunications.
dot.gov.in.

[14] INMARSAT Carrier Services Licensing Depart-

ment of Telecommunications. dot.gov.in.

[15] http://www.intmsearch.gov.in/bimonthly/2015/01%
20of%202015.pdf

[16] From Russia with Love: New Regulations for Satellite

Phones in Russia. Outtter Satellite Phones Blog.

[17] Benedikt Driessen; Ralf Hund; Carsten Willems; Christof

Paar; Thorsten Holz (2012). Don't Trust Satellite
Phones: A Security Analysis of Two Satphone Standards
(PDF). 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy.
Retrieved 2013-04-28.

[18] Satellite Phone Rentals and Sales. Allroadcommunica-

tions.com. Retrieved April 7, 2011.

[19] BlueCosmo BGAN Pricing. Bluecosmo.com. Re-

trieved April 7, 2011.

[20] TS2 BGAN Pricing.

[21] Dialling codes customer support. Inmarsat. Retrieved

April 7, 2011.

[22] Thuraya Thuraya Satellite Phones

[23] Prepare for the Hurricane Season with Satellite Phones

Preparing for Hurricane Season with Satellite Phones

54.11 External links

University of Surrey pages with information on
some satellite systems, including currently planned,
and defunct proposals such as Teledesic. (non-
commercial)

Satellite Phone FAQ (satellite phone services and

equipment reviews, non-commercial)

Satellite mobile system architecture(technical)

Chapter 55

Session Initiation Protocol

The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a and online games.[4][5][6]

communications protocol for signaling and control- SIP is distinguished by its proponents for having
ling multimedia communication session such as voice roots in the Internet community rather than in the
and video calls. The most common applications of SIP
telecommunications industry. SIP has been standard-
are in Internet telephony, as well as instant messaging, ized primarily by the IETF, while other protocols, such
over Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
as H.323, have traditionally been associated with the
The protocol denes the messages that are sent between International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
endpoints, which govern establishment, termination and
other essential elements of a call. SIP can be used for
creating, modifying and terminating sessions consisting
of one or several media streams. SIP is an application 55.2 Protocol operation
layer protocol designed to be independent of the under-
lying transport layer. It is a text-based protocol, incor- SIP can be carried by several transport layer protocols
porating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Pro- including the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the
tocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the Stream Control
(SMTP).[1] Transmission Protocol (SCTP).[7] SIP can be used to es-
tablish two-party (unicast) or multiparty (multicast) ses-
SIP works in conjunction with several other application
sions.
layer protocols that identify and carry the session media.
Media identication and negotiation is achieved with the SIP employs design elements similar to the HTTP re-
Session Description Protocol (SDP). For the transmis- quest/response transaction model.[8] Each transaction
sion of media streams (voice, video) SIP typically em- consists of a client request that invokes a particular
ploys the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) or Secure method or function on the server and at least one re-
Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP). For secure trans- sponse. SIP reuses most of the header elds, encoding
missions of SIP messages, the protocol may be encrypted rules and status codes of HTTP, providing a readable text-
with Transport Layer Security (TLS). based format.
Each resource of a SIP network, such as a user agent
or a voicemail box, is identied by a uniform resource
identier (URI), based on the general standard syn-
55.1 History tax also used in Web services and e-mail.[9] The URI
scheme used for SIP is sip and a typical SIP URI has
SIP was originally designed by Mark Handley, Henning the form sip:username@domainname or sip:username@
Schulzrinne, Eve Schooler and Jonathan Rosenberg in hostport, where domainname requires DNS SRV records
1996. The protocol was standardized as RFC 2543 to locate the servers for SIP domain while hostport can
in 1999. In November 2000, SIP was accepted as a be an IP address or a fully qualied domain name of the
3GPP signaling protocol and permanent element of the IP host and port.[10][11] If secure transmission is required,
Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture for IP-based the scheme sips is used.
streaming multimedia services in cellular networks. In SIP works in concert with several other protocols and is
June 2002 the specication was revised in RFC 3261[2] only involved in the signaling portion of a communica-
and various extensions and clarications have been pub- tion session. SIP clients typically use TCP or UDP on
lished since.[3] port numbers 5060 or 5061 to connect to SIP servers and
The protocol was designed with the vision to support new other SIP endpoints. Port 5060 is commonly used for
multimedia applications. It has been extended for video non-encrypted signaling trac whereas port 5061 is typ-
conferencing, streaming multimedia distribution, instant ically used for trac encrypted with Transport Layer Se-
messaging, presence information, le transfer, fax over IP curity (TLS). SIP is primarily used in setting up and tear-

204
55.3. NETWORK ELEMENTS
ing down voice or video calls. It also allows modication
of existing calls. The modication can involve chang-
ing addresses or ports, inviting more participants, and
adding or deleting media streams. SIP has also found ap-
plications in messaging applications, such as instant mes-
saging, and event subscription and notication. A suite
of SIP-related Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
rules dene behavior for such applications. The voice
and video stream communications in SIP applications
are carried over another application protocol, the Real-
time Transport Protocol (RTP). Parameters (port num-
bers, protocols, codecs) for these media streams are de-
ned and negotiated using the Session Description Proto-
col (SDP), which is transported in the SIP packet body.
A motivating goal for SIP was to provide a signaling
and call setup protocol for IP-based communications that
can support a superset of the call processing functions
and features present in the public switched telephone net-
work (PSTN). SIP by itself does not dene these features;
rather, its focus is call setup and signaling. The features
that permit familiar telephone-like operations (i.e. dial-
ing a number, causing a phone to ring, hearing ringback
tones or a busy signal) are performed by proxy servers and
user agents. Implementation and terminology are dier-
ent in the SIP world compared to the PSTN but, to the
end-user, the behavior is similar.
SIP-enabled telephony networks often implement many
of the call processing features of Signaling System 7
(SS7), although the two protocols themselves are very dif-
ferent. SS7 is a centralized protocol, characterized by
a complex central network architecture and dumb end-
points (traditional telephone handsets). SIP is a client-
server protocol, however most SIP-enabled devices may
perform both the client and the server role. In general,
the session initiator is a client, and the call recipient is the
server. SIP features are implemented in the communicat-
ing endpoints, contrary to traditional SS7 architecture, in
which features are implemented in the network core.
Because SIP devices must perform both client and server
roles, network communication can be dicult with mod-
ern network topologies. When using a connection-
oriented protocol like TCP, SIP nominally expects that
separate connections will be opened for requests from A
to B and requests from B to A. The use of rewalls and
network address translation (NAT) interferes with this, as
it may not be possible for B to initiate a connection to A,
if A is behind a rewall or NAT. SIP allows the original
connection from A to B to be used for requests from B
to A, but the requests must correctly distinguish between
As private and public addresses and ports; this is also
true of requests on connectionless protocols like UDP.
To accomplish this, SIP uses extensions like received and
rport,[12] and can be paired with other protocols for dis-
covering network topology such as TURN, STUN, and
ICE.
205
55.3 Network elements
SIP denes user agents as well as several types of server
network elements. Two SIP endpoints can communicate
without any intervening SIP infrastructure. However, this
approach is often impractical for public services, which
need directory services to locate available nodes in the
network.
55.3.1 User agent
A SIP user agent (UA) is a logical network end-point used
to create or receive SIP messages and thereby manage a
SIP session. A SIP UA can perform the role of a user
agent client (UAC), which sends SIP requests, and the
user agent server (UAS), which receives the requests and
returns a SIP response. Unlike other network protocols
where the roles of client and server are xed (e.g., a web
browser only acts as an HTTP client, and never acts as
an HTTP server), in SIP requests can go in either direc-
tion, so in almost all cases, a SIP UA must be capable of
performing both roles. (If a SIP UA could only perform
one role, it could only receive calls and have calls hung
up by the peer, but not make calls or hang them up itself,
or vice versa.) These roles of UAC and UAS only last for
the duration of a SIP transaction.[5]
A SIP phone is an IP phone that implements client and
server functions of a SIP user agent and provides the tra-
ditional call functions of a telephone, such as dial, answer,
reject, call hold, and call transfer.[13][14] SIP phones may
be implemented as a hardware device or as a softphone.
As vendors increasingly implement SIP as a standard tele-
phony platform, the distinction between hardware-based
and software-based SIP phones is blurred and SIP ele-
ments are implemented in the basic rmware functions
of many IP-capable devices. Examples are devices from
Nokia and BlackBerry.[15]
In SIP, as in HTTP, the user agent may identify itself
using a message header eld User-Agent, containing a
text description of the software, hardware, or the prod-
uct name. The user agent eld is sent in request mes-
sages, which means that the receiving SIP server can see
this information. SIP network elements sometimes store
this information,[16] and it can be useful in diagnosing SIP
compatibility problems.
55.3.2 Proxy server
The proxy server is an intermediary entity that acts as
both a server and a client for the purpose of making re-
quests on behalf of other clients. A proxy server primar-
ily plays the role of routing, meaning that its job is to
ensure that a request is sent to another entity closer to the
targeted user. Proxies are also useful for enforcing policy,
such as for determining whether a user is allowed to make
206 CHAPTER 55. SESSION INITIATION PROTOCOL

a call. A proxy interprets, and, if necessary, rewrites spe- 55.3.4 Redirect server
cic parts of a request message before forwarding it.
A redirect server is a user agent server that generates 3xx
(redirection) responses to requests it receives, directing
55.3.3 Registrar the client to contact an alternate set of URIs. A redirect
server allows proxy servers to direct SIP session invita-
tions to external domains.

55.3.5 Session border controller

Session border controllers serve as middle boxes between
UA and SIP servers for various types of functions, in-
SIP user agent registration to SIP registrar with authentication.
cluding network topology hiding and assistance in NAT
traversal.

55.3.6 Gateway
Gateways can be used to interconnect a SIP network to
other networks, such as the public switched telephone net-
work, which use dierent protocols or technologies.

55.4 SIP messages

Call ow through redirect server and proxy.
SIP is a text-based protocol with syntax similar to that
of HTTP. There are two dierent types of SIP messages:
requests and responses. The rst line of a request has a
method, dening the nature of the request, and a Request-
URI, indicating where the request should be sent.[17] The
rst line of a response has a response code.

55.4.1 Requests
Main article: List of SIP request methods

Requests initiate a SIP transaction between two SIP en-

tities for establishing, controlling, and terminating ses-
sions. Critical methods include the following.

INVITE: Used to establish a dialog with media ex-

Establishment of a session through a back-to-back user agent. change between user agents.

BYE: Terminates an existing session.

A registrar is a SIP endpoint that accepts REGISTER re-
quests, recording the address and other parameters from REGISTER: The method implements a location ser-
the user agent, and that provides a location service for vice for user agents, which indicate their address in-
subsequent requests. The location service links one or formation to the server.
more IP addresses to the SIP URI of the registering agent.
Multiple user agents may register for the same URI, with
the result that all registered user agents receive the calls 55.4.2 Responses
to the URI.
SIP registrars are logical elements, and are commonly co- Main article: List of SIP response codes
located with SIP proxies. To improve network scalability,
location services may instead be located with a redirect Responses are sent by the user agent server indicating the
server. result of a received request. Several classes of responses
55.6. INSTANT MESSAGING AND PRESENCE 207

are recognized, determined by the numerical range of re- Transactions are further categorized as either type Invite
sult codes:[18] or type Non-Invite. Invite transactions dier in that they
can establish a long-running conversation, referred to as a
1xx: Provisional responses to requests indicate the dialog in SIP, and so include an acknowledgment (ACK)
request was valid and is being processed. of any non-failing nal response, e.g., 200 OK.
Because of these transactional mechanisms, unreliable
2xx: 200-level responses indicate a successful com- transport protocols, such as the User Datagram Protocol
pletion of the request. As a response to an INVITE, (UDP), are sucient for SIP operation.
it indicates a call is established.

3xx: This group indicates a redirection is needed for

completion of the request. The request has to be 55.6 Instant messaging and pres-
completed with a new destination.
ence
4xx: The request contained bad syntax or cannot be
fullled at the server. The Session Initiation Protocol for Instant Messaging
and Presence Leveraging Extensions (SIMPLE) is the
5xx: The server failed to fulll an apparently valid SIP-based suite of standards for instant messaging and
request. presence information. MSRP (Message Session Relay
Protocol) allows instant message sessions and le trans-
6xx: This is a global failure, as the request cannot fer.
be fullled at any server.

55.5 Transactions 55.7 Conformance testing

TTCN-3 test specication language is used for the pur-
poses of specifying conformance tests for SIP implemen-
tations. SIP test suite is developed by a Specialist Task
Force at ETSI (STF 196).[20] The SIP developer commu-
nity meets regularly at the SIP Forum SIPit events to test
interoperability and test implementations of new RFCs.

55.8 Performance testing

Example: User1s UAC uses an Invite Client Transaction to send
the initial INVITE (1) message. If no response is received after a
timer controlled wait period the UAC may chose to terminate the
transaction or retransmit the INVITE. Once a response is received,
User1 is condent the INVITE was delivered reliably. User1s
UAC must then acknowledge the response. On delivery of the
ACK (2) both sides of the transaction are complete. In this case,
a dialog may have been established.[19]
SIP denes a transaction mechanism to control the ex-
changes between participants and deliver messages reli-
ably. A transaction is a state of a session, which is con-
trolled by various timers. Client transactions send re-
quests and server transactions respond to those requests
with one or more responses. The responses may include
provisional responses, which a response code in the form
1xx, and one or multiple nal responses (2xx 6xx).
When developing SIP software or deploying a new SIP
infrastructure, it is very important to test capability of
servers and IP networks to handle certain call load: num-
ber of concurrent calls and number of calls per second.
SIP performance tester software is used to simulate SIP
and RTP trac to see if the server and IP network are sta-
ble under the call load.[21] The software measures perfor-
mance indicators like answer delay, answer/seizure ratio,
RTP jitter and packet loss, round-trip delay time.
55.9 Applications
A SIP connection is a marketing term for voice over In-
ternet Protocol (VoIP) services oered by many Internet
telephony service providers (ITSPs). The service pro-
vides routing of telephone calls from a clients private
branch exchange (PBX) telephone system to the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). Such services may
simplify corporate information system infrastructure by
sharing Internet access for voice and data, and removing
208 CHAPTER 55. SESSION INITIATION PROTOCOL

the cost for Basic Rate Interface (BRI) or Primary Rate If secure transmission is required, the sips URI scheme
Interface (PRI) telephone circuits. is used and mandates that each hop over which the re-
Many VoIP phone companies allow customers to use their quest is forwarded up to the target domain must be se-
own SIP devices, such as SIP-capable telephone sets, or cured with Transport Layer Security (TLS). The last hop
softphones. from the proxy of the target domain to the user agent has
to be secured according to local policies. TLS protects
SIP-enabled video surveillance cameras can make calls to against attackers who try to listen on the signaling link
alert the owner or operator that an event has occurred; for but it does not provide real end-to-end security to pre-
example, to notify that motion has been detected out-of- vent espionage and law enforcement interception, as the
hours in a protected area. encryption is only hop-by-hop and every single interme-
SIP is used in audio over IP for broadcasting applications diate proxy has to be trusted.
where it provides an interoperable means for audio inter- Because VPN is not an option for most service providers,
faces from dierent manufacturers to make connections most service providers that oer secure SIP (SIPS) con-
with one another.[22] nections use TLS for securing signaling. The relationship
between SIP (port 5060) and SIPS (port 5061), is sim-
ilar to that as for HTTP and HTTPS, and uses URIs in
the form "sips:user@example.com". The media streams,
55.10 Implementations which occur on dierent connections to the signaling
stream, can be encrypted with SRTP. The key exchange
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technol- for SRTP is performed with SDES (RFC 4568), or the
ogy (NIST), Advanced Networking Technologies Divi- newer and often more user friendly ZRTP (RFC 6189),
sion provides a public-domain Java implementation[23] which can automatically upgrade RTP to SRTP using dy-
that serves as a reference implementation for the stan- namic key exchange (and a verication phrase). One can
dard. The implementation can work in proxy server or also add a MIKEY (RFC 3830) exchange to SIP and in
user agent scenarios and has been used in numerous com- that way determine session keys for use with SRTP.
mercial and research projects. It supports RFC 3261 in
full and a number of extension RFCs including RFC 6665
(event notication) and RFC 3262 (reliable provisional
responses).
55.13 See also
Numerous other commercial and open-source SIP imple- Voice over IP
mentations exist. See List of SIP software.
Rendezvous protocol

55.11 SIP-ISUP interworking
SIP-I, or the Session Initiation Protocol with encapsu-
lated ISUP, is a protocol used to create, modify, and
terminate communication sessions based on ISUP using
SIP and IP networks. Services using SIP-I include voice,
video telephony, fax and data. SIP-I and SIP-T[24] are
two protocols with similar features, notably to allow ISUP
messages to be transported over SIP networks. This pre-
serves all of the detail available in the ISUP header, which
is important as there are many country-specic variants
of ISUP that have been implemented over the last 30
years, and it is not always possible to express all of the
same detail using a native SIP message. SIP-I was de-
ned by the ITU-T, whereas SIP-T was dened via the
IETF RFC route.[25]
Peer-to-peer SIP
Computer telephony integration (CTI)
Computer-supported telecommunications applica-
tions (CSTA)
H.323 protocols H.225.0 and H.245
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
Extensions to the Session Initiation Protocol for the
IP Multimedia Subsystem
Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
Message Session Relay Protocol (MSRP)
Mobile VoIP
MSCML (Media Server Control Markup Language)

Network convergence
55.12 Encryption
RTP audio video prole
The increasing concerns about the security of calls that SIGTRAN (Signaling Transport)
run over the public Internet has made SIP encryption
more popular and, in fact more desired. SIP trunking
55.15. BIBLIOGRAPHY 209

SIP provider [21] Performance and Stress Testing of SIP Servers, Clients
and IP Networks. StarTrinity. 2016-08-13.
Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP)
[22] Jonsson, Lars; Mathias Coinchon (2008). Streaming au-
XIMSS (XML Interface to Messaging, Scheduling, dio contributions over IP (PDF). EBU Technical Review.
and Signaling) Retrieved 2010-12-27.

ZRTP [23] JAIN SIP project. Retrieved 2011-07-26.

[24] RFC3372: SIP-T Context and Architectures. Septem-

ber 2002. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
55.14 References
[25] White Paper: Why SIP-I? A Switching Core Protocol
[1] Johnston, Alan B. (2004). SIP: Understanding the Session Recommendation
Initiation Protocol, Second Edition. Artech House. ISBN
1-58053-168-7.

[2] SIP core working group charter. Ietf.org. 2010-12-07.

55.15 Bibliography
Retrieved 2011-01-11.
Brian Reid; Steve Goodman (22 January 2015),
[3] Search Internet-Drafts and RFCs. Internet Engineering Exam Ref 70-342 Advanced Solutions of Microsoft
Task Force. Exchange Server 2013 (MCSE), Microsoft Press, p.
[4] What is SIP?". Network World. May 11, 2004. 24, ISBN 978-0-73-569790-4

[5] RFC 3261 SIP: Session Initiation Protocol. IETF.
2002.
[6] Margaret Rouse. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)".
TechTarget.
[7] RFC 4168, The Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP) as a Transport for the Session Initiation Protocol
(SIP), IETF, The Internet Society (2005)
[8] William Stallings, p.209
[9] RFC 3986, Uniform Resource Identiers (URI): Generic
Syntax, IETF, The Internet Society (2005)
[10] Miikka Poikselk et al. 2004.
[11] Brian Reid & Steve Goodman 2015.
Miikka Poikselk; Georg Mayer; Hisham Kharta-
bil; Aki Niemi (19 November 2004), The IMS: IP
Multimedia Concepts and Services in the Mobile Do-
main, John Wiley & Sons, p. 268, ISBN 978-0-47-
087114-0
55.16 External links
Computers/Internet/Protocols/SIP/ at DMOZ
IANA: SIP Parameters
IANA: SIP Event Types Namespace

[12] RFC 3581, An Extension to the Session Initiation Protocol

(SIP) for Symmetric Response Routing, IETF, The Internet
Society (2003)

[13] Azzedine (2006). Handbook of algorithms for wireless

networking and mobile computing. CRC Press. p. 774.
ISBN 978-1-58488-465-1.

[14] Porter, Thomas; Andy Zmolek; Jan Kanclirz; Antonio

Rosela (2006). Practical VoIP Security. Syngress. pp.
7677. ISBN 978-1-59749-060-3.

[15] BlackBerry MVS Software. Na.blackberry.com. Re-

trieved 2011-01-11.

[16] User-Agents We Have Known "VoIP User.org

[17] Stallings, p.214

[18] Stallings, pp.216-217

[19] James Wright. SIP - An Introduction (PDF). Konnetic.

Retrieved 2011-01-11.

[20] Experiences of Using TTCN-3 for Testing SIP and also

OSP Archived March 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
Chapter 56
Short Message Service
SMS redirects here. For other uses, see SMS (disam-
biguation).
This article is about the communication protocol tech-
nology. For information about text messaging, see Text
messaging.
Short Message Service (SMS) is a text messaging ser-
1 ABC DEF
2 3
GHI JKL MNO
4 5 6
PQRS TUV WXYZ
7 8 9 70
0 30
E.161, the most common mobile keypad alphabet layout
vice component of most telephone, World Wide Web,
and mobile telephony systems[1][1] . It uses standardized
communication protocols to enable xedline/landline or
mobile phone devices to exchange short text messages.[2]
SMS was the most widely used data application, with an
estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mo-
bile phone subscribers, at the end of 2010.[1]
SMS, as used on modern handsets, originated from radio
telegraphy in radio memo pagers that used standardized
phone protocols. These were dened in 1985 as part of
the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
210
series of standards.[3] The protocols allowed users to send
and receive messages of up to 160 alpha-numeric charac-
ters to and from GSM mobile handsets. Though most
SMS messages are mobile-to-mobile text messages, sup-
port for the service has expanded to include other mobile
technologies, such as ANSI CDMA networks and Digital
AMPS, as well as satellite and landline networks.
SMS is also employed in mobile marketing, a type of
direct marketing.[4] According to one market research re-
port, as of 2014, the global SMS messaging business was
estimated to be worth over $100 billion, accounting for
almost 50 percent of all the revenue generated by mobile
messaging.[5]
56.1 History
56.1.1 Initial concept
80
SMS texts sent monthly in USA in 20xx (billion)
60
50
40
20
10
0
'01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08
SMS messages sent monthly in USA (billion)
Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices
began in the early 1980s. The rst action plan of the
CEPT Group GSM was approved in December 1982, re-
questing that, The services and facilities oered in the
public switched telephone networks and public data net-
works ... should be available in the mobile system.[6]
This plan included the exchange of text messages either
directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via mes-
sage handling systems in use at that time.[7]
56.1. HISTORY
The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German
GSM cooperation in 1984 by Friedhelm Hillebrand and
Bernard Ghillebaert.[8] The GSM is optimized for tele-
phony, since this was identied as its main application.
The key idea for SMS was to use this telephone-optimized
system, and to transport messages on the signalling paths
needed to control the telephone trac during periods
when no signalling trac existed. In this way, unused
resources in the system could be used to transport mes-
sages at minimal cost. However, it was necessary to limit
the length of the messages to 128 bytes (later improved
to 160 seven-bit characters) so that the messages could
t into the existing signalling formats. Based on his per-
sonal observations and on analysis of the typical lengths
of postcard and Telex messages, Hillebrand argued that
160 characters was sucient to express most messages
succinctly.[9]
SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by up-
dating its software. Hence, a large base of SMS-capable
terminals and networks existed when people began to use
SMS.[10] A new network element required was a spe-
cialized short message service centre, and enhancements
were required to the radio capacity and network transport
infrastructure to accommodate growing SMS trac.
56.1.2 Early development
The technical development of SMS was a multinational
collaboration supporting the framework of standards
bodies. Through these organizations the technology was
made freely available to the whole world.[11]
The rst proposal which initiated the development of
SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and
France into the GSM group meeting in February 1985
in Oslo.[12] This proposal was further elaborated in GSM
subgroup WP1 Services (Chairman Martine Alvernhe,
France Telecom) based on a contribution from Ger-
many. There were also initial discussions in the subgroup
WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad (Telenor).
The result was approved by the main GSM group in a
June '85 document which was distributed to industry.[13]
The input documents on SMS had been prepared by
Friedhelm Hillebrand (Deutsche Telekom) with contri-
butions from Bernard Ghillebaert (France Tlcom). The
denition that Friedhelm Hillebrand and Bernard Ghille-
baert brought into GSM called for the provision of a mes-
sage transmission service of alphanumeric messages to
mobile users with acknowledgement capabilities. The
last three words transformed SMS into something much
more useful than the prevailing messaging paging that
some in GSM might have had in mind.[14]
SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a pos-
sible service for the new digital cellular system. In
GSM document "Services and Facilities to be provided in
the GSM System,"[3] both mobile-originated and mobile-
terminated short messages appear on the table of GSM
211
teleservices.
The discussions on the GSM services were concluded in
the recommendation GSM 02.03 "TeleServices supported
by a GSM PLMN."[15] Here a rudimentary description of
the three services was given:
1. Short message Mobile Terminated (SMS-MT)/
Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a
Short Message to a mobile phone. The message can
be sent by phone or by a software application.
2. Short message Mobile Originated (SMS-MO)/
Point-to-Point: the ability of a network to transmit a
Short Message sent by a mobile phone. The message
can be sent to a phone or to a software application.
3. Short message Cell Broadcast.
The material elaborated in GSM and its WP1 subgroup
was handed over in Spring 1987 to a new GSM body
called IDEG (the Implementation of Data and Telematic
Services Experts Group), which had its kicko in May
1987 under the chairmanship of Friedhelm Hillebrand
(German Telecom). The technical standard known today
was largely created by IDEG (later WP4) as the two rec-
ommendations GSM 03.40 (the two point-to-point ser-
vices merged) and GSM 03.41 (cell broadcast).
WP4 created a Drafting Group Message Handling
(DGMH), which was responsible for the specication of
SMS. Finn Trosby of Telenor chaired the draft group
through its rst 3 years, in which the design of SMS was
established. DGMH had ve to eight participants, and
Finn Trosby mentions as major contributors Kevin Hol-
ley, Eija Altonen, Didier Luizard and Alan Cox. The
rst action plan[16] mentions for the rst time the Tech-
nical Specication 03.40 Technical Realisation of the
Short Message Service. Responsible editor was Finn
Trosby. The rst and very rudimentary draft of the tech-
nical specication was completed in November 1987.[17]
However, drafts useful for the manufacturers followed at
a later stage in the period. A comprehensive description
of the work in this period is given in.[18]
The work on the draft specication continued in the fol-
lowing few years, where Kevin Holley of Cellnet (now
Telefnica O2 UK) played a leading role. Besides the
completion of the main specication GSM 03.40, the de-
tailed protocol specications on the system interfaces also
needed to be completed.
56.1.3 Support in other architectures
The Mobile Application Part (MAP) of the SS7 pro-
tocol included support for the transport of Short Mes-
sages through the Core Network from its inception.[19]
MAP Phase 2 expanded support for SMS by introducing
a separate operation code for Mobile Terminated Short
Message transport.[20] Since Phase 2, there have been
212 CHAPTER 56. SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE

no changes to the Short Message operation packages in Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch billing in-
MAP, although other operation packages have been en- stead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within
hanced to support CAMEL SMS control. SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users send-
From 3GPP Releases 99 and 4 onwards, CAMEL Phase ing messages through it. By the end of 2000, the average [28]
3 introduced the ability for the Intelligent Network (IN) to number of messages reached 35 per user per month,
control aspects of the Mobile Originated Short Message and on Christmas Day 2006, [29]
over 205 million messages
[21]
Service, while CAMEL Phase 4, as part of 3GPP Re- were sent in the UK alone.
lease 5 and onwards, provides the IN with the ability to
control the Mobile Terminated service.[22] CAMEL al-
lows the gsmSCP to block the submission (MO) or deliv- 56.1.5 Text messaging outside GSM
ery (MT) of Short Messages, route messages to destina-
tions other than that specied by the user, and perform SMS was originally designed as part of GSM, but is now
real-time billing for the use of the service. Prior to stan- available on a wide range of networks, including 3G net-
dardized CAMEL control of the Short Message Service, works. However, not all text messaging systems use SMS,
IN control relied on switch vendor specic extensions to and some notable alternative implementations of the con-
the Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) of SS7. cept include J-Phone's SkyMail and NTT Docomo's Short
Mail, both in Japan. Email messaging from phones,
as popularized by NTT Docomos i-mode and the RIM
BlackBerry, also typically uses standard mail protocols
56.1.4 Early implementations such as SMTP over TCP/IP.

The rst SMS message[23] was sent over the Vodafone

GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 56.1.6 SMS today
1992, from Neil Papworth of Sema Group (now Mavenir
Systems) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of In 2010, 6.1 trillion (6.1 1012 ) SMS text messages were
Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. The text of the sent.[30] This translates into an average of 193,000 SMS
message was Merry Christmas.[24] per second. SMS has become a huge commercial indus-
The rst commercial deployment of a short message ser- try, earning $114.6 billion globally in 2010.[31] The global
vice center (SMSC) was by Aldiscon part of Logica (now average price for an SMS message is US$0.11, while mo-
part of Acision) with Telia (now TeliaSonera) in Sweden bile networks charge each other interconnect fees of at
in 1993,[25] followed by Fleet Call (now Nextel)[26] in the least US$0.04 when connecting between dierent phone
US, Telenor in Norway and BT Cellnet (now O2 UK) networks.
later in 1993. All rst installations of SMS gateways were In 2015, the actual cost of sending an SMS in Australia
for network notications sent to mobile phones, usually to was found to be $0.00016 per SMS.[32]
inform of voice mail messages. In 2014, Caktus Group developed the worlds rst SMS-
The rst commercially sold SMS service was oered to based voter registration system in Libya. So far, more
consumers, as a person-to-person text messaging service than 1.5 million people have registered using that system,
by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa) in Finland in 1993. providing Libyan voters with unprecedented access to the
Most early GSM mobile phone handsets did not support democratic process.[33]
the ability to send SMS text messages, and Nokia was the While SMS is still a growing market, traditional SMS
only handset manufacturer whose total GSM phone line is becoming increasingly challenged by alternative mes-
in 1993 supported user-sending of SMS text messages. saging services such as Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp
According to Matti Makkonen, the inventor of SMS text and Viber available on smart phones with data connec-
messages, Nokia 2010, which was released in January tions, especially in Western countries where these ser-
1994, was the rst mobile phone to support composing vices are growing in popularity.[34] It has been reported
SMSes easily.[27] that over 97% of smart phone owners use alternative mes-
Initial growth was slow, with customers in 1995 send- saging services at least once a day.[35] Enterprise SMS-
ing on average only 0.4 messages per GSM customer per messaging, also known as application-to-peer messag-
month.[28] One factor in the slow takeup of SMS was that ing (A2P Messaging) or 2-way SMS, continue to grow
operators were slow to set up charging systems, especially steadily at a rate of 4% annually.[36] Enterprise SMS ap-
for prepaid subscribers, and eliminate billing fraud which plications are primarily focused on CRM and delivering
was possible by changing SMSC settings on individual highly targeted service messages such as parcel-delivery
handsets to use the SMSCs of other operators. Initially, alerts, real-time notication of credit/debit card purchase
networks in the UK only allowed customers to send mes- conrmations to protect against fraud, and appointment
sages to other users on the same network, limiting the conrmations. Another primary source of growing A2P
usefulness of the service. This restriction was lifted in message volumes is two-step verication (alternatively re-
1999.[23] ferred to as 2-factor authentication) processes whereby
56.2. TECHNICAL DETAILS 213

users are delivered a one-time passcode over SMS and whose payload length is limited by the constraints of the
then are asked to enter that passcode online in order to signaling protocol to precisely 140 bytes (140 bytes * 8
verify their identity.[36] bits / byte = 1120 bits). Short messages can be encoded
using a variety of alphabets: the default GSM 7-bit al-
phabet, the 8-bit data alphabet, and the 16-bit UCS-2
alphabet.[44] Depending on which alphabet the subscriber
56.2 Technical details has congured in the handset, this leads to the maximum
individual short message sizes of 160 7-bit characters,
56.2.1 GSM 140 8-bit characters, or 70 16-bit characters. GSM 7-
bit alphabet support is mandatory for GSM handsets and
[44]
Main article: Short message service technical realisation network elements, but characters in languages such as
(GSM) Arabic, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, or Cyrillic alphabet
languages (e.g., Russian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Bulgarian,
etc.) must be encoded using the 16-bit UCS-2 character
The Short Message ServicePoint to Point (SMS-PP)
encoding (see Unicode). Routing data and other metadata
was originally dened in GSM recommendation 03.40,
is additional to the payload size.
which is now maintained in 3GPP as TS 23.040.[37][38]
GSM 03.41 (now 3GPP TS 23.041) denes the Short Larger content (concatenated SMS, multipart or seg-
Message ServiceCell Broadcast (SMS-CB), which allows mented SMS, or long SMS) can be sent using multi-
messages (advertising, public information, etc.) to be ple messages, in which case each message will start with
broadcast to all mobile users in a specied geographical a User Data Header (UDH) containing segmentation in-
area.[39][40] formation. Since UDH is part of the payload, the number
of available characters per segment is lower: 153 for 7-
Messages are sent to a short message service center
bit encoding, 134 for 8-bit encoding and 67 for 16-bit
(SMSC), which provides a "store and forward" mecha-
encoding. The receiving handset is then responsible for
nism. It attempts to send messages to the SMSCs recip-
reassembling the message and presenting it to the user
ients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC queues
as one long message. While the standard theoretically
the message for later retry.[41] Some SMSCs also provide
permits up to 255 segments,[45] 6 to 8 segment messages
a forward and forget option where transmission is tried
are the practical maximum, and long messages are of-
only once. Both mobile terminated (MT, for messages
ten billed as equivalent to multiple SMS messages. Some
sent to a mobile handset) and mobile originating (MO,
providers have oered length-oriented pricing schemes
for those sent from the mobile handset) operations are
for messages, however, the phenomenon is disappearing.
supported. Message delivery is "best eort, so there are
no guarantees that a message will actually be delivered
to its recipient, but delay or complete loss of a message
is uncommon, typically aecting less than 5 percent of 56.2.3 Gateway providers
messages.[42] Some providers allow users to request deliv-
ery reports, either via the SMS settings of most modern SMS gateway providers facilitate SMS trac between
phones, or by prexing each message with *0# or *N#. businesses and mobile subscribers, including SMS for en-
However, the exact meaning of conrmations varies from terprises, content delivery, and entertainment services in-
reaching the network, to being queued for sending, to be- volving SMS, e.g. TV voting. Considering SMS messag-
ing sent, to receiving a conrmation of receipt from the ing performance and cost, as well as the level of messag-
target device, and users are often not informed of the spe- ing services, SMS gateway providers can be classied as
cic type of success being reported. aggregators or SS7 providers.
SMS is a stateless communication protocol in which ev- The aggregator model is based on multiple agreements
ery SMS message is considered entirely independent of with mobile carriers to exchange two-way SMS trac
other messages. Enterprise applications using SMS as a into and out of the operators SMSC, also known as local
communication channel for stateful dialogue (where an termination model. Aggregators lack direct access into
MO reply message is paired to a specic MT message) the SS7 protocol, which is the protocol where the SMS
requires that session management be maintained external messages are exchanged. SMS messages are delivered
to the protocol. to the operators SMSC, but not the subscribers handset;
the SMSC takes care of further handling of the message
through the SS7 network.
56.2.2 Message size Another type of SMS gateway provider is based on SS7
connectivity to route SMS messages, also known as in-
Transmission of short messages between the SMSC and ternational termination model. The advantage of this
the handset is done whenever using the Mobile Applica- model is the ability to route data directly through SS7,
tion Part (MAP) of the SS7 protocol.[43] Messages are which gives the provider total control and visibility of the
sent with the MAP MO- and MT-ForwardSM operations, complete path during SMS routing. This means SMS
214 CHAPTER 56. SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE

messages can be sent directly to and from recipients controlled by SMS, and some vehicle tracking companies
without having to go through the SMSCs of other mo- use SMS for their data transport or telemetry needs. SMS
bile operators. Therefore, it is possible to avoid delays usage for these purposes is slowly being superseded by
and message losses, oering full delivery guarantees of GPRS services owing to their lower overall cost. GPRS is
messages and optimized routing. This model is partic- oered by smaller telco players as a route of sending SMS
ularly ecient when used in mission-critical messaging text to reduce the cost of SMS texting internationally.[50]
and SMS used in corporate communications. Moreover,
these SMS gateway providers are providing branded SMS
services with masking but after misuse of these gateways 56.2.5 AT commands
most countriess Governments have taken serious steps to
block these gateways. Many mobile and satellite transceiver units support the
sending and receiving of SMS using an extended ver-
sion of the Hayes command set, a specic command lan-
56.2.4 Interconnectivity with other net- guage originally developed for the Hayes Smartmodem
works 300-baud modem in 1977.
The connection between the terminal equipment and the
Message Service Centers communicate with the Public transceiver can be realized with a serial cable (e.g., USB),
Land Mobile Network (PLMN) or PSTN via Interwork- a Bluetooth link, an infrared link, etc. Common AT com-
ing and Gateway MSCs. mands include AT+CMGS (send message), AT+CMSS
Subscriber-originated messages are transported from (send message from storage), AT+CMGL
[51]
(list messages)
a handset to a service center, and may be destined and AT+CMGR (read message).
for mobile users, subscribers on a xed network, or However, not all modern devices support receiving of
Value-Added Service Providers (VASPs), also known as messages if the message storage (for instance the devices
application-terminated. Subscriber-terminated messages internal memory) is not accessible using AT commands.
are transported from the service center to the destina-
tion handset, and may originate from mobile users, from
xed network subscribers, or from other sources such as 56.2.6 Premium-rated short messages
VASPs.
See also: Reverse SMS billing, Mobile search, and Short
On some carriers nonsubscribers can send messages to a
code
subscribers phone using an Email-to-SMS gateway. Ad-
ditionally, many carriers, including AT&T Mobility, T-
Mobile USA,[46] Sprint,[47] and Verizon Wireless,[48] of- Short messages may be used normally to provide
fer the ability to do this through their respective websites. premium rate services to subscribers of a telephone net-
work.
For example, an AT&T subscriber whose phone num-
ber was 555-555-5555 would receive e-mails addressed Mobile-terminated short messages can be used to de-
to 5555555555@txt.att.net as text messages. Subscribers liver digital content such as news alerts, nancial infor-
can easily reply to these SMS messages, and the SMS re- mation, logos, and ring tones. The rst premium-rate me-
ply is sent back to the original email address. Sending dia content delivered via the SMS system was the worlds
email to SMS is free for the sender, but the recipient is rst paid downloadable ringing tones, as commercially
subject to the standard delivery charges. Only the rst launched by Saunalahti (later Jippii Group, now part of
160 characters of an email message can be delivered to a Elisa Grous), in 1998. Initially only Nokia branded
phone, and only 160 characters can be sent from a phone. phones could handle them. By 2002 the ringtone busi-
ness globally had exceeded $1 billion of service revenues,
Text-enabled xed-line handsets are required to receive and nearly $5 billion by 2008. Today, they are also used
messages in text format. However, messages can be de- to pay smaller payments onlinefor example, for le-
livered to nonenabled phones using text-to-speech con- sharing services, in mobile application stores, or VIP sec-
version.[49] tion entrance. Outside the online world, one can buy a bus
Short messages can send binary content such as ringtones ticket or beverages from ATM, pay a parking ticket, or-
or logos, as well as Over-the-air programming (OTA) or der a store catalog or some goods (e.g., discount movie
conguration data. Such uses are a vendor-specic ex- DVDs), make a donation to charity, and much more.
tension of the GSM specication and there are multiple Premium-rated messages are also used in Donors Mes-
competing standards, although Nokia's Smart Messaging sage Service to collect money for charities and founda-
is common. An alternative way for sending such binary tions. DMS was rst launched at April 1, 2004, and
content is EMS messaging, which is standardized and not is very popular in the Czech Republic. For example,
dependent on vendors. the Czech people sent over 1.5 million messages to help
SMS is used for M2M (Machine to Machine) commu- South Asia recover from the 2004 Indian Ocean earth-
nication. For instance, there is an LED display machine quake and tsunami.
56.2. TECHNICAL DETAILS 215

The Value-added service provider (VASP) providing the forth between sent and received messages in the header
content submits the message to the mobile operators data (as specied by SMS protocol) from which the client
SMSC(s) using an TCP/IP protocol such as the short mes- device can properly thread an incoming message to a
sage peer-to-peer protocol (SMPP) or the External Ma- specic dialogue, or even to a specic message within a
chine Interface (EMI). The SMSC delivers the text us- dialogue. Most smart phone text-messaging-clients are
ing the normal Mobile Terminated delivery procedure. able to create some contextual threading of group mes-
The subscribers are charged extra for receiving this pre- sages which narrows the context of the thread around
mium content; the revenue is typically divided between the common interests shared by group members. On the
the mobile network operator and the VASP either through other hand, advanced enterprise messaging applications
revenue share or a xed transport fee. Submission to the which push messages from a remote server often display
SMSC is usually handled by a third party. a dynamically changing reply number (multiple numbers
Mobile-originated short messages may also be used in a used by the same sender), which is used along with the
senders phone number to create session-tracking capa-
premium-rated manner for services such as televoting.
In this case, the VASP providing the service obtains a bilities analogous to the functionality that cookies pro-
short code from the telephone network operator, and sub- vide for web-browsing. As one pervasive example, this
scribers send texts to that number. The payouts to the technique is used to extend the functionality of many In-
carriers vary by carrier; percentages paid are greatest on stant Messenger (IM) applications such that they are able
the lowest-priced premium SMS services. Most infor- to communicate over two-way dialogues with the much
mation providers should expect to pay about 45 percent larger SMS user-base.[54] In cases where multiple reply
of the cost of the premium SMS up front to the carrier. numbers are used by the enterprise server to maintain the
The submission of the text to the SMSC is identical to dialogue, the visual conversation threading on the client
a standard MO Short Message submission, but once the may be separated into multiple threads.
text is at the SMSC, the Service Center (SC) identies
the Short Code as a premium service. The SC will then
56.2.8 Application-to-person (A2P) SMS
direct the content of the text message to the VASP, typ-
ically using an IP protocol such as SMPP or EMI. Sub-
While SMS reached its popularity as a person-to-
scribers are charged a premium for the sending of such
person messaging, another type of SMS is growing fast:
messages, with the revenue typically shared between the
application-to-person (A2P) messaging. A2P is a type
network operator and the VASP. Short codes only work
of SMS sent from a subscriber to an application or sent
within one country, they are not international.
from an application to a subscriber. It is commonly used
An alternative to inbound SMS is based on long numbers by nancial institutions, airlines, hotel booking sites, so-
(international number format, e.g. +44 762 480 5000), cial networks, and other organizations sending SMS from
which can be used in place of short codes for SMS recep- their systems to their customers.
tion in several applications, such as TV voting, product
In the USA, A2P messages must be sent using a short
promotions and campaigns. Long numbers work interna-
code rather than a standard long code.[55]
tionally, allow businesses to use their own numbers, rather
than short codes, which are usually shared across many
brands. Additionally, long numbers are nonpremium in- 56.2.9 Satellite phone networks
bound numbers.
All commercial satellite phone networks except ACeS
56.2.7 Threaded SMS and OptusSat support SMS. While early Iridium handsets
only support incoming SMS, later models can also send
Threaded SMS is a visual styling orientation of SMS mes- messages. The price per message varies for dierent net-
sage history that arranges messages to and from a con- works. Unlike some mobile phone networks, there is no
tact in chronological order on a single screen. It was rst extra charge for sending international SMS or to send one
invented by a developer working to implement the SMS to a dierent satellite phone network. SMS can some-
client for the BlackBerry, who was looking to make use of times be sent from areas where the signal is too poor to
the blank screen left below the message on a device with make a voice call.
a larger screen capable of displaying far more than the Satellite phone networks usually have web-based or
usual 160 characters, and was inspired by threaded Reply email-based SMS portals where one can send free SMS
conversations in email.[52] Visually, this style of repre- to phones on that particular network.
sentation provides a back-and-forth chat-like history for
each individual contact.[53] Hierarchical-threading at the
conversation-level (as typical in blogs and on-line mes- 56.2.10 Unreliability
saging boards)is not widely supported by SMS messag-
ing clients. This limitation is due to the fact that there Unlike dedicated texting systems like the Simple
is no session identier or subject-line passed back and Network Paging Protocol and Motorolas ReFLEX
216
protocol,[56] SMS message delivery is not guaran-
teed, and many implementations provide no mechanism
through which a sender can determine whether an SMS
message has been delivered in a timely manner.[57] SMS
messages are generally treated as lower-priority trac
than voice, and various studies have shown that around
1% to 5% of messages are lost entirely, even during nor-
mal operation conditions,[58] and others may not be de-
livered until long after their relevance has passed.[59] The
use of SMS as an emergency notication service in par-
ticular has been questioned.[60]
56.2.11 Vulnerabilities
See also: Mobile security Attack based on SMS & Limitation
MMS
The Global Service for Mobile communications (GSM),
with the greatest worldwide number of users, succumbs
to several security vulnerabilities. In the GSM, only
the airway trac between the Mobile Station (MS) and
the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is optionally en-
crypted with a weak and broken stream cipher (A5/1 or
A5/2). The authentication is unilateral and also vulner-
able. There are also many other security vulnerabilities
and shortcomings.[61] Such vulnerabilities are inherent to
SMS as one of the superior and well-tried services with
a global availability in the GSM networks. SMS mes-
saging has some extra security vulnerabilities due to its
store-and-forward feature, and the problem of fake SMS
that can be conducted via the Internet. When a user is
roaming, SMS content passes through dierent networks,
perhaps including the Internet, and is exposed to various
vulnerabilities and attacks. Another concern arises when
an adversary gets access to a phone and reads the previous
A Flash SMS is a type of SMS that appears directly
unprotected messages.[62]
on the main screen without user interaction and is not
In October 2005, researchers from Pennsylvania State automatically stored in the inbox.[68] It can be use-
University published an analysis of vulnerabilities in ful in emergencies, such as a re alarm or cases of
SMS-capable cellular networks. The researchers specu- condentiality, as in delivering one-time passwords.[69]
lated that attackers might exploit the open functionality
of these networks to disrupt them or cause them to fail,
possibly on a nationwide scale.[63]
SMS spoong
Main article: SMS spoong
The GSM industry has identied a number of potential
fraud attacks on mobile operators that can be delivered
via abuse of SMS messaging services. The most serious
threat is SMS Spoong, which occurs when a fraudster
manipulates address information in order to imperson-
ate a user that has roamed onto a foreign network and
is submitting messages to the home network. Frequently,
these messages are addressed to destinations outside the
CHAPTER 56. SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE
home networkwith the home SMSC essentially being
hijacked to send messages into other networks.
The only sure way of detecting and blocking spoofed mes-
sages is to screen incoming mobile-originated messages
to verify that the sender is a valid subscriber and that
the message is coming from a valid and correct location.
This can be implemented by adding an intelligent rout-
ing function to the network that can query originating
subscriber details from the HLR before the message is
submitted for delivery. This kind of intelligent routing
function is beyond the capabilities of legacy messaging
infrastructure.[64]
In an eort to limit telemarketers who had taken to bom-
barding users with hordes of unsolicited messages India
introduced new regulations in September 2011, includ-
ing a cap of 3,000 SMS messages per subscriber per
month, or an average of 100 per subscriber per day.[65]
Due to representations received from some of the ser-
vice providers and consumers, TRAI (Telecom Regula-
tory Authority of India) has raised this limit to 200 SMS
messages per SIM per day in case of prepaid services, and
up to 6,000 SMS messages per SIM per month in case of
postpaid services with eect from 1 November 2011.[66]
However, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Delhi high
court, but there are some limitations.[67]
56.2.12 Flash SMS
56.2.13 Silent SMS
In Germany in 2010 almost half a million silent SMS
messages were sent by the federal police, customs and the
secret service "Verfassungsschutz" (oces for protection
of the constitution).[70] These silent messages, also known
as silent TMS, stealth SMS or stealth ping, are used
to locate a person and thus to create a complete movement
prole. They do not show up on a display, nor trigger any
acoustical signal when received. Their primary purpose
was to deliver special services of the network operator to
any cell phone. The mobile provider, often at the behest
of the police, will capture data such as subscriber identi-
cation IMSI.
56.4. REFERENCES
56.3 See also
Process Driven Messaging Service
Comparison of mobile phone standards
iMessage
SMS language
Telegram
Text messaging
Social messaging
Thumbing
GSM 03.40
Short Message Service Center (SMSC)
Short message service technical realisation (GSM)
SMS gateway (sending text to or from devices other
than phones) [19] MAP phase 1 specication, available from the 3GPP web
SMS hubbing
SMS home routing
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
Extended Messaging Service
Enhanced Messaging Service (EMS)
56.4 References
[1] Ahonen, Tomi T. (January 13, 2011). Time to Conrm
Some Mobile User Numbers: SMS, MMS, Mobile Inter-
net, M-News. Communities Dominate Brands. Retrieved
September 27, 2016.
[2] Kelly, Heather (December 3, 2012). OMG, The Text
Message Turns 20. But has SMS peaked?". CNN.
[3] GSM Doc 28/85 Services and Facilities to be provided
in the GSM System rev2, June 1985
[4] Black, Ken (September 13, 2016). What is SMS Mar-
keting?". wiseGEEK. Retrieved September 28, 2016.
[5] Portio Research. Mobile Messaging Futures 2014-
2018. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015.
Retrieved September 28, 2016.
[6] see GSM document 02/82 available the ETSI archive
[7] These Message Handling Systems had been standardized
in the ITU, see specications X.400 series
[8] See the book Hillebrand, Trosby, Holley, Harris: SMS the
creation of Personal Global Text Messaging, Wiley 2010
[9] Technology. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
217
[10] See GSM document 28/85rev.2 June 85 and GSM WP1
document 66/86 available in the ETSI archive
[11] See also Friedhelm Hillebrand GSM and UMTS, the cre-
ation of Global Mobile Communication, Wiley 2002,
chapters 10 and 16, ISBN 0-470-84322-5
[12] GSM document 19/85, available in the ETSI archive
[13] GSM document 28/85r2, available in the ETSI archive
[14] So who really did create SMS?". Stephen Temple. Re-
trieved 6 April 2013.
[15] GSM TS 02.03, Teleservices Supported by a GSM Public
Land Mobile Network (PLMN).
[16] Document GSM IDEG 79/87r3, available in the ETSI
archive
[17] GSM 03.40, WP4 document 152/87, available in the
ETSI archive
[18] Finn Trosby, the strange duckling of GSM SMS, Telek-
tronikk Vol.3 2004.
site.
[20] MAP phase 2 specication, available from the 3GPP web
site.
[21] CAMEL Phase 3 specication, available from the 3GPP
web site.
[22] CAMEL Phase 4 specication, also available from the
3GPP specication page.
[23] Hppy bthdy txt! December 2002, BBC News.
[24] UK hails 10th birthday of SMS, December 2002, The
Times of India.
[25] First commercial deployment of Text Messaging (SMS)
at the Wayback Machine (archived March 16, 2008)
[26] US Department of Homeland Security. Cellular Tech-
nologies (PDF). Electronic Frontier Foundation).
[27] Nael, Merili (2015-06-30). Suri tekstisnumite looja
Matti Makkonen [Creator of text messages Matti
Makkonen died]. uudised.err.ee (in Estonian). Eesti
Rahvusringhling. Retrieved 2015-07-27. External link
in |work= (help)
[28] GSM World press release
[29] Crystal, David (2008-07-05). 2b or not 2b?". Guardian
Unlimited. London, UK. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
[30] THE WORLD IN 2010 - The rise of 3G
[31] Silver, Katie (December 7, 2011). OMG: Text messag-
ing turns 19 this week ... and this is the Brit we have to
thank for our sore thumbs. Daily Mail. London.
[32]
[33] Libyas Election Ushers in New Voter Tech - World Pol-
icy Institute. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
218
[34] The death of SMS is exaggerated.
[35] Paul W. (9 February 2016). Messaging Apps and SMS
Marketing Trends. JookSMS. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
[36] A2P SMS Market Expected to Reach USD 70.32 Billion,
in 2020. Transparency Market Research. Retrieved 28
May 2015.
[37] GSM 03.40 Technical realization of the Short Message
Service (SMS).
[38] 3GPP specication: 23.040. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[39] GSM 03.41, Technical Realization of Short Message Ser-
vice Cell Broadcast (SMSCB).
[40] 3GPP specication: 23.041. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[41] Gil Held: Data over Wireless Networks. pages 10511,
13738. Wiley, 2001.
[42] https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/2007/CS-2007-42.
pdf
[43] Amri, Kuross. Communication Networks.
[44] 3GPP TS 23.038, Alphabets and language-specic infor-
mation.
[45] Ian Groves: Mobile Systems, page 70, 79, 16366.
Chapman & Hall, 1998.
[46] t-zones text messaging: send and receive messages with
mobile text messaging. T-mobile.com. Retrieved 2008-
09-18.
[47] Support How do I compose and send a text mes-
sage to a Sprint or Nextel customer from email?". Sup-
port.sprintpcs.com. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[48] Answers to FAQs Verizon Wireless Support. Sup-
port.vzw.com. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[49] BT trials mobile SMS to voice landline, January 2004, The
Register.
[50] , September 2006, SMStextnews
[51] SMS Tutorial: Introduction to AT Commands, Basic
Commands and Extended Commands. Retrieved 14
June 2015.
[52] [USPTO - https://www.google.com/patents/US7028263
US Patent 7028263 2001]
[53] From Phone Scoop denitions - Threaded Messaging def-
inition (Phone Scoop) - Retrieved December 29, 2012
[54] Whitepaper: Market Opportunities for Text and MMS
Messaging ABI Research, 2011
[55] Long Code Vs Short Code Whats The Dierence?".
Retrieved 23 September 2015.
[56] Motorolas ReFLEX Protocol Delivers Wireless Data
With Unparelleled Nationwide Network Coverage
[57] Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Com-
munications. cellular-news. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
CHAPTER 56. SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE
[58] Download Limit Exceeded. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[59] Monitoring SMS Delivery Reliability
[60] Report Says That SMS is Not Ideal for Emergency Com-
munications. cellular-news. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[61] Solutions to the GSM Security Weaknesses, Proceedings
of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Next Gen-
eration Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies
(NGMAST2008), pp.576581, Cardi, UK, September
2008, arXiv:1002.3175
[62] SSMS A Secure SMS Messaging Protocol for the M-
Payment Systems, Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Sympo-
sium on Computers and Communications (ISCC'08), pp.
700705, July 2008 arXiv:1002.3171
[63] An Analysis of Vulnerabilities in SMS-Capable Cellu-
lar Networks: Exploiting Open Functionality in SMS-
Capable Cellular Networks (Website)
[64] An overview on how to stop SMS Spoong in mobile op-
erator networks (September 9, 2008) at the Wayback Ma-
chine (archived September 26, 2008)
[65] Nirmala Ganapathy (September 27, 2011). 3,000 SMS
a Month Limit in India From Today. Straits Times In-
donesia. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
[66] TRAI extends the 100 SMS per day per SIM limit to 200
SMS per day per SIM at the Wayback Machine (archived
November 11, 2011)
[67] Special Correspondent (2012-01-26). News / National :
TRAI cap on SMS goes. The Hindu. Retrieved 2013-
02-24.
[68] SMS types on routomessaging.com. Archived from the
original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 20 Feb 2016.
[69] Flash SMS. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
[70] Zoll, BKA und Verfassungsschutz verschickten 2010
ber 440.000 stille SMS | heise online. Heise.de. Re-
trieved 2013-02-24.
56.5 External links
3GPP The organization that maintains the SMS
specication.
ISO Standards (In Zip le format)
GSM 03.38 to Unicode the ocial GSM
BSG The worldwide organization that maintains
the SMS specication.
Chapter 57

Signaling gateway

A Signaling Gateway is a network component responsi-

ble for transferring signaling messages (i.e. information
related to call establishment, billing, location, short mes-
sages, address conversion, and other services) between
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) nodes that communi-
cate using dierent protocols and transports. Transport
conversion is often from SS7 to IP.
A SIGTRAN Signaling Gateway is a network compo-
nent that performs packet level translation of signaling
from common channel signaling (based upon SS7) to
SIGTRAN signaling (based upon IP). The concept of the
SIGTRAN signaling gateway was introduced in the IETF
document: RFC 2719: Architectural Framework for Sig-
naling Transport.
A signaling gateway can be implemented as an embed-
ded component of some other network element, or can be
provided as a stand-alone network element. For example:
a signaling gateway is often part of a softswitch in mod-
ern VoIP deployments. The signaling gateway function
can also be included within the larger operational domain
of a Signal Transfer Point (STP).
Protocol conversion gateways can also convert from one
network operational paradigm to another for example,
SIP to ISUP for call control, SIP to TCAP for address
translation, or SIP to MAP for location or presence.

57.1 See also

Media gateway

219
Chapter 58

Signalling System No. 7

Signalling System No. 7 (SS7) is a set of telephony munication Union Telecommunication Standardization
signaling protocols developed in 1975, which is used to Sector (ITU-T); in 1977 the ITU-T dened the rst in-
set up and tear down most of the worlds public switched ternational CCS protocol as Signalling System No. 6
telephone network (PSTN) telephone calls. It also per- (SS6).[2]:145 In its 1980 Yellow Book Q.7XX-series rec-
forms number translation, local number portability, pre- ommendations ITU-T dened the Signalling System No.
paid billing, Short Message Service (SMS), and other 7 as an international standard.[1] SS7 replaced SS6 with
mass market services. its restricted 28-bit signal unit that was both limited in
[2]:145
In North America it is often referred to as CCSS7, abbre- function and not amenable to digital systems. SS7
also replaced Signalling System No. 5 (SS5), while R1
viated for Common Channel Signalling System 7. In the
United Kingdom, it is called C7 (CCITT number 7), num- and R2 variants are still used in numerous countries.
ber 7 and CCIS7 (Common Channel Interoce Signaling The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) dened
7). In Germany, it is often called N7 (Signalisierungssys- SIGTRAN protocols so the common channel signaling
tem Nummer 7). paradigm could be translated to IP Message Transfer Part
The only international SS7 protocol is dened by ITU-T's (MTP) level 2 (M2UA and M2PA), Message Transfer
Q.700-series recommendations in 1988.[1] Of the many Part (MTP) level 3 (M3UA) and Signalling Connection
national variants of the SS7 protocols, most are based Control Part (SCCP) (SUA). While running on a trans-
on variants of the international protocol as standardized port based upon IP, the SIGTRAN protocols are not an
by ANSI and ETSI. National variants with striking char- SS7 variant, but simply transport[3]
existing national and in-
acteristics are the Chinese and Japanese (TTC) national ternational variants of SS7.
variants.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has dened
level 2, 3, and 4 protocols compatible with SS7 which
58.2 Functionality
use the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
transport mechanism. This suite of protocols is called Signaling in telephony is the exchange of control informa-
SIGTRAN. tion associated with the setup and release of a telephone
call on a telecommunications circuit.[4]:318 Examples of
control information are the digits dialed by the caller and
the callers billing number.
58.1 History
When signaling is performed on the same circuit as the
SS5 and earlier systems used in-band signaling, in which conversation of the call, it is termed channel-associated
the call-setup information was sent by playing special signaling (CAS). This is the case for earlier analogue
multi-frequency tones into the telephone lines, known as trunks, multi-frequency (MF) and R2 digital trunks, and
bearer channels. As the bearer channel was directly ac- DSS1/DASS PBX trunks.
cessible by users, it was exploited with devices such as In contrast, SS7 uses common channel signaling, in which
the blue box, which played the tones required for call the path and facility used by the signaling is separate and
control and routing. As a remedy, SS6 and SS7 imple- distinct from the telecommunications channels that carry
mented out-of-band signaling, carried in a separate sig- the telephone conversation. With CCS, it becomes pos-
naling channel,[2]:141 thus keeping the speech path sep- sible to exchange signaling without rst seizing a voice
arate. SS6 and SS7 are referred to as common-channel channel, leading to signicant savings and performance
signaling (CCS) protocols, or Common Channel Interof- increases in both signaling and channel usage.
ce Signalling (CCIS) systems. Because of the mechanisms used by signaling meth-
Since 1975, CCS protocols have been developed by ma- ods prior to SS7 (battery reversal, multi-frequency digit
jor telephone companies and the International Telecom- outpulsing, A- and B-bit signaling), these older meth-

220
58.3. PHYSICAL NETWORK
ods could not communicate much signaling information.
Usually only the dialed digits were signaled, and merely
during call setup. For charged calls, dialed digits and
charge number digits were outpulsed. SS7, being a high-
speed and high-performance packet-based communica-
tions protocol, can communicate signicant amounts of
information when setting up a call, during the call, and at
the end of the call. This permits rich call-related services
to be developed. Some of the rst such services were
call management related, call forwarding (busy and no an-
swer), voice mail, call waiting, conference calling, calling
name and number display, call screening, malicious caller
identication, busy callback.[4]:Introduction xx
The earliest deployed upper layer protocols in the SS7
suite were dedicated to the setup, maintenance, and
release of telephone calls.[5] The Telephone User Part
(TUP) was adopted in Europe and the Integrated Ser-
vices Digital Network (ISDN) User Part (ISUP) adapted
for public switched telephone network (PSTN) calls was
adopted in North America. ISUP was later used in Eu-
rope when the European networks upgraded to the ISDN.
As of 2015 North America has not accomplished full up-
grade to the ISDN, and the predominant telephone ser-
vice is still the older Plain Old Telephone Service. Due
to its richness and the need for an out-of-band channel
for its operation, SS7 is mostly used for signaling between
telephone switches and not for signaling between local ex-
changes and customer-premises equipment.
Because SS7 signaling does not require seizure of a chan-
nel for a conversation prior to the exchange of control in-
formation, non-facility associated signalling (NFAS) be-
came possible. NFAS is signaling that is not directly asso-
ciated with the path that a conversation will traverse and
may concern other information located at a centralized
database such as service subscription, feature activation,
and service logic. This makes possible a set of network-
based services that do not rely upon the call being routed
to a particular subscription switch at which service logic
would be executed, but permits service logic to be dis-
tributed throughout the telephone network and executed
more expediently at originating switches far in advance of
call routing. It also permits the subscriber increased mo-
bility due to the decoupling of service logic from the sub-
scription switch. Another ISUP characteristic SS7 with
NFAS enables is the exchange of signaling information
during the middle of a call.[4]:318
SS7 also enables Non-Call-Associated Signaling, which is
signaling not directly related to establishing a telephone
call.[4]:319 This includes the exchange of registration in-
formation used between a mobile telephone and a home
location register database, which tracks the location of
the mobile. Other examples include Intelligent Network
and local number portability databases.[4]:433
221
58.2.1 Signaling modes
Apart from signaling with these various degrees of as-
sociation with call set-up and the facilities used to carry
calls, SS7 is designed to operate in two modes: associated
mode and quasi-associated mode.[6]
When operating in the associated mode, SS7 signal-
ing progresses from switch to switch through the Public
Switched Telephone Network following the same path as
the associated facilities that carry the telephone call. This
mode is more economical for small networks. The asso-
ciated mode of signaling is not the predominant choice of
modes in North America.[7]
When operating in the quasi-associated mode, SS7 signal-
ing progresses from the originating switch to the terminat-
ing switch, following a path through a separate SS7 sig-
naling network composed of signal transfer points. This
mode is more economical for large networks with lightly
loaded signaling links. The quasi-associated mode of
signaling is the predominant choice of modes in North
America.[8]
58.3 Physical network
SS7 separates signalling from the voice circuits. An SS7
network must be made up of SS7-capable equipment
from end to end in order to provide its full functional-
ity. The network can be made up of several link types
(A, B, C, D, E, and F) and three signaling nodes - Service
Switching Points (SSPs), Signal Transfer Points (STPs),
and Service Control Points (SCPs). Each node is identi-
ed on the network by a number, a signalling point code.
Extended services are provided by a database interface at
the SCP level using the SS7 network.
The links between nodes are full-duplex 56, 64, 1,536,
or 1,984 kbit/s graded communications channels. In Eu-
rope they are usually one (64 kbit/s) or all (1,984 kbit/s)
timeslots (DS0s) within an E1 facility; in North Amer-
ica one (56 or 64 kbit/s) or all (1,536 kbit/s) timeslots
(DS0As or DS0s) within a T1 facility. One or more sig-
naling links can be connected to the same two endpoints
that together form a signaling link set. Signaling links are
added to link sets to increase the signaling capacity of the
link set.
In Europe, SS7 links normally are directly connected
between switching exchanges using F-links. This di-
rect connection is called associated signaling. In North
America, SS7 links are normally indirectly connected
between switching exchanges using an intervening net-
work of STPs. This indirect connection is called quasi-
associated signaling, which reduces the number of SS7
links necessary to interconnect all switching exchanges
and SCPs in an SS7 signaling network.[9]
SS7 links at higher signaling capacity (1.536 and 1.984
Mbit/s, simply referred to as the 1.5 Mbit/s and 2.0 Mbit/s
222
rates) are called high speed links (HSL) in contrast to the
low speed (56 and 64 kbit/s) links. High speed links are
specied in ITU-T Recommendation Q.703 for the 1.5
Mbit/s and 2.0 Mbit/s rates, and ANSI Standard T1.111.3
for the 1.536 Mbit/s rate.[10] There are dierences be-
tween the specications for the 1.5 Mbit/s rate. High
speed links utilize the entire bandwidth of a T1 (1.536
Mbit/s) or E1 (1.984 Mbit/s) transmission facility for the which both government agencies and non-state actors can
transport of SS7 signaling messages.[10]
SIGTRAN provides signaling using SCTP associa- mately 70%.[14] In addition, eavesdropping is possible by
tions over the Internet Protocol.[4]:456 The protocols for using the protocol to forward calls and also facilitate de-
SIGTRAN are M2PA, M2UA, M3UA and SUA.[11]
58.4 SS7 protocol suite
The SS7 protocol stack may be partially mapped to the
OSI Model of a packetized digital protocol stack. OSI
layers 1 to 3 are provided by the Message Transfer
Part (MTP) and the Signalling Connection Control Part
(SCCP) of the SS7 protocol (together referred to as the
Network Service Part (NSP)); for circuit related signal-
ing, such as the BT IUP, Telephone User Part (TUP),
or the ISDN User Part (ISUP), the User Part provides
layer 7. Currently there are no protocol components that
provide OSI layers 4 through 6.[1] The Transaction Ca-
pabilities Application Part (TCAP) is the primary SCCP
User in the Core Network, using SCCP in connection-
less mode. SCCP in connection oriented mode provides
transport layer for air interface protocols such as BSSAP
and RANAP. TCAP provides transaction capabilities to
its Users (TC-Users), such as the Mobile Application
Part, the Intelligent Network Application Part and the
CAMEL Application Part.
The Message Transfer Part (MTP) covers a portion of
the functions of the OSI network layer including: net-
work interface, information transfer, message handling
and routing to the higher levels. Signalling Connection
Control Part (SCCP) is at functional Level 4. Together
with MTP Level 3 it is called the Network Service Part
(NSP). SCCP completes the functions of the OSI net-
work layer: end-to-end addressing and routing, connec-
tionless messages (UDTs), and management services for
users of the Network Service Part (NSP).[12] Telephone
User Part (TUP) is a link-by-link signaling system used
to connect calls. ISUP is the key user part, providing a
circuit-based protocol to establish, maintain, and end the
connections for calls. Transaction Capabilities Applica-
tion Part (TCAP) is used to create database queries and
invoke advanced network functionality, or links to Intel-
ligent Network Application Part (INAP) for intelligent
networks, or Mobile Application Part (MAP) for mobile
services.
CHAPTER 58. SIGNALLING SYSTEM NO. 7
58.5 Protocol security vulnerabili-
ties
Several SS7 vulnerabilities that allow cell phone users to
be secretly tracked were publicized in 2008.[13] In 2014,
the media reported a protocol vulnerability of SS7 by
track the movements of cell phone users from virtually
anywhere in the world with a success rate of approxi-
cryption by requesting that each callers carrier release a
temporary encryption key to unlock the communication
after it has been recorded.[15] Karsten Nohl created a tool
(SnoopSnitch) which can warn when certain SS7 attacks
occur against a phone and detect IMSI-catchers.[16][17]
In February 2016, 30% of the network to the largest
mobile operator in Norway, Telenor, became unstable
due to Unusual SS7 signalling from another European
operator[18][19]
In April 2016, US congressman Ted Lieu called for an
oversight committee investigation, saying:
The applications for this vulnerability are
seemingly limitless, from criminals monitoring
individual targets to foreign entities conducting
economic espionage on American companies
to nation states monitoring US government of-
cials. ... The vulnerability has serious ram-
ications not only for individual privacy, but
also for American innovation, competitiveness
and national security. Many innovations in dig-
ital security such as multi-factor authentica-
tion using text messages may be rendered
useless.[20]
58.6 See also
SS7 probe
58.7 References
[1] ITU-T Recommendation Q.700
[2] Ronayne, John P (1986). The Digital Network Introduc-
tion to Digital Communications Switching (1 ed.). Indi-
anapolis: Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc. ISBN 0-672-
22498-4.
[3] RFC 2719 - Framework Architecture for Signaling Trans-
port
[4] Russell, Travis (2002). Signaling System #7 (4 ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-138772-9.
58.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 223

[5] ITU-T Recommendation Q.700,03/93, Section 3.2.1, p. 58.9 External links

7.

[6] ITU-T Recommendation Q.700, p. 4. SS7 open source project

[7] (Dryburgh 2004, pp. 2223).

[8] (Dryburgh 2004, p. 23).

[9] ITU-T Recommendation Q.700, Section 2.2.3, signalling

modes, pp. 4-5.

[10] ITU-T Recommendation Q.703, Annex A, Additions

for a national option for high speed signalling links".
International Telecommunication Union. pp. 8186.

[11] Understanding the Sigtran Protocol Suite: A Tutorial |

EE Times. EETimes. Retrieved 2016-06-30.

[12] ITU-T Recommendation Q.711, Section 1, Scope and

eld of application, pp 1-2.

[13] Engel, Tobias (27 December 2008). Locating Mobile

Phones using SS7 (Video). Youtube. 25th Chaos Com-
munication Congress (25C3). Retrieved 19 April 2016.

[14] Timburg, Craig (24 August 2014). For sale: Systems

that can secretly track where cellphone users go around
the globe. The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 December
2014.

[15] Timburg, Craig (18 December 2014). German re-

searchers discover a aw that could let anyone listen to
your cell calls.. The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 De-
cember 2014.

[16] Karsten Nohl (2014-12-27). Mobile self-defence

(PDF). Chaos Communication Congress.

[17] SnoopSnitch. Google Play. August 15, 2016.

[18] Feilen i mobilnettet er funnet og rettet (in Norwegian).

Telenor ASA.

[19] SS7 signalering Et ondsinnet angrep mot Telenor

ville hatt samme konsekvens (in Norwegian). digi.no /
Teknisk Ukeblad Media AS.

[20] US congressman calls for investigation into vulnerabil-

ity that lets hackers spy on every phone. The Guardian.
April 19, 2016.

58.8 Further reading

Dryburgh, Lee; Hewitt, Je (2004). Signalling Sys-
tem No. 7 (SS7/C7): Protocol, Architecture, and Ser-
vices. Indianapolis: Cisco Press. ISBN 1-58705-
040-4.
Ronayne, John P. (1986). The Digital Network.
Introduction to Digital Communications Switching
(1st ed.). Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams & Co.,
Inc. ISBN 0-672-22498-4.
Russell, Travis (2002). Signaling System #7 (4th
ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
138772-9.
Chapter 59

SIP provider

A SIP provider (Session Initiation Protocol) is any

telecommunications company which provides SIP Trunk-
ing to customers, usually businesses. Many companies
provide SIP termination (outbound calling) and orig-
ination (inbound calling, usually with a POTS phone
number, called a DID). Most companies that provide one
also provide the other.
Outbound (termination) rates vary from provider to
provider and can often depend on the type of number be-
ing called as well as the geographical destination. For
example, since European cell phones have calling party
pays billing, calling a London cell number can cost over
US$0.20/minute, while calling a London landline can
cost under US$0.01/minute.
Inbound calling prices are more varied, particularly in
the US. Some providers oer at rate pricing per chan-
nel (simultaneous call leg) while some oer an unlim-
ited number of channels but a low, xed per-minute rate.
Some providers oer a choice of plan.
In both cases, a SIP-compatible softphone, PBX or
softswitch is congured to place certain (or all) outbound
calls through the SIP provider; likewise, the switch or
softphone is congured to register with the SIP provider
to be notied when a new inbound phone call is available
to answer.

59.1 References

224
Chapter 60

SIP trunking

SIP trunking is Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and
streaming media service based on the Session Initia-
tion Protocol (SIP)[1] by which Internet telephony service
providers (ITSPs) deliver telephone services and unied
communications to customers equipped with SIP-based
private branch exchange (IP-PBX) and Unied Com-
munications facilities.[2] Most Unied Communications
software applications provide voice, video, and other
streaming media applications such as desktop sharing,
web conferencing, and shared whiteboard.[3]
60.1 Domains
The private domain instead, by nature, is not subject to
particular constraints of law, and may be either the re-
sponsibility of the ITSP, the end user (enterprise), or of
a third party who provides the voice services to the com-
pany.
60.2 Architecture
In each domain there are elements that perform the char-
acteristic features requested to that domain, in particular
the result (as part of any front-end network to the cus-
tomer) is logically divided into two levels:

The architecture of SIP trunking provides a partitioning The control of access (Class 5 softswitch);
of the Unied Communications network into two dier-
ent domains of expertise:[4] Network-border elements[7][8][9] that separate the
Public Domain from the Private Domain, imple-
Private Domain: refers to a part of the network menting all the appropriate ITSP phone security
connected to your PBX or unied communications policies.
server (typically everything you are responsible for).
The private domain consists of three levels:
Public Domain: refers to the part of the network
which allows access into the PSTN (Public Switched Corporate-Border Elements that separate the Public
Telephone Network) or PLMN (Public Land Mobile Domain from the Private Domain, implementing all
Network). This is usually the responsibility of your the appropriate company security policies.
internet telephone service provider (ITSP).
Central Corporate Switching Node;
The interconnection between the two domains must occur
IP-PBXs.
through a SIP trunk.
The interconnection between the two domains, created
by transport via the Internet Protocol (IP), involves set- 60.3 See also
ting specic rules and regulations as well as the ability
to handle some services and protocols that fall under the
Session border controller (SBC)
name of SIP trunking.[5]
The ITSP is completely responsible to the applicable reg-
ulatory authority regarding all the following law obliga- 60.4 References
tions of the Public Domain:[6]
[1] http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3261.txt
Tracking trac;
[2] SIP trunking migration: Enterprise opportunities and
Identication of users; challenges.
Implementation of the lawful interception mecha- [3] SIP Trunking Explained. Technology Convergence
nisms. Group. Retrieved 8 September 2015.

225
226 CHAPTER 60. SIP TRUNKING

[4] Gaboli, Ivan; Puglia, Virgilio (Jan 2011). SIP Trunking

the route to the new VoIP services. Kaleidoscope: Be-
yond the Internet? Innovations for future networks and
services, 2010 ITU-T, 13-15 Dec 2010. IEEE. ISBN 978-
1-4244-8272-6.

[5] SIP trunking explained.

[6] Legal issues in dierent countries.

[7] Role of Border Element. Cisco.

[8] Acme Packet Net-Net session border controllers (PDF).

Acme Packet.

[9] SIP Trunking Enterprise Solutions. Ingate Systems.

Chapter 61

Skinny Call Control Protocol

Not to be confused with Signalling Connection Control dress. Cisco also has marketed a Skinny-based softphone
Part. called Cisco IP Communicator.

The Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) is a pro-

prietary network terminal control protocol originally de- 61.3 Other implementations
veloped by Selsius Systems, which was acquired by Cisco
Systems in 1998. Other companies, such as Symbol Technologies, Sock-
SCCP is a lightweight IP-based protocol for session sig- etIP, and Digium, have implemented the protocol in VoIP
naling with Cisco Unied Communications Manager, terminals and IP phones, media gateway controllers, and
formerly named CallManager.[1][2] Examples of SCCP softswitches. An open source implementation is avail-
[4]
clients include the Cisco 7900 series of IP phones, Cisco able in the Asterisk and FreeSWITCH systems. IP-
IP Communicator softphone and the 802.11b wireless Blue provides a soft phone that emulates a Cisco 7960
[5]
Wireless IP Phone 7920, along with Cisco Unity voice- telephone. Twinlights Software distributes a soft phone
[6]
mail server. CallManager acts as a signaling proxy for implementation for Android-based devices. The Cisco
call events initiated over other common protocols such Unied Application Environment, the product acquired
as H.323, Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), ISDN and/or by Cisco when they purchased Metreos supports using
MGCP. SCCP to emulate Cisco 7960 phones allowing applica-
tions to access all Cisco line-side features.

61.1 Protocol components

61.4 See also
An SCCP client uses TCP/IP to communicate with one
or more Call Manager applications in a cluster. It uses the Voice over Internet Protocol
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) over UDP-transport
for the bearer trac (real-time audio stream) with other
Skinny clients or an H.323 terminal. SCCP is a stimulus-
based protocol and is designed as a communications pro-
61.5 References
tocol for hardware endpoints and other embedded sys-
tems, with signicant CPU and memory constraints. [1] Understanding IP Telephony Protocols

Some Cisco analog media gateways, such as the VG248 [2] Call states sent to SCCP endpoints by Cisco CallManager
gateway, register and communicate with Cisco Unied
Communications Manager using SCCP. [3] Cisco Systems acquisition of Selsius Systems (archive.org)

[4] http://wiki.freeswitch.org/wiki/Mod_skinny

61.2 Origin [5] http://www.ipblue.com/ IPBlue

[6] http://www.twinlightssoftware.com/ Twinlights Software

Cisco acquired SCCP technology when it acquired Sel-
sius Corporation in 1998.[3] For this reason the protocol
is also referred to in Cisco documentation as the Selsius
Skinny Station Protocol. Another remnant of the origin 61.6 External links
of the Cisco IP phones is the default device name format
for registered Cisco phones with CallManager. It is SEP, Skinny Call Control Protocol (SCCP) - Cisco Sys-
as in Selsius Ethernet Phone, followed by the MAC ad- tems

227
228 CHAPTER 61. SKINNY CALL CONTROL PROTOCOL

Skinny Call Control Protocol (SCCP) - Fragment

of a VoIP course dealing with SCCP, with sample
captures

Alternative SCCP channel driver for Asterisk.

Sourceforge Project called chan-sccp-b
Chapter 62

Skype

This article is about the software. For the company that usage of resources, excessive bandwidth usage and secu-
develops it, see Skype Technologies. rity concerns.[23]
Skype (/skap/) is an application that provides video chat
and voice call services. Users may exchange such digi-
tal documents as images, text, video and any others, and
may transmit both text and video messages. Skype allows
the creation of video conference calls. Skype is available
for Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, or Linux, as well as
Android, Blackberry, Apple and Windows smartphones
and tablets.[13]
Skype is based on a freemium model. Much of the ser-
vice is free, but Skype Credit or a subscription is required
to call a landline or a mobile phone number. At the end of
2010, there were over 660 million worldwide users, with
over 300 million estimated active each month as of Au-
gust 2015.[14] At one point in February 2012, there were
thirty four million users concurrently online on Skype.[15]
First released in August 2003, Skype was created by
the Swede Niklas Zennstrm and the Dane Janus Friis,
in cooperation with Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, and
Jaan Tallinn, Estonians who developed the backend that 62.2 History
was also used in the music-sharing application Kazaa.[16]
In September 2005, eBay acquired Skype for $2.6
billion.[17] Main article: Skype Technologies
In September 2009,[18] Silver Lake, Andreessen
Horowitz and the Canada Pension Plan Investment
Board announced the acquisition of 65% of Skype for
$1.9 billion from eBay, which attributed to the enterprise
a market value of $2.92 billion. Microsoft bought Skype
in May 2011 for $8.5 billion. Skype division headquar-
ters are in Luxembourg but most of the development
team and 44% of all the divisions employees are still
situated in Tallinn and Tartu, Estonia.[19][20][21]
Skype allows users to communicate over the Internet by
voice using a microphone, by video using a webcam,
and by instant messaging. Skype-to-Skype calls to other
users are free of charge, while calls to landline tele-
phones and mobile phones (over traditional telephone net-
works) are charged via a debit-based user account system
called Skype Credit. Some network administrators have
banned Skype on corporate, government, home, and ed-
ucation networks,[22] citing such reasons as inappropriate
Skype originally featured a hybrid peer-to-peer and
clientserver system.[24] Skype has been powered entirely
by Microsoft-operated supernodes since May 2012.[25]
The 2013 mass surveillance disclosures revealed that Mi-
crosoft had granted intelligence agencies unfettered ac-
cess to supernodes and Skype communication content.[26]
62.1 Etymology
The name for the software is derived from Sky peer-to-
peer, which was then abbreviated to Skyper. However,
some of the domain names associated with Skyper were
already taken.[27] Dropping the nal r left the current
title Skype, for which domain names were available.[28]
Skype was founded in 2003 by Niklas Zennstrm, from
Sweden, and Janus Friis, from Denmark.[29] The Skype
software was created by Estonians Ahti Heinla, Priit Kas-
esalu, and Jaan Tallinn.[30] The rst public beta version
was released on 29 August 2003.[31]
In June 2005, Skype entered into an agreement with
the Polish web portal Onet.pl for an integrated oering
on the Polish market.[32] On 12 September 2005, eBay
Inc. agreed to acquire Luxembourg-based Skype Tech-
nologies SA for approximately US$2.5 billion in up-front
cash and eBay stock, plus potential performance-based
consideration.[33]
On 1 September 2009, it was announced that eBay
was selling 65% of Skype to Silver Lake, Andreessen
Horowitz, and the Canada Pension Plan Investment
Board for US$1.9 billion, valuing Skype at US$2.75 bil-
lion.

229
230 CHAPTER 62. SKYPE

62.2.1 Microsoft acquisition but removed after a few weeks without notication. The
usual features familiar to instant messaging usersuser
On 10 May 2011, Microsoft Corporation acquired Skype proles, online status indicators, and so onare also in-
Communications, S. r.l for US$8.5 billion.[34] The com- cluded.
pany was incorporated as a division of Microsoft, which
The Online Number, a.k.a. SkypeIn, service allows Skype
acquired all Its technologies with the purchase. This was
users to receive calls on their computers dialed by con-
completed on 13 October 2011.[34][35]
ventional phone subscribers to a local Skype phone num-
Shortly after its acquisition, Microsoft began integrating ber; local numbers are available for Australia, Belgium,
the Skype service with its own products: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, the Dominican Re-
public, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong,
Along with taking over development of existing Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, Nepal, New
Skype desktop and mobile apps, the company de- Zealand, Poland, Romania, South Africa, South Ko-
veloped a dedicated client app, called Skype for rea, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the Netherlands, the
[40][41]
Modern Windows, for its newly released, touch- United Kingdom, and the United States. A Skype
focused Windows 8 and Windows RT operating sys- user can have local numbers in any of these countries,
tems. This app became downloadable from the with calls to the number charged at the same rate as calls
Windows Store when the new OS launched on 26 to xed lines in the country. The countries on this grow-
October 2012. The following year, Skype for Mod- ing list are referred to collectively as the SkypeIn Coun-
ern Windows became the default messaging app for tries.
Windows 8.1, replacing the Windows 8 Messaging Skype supports conference calls, video chats, and screen
app at the time, and became pre-installed software sharing between 25 people at a time for free.[42][43]
on every device that came with or upgraded to 8.1.
Skype does not provide the ability to call emergency
When the company introduced Oce 2013 on 27 numbers, such as 112 in Europe, 911 in North Amer-
February 2013, it was announced that 60 Skype ica, or 100 in India and Nepal.[44] However, as of De-
world minutes per month would be included in cember 2012, there is limited support for emergency
Oce 365 consumer plans (Home and Personal, and calls in the United Kingdom, Australia, Denmark, and
University). Finland.[45] The U.S. Federal Communications Commis-
sion (FCC) has ruled that, for the purposes of section
In a month-long transition period from 8 to 30 April 255 of the Telecommunications Act, Skype is not an in-
2013, it phased out its long-standing Windows Live terconnected VoIP provider.[46] As a result, the U.S.
Messenger instant messaging service in favour of National Emergency Number Association recommends
Skype, although Messenger continued in mainland that all VoIP users have an analog line available as a
China.[36][37] backup.[47]
On 11 November 2014, Microsoft announced that On 14 July 2011, Skype partnered with Comcast to bring
in 2015 Lync would be replaced by Skype for Busi- its video chat service to Comcast subscribers via their
ness. The latest version of the communication soft- HDTV sets.[48]
ware combines features of Lync and the consumer
On 17 June 2013, Skype released a free video messaging
Skype software. There are two user interfaces or-
service, which can be operated on Windows, Mac OS,
ganizations can switch their users from the default
iOS, Android and BlackBerry.[49]
Skype for Business interface to the Skype for Busi-
ness (Lync) interface.[38] On 12 August 2013, Skype released the 4.10 update to
the app for Apple iPhone and iPad that allows HD quality
video for iPhone 5 and fourth-generation iPads.[50]
62.3 Features On 20 November 2014, Microsoft Oces team an-
nounced that a new chat powered by Skype is going to
Main article: Features of Skype be implemented in their software, giving tools to be able
to chat with co-workers in the same document.[51]
Registered users of Skype are identied by a unique On 15 September 2015, Skype announced the release of
Skype Name and may be listed in the Skype directory.[39] Mojis, a brand new way to express yourself on Skype.
Skype allows these registered users to communicate Mojis are short clips/gifs featuring characters from lms
through both instant messaging and voice chat. Voice and TV shows to be entered into conversations with the
chat allows telephone calls between pairs of users and same ease as emoticons. They are working with Universal
conference calling and uses a proprietary audio codec. Studios, Disney Muppets, BBC and other studios to add
Skypes text chat client allows group chats, emoticons, to the available collection of Mojis.[52]
storing chat history, and editing of previous messages. On 21 December 2015, Gurdeep Singh Pall, Corporate
Oine messages were implemented in a beta of version 5
62.5. SYSTEM AND SOFTWARE 231

Vice President of Skype, announced that Microsoft ac-
quired the technology from Talko, maker of an innova-
tive mobile app for on-the-go business communications
(...) Together, the new technology and talent will help us
deliver great new features and capabilities in both Skype
and Skype for Business.[53]
In January 2016, Skype announced it would roll out free
group video calling to users on mobile devices, includ-
ing iOS and Android. In February 2016, Microsoft an-
nounced that it had started to introduce group calling on
smartphones and tablets in North America and Western
Europe.[54]
Skype introduced a new version for Windows 8 simi-
lar to the Windows Phone version that ran in the Metro
interface.[85] On 7 July 2015 Skype modied the app to
direct Windows users to download the desktop version of
the app, but it was set to continue working on Windows
RT until October 2016.[86] In November 2015, Skype in-
troduced three new apps, called Messaging, Skype Video,
and Phone, intended to provide an integrated Skype expe-
rience in Windows 10.[87][88] On 24 March 2016, Skype
announced the integrated apps did not satisfy most users
needs and announced that they and the desktop app would
eventually be replaced with a new UWP app.[89]

In July 2016, Skype introduced an early Alpha version Currently, Skype oers a Win32 desktop-only app and
of a new Skype for Linux client, built with WebRTC Skype Preview app that is the default Skype app in
technology, after several petitions had asked Microsoft Windows 10 Mobile and included as an option in the lat-
to continue development for Linux.[55][56] est update to Windows 10.

On 30 September 2016, Skype updated their iOS app

with new features, including an option to call contacts on Other Desktop Apps
Skype through Siri voice commands.[57]
OS X (10.6 or newer)
On 27 October 2016 Microsoft launched Skype for Busi-
ness for Mac.[58] Linux (Ubuntu and others) (Not discontinued, but
not updated since 18 June 2014)

Linux (new Alpha version) (new client using We-

62.4 Usage and trac bRTC technology)

In January 2011, after the release of video calling on the

Skype client for iPhone, Skype reached a record 27 mil- Other Mobile devices
lion simultaneous online users.[76] This record was broken
with 29 million simultaneous online users on 21 Febru- iOS
[77]
ary 2011 and again on 28 March 2011 with 30 million Android
online users.[78] On 25 February 2012, Skype announced
that it has over 32 million users for the rst time ever.[79] BlackBerry 10
By 5 March 2012, it had 36 million simultaneous on-
line users,[80] and less than a year later, on 21 January watchOS
2013, Skype had more than 50 million concurrent users
Nokia X
online.[81] In June 2012, Skype had surpassed 70 million
[82]
downloads on an Android device.
(Skype was previously available on selected Symbian and
On 19 July 2012, Microsoft announced that Skype users
BlackBerry OS devices.)
had logged 115 billion minutes of calls in the quarter, up
50% since the last quarter.[83]
On 15 January 2014, TeleGeography estimated that Skype phones
Skype-to-Skype international trac has gone up to 36%
in 2013 to 214 billion minutes.[84] On 29 October 2007, Skype launched its own mobile
phone under the brand name 3 Skypephone, which runs
a BREW OS.[91]

62.5 System and software Skype also oers a Skype Wi-Fi Phone, which is a wire-
less mobile phone that allows users to make Skype calls,
using a wireless Internet connection. The Skype Wi-Fi
62.5.1 Client applications and devices Phone has an on-screen menu that lets Skype users see
who is online and available to talk, similar to what is seen
Windows applications on a PC. It can also be used to talk with non-Skype users.
SkypeOut minutes can be used to call any phone for a low
Skype has changed many times on Windows. It has price and no monthly fee. The Skype Wi-Fi phone does
oered a desktop-only app since 2003. Later, a mo- not contain a web browser and so can not access hotspots
bile version was created for Windows Phones. In 2012, that require web-based login or authentication.[92]
232 CHAPTER 62. SKYPE

Other platforms for Asterisk product from Digium was withdrawn as no

longer available for sale.[99] The Senao SN358+ long-
The Nokia N800, N810, and N900 Internet tablets, range (1015 km) cordless phone was discontinued due
which run Maemo to loss of licenses to participate in the Skype network as
peers. In combination, these two products made it possi-
The Nokia N9, which runs MeeGo, comes with ble to create roaming cordless mesh networks with a ro-
Skype voice calling and text messaging integrated; bust hando.
however, it lacks video-calling.

Both the Sony mylo COM-1 and COM-2 models

62.5.2 Protocol
The PlayStation Portable Slim and Lite series,
though the user needs to purchase a specially de- Main article: Skype protocol
signed microphone peripheral. The PSP-3000 has
a built-in microphone, which allows communica- Skype uses a proprietary Internet telephony (VoIP) net-
tion without the Skype peripheral.[93] The PSP Go work called the Skype protocol. The protocol has not
has the ability to use Bluetooth connections with been made publicly available by Skype, and ocial appli-
the Skype application, in addition to its built-in cations using the protocol are closed-source. Part of the
microphone.[94] Skype for PlayStation Vita may be Skype technology relies on the Global Index P2P protocol
downloaded via the PlayStation Network in the U.S. belonging to the Joltid Ltd. corporation. The main dif-
It includes the capability to receive incoming calls ference between Skype and standard VoIP clients is that
with the application running in the background. Skype operates on a peer-to-peer model (originally based
on the Kazaa software[100] ), rather than the more usual
Samsung Smart TV has a Skype app, which can be
clientserver model (note that the very popular Session
downloaded for free.[95] It uses the built-in cam-
Initiation Protocol (SIP) model of VoIP is also peer-to-
era and microphone for the newer models. Alter-
peer, but implementation generally requires registration
natively, a separate mountable Skype camera with
with a server, as does Skype).
built-in speakers and microphones is available to
purchase for older models.[96] This functionality has On 20 June 2014, Microsoft announced the depreca-
now been disabled. tion of the old Skype protocol. Within several months
from this date, in order to continue using Skype services,
Some devices are made to work with Skype by Skype users will have to update to Skype applications re-
talking to a desktop Skype client or by embed- leased in 2014. The new Skype protocolMicrosoft No-
ding Skype software into the device. These are tication Protocol 24. The deprecation became eective
usually either tethered to a PC or have a built-in in the second week of August 2014. Transferred les are
Wi-Fi client to allow calling from Wi-Fi hotspots, now saved on central servers.
like the Netgear SPH101 Skype Wi-Fi Phone,
As far as networking stack support is concerned, Skype
the SMC WSKP100 Skype Wi-Fi Phone, the
only supports the IPv4 protocol. It lacks support for the
Belkin F1PP000GN-SK Wi-Fi Skype Phone, the
next-generation Internet protocol, IPv6.[101]
Panasonic KX-WP1050 Wi-Fi Phone for Skype Ex-
ecutive Travel Set, the IPEVO So-20 Wi-Fi Phone
for Skype and the Linksys CIT200 Wi-Fi Phone. 62.5.3 Protocol detection and control

Third party licensing Many networking and security companies claim to detect
and control Skypes protocol for enterprise and carrier ap-
Third-party developers, such as Truphone, Nimbuzz, and plications. While the specic detection methods used by
Fring, previously allowed Skype to run in parallel with these companies are often private, Pearsons chi-squared
several other competing VoIP/IM networks (Truphone test and naive Bayes classication are two approaches that
and Nimbuzz provide TruphoneOut and NimbuzzOut as were published in 2008.[102] Combining statistical mea-
a competing paid service) in any Symbian or Java envi- surements of payload properties (such as byte frequen-
ronment. Nimbuzz made Skype available to BlackBerry cies and initial byte sequences) as well as ow properties
users and Fring provided mobile video calling over Skype (like packet sizes and packet directions) has also shown
as well as support for the Android platform. Skype dis- to be an eective method for identifying Skypes TCP-
abled Fring users from accessing Skype in July 2010.[97] and UDP-based protocols.[103]
Nimbuzz discontinued support on request of Skype in
October 2010.[98]
62.5.4 Audio codecs
Before and during the Microsoft acquisition, Skype with-
drew licensing from several third parties producing soft- G.729 and SVOPC. Skype added a Skype-created codec
ware and hardware compatible with Skype. The Skype called SILK to Skype 4.0 for Windows and other
62.6. SECURITY AND PRIVACY
Skype clients. SILK is intended to be lightweight and
embeddable.[104] Additionally, Skype has released Opus
as an open-source codec, which integrates the SILK
codec principles for voice transmission with the CELT
codec principles for higher-quality audio transmissions,
such as live music performances. Opus was submitted to
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in Septem-
ber 2010.[105] Since then, it has been standardized as RFC
6716[106]
62.5.5 Video codecs
VP7 is used for versions prior to Skype
5.5.[107][108][109][110][111]
As of version 7.0, H.264 is used for both standard deni-
tion and 720p and 1080p high-denition group and one-
on-one video chat.[112][113]
62.5.6 Skype Qik
Main article: Skype Qik
Skype acquired the video service Qik in 2011. After
shutting down Qik in April 2014, Skype relaunched the
service as Skype Qik on 14 October 2014. Although Qik
oered video conferencing and Internet streaming, the
new service focuses on mobile video messaging between
individuals and groups.[114]
62.6 Security and privacy
Main article: Skype security
Skype was claimed initially to be a secure communica-
tion, with one of its early web pages stating highly se-
cure with end-to-end encryption.[115] Security services
were invisible to the user, and encryption cannot be
disabled. Skype reportedly uses publicly documented,
widely trusted encryption techniques: RSA for key ne-
gotiation and the Advanced Encryption Standard to en-
crypt conversations.[116] However, it is impossible to ver-
ify that these algorithms are used correctly, completely,
and at all times, as there is no public review possible with-
out a protocol specication and/or the app source code.
Skype provides an uncontrolled registration system for
users with no proof of identity. Instead, a free choice of
nicknames permits users to use the system without reveal-
ing their identities to other users. It is trivial to set up an
account using any name; the displayed callers name is no
guarantee of authenticity. A third-party paper analyzing
the security and methodology of Skype was presented at
Black Hat Europe 2006. It analyzed Skype and found a
number of security issues with the then-current security
model.[117]
233
PRISM: a clandestine surveillance program under which the NSA
collects user data from companies like Skype and Facebook.[118]
Skype incorporates some features which tend to hide
its trac, but it is not specically designed to thwart
trac analysis and therefore does not provide anonymous
communication. Some researchers have been able to
watermark the trac so that it is identiable even after
passing through an anonymizing network.[119]
In an interview, Kurt Sauer, the Chief Security O-
cer of Skype, said, We provide a safe communication
option. I will not tell you whether we can listen or
not.[120] This does not deny the fact that the NSA mon-
itors Skype conversations. Skypes client uses an undoc-
umented and proprietary protocol. The Free Software
Foundation (FSF) is concerned about user privacy issues
arising from using proprietary software and protocols and
has made a replacement for Skype one of their high-
priority projects.[121] Security researchers Biondi and De-
sclaux have speculated that Skype may have a back door,
since Skype sends trac even when it is turned o and
because Skype has taken extreme measures to obfuscate
their trac and functioning of their app.[122] Several me-
dia sources reported that at a meeting about the Law-
ful interception of IP based services held on 25 June
2008, high-ranking unnamed ocials at the Austrian in-
terior ministry said that they could listen in on Skype
conversations without problems. Austrian public broad-
casting service ORF, citing minutes from the meeting,
reported that the Austrian police are able to listen in
on Skype connections. Skype declined to comment on
the reports.[123][124] One easily demonstrated method of
monitoring is to set up two computers with the same
Skype user ID and password. When a message is typed or
a call is received on one computer, the second computer
duplicates the audio and text. This requires knowledge of
the user ID and password.
The United States Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) has interpreted the Communications Assistance
for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) as requiring dig-
ital phone networks to allow wiretapping if authorized
by an FBI warrant, in the same way as other phone ser-
vices. In February 2009, Skype said that, not being a
234 CHAPTER 62. SKYPE

telephone company owning phone lines, it is exempt from via a Skype instant messaging session was usurped by
CALEA and similar laws, which regulate US phone com- the Skype service and subsequently used in a HTTP
panies, and in fact, it is not clear whether Skype could HEAD query originating from an IP address registered
support wiretapping even if it wanted to.[125] Accord- to Microsoft in Redmond (the IP address used was
ing to the ACLU, the Act is inconsistent with the orig- 65.52.100.214). The Microsoft query used the full URL
inal intent of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Con- supplied in the IM conversation and was generated by a
stitution;[126] more recently, the ACLU has expressed previously undocumented security service.[141] Security
the concern that the FCC interpretation of the Act is experts speculate the action was triggered by a technol-
incorrect.[127][128] It has been suggested that Microsoft ogy similar to Microsofts SmartScreen Filter used in its
made changes to Skypes infrastructure to ease various browsers.[142]
wiretapping requirements;[129] however, Skype denies the
The 2013 mass surveillance disclosures revealed that
claims.[130] agencies such as the NSA and the FBI have the ability to
Some time before Skype was sold in 2009, the company eavesdrop on Skype, including the monitoring and stor-
had started its own app, called Project Chess, to explore age of text and video calls and le transfers.[26][143][144]
legal and technical ways to easily share calls with intelli- The PRISM surveillance program, which requires FISA
gence agencies and law enforcement.[131] court authorization, reportedly has allowed the NSA un-
On 20 February 2009, the European Unions Eurojust fettered access to its data center supernodes. Accord-
agency announced that the Italian Desk at Eurojust would ing to the leaked documents, integration work began in
play a key role in the coordination and cooperation of November 2010, but it was not until February 2011 that
the investigations on the use of internet telephony sys- the company was served with a directive to comply signed
tems (VoIP), such as 'Skype'. ... The purpose of Euro- by the attorney general,[26] with NSA documents showing
justs coordination role is to overcome the technical and that collection began on 31 March 2011.[145]
judicial obstacles to the interception of internet telephony On 10 November 2014, Skype scored 1 out of 7 points
systems, taking into account the various data protection on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging
rules and civil rights[132] scorecard. Skype received a point for encryption during
transit but lost points because communications are not en-
In November 2010, a aw was disclosed to Skype that
showed how hackers could secretly track any users IP crypted with a key the provider doesn't have access to (i.e.
the communications are not end-to-end encrypted), users
address.[133] As of 2015, this has still not been xed.[134]
can't verify contacts identities, past messages are not se-
In 2012, Skype introduced automatic updates to better cure if the encryption keys are stolen (i.e. the service does
protect users from security risks but received some chal- not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to in-
lenge from users of the Mac product, as the updates can- dependent review (i.e. the code is not open-source), the
not be disabled from version 5.6 on,[135] both on Mac OS security design is not properly documented, and there has
and Windows versions, although in the latter, and only not been a recent independent security audit.[146][147][148]
from version 5.9 on, automatic updating can be turned AIM, BlackBerry Messenger, Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail,
o in certain cases.[136] Kik Messenger, Viber and Yahoo Messenger also scored
[146]
According to a 2012 Washington Post article, Skype has 1 out of 7 points.
expanded its cooperation with law enforcement authori-
ties to make online chats and other user information avail-
able to police"; the article additionally mentions Skype 62.6.1 Service in the Peoples Republic of
made changes to allow authorities access to addresses and China
credit card numbers.[137]
In November 2012, Skype was reported to have handed Since September 2007, users in China trying to down-
over user data of a pro-Wikileaks activist to Dallas, load the Skype software client have been redirected to
Texas-based private security company iSIGHT Partners the site of TOM Online, a joint venture between a Chi-
without a warrant or court order. The alleged handover nese wireless operator and Skype, from which a modi-
would be a breach of Skypes privacy policy. Skype re- ed Chinese version can be downloaded.[149] The TOM
sponded with a statement that it launched an internal in- client participates in Chinas system of Internet censor-
vestigation to probe the breach of user data privacy.[138] ship, monitoring text messages between Skype users in
13 November 2012, a Russian user published a aw in China as well as messages exchanged with users outside
Skypes security, which allowed any person to take over the country.[150][151] Niklas Zennstrm, then chief execu-
a Skype account knowing only the victims email by fol- tive of Skype, told reporters that TOM had implemented
lowing 7 steps.[139][140] This vulnerability was claimed to a text lter, which is what everyone else in that mar-
exist for months and existed for more than 12 hours since ket is doing. Those are the regulations. He also stated,
published widely. One thing thats certain is that those things are in no
way jeopardising the privacy or the security of any of the
14 May 2013, it was documented that a URL sent users.[152]
62.8. URIS 235

In October 2008, it was reported that TOM had been sav- languages.[158]
ing the full message contents of some Skype text con-
versations on its servers, apparently focusing on conver-
sations containing political issues such as Tibet, Falun
Gong, Taiwan independence, and the Chinese Commu-
62.8 URIs
nist Party. The saved messages contain personally iden-
tiable information about the message senders and recip- Skype uses URIs as skype:USER?call for a call.
ients, including IP addresses, usernames, landline phone
numbers, and the entire content of the text messages, in-
cluding the time and date of each message. Information 62.9 Customer service
about Skype users outside China who were communicat-
ing with a TOM-Skype user was also saved. A server mis-
conguration made these log les accessible to the public As of February 2012, Skype provides support through
for a time.[151][153][154] their web support portal, support community, @skype-
support on Twitter, and Skype Facebook page. Direct
Research on the TOM-Skype venture has revealed infor- contact via email and live chat is available through their
mation about blacklisted keyword checks, allowing cen- web support portal. Chat Support is a premium feature
sorship and surveillance of its users. The partnership has available to Skype Premium and some other paid users.
received much criticism for the latter. Microsoft remains
unavailable for comment on the issue.[155] In January 2010, Skype rescinded their policy of seizing
funds in Skype accounts that have been inactive (no paid
According to reports from the advocacy group Great call) for 180 days. This was in settlement of a class-action
Fire, Microsoft has modied censorship restrictions and lawsuit.[159] Skype also paid up to US$4 to persons who
ensured encryption of all user information.[155] Fur- opted into the action.
thermore, Microsoft is now partnered with Guangming
Founder (GMF) in China.[156] Skypes refund policy states that they will provide refunds
in full if customers have used less than 1 euro of their
All attempts to visit the ocial Skype web page from Skype Credit. Upon a duly submitted request, Skype
mainland China redirects to skype.gmw.cn. The Linux will refund you on a pro rata basis for the unused period
version of Skype is unavailable. of a Product.
Skype has come under some criticism from users for the
62.6.2 No Skype calls to India landline and inability to completely close accounts. Users not want-
ing to continue using Skype can make their account in-
mobile active by deleting all personal information, except for the
username.[160]
As of 10 November 2014, Skype will end support for
calling within India meaning calls to mobiles and land- Due to an outage happened on 21 September 2015, that
lines from Skype within India will no longer be available, aected several users in New Zealand, Australia and
Skypes parent company Microsoft said in a statement on other countries, Skype decided to compensate their cus-
8 October 2014. Microsoft said, Users in India can still tomers with 20 minutes of free calls to over 60 landline
make free Skype-to-Skype calls worldwide, international and 8 mobile phone numbers.[161]
calls to mobiles and landlines and users outside the coun-
try can call mobiles and landlines in India.[157]
62.10 Educational use
62.7 Localization Although Skype is a commercial product, its free version
is used with increasing frequency among teachers and
Skype comes bundled with the following locales and schools interested in global education projects.[162] For
languages: Arabic, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese (Tradi- example, Skype is being used to facilitate language ex-
tional and Simplied), Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, change: Students in dierent parts of the world are paired
English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, o, and each is a native speaker of the language that the
Hebrew, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Ko- other wishes to learn. In conversations over Skype, they
rean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Nepali, Norwegian, Polish, alternate between the two languages.[163][164][165][166]
Portuguese (Brazilian and European), Romanian, Rus- Teachers are using Skype in unique ways to full ed-
sian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, ucational goals. The video conferencing aspect of the
Turkish, Ukrainian, and Vietnamese. software is valuable in that it provides a way to con-
As the Windows desktop app oers users the option nect students who speak dierent languages, hold vir-
of creating new language les, at least 80 other (full tual eld trips, and reach out to experts in varying elds
or partial) localizations are also available for many of study. These experiences allow students a chance to
236
apply what they are learning in the classroom to real-
life experiences, and it also achieves further learning
opportunities.[167][168]
Skype in the classroom is another free tool that Skype [7] Cimmino, Marco (18 June 2014). Skype 4.3 for Linux.
has set up on its website. It provides teachers with a way
to make their classrooms more interactive and interest-
ing. Skype in the classroom is a service that teachers can
sign up for that will allow students to meet other students,
talk to experts, and share ideas. Teachers can collaborate
with other teachers around the world and design dierent [9] Skype for iOS. iTunes Preview. Apple Inc. Retrieved
learning experiences for their students. There are various
Skype lessons, in which students can participate. Teach- [10] What programming language was Skype originally writ-
ers can also use Skypes search tool and nd experts in the
eld of their choice.[169] Most of the schools in the United
States and Europe often block Skype from the school net- [11] https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/store/p/
work for students and hence students have left no option
but to unblock it through various VPNs and proxy.
62.11 See also
List of virtual communities with more than 100 mil-
lion active users
Caller ID spoong
Comparison of instant messaging clients
Comparison of instant messaging protocols
Comparison of VoIP software
Mobile VoIP
Presence information
Unied communications
List of video telecommunication services and prod-
uct brands
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itech HD Pro Webcam C920. Blogs.skype.com. Re-
trieved 24 February 2012.
[113] Reveal the real you with the Logitech HD Pro Webcam
C920. Blog.Logitech. 5 January 2012. Retrieved 24
February 2012.
 62.12. REFERENCES 239

[114] Olivarez-Giles, Nathan (14 October 2014). Skype Re- [134] Privacy 101: Skype Leaks Your Location.
launches Qik as Social Video Messaging App. Wall Street
Journal. Retrieved 14 October 2014. [135] Skype 5.6 for Mac.

[115] Skype (Wayback Machine Archive)". Archived from the [136] Skype 5.9 for Windows.
original on 1 July 2004. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
[137] Craig Timberg (25 July 2012). Skype makes chats and
[116] Skype Privacy FAQ. Skype. Retrieved 5 December user data more available to police. Washington Post. Re-
2006. trieved 9 March 2016.

[117] Philippe Biondi and Fabrice Desclaux. Silver Needle in [138] Gallagher, Ryan (9 November 2012). Did Skype Give
the Skype (PDF). blackhat. Retrieved 2 March 2006. a Private Company Data on Teen WikiLeaks Supporter
Without a Warrant?". Slate. Retrieved 11 November
[118] Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen (June 7, 2013). 2012.
NSA Prism program taps in to user data of Apple,
Google and others. The Guardian. Guardian News and [139] Skype accounts can be hacked with an email address.
Media Limited.
[140] " skype,
[119] George Mason University (PDF). Retrieved 10 October ".
2010.
[141] Skype with Care Microsoft is Reading Everything You
[120] ZDNet.de. Telefonieren bers Internet: Wie sicher ist Write. Heise Security. 14 May 2013. Archived from the
Skype wirklich? Telekommunikation | Mobile Busi- original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
ness. ZDNet.de. Retrieved 31 March 2009.
[142] Adam Back (16 May 2013). "[Cryptography] Skype
[121] "FSF High Priority Projects", Free Software Foundation. backdoor conrmation. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
Retrieved 26 January 2009.
[143] Leo Laporte, Steve Gibson (17 July 2013). Security
[122] Biondi P., Desclaux F (23 March 2006). Silver Needle Now (Podcast). This Week in Tech. Retrieved 17 July
in the Skype (PDF). EADS Corporate Research Center. 2013.
Retrieved 26 January 2009.
[144] McCarthy, Tom (7 June 2013). Obama defends se-
[123] Sokolov, David AJ (24 July 2008). Speculation over back cret NSA surveillance programs as it happened. The
door in Skype. Heise Security UK. Archived from the Guardian. London. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
original on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2009.
[145] National Security Agency (7 June 2013). Prism slide
[124] Leyde, John (24 July 2008). Austrian ocial fuels Skype 5.jpg. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
backdoor rumours. The Register UK. Retrieved 29 Jan- Sourced from:
uary 2009.
NSA slides explain the PRISM data-
[125] Skype Secrecy Under Attack Again. VoIP News. 24 collection program. The Washington Post. 6
February 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2010. June 2013.

[126] Big Brother in the Wires: Wiretapping in the Digital [146] Secure Messaging Scorecard. Which apps and tools actu-
Age. ACLU. Retrieved 23 March 2009. ally keep your messages safe?". Electronic Frontier Foun-
dation. 4 November 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
[127] CALEA feature page. ACLU. Retrieved 23 March
2009. [147] Scorecard Update: We Cannot Credit Skype For End-
to-end Encryption. Electronic Frontier Foundation. 10
[128] German Authorities Raiding Homes To Find Skype Tap- November 2014.
ping Whistleblower. Techdirt. 18 September 2008. Re-
trieved 31 March 2009. [148] Only 6 Messaging Apps Are Truly Secure. PC Maga-
zine. 5 November 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
[129] James E. Gaskin (18 July 2012). Was Skype reworked
by Microsoft to make it easier to wiretap?". ITworld. [149] Dynamic Internet Technology Inc. Alleges Skype Redi-
rects Users in China to Censorware Version Ten
[130] What Does Skypes Architecture Do?". 26 July 2012. Days After Users Are Able To Download Freegate Soft-
Retrieved 20 May 2013. ware Through Skype. TMCnet. 24 September 2007.
Archived from the original on 15 January 2008.
[131] Risen, James; Nick Wingeld (19 June 2013). Webs
Reach Binds N.S.A. and Silicon Valley Leaders. The [150] Surveillance of Skype messages found in China.
New York Times. Retrieved 29 October 2013. International Herald Tribune. 2 October 2008.

[132] Press release: Eurojust coordinates internet telephony. [151] Claburn, Thomas (2 October 2008). Skype Defends
Eurojust.europa.EU. 20 February 2009. Retrieved 10 Oc- VoIP IM Monitoring in China. InformationWeek.
tober 2010.
[152] Skype says texts are censored by China. Financial
[133] Skype Knew of Security Flaw Since November 2010, Times. 18 April 2006. Archived from the original on 23
Researchers say. The Wall Street Journal. 1 May 2012. March 2009.
 240 CHAPTER 62. SKYPE

[153] Fowler, Georey A.; Jason Dean (3 October 2008).
Skypes China Practices Draw Ire: Joint Ventures Track-
ing of Text Messages Adds Impetus to Web Code of Con-
duct. The Wall Street Journal.
[154] Marko, John (1 October 2008). Huge System for Web
Surveillance Discovered in China. The New York Times.
[155] Microsoft blocks censorship of Skype in China: advo-
cacy group. Reuters. 27 November 2013.
[156] A new relationship for a better experience in China.
Skype. Skype Blogs. 25 November 2013.
[157] Prasad, Kodavati. No Skype calls within India from
November 10. Kodavatisai.
62.14 External links
Ocial website
Skype version numbering: The 3rd number meaning
How to know what is latest skype version number?,
Skype community website, 1 March 2013
Running multiple skype accounts at the same time
How can I run multiple Skype accounts at the same
time?, Skype website > support > FAQ (See also:
How to Sign Into Two or More Skype Accounts at
Once, How-To-Geek website, 7 November 2015)

[158] akerbeltzalba. SkypeInYourLanguage. SourceForge.

[159] Ali, Sarmad (14 January 2010). WSJ. The Wall Street
Journal.

[160] How to delete a Skype account?". Kioskea.

[161] Saarinen, Juha (8 October 2015). Skype to compensate

users for September outage. itNews.

[162] Branzburg, Jerey (March 2007). Talk Is Cheap: Skype

Can Make VoIP a Very Real Communication Option for
Your School. Technology & Learning, v27 n8 p36. Re-
trieved 10 May 2011.

[163] Language Magazine article

[164] Han Sha. LinguaeLive - Connect students who want to

learn each others languages. linguaelive.ca.

[165] Practice a new language with native speakers via Skype.

languageforexchange.com.

[166] The Mixxer - a free educational website for language ex-

changes via Skype. language-exchanges.org.

[167] Quillen, Ian (4 February 2011). Educators Move Beyond

the Hype Over Skype. Education Week. Retrieved 9 June
2013.

[168] Video Conferencing with Skype

[169] Skype in the Classroom. Skype in the Classroom.

62.13 Further reading

Rushe, Dominic. "Skypes secret Project Chess re-
portedly helped NSA access customers data. The
Guardian. 20 June 2013.

Latest Products.Skype Launches Video Messaging

For Free"

"New skype sign up process"

Chapter 63

Social engineering (security)

This article is about the information security concept. For
inuencing society on a large scale, see Social engineer-
ing (political science).
Social engineering, in the context of information secu-
IDs thereby gaining the ability to access the companys
private information. Another example of social engineer-
ing would be that the hacker contacts the target on a social
networking site and starts a conversation with the target.
Slowly and gradually, the hacker gains trust of the target
and then uses it to get access to sensitive information like
password or bank account details.[3]

63.1.1 Pretexting
Pretexting (adj. pretextual), also known in the UK
OPSEC alert as blagging or bohoing, is the act of creating and using
an invented scenario (the pretext) to engage a targeted
rity, refers to psychological manipulation of people into victim in a manner that increases the chance the victim
performing actions or divulging condential information. will divulge information or perform actions that would
A type of condence trick for the purpose of information be unlikely in ordinary circumstances.[4] An elaborate
gathering, fraud, or system access, it diers from a tradi- lie, it most often involves some prior research or setup
tional con in that it is often one of many steps in a more and the use of this information for impersonation (e.g.,
complex fraud scheme. date of birth, Social Security number, last bill amount) to
establish legitimacy in the mind of the target.[5]
The term social engineering as an act of psychological
manipulation is also associated with the social sciences, This technique can be used to fool a business into disclos-
but its usage has caught on among computer and infor- ing customer information as well as by private investiga-
mation security professionals.[1] tors to obtain telephone records, utility records, banking
records and other information directly from company ser-
vice representatives.[6] The information can then be used
to establish even greater legitimacy under tougher ques-
63.1 Techniques and terms tioning with a manager, e.g., to make account changes,
get specic balances, etc.
All social engineering techniques are based on specic
attributes of human decision-making known as cognitive Pretexting can also be used to impersonate co-
biases.[2] These biases, sometimes called bugs in the hu- workers, police, bank, tax authorities, clergy, insurance
man hardware, are exploited in various combinations to investigatorsor any other individual who could have
create attack techniques, some of which are listed. The perceived authority or right-to-know in the mind of
attacks used in social engineering can be used to steal the targeted victim. The pretexter must simply prepare
employees condential information. The most common answers to questions that might be asked by the victim.
type of social engineering happens over the phone. Other In some cases, all that is needed is a voice that sounds
examples of social engineering attacks are criminals pos- authoritative, an earnest tone, and an ability to think on
ing as exterminators, re marshals and technicians to go ones feet to create a pretextual scenario.
unnoticed as they steal company secrets.
One example of social engineering is an individual who 63.1.2 Diversion theft
walks into a building and posts an ocial-looking an-
nouncement to the company bulletin that says the number Diversion theft, also known as the Corner Game[7] or
for the help desk has changed. So, when employees call Round the Corner Game, originated in the East End of
for help the individual asks them for their passwords and London.

241
242
In summary, diversion theft is a con exercised by pro-
fessional thieves, normally against a transport or courier
company. The objective is to persuade the persons re-
sponsible for a legitimate delivery that the consignment
is requested elsewherehence, round the corner.
63.1.3 Phishing
Main article: Phishing
Phishing is a technique of fraudulently obtaining private
information. Typically, the phisher sends an e-mail that
appears to come from a legitimate businessa bank, or
credit card companyrequesting verication of infor-
mation and warning of some dire consequence if it is not
provided. The e-mail usually contains a link to a fraud-
ulent web page that seems legitimatewith company lo-
gos and contentand has a form requesting everything
from a home address to an ATM card's PIN or a credit
card number. For example, in 2003, there was a phish-
ing scam in which users received e-mails supposedly from
eBay claiming that the users account was about to be
suspended unless a link provided was clicked to update
a credit card (information that the genuine eBay already
had). Because it is relatively simple to make a Web site re-
semble a legitimate organizations site by mimicking the
HTML code and logos the scam counted on people being
tricked into thinking they were being contacted by eBay
and subsequently, were going to eBays site to update their
account information. By spamming large groups of peo-
ple, the phisher counted on the e-mail being read by a
percentage of people who already had listed credit card
numbers with eBay legitimately, who might respond.
IVR or phone phishing
Main article: Vishing
Phone phishing (or "vishing") uses a rogue interactive
voice response (IVR) system to recreate a legitimate-
sounding copy of a bank or other institutions IVR sys-
tem. The victim is prompted (typically via a phishing e-
mail) to call in to the bank via a (ideally toll free) num-
ber provided in order to verify information. A typical
vishing system will reject log-ins continually, ensuring
the victim enters PINs or passwords multiple times, often
disclosing several dierent passwords. More advanced
systems transfer the victim to the attacker/defrauder, who
poses as a customer service agent or security expert for
further questioning of the victim.
63.1.4 Spear phishing
Main article: Spear phishing
CHAPTER 63. SOCIAL ENGINEERING (SECURITY)
Although similar to phishing, spear phishing is a tech-
nique that fraudulently obtains private information by
sending highly customized emails to few end users. It
is the main dierence between phishing attacks because
phishing campaigns focus on sending out high volumes of
generalized emails with the expectation that only a few
people will respond. On the other hand, spear phishing
emails require the attacker to perform additional research
on their targets in order to trick end users into per-
forming requested activities. The success rate of spear-
phishing attacks is considerable higher than phishing at-
tacks with people opening roughly 3% of phishing emails
when compared to roughly 70% of potential attempts.
However, when users actually open the emails phishing
emails have a relatively modest 5% success rate to have
the link or attachment clicked when compared to a spear-
phishing attacks 50% success rate.[8]
63.1.5 Baiting
Baiting is like the real-world Trojan horse that uses phys-
ical media and relies on the curiosity or greed of the
victim.[9] In this attack, attackers leave malware-infected
oppy disks, CD-ROMs, or USB ash drives in locations
people will nd them (bathrooms, elevators, sidewalks,
parking lots, etc.), give them legitimate and curiosity-
piquing labels, and waits for victims. For example, an
attacker may create a disk featuring a corporate logo,
available from the targets website, and label it Execu-
tive Salary Summary Q2 2012. The attacker then leaves
the disk on the oor of an elevator or somewhere in the
lobby of the target company. An unknowing employee
may nd it and insert the disk into a computer to satisfy
his or her curiosity, or a good Samaritan may nd it and
return it to the company. In any case, just inserting the
disk into a computer installs malware, giving attackers ac-
cess to the victims PC and, perhaps, the target companys
internal computer network.
Unless computer controls block infections, insertion
compromises PCs auto-running media. Hostile devices
can also be used.[10] For instance, a lucky winner is
sent a free digital audio player compromising any com-
puter it is plugged to. A road apple (the colloquial
term for horse manure, suggesting the devices undesir-
able nature) is any removable media with malicious soft-
ware left in opportunistic or conspicuous places. It may
be a CD, DVD, or USB ash drive, among other media.
Curious people take it and plug it into a computer, in-
fecting the host and any attached networks. Hackers may
give them enticing labels, such as Employee Salaries or
Condential.[11]
63.1.6 Quid pro quo
Quid pro quo means something for something:
63.2. NOTABLE SOCIAL ENGINEERS 243

An attacker calls random numbers at a company, Computer virus hoaxes

claiming to be calling back from technical support.
Convincing users to run malicious code within the
Eventually this person will hit someone with a le-
web browser via self-XSS attack to allow access to
gitimate problem, grateful that someone is calling
their web account
back to help them. The attacker will help solve
the problem and, in the process, have the user type
commands that give the attacker access or launch 63.1.9 Countermeasures
malware.
Organizations reduce their security risks by:
In a 2003 information security survey, 90% of of-
ce workers gave researchers what they claimed was Standard Framework Establishing frameworks of trust
their password in answer to a survey question in ex- on an employee/personnel level (i.e., specify and train
change for a cheap pen.[12] Similar surveys in later personnel when/where/why/how sensitive information
years obtained similar results using chocolates and should be handled)
other cheap lures, although they made no attempt to Scrutinizing Information Identifying which informa-
validate the passwords.[13] tion is sensitive and evaluating its exposure to social en-
gineering and breakdowns in security systems (building,
computer system, etc.)
63.1.7 Tailgating
Security Protocols Establishing security protocols, poli-
Main article: Piggybacking (security) cies, and procedures for handling sensitive information.
Training to Employees Training employees in security
An attacker, seeking entry to a restricted area secured by protocols relevant to their position. (e.g., in situations
unattended, electronic access control, e.g. by RFID card, such as tailgating, if a persons identity cannot be veri-
simply walks in behind a person who has legitimate ac- ed, then employees must be trained to politely refuse.)
cess. Following common courtesy, the legitimate person Event Test Performing unannounced, periodic tests of
will usually hold the door open for the attacker or the at- the security framework.
tackers themselves may ask the employee to hold it open
for them. The legitimate person may fail to ask for identi- Review Reviewing the above steps regularly: no solutions
cation for any of several reasons, or may accept an asser- to information integrity are perfect.[14]
tion that the attacker has forgotten or lost the appropriate Waste Management Using a waste management service
identity token. The attacker may also fake the action of that has dumpsters with locks on them, with keys to them
presenting an identity token. limited only to the waste management company and the
cleaning sta. Locating the dumpster either in view of
employees so that trying to access it carries a risk of being
63.1.8 Other types seen or caught, or behind a locked gate or fence where the
person must trespass before they can attempt to access the
Common condence tricksters or fraudsters also could be dumpster.[15]
considered social engineers in the wider sense, in that
they deliberately deceive and manipulate people, exploit-
ing human weaknesses to obtain personal benet. They 63.2 Notable social engineers
may, for example, use social engineering techniques as
part of an IT fraud.
63.2.1 Kevin Mitnick
A very recent type of social engineering technique in-
cludes spoong or hacking IDs of people having popular Reformed computer criminal and later security consultant
e-mail IDs such as Yahoo!, Gmail, Hotmail, etc. Among Kevin Mitnick points out that it is much easier to trick
the many motivations for deception are: someone into giving a password for a system than to spend
the eort to crack into the system.[16][17]
Phishing credit-card account numbers and their
passwords.
63.2.2 Christopher Hadnagy
Cracking private e-mails and chat histories, and
manipulating them by using common editing tech- Christopher Hadnagy is the security professional who
niques before using them to extort money and cre- wrote the rst framework dening the physical and psy-
ating distrust among individuals. chological principles of social engineering.[18] He is most
widely known for his books, podcast and the being the
Cracking websites of companies or organizations creator of the DEF CON Social Engineer Capture the
and destroying their reputation. Flag and the Social Engineer CTF for Kids.[17]
244 CHAPTER 63. SOCIAL ENGINEERING (SECURITY)

63.2.3 Mike Ridpath and if it shall appear to the Commission that a proceed-
ing by it in respect thereof would be to the interest of the
Mike Ridpath Security consultant, published author, public, it shall issue and serve upon such person, partner-
and speaker. Emphasizes techniques and tactics for ship, or corporation a complaint stating its charges in that
social engineering cold calling. Became notable af- respect.
ter his talks where he would play recorded calls The statute states that when someone obtains any per-
and explain his thought process on what he was do- sonal, non-public information from a nancial institution
ing to get passwords through the phone and his live or the consumer, their action is subject to the statute. It
demonstrations.[19][20][21][22][23] As a child Ridpath was relates to the consumers relationship with the nancial
connected with Badir Brothers and was widely known institution. For example, a pretexter using false pretenses
within the phreaking and hacking community for his ar- either to get a consumers address from the consumers
ticles with popular underground ezines, such as, Phrack, bank, or to get a consumer to disclose the name of his or
B4B0 and 9x on modifying Oki 900s, blueboxing, her bank, would be covered. The determining principle is
satellite hacking and RCMAC.[24][17] that pretexting only occurs when information is obtained
through false pretenses.

63.2.4 Badir Brothers
Brothers Ramy, Muzher, and Shadde Badirall of whom
were blind from birthmanaged to set up an exten-
sive phone and computer fraud scheme in Israel in the
1990s using social engineering, voice impersonation, and
Braille-display computers.[25][17]
63.3 Law
While the sale of cell telephone records has gained sig-
nicant media attention, and telecommunications records
are the focus of the two bills currently before the United
States Senate, many other types of private records are be-
ing bought and sold in the public market. Alongside many
advertisements for cell phone records, wireline records
and the records associated with calling cards are adver-
tised. As individuals shift to VoIP telephones, it is safe to
assume that those records will be oered for sale as well.
Currently, it is legal to sell telephone records, but illegal
to obtain them.[28]

In common law, pretexting is an invasion of privacy tort

of appropriation.[26] 63.3.3 1st Source Information Specialists

U.S. Rep. Fred Upton (R-Kalamazoo, Michigan), chair-

63.3.1 Pretexting of telephone records
In December 2006, United States Congress approved a
Senate sponsored bill making the pretexting of telephone
records a federal felony with nes of up to $250,000
and ten years in prison for individuals (or nes of up
to $500,000 for companies). It was signed by President
George W. Bush on 12 January 2007.[27]
63.3.2 Federal legislation
The 1999 GLBA is a U.S. Federal law that specically quickly followed Madigans lead, ling suits respectively,
addresses pretexting of banking records as an illegal act
punishable under federal statutes. When a business en-
tity such as a private investigator, SIU insurance investi-
gator, or an adjuster conducts any type of deception, it
falls under the authority of the Federal Trade Commis-
sion (FTC). This federal agency has the obligation and
authority to ensure that consumers are not subjected to
any unfair or deceptive business practices. US Federal
Trade Commission Act, Section 5 of the FTCA states, in
part: Whenever the Commission shall have reason to be-
lieve that any such person, partnership, or corporation has
been or is using any unfair method of competition or un-
fair or deceptive act or practice in or aecting commerce,
man of the Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on
Telecommunications and the Internet, expressed concern
over the easy access to personal mobile phone records on
the Internet during a House Energy & Commerce Com-
mittee hearing on "Phone Records For Sale: Why Aren't
Phone Records Safe From Pretexting?" Illinois became the
rst state to sue an online records broker when Attorney
General Lisa Madigan sued 1st Source Information Spe-
cialists, Inc. A spokeswoman for Madigans oce said.
The Florida-based company operates several Web sites
that sell mobile telephone records, according to a copy of
the suit. The attorneys general of Florida and Missouri
against 1st Source Information Specialists and, in Mis-
souris case, one other records broker First Data Solu-
tions, Inc.
Several wireless providers, including T-Mobile, Verizon,
and Cingular led earlier lawsuits against records bro-
kers, with Cingular winning an injunction against First
Data Solutions and 1st Source Information Specialists.
U.S. Senator Charles Schumer (D-New York) introduced
legislation in February 2006 aimed at curbing the prac-
tice. The Consumer Telephone Records Protection Act
of 2006 would create felony criminal penalties for steal-
ing and selling the records of mobile phone, landline, and
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) subscribers.
63.5. SEE ALSO
63.3.4 HP
Patricia Dunn, former chairwoman of Hewlett Packard,
reported that the HP board hired a private investigation
company to delve into who was responsible for leaks
within the board. Dunn acknowledged that the com-
pany used the practice of pretexting to solicit the tele-
phone records of board members and journalists. Chair-
man Dunn later apologized for this act and oered to
step down from the board if it was desired by board
members.[29] Unlike Federal law, California law specif-
ically forbids such pretexting. The four felony charges
brought on Dunn were dismissed.[30]
63.4 In popular culture
In the TV show White Collar (TV series), Matt
Bomber played a highly intelligent and multitalented
con artist working as an FBI criminal informant.
In the movie Identity Thief, Melissa McCarthy
played a fraudster who used pretexting to get the
name, credit card number and Social Security num-
ber of an executive (Jason Bateman) enabling her to
steal his identity and commit credit card fraud.
In the lm Hackers, the protagonist used pretexting
when he asked a security guard for the telephone
number to a TV stations modem while posing as an
important company executive.
In Jerey Deavers book The Blue Nowhere, social
engineering to obtain condential information is one
of the methods used by the killer, Phate, to get close
to his victims.
In the movie Live Free or Die Hard, Justin Long is
seen pretexting that his father is dying from a heart
attack to have an On-Star Assist representative start
what will become a stolen car.
In the movie Sneakers, one of the characters poses
as a low level security guard's superior in order to
convince him that a security breach is just a false
alarm.
In the movie The Thomas Crown Aair, one of the
characters poses over the telephone as a museum
guards superior in order to move the guard away
from his post.
In the James Bond movie Diamonds Are Forever,
Bond is seen gaining entry to the Whyte laboratory
with a then-state-of-the-art card-access lock system
by "tailgating". He merely waits for an employee
to come to open the door, then posing himself as a
rookie at the lab, fakes inserting a non-existent card
while the door is unlocked for him by the employee.
245
In the television show Rockford Files, The character
Jim Rockford used pretexting often in his private in-
vestigation work.
In the TV show The Mentalist, protagonist Patrick
Jane often uses pretexting to trick criminals into
confessing to the crimes they committed.
In the TV show Burn Notice, many characters are
seen using social engineering; in Michael Westen's
psych prole it is stated that he is very skilled in so-
cial engineering.
In the TV show Psych, protagonist Shawn Spencer
often uses pretexting to gain access to locations he
would otherwise not be allowed into without police
credentials.
In the videogame Watch Dogs, protagonist Aiden
Pearce states that he studied social engineering when
growing up into a life of crime and uses social
engineering tactics to manipulate other characters
throughout the game to get the information he wants.
In the TV show Mr. Robot, Darlene scatters USB
ash drives (containing malware) outside a prison
entrance, baiting a curious guard into compromis-
ing the prisons internal network when he plugs one
of the drives into his computer workstation.
In the movie Who Am I (2014 lm), the main
characters are seen using various social engineering
techniques.
In French novels from Maxime Frantini [Journal
d'un hacker, L'ombre et la lumire, la Cavale, La
dtermination du fennec], hacker hero Ylian Estevez
mainly uses social engineering for its attacks.[31]
63.5 See also
Certied Social Engineering Prevention Specialist
(CSEPS)
Condence trick
Countermeasure (computer)
Cyber-HUMINT
Cyberheist
Internet Security Awareness Training
IT risk
Media pranks, which often use similar tactics
(though usually not for criminal purposes)
Penetration test
Phishing
246
Physical information security
Piggybacking (security)
SMS phishing
Threat (computer)
Voice phishing
Vulnerability (computing)
63.6 References
[1] Anderson, Ross J. (2008). Security engineering: a guide
to building dependable distributed systems (2nd ed.). Indi-
anapolis, IN: Wiley. p. 1040. ISBN 978-0-470-06852-6.
Chapter 2, page 17
[2] Jaco, K: CSEPS Course Workbook (2004), unit 3, Jaco
Security Publishing.
[3] Hack a Facebook Account with Social Engineering (Eas-
iest Way) ~ Amazing Hacking Tricks. amazinghack-
ingtricks.com.
[4] The story of HP pretexting scandal with discussion is
available at Davani, Faraz (14 August 2011). HP Pre-
texting Scandal by Faraz Davani. Scribd. Retrieved 15
August 2011.
[5] "Pretexting: Your Personal Information Revealed",
Federal Trade Commission
[6] Fagone, Jason. The Serial Swatter. New York Times.
Retrieved 25 November 2015.
[7] Train For Life. Web.archive.org. 5 January 2010.
Archived from the original on 5 January 2010. Retrieved
9 August 2012.
[8] The Real Dangers of Spear-Phishing Attacks. FireEye.
2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
[9] Social Engineering, the USB Way. Light Reading Inc.
7 June 2006. Archived from the original on 13 July 2006.
Retrieved 23 April 2014.
[10] http://md.hudora.de/presentations/firewire/PacSec2004.
pdf
[11] Conklin, Wm. Arthur; White, Greg; Cothren, Chuck;
Davis, Roger; Williams, Dwayne (2015). Principles
of Computer Security, Fourth Edition (Ocial Comptia
Guide). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 193
194. ISBN 978-0071835978.
[12] Leyden, John (18 April 2003). Oce workers give away
passwords. Theregister.co.uk. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[13] Passwords revealed by sweet deal. BBC News. 20 April
2004. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[14] Mitnick, K., & Simon, W. (2005). The Art Of Intru-
sion. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing.
CHAPTER 63. SOCIAL ENGINEERING (SECURITY)
[15] Allsopp, William. Unauthorised access: Physical pene-
tration testing for it security teams. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley,
2009. 240-241.
[16] Mitnick, K: CSEPS Course Workbook (2004), p. 4,
Mitnick Security Publishing. A documentary based on
Kevin Metnick Freedom Downtime was made featur-
ing the real story of Kevin Metnick, featuring some real
Hackers.
[17] Social Hacking (Thesis). Maxim Maximov, Ruslan
Iskhakov. Retrieved 11 Feb 2003.
[18] Social Engineering Framework. Social-engineer.org. 1
October 2010.
[19] Social Engineering: Manipulating the human. Scorpio Net
Security Services. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[20] Mobile Devices and the Military: useful Tool or Signif-
icant Threat. academia.edu. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
[21] Social Engineering: Manipulating the human.
YouTube. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[22] BsidesPDX Track 1 10/07/11 02:52PM, BsidesPDX
Track 1 10/07/11 02:52PM BsidesPDX on USTREAM.
Conference. Ustream.tv. 7 October 2011. Retrieved 11
April 2012.
[23] Automated Social Engineering. BrightTALK. 29
September 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[24] Social Engineering a General Approach (PDF). Infor-
matica Economica journal. Retrieved 11 Jan 2015.
[25] Wired 12.02: Three Blind Phreaks. Wired.com. 14
June 1999. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
[26] Restatement 2d of Torts 652C.
[27] Congress outlaws pretexting. Ars Technica.
[28] Mitnick, K (2002): The Art of Deception, p. 103 Wi-
ley Publishing Ltd: Indianapolis, Indiana; United States
of America. ISBN 0-471-23712-4
[29] HP chairman: Use of pretexting 'embarrassing' Stephen
Shankland, 2006-09-08 1:08 PM PDT CNET News.com
[30] Calif. court drops charges against Dunn.
News.cnet.com. 14 March 2007. Retrieved 11
April 2012.
[31] Amazon.fr: Maxime Frantini: Livres, Biographie, crits,
livres audio, Kindle. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
63.7 Further reading
Boyington, Gregory. (1990). 'Baa Baa Black
Sheep' Published by Gregory Boyington ISBN 0-
553-26350-1
Harley, David. 1998 Re-Floating the Titanic: Deal-
ing with Social Engineering Attacks EICAR Confer-
ence.
63.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 247

Laribee, Lena. June 2006 Development of me-

thodical social engineering taxonomy project Mas-
ters Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School.

Leyden, John. 18 April 2003. Oce workers give

away passwords for a cheap pen. The Register. Re-
trieved 2004-09-09.
Long, Johnny. (2008). No Tech Hacking A Guide
to Social Engineering, Dumpster Diving, and Shoul-
der Surng Published by Syngress Publishing Inc.
ISBN 978-1-59749-215-7
Mann, Ian. (2008). Hacking the Human: Social En-
gineering Techniques and Security Countermeasures
Published by Gower Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-566-
08773-1 or ISBN 978-0-566-08773-8

Mitnick, Kevin, Kasperaviius, Alexis. (2004).

CSEPS Course Workbook. Mitnick Security Publish-
ing.
Mitnick, Kevin, Simon, William L., Wozniak,
Steve,. (2002). The Art of Deception: Controlling
the Human Element of Security Published by Wiley.
ISBN 0-471-23712-4 or ISBN 0-7645-4280-X
Hadnagy, Christopher, (2011) Social Engineering:
The Art of Human Hacking Published by Wiley.
ISBN 0-470-63953-9

63.8 External links

Social Engineering Fundamentals Securityfo-
cus.com. Retrieved on 3 August 2009.

Social Engineering, the USB Way. Light Reading

Inc. 7 June 2006. Archived from the original on 13
July 2006. Retrieved 23 April 2014.

Should Social Engineering be a part of Penetration

Testing? Darknet.org.uk. Retrieved on 3 August
2009.
Social Engineering: Explained Linkedin.com. Re-
trieved on 27 February 2016.
Protecting Consumers Phone Records, Electronic
Privacy Information Center US Committee on Com-
merce, Science, and Transportation . Retrieved on 8
February 2006.
Plotkin, Hal. Memo to the Press: Pretexting is Al-
ready Illegal. Retrieved on 9 September 2006.
Striptease for passwords MSNBC.MSN.com. Re-
trieved on 1 November 2007.
Social-Engineer.org social-engineer.org. Re-
trieved on 16 September 2009.
Chapter 64

Softphone

A softphone is a software program for making telephone 64.4 Requirements

calls over the Internet using a general purpose computer,
rather than using dedicated hardware. The softphone can To make voice calls via the Internet, a user typically re-
also be installed on a piece of equipment such as a work- quires the following:
station, portable computer, tablet or even a cellphone and
allows the user to place and receive calls without requir-
A modern PC with a microphone and speaker, or
ing an actual telephone set.[1] Often a softphone is de-
with a headset, or with USBphone.
signed to behave like a traditional telephone, sometimes
appearing as an image of a phone, with a display panel Reliable high-speed Internet connectivity like
and buttons with which the user can interact. A softphone Digital subscriber line (DSL), or cable service.
is usually used with a headset connected to the sound card
of the PC, or with a USB phone.[2] Account with an Internet telephony service provider
or IP PBX provider.
Mobile or landline phone.
64.1 Applications
See Comparison of VoIP software 64.5 See also
IP Phone
64.2 Communication protocols Auto dialer

To communicate, both end-points must support the same VoIP

Voice-over-IP protocol, and at least one common audio Mobile VoIP
codec.
Many service providers use the Session Initiation Proto- Videophone
col (SIP) standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Computer Telephony Integration
Force (IETF). Skype, a popular service, uses proprietary
protocols, and Google Talk leverages the Extensible Mes- H323
saging and Presence Protocol (XMPP).
List of SIP software
Some softphones also support the Inter-Asterisk eX-
change protocol (IAX), a protocol supported by the open- Comparison of VoIP software
source software application Asterisk.
Chatcord, a low cost and compact device that con-
nects the duplex audio stream between the sound
card of the computer and the telephone-set
64.3 Features
A typical softphone has all standard telephony features 64.6 References
(DND, Mute, DTMF, Flash, Hold, Transfer etc.) and
often additional features typical for online messaging, [1] Citation from article entitled - Softphone initiation
such as user presence indication, video, wide-band audio.
[2] Community Ubuntu Documentation - SoftPhone
Softphones provide a variety of audio codecs, a typical
minimum set is G.711 and G.729.

248
Chapter 65

Softswitch

A softswitch (software switch) is a central device in a terfaces. This procedure is utilized to keep the interfaces
telecommunications network which connects telephone clear as crystal for receiving calls from any phone lines.[2]
calls from one phone line to another, across a telecom- The media gateway connects dierent types of digital
munication network or the public Internet, entirely by
media stream together to create an end-to-end path for
means of software running on a general-purpose com- the media (voice and data) in the call. It may have in-
puter system. Most landline calls are routed by purpose-
terfaces to connect to traditional PSTN networks, such
built electronic hardware; however, soft switches using as DS1 or DS3 ports (E1 or STM1 in the case of non-
general purpose servers and VoIP technology are becom-
US networks). It may also have interfaces to connect to
ing more popular.[1] ATM and IP networks, and the most modern systems will
Many telecommunications networks now make use have Ethernet interfaces to connect VoIP calls. The call
of combinations of softswitches and more traditional agent will instruct the media gateway to connect media
purpose-built hardware. streams between these interfaces to connect the call - all
Although the term softswitch technically refers to any transparently to the end-users.
such device, it is more conventionally applied to a de- The softswitch generally resides in a building owned
vice that handles IP-to-IP phone calls, while the phrase by the telephone company called a telephone exchange
"access server" or media gateway is used to refer to de- (UK/IRL/AUS/NZ) or central oce (US/CAN). The
vices that either originate or terminate traditional "land central oce or telephone exchange has high capacity
line" (hard wired) phone calls. In practice, such devices connections to carry calls to other oces owned by the
can often do both. As a practical distinction, a Skype- telecommunication company and to other telecommuni-
to-Skype phone call is entirely IP (internet) based, and cation companies via the PSTN.
so uses a softswitch somewhere in the middle connecting
Looking towards the end users from the switch, the
the calling party with the called party. In contrast, ac- softswitch may be connected to several access devices via
cess servers might take a mobile call or a call originating
TCP/IP network. These access devices can range from
from a traditional phone line, convert it to IP trac, then small Analog Telephone Adaptors (ATA) which provide
send it over the internet to another such device, which just one RJ11 telephone jack to an Integrated Access De-
terminates the call by reversing the process and convert- vice (IAD), eMTA s (embedded Multimedia Terminal
ing the Voice over IP call back to older circuit switched Adapters) using MGCP/NCS protocol over cable (Vo-
digital systems using traditional digital ISDN / PSTN pro- Cable) or PBX which may provide several hundred tele-
tocols that transmit voice trac using non-IP systems. phone connections
A softswitch is typically used to control connections at Note here that Analogue (ATA), PSTN telephone de-
the junction point between circuit-switched and packet- vices can only be reached by a softswitch that has em-
switched networks. A single device containing both the bedded SS7 or SIGTRAN cards, software in terms
switching logic and the switched fabric can be used for of signalling AND Trunking Gateway for Voice trac
this purpose; however, modern technology has led to a IP/TDM, TDM/IP, TDM/TDM functions.
preference for decomposing this device into a Call Agent
and a Media Gateway. Typically the larger access devices will be located in a
building owned by the telecommunication company near
The Call Agent takes care of functions such as billing, to the customers they serve. Each end user can be con-
call routing, signaling, call services and the like, supplying
nected to the IAD by a simple pair of copper wires.
the functional logic to accomplish these telephony meta-
tasks. A call agent may control several dierent media The medium-sized devices and PBXs are most commonly
gateways in geographically dispersed areas via a TCP/IP used by business that locate them on their own premises,
link. It is also used to control the functions of media gate- and single-line devices are mostly found at private resi-
way, in order to connect with media as well as other in- dences.

249
250 CHAPTER 65. SOFTSWITCH

At the turn of the 21st century with IP Multimedia Sub- 65.4 See also
system (or IMS), the Softswitch element is represented
by the Media Gateway Controller (MGC) element, and Telephone switch
the term Softswitch is rarely used in the IMS context.
Rather, it is called an AGCF (Access Gateway Control IP Multimedia Subsystem
Function).
Software dened mobile network

65.1 Feature server 65.5 References

The feature server, often built into a call agent/softswitch,
is the functional component that provides call-related fea-
tures. Capabilities such as call forwarding, call waiting,
last call return and three way videoconferencing, if im-
plemented in the network, are implemented in the fea-
ture server. The feature server works closely with the
call agent, and may call upon the media server to pro-
vide these services. These features do not require the sub-
scriber to explicitly request them but tend to be triggered
within the call handling logic.
[1] Buckley, Sean (February 20, 2013). Carrier VoIP
saw turnaround in 2012, says Infonetics Read more:
Carrier VoIP saw turnaround in 2012, says Infonetics
- FierceTelecom http://www.fiercetelecom.com/story/
carrier-voip-saw-turnaround-2012-says-infonetics/
2013-02-20#ixzz2LTlVeSbC". Fierce Telecom. External
link in |title= (help)
[2] Softswitch - How it works. IXC. 21 September 2012.
[3] FAQ about VoIP and softswitches

65.2 Class 4 and Class 5

softswitches
VoIP softswitches are subdivided into two classes: Class
4 and Class 5 softswitches, in analogy to the traditional
functions in public switched telephone network.
Softswitches used for transit VoIP trac between carriers
are usually called class 4 softswitches. Analogous with
other Class 4 telephone switches, the main function of the
class 4 softswitch is the routing of large volumes of long
distance VoIP calls. The most important characteristics
of class 4 softswitch are protocol support and conversion,
transcoding, calls per second rate, average time of one
call routing, number of concurrent calls.
Class 5 softswitches are intended for work with end-users.
These softswitches are both for local and long distance
telephony services. Class 5 softswitches are characterized
by additional services for end-users and corporate clients
such as IP PBX features, call center services, calling card
platform, types of authorization,QoS,Business Groups
and other features similar to other Class 5 telephone
switches.[3]

65.3 Hosted switch services

Due to the high costs of infrastructure and its mainte-
nance, some softswitch solutions are oered through a
hosted service provider model. Users rely on softswitch
infrastructure managed by a third party to deliver services
to their end users without owning or operating their own
softswitch.
Chapter 66

Telephone

For other uses, see Telephone (disambiguation). In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was
Phone redirects here. For other uses, see Phone the rst to be granted a United States patent for a de-
(disambiguation). vice that produced clearly intelligible replication of the
human voice. This instrument was further developed by
many others. The telephone was the rst device in his-
tory that enabled people to talk directly with each other
across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indis-
pensable to businesses, government, and households, and
are today some of the most widely used small appliances.
The essential elements of a telephone are a microphone
(transmitter) to speak into and an earphone (receiver)
which reproduces the voice in a distant location. In addi-
tion, most telephones contain a ringer which produces a
sound to announce an incoming telephone call, and a dial
or keypad used to enter a telephone number when initiat-
ing a call to another telephone. Until approximately the
1970s most telephones used a rotary dial, which was su-
perseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial, rst in-
troduced to the public by AT&T in 1963.[1] The receiver
and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is
held up to the ear and mouth during conversation. The
A rotary dial telephone, c.1940s dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit
to which the handset is connected. The transmitter con-
verts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent
through the telephone network to the receiving phone.
The receiving telephone converts the signals into audi-
ble sound in the receiver, or sometimes a loudspeaker.
Telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they
allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously.
The rst telephones were directly connected to each other
from one customers oce or residence to another cus-
tomers location. Being impractical beyond just a few
customers, these systems were quickly replaced by man-
ually operated centrally located switchboards. This gave
Modern telephones use push buttons rise to landline telephone service in which each telephone
is connected by a pair of dedicated wires to a local cen-
tral oce switching system, which developed into fully
A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications de-
automated systems starting in the early 1900s. As greater
vice that permits two or more users to conduct a con-
mobility was desired for commerce and convenience, var-
versation when they are too far apart to be heard di-
ious radio systems were developed for transmission be-
rectly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most ef-
tween mobile customer stations on ships and automobiles
ciently the human voice, into electronic signals suitable
from the 1930s by the mid-1900s. Radio systems evolved
for transmission via cables or other transmission media
into various cellular topologies until the rst hand-held
over long distances, and replays such signals simultane-
mobile phone was introduced for personal service start-
ously in audible form to its user.

251
252 CHAPTER 66. TELEPHONE

ing in 1973 by Motorola. By the late 1970s several mo- with pushbutton telephones (A4).
bile telephone networks operated around the world. In A major expense of wire-line telephone service is the
1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was outside wire plant. Telephones transmit both the incom-
launched in the U.S. and in other countries soon after, ing and outgoing speech signals on a single pair of wires.
and oered a standardized technology providing porta- A twisted pair line rejects electromagnetic interference
bility for users within a region far beyond the personal (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an un-
residence or oce location. These analog cellular system twisted pair. The strong outgoing speech signal from the
evolved into digital networks with better security, greatermicrophone (transmitter) does not overpower the weaker
capacity, better regional coverage, and lower cost. The
incoming speaker (receiver) signal with sidetone because
public switched telephone network, with its hierarchi- a hybrid coil (A3) and other components compensate the
cal system of many switching centers, interconnects tele-
imbalance. The junction box (B) arrests lightning (B2)
phones around the world for communication with each and adjusts the lines resistance (B1) to maximize the sig-
other. With the standardized international numbering
nal power for the line length. Telephones have similar
system, E.164, each telephone line has an identifying adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The line volt-
telephone number, that may be called from any autho-
ages are negative compared to earth, to reduce galvanic
rized telephone on the network. corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions
Although originally designed for simple voice commu- toward the wires.
nications, convergence has enabled most modern cell
phones to have many additional capabilities. They may
be able to record spoken messages, send and receive text
messages, take and display photographs or video, play 66.2 Details of operation
music or games, surf the Internet, do road navigation or
immerse the user in virtual reality. Since 1999, the trend Further information: Telephone call
for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile
communication and computing needs.
The landline telephone contains a switchhook (A4) and
an alerting device, usually a ringer (A7), that remains
connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on
66.1 Basic principles hook" (i.e. the switch (A4) is open), and other compo-
nents which are connected when the phone is "o hook".
The o-hook components include a transmitter (micro-
phone, A2), a receiver (speaker, A1), and other circuits
for dialing, ltering (A3), and amplication.
A calling party wishing to speak to another party will
pick up the telephones handset, thereby operating a lever
which closes the switchhook (A4), which powers the tele-
phone by connecting the transmitter (microphone), re-
ceiver (speaker), and related audio components to the
line. The o-hook circuitry has a low resistance (less
than 300 ohms) which causes a direct current (DC), which
comes down the line (C) from the telephone exchange.
Schematic of a landline telephone installation. The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit re-
ceiver circuit to the line, and sends a dial tone to indi-
cate readiness. On a modern push-button telephone, the
A traditional landline telephone system, also known as caller then presses the number keys to send the telephone
plain old telephone service (POTS), commonly carries number of the called party. The keys control a tone gen-
both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair erator circuit (not shown) that makes DTMF tones that
(C in diagram) of insulated wires, the telephone line. The the exchange receives. A rotary-dial telephone uses pulse
control and signaling equipment consists of three compo- dialing, sending electrical pulses, that the exchange can
nents, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial. The ringer, count to get the telephone number (as of 2010 many ex-
or beeper, light or other device (A7), alerts the user to in- changes were still equipped to handle pulse dialing). If
coming calls. The hookswitch signals to the central oce the called partys line is available, the exchange sends an
that the user has picked up the handset to either answer intermittent ringing signal (about 75 volts alternating cur-
a call or initiate a call. A dial, if present, is used by the rent (AC) in North America and UK and 60 volts in Ger-
subscriber to transmit a telephone number to the central many) to alert the called party to an incoming call. If the
oce when initiating a call. Until the 1960s dials used called partys line is in use, the exchange returns a busy
almost exclusively the rotary technology, which was re- signal to the calling party. However, if the called partys
placed by dual-tone multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) line is in use but has call waiting installed, the exchange
66.3. HISTORY
sends an intermittent audible tone to the called party to the microphone (A2), virtually all of the incoming sig-
indicate an incoming call. nal passes through it and bypasses the microphone.
The ringer of a telephone (A7) is connected to the line
through a capacitor (A6), which blocks direct current but
passes the alternating current of the ringing signal. The
telephone draws no current when it is on hook, while a
DC voltage is continually applied to the line. Exchange
circuitry (D2) can send an AC current down the line to
activate the ringer and announce an incoming call. When
there is no automatic exchange, telephones have hand-
cranked magnetos to generate a ringing voltage back to
the exchange or any other telephone on the same line.
When a landline telephone is inactive (on hook), the cir-
cuitry at the telephone exchange detects the absence of
direct current to indicate that the line is not in use. When
a party initiates a call to this line, the exchange sends the
ringing signal. When the called party picks up the hand-
set, they actuate a double-circuit switchhook (not shown)
which may simultaneously disconnects the alerting device
and connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn,
draws direct current through the line, conrming that the
called phone is now active. The exchange circuitry turns
o the ring signal, and both telephones are now active and
connected through the exchange. The parties may now
converse as long as both phones remain o hook. When
a party hangs up, placing the handset back on the cradle
or hook, direct current ceases in that line, signaling the
exchange to disconnect the call.
Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried
over trunk lines which establish connections between ex-
changes. In modern telephone networks, ber-optic cable
and digital technology are often employed in such con-
nections. Satellite technology may be used for communi-
cation over very long distances.
In most landline telephones, the transmitter and receiver
(microphone and speaker) are located in the handset, al-
though in a speakerphone these components may be lo-
cated in the base or in a separate enclosure. Powered
by the line, the microphone (A2) produces a modulated
electric current which varies its frequency and amplitude
in response to the sound waves arriving at its diaphragm.
The resulting current is transmitted along the telephone
line to the local exchange then on to the other phone
(via the local exchange or via a larger network), where it
passes through the coil of the receiver (A3). The varying
current in the coil produces a corresponding movement of
the receivers diaphragm, reproducing the original sound
waves present at the transmitter.
Along with the microphone and speaker, additional cir-
cuitry is incorporated to prevent the incoming speaker
signal and the outgoing microphone signal from inter-
fering with each other. This is accomplished through
a hybrid coil (A3). The incoming audio signal passes
through a resistor (A8) and the primary winding of the Alexander Graham Bell was the rst to be awarded a
coil (A3) which passes it to the speaker (A1). Since the patent for the electric telephone by the United States
current path A8 A3 has a far lower impedance than Patent and Trademark Oce (USPTO) in March 1876.
The Bell patents were forensically victorious and com-
253
At the same time the DC voltage across the line causes a
DC current which is split between the resistor-coil (A8-
A3) branch and the microphone-coil (A2-A3) branch.
The DC current through the resistor-coil branch has no
eect on the incoming audio signal. But the DC current
passing through the microphone is turned into AC current
(in response to voice sounds) which then passes through
only the upper branch of the coils (A3) primary winding,
which has far fewer turns than the lower primary winding.
This causes a small portion of the microphone output to
be fed back to the speaker, while the rest of the AC cur-
rent goes out through the phone line.
A linemans handset is a telephone designed for testing
the telephone network, and may be attached directly to
aerial lines and other infrastructure components.
66.3 History
Main articles: History of the telephone and Timeline of
the telephone
Further information: Invention of the telephone, Elisha
Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy, and
Canadian Parliamentary Motion on Alexander Graham
Bell
Before the development of the electric telephone, the
term telephone was applied to other inventions, and not
all early researchers of the electrical device called it tele-
phone. A communication device for sailing vessels The
Telephone was the invention of a captain John Taylor in
1844. This instrument used four air horns to commu-
nicate with vessels in foggy weather.[2] Later, c. 1860,
Johann Philipp Reis used the term in reference to his Reis
telephone, his device appears to be the rst such device
based on conversion of sound into electrical impulses,
the term telephone was adopted into the vocabulary of
many languages. It is derived from the Greek: , tle,
far and , phn, voice, together meaning dis-
tant voice.
Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is fre-
quently disputed. As with other inuential inventions
such as radio, television, the light bulb, and the computer,
several inventors pioneered experimental work on voice
transmission over a wire and improved on each others
ideas. New controversies over the issue still arise from
time to time. Charles Bourseul, Antonio Meucci, Johann
Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray,
amongst others, have all been credited with the invention
of the telephone.[3]
[4]
254 CHAPTER 66. TELEPHONE

1896 Telephone from Sweden

Bell placing the rst New York to Chicago telephone call in 1892

mercially decisive. That rst patent by Bell was the mas-

ter patent of the telephone, from which other patents for
electric telephone devices and features owed.[5]
In 1876, shortly after the telephone was invented, Hun-
garian engineer Tivadar Pusks invented the telephone
switch, which allowed for the formation of telephone ex-
changes, and eventually networks.[6]

66.3.1 Early development

Main article: Timeline of the telephone

Wooden wall telephone with a hand-cranked magneto generator

would eventually be replaced by the newer, distinct

Reis telephone
name, 'telephone'.

26 August 1854 Charles Bourseul published

1844 Innocenzo Manzetti rst mooted the idea an article in the magazine L'Illustration (Paris):
of a speaking telegraph or telephone. Use of the Transmission lectrique de la parole (electric
'speaking telegraph' and 'sound telegraph' monikers transmission of speech), describing a 'make-and-
66.3. HISTORY
A candlestick phone
Modern sound-powered emergency telephone
break' type telephone transmitter later created by Jo-
hann Reis.
26 October 1861 Johann Philipp Reis (1834
1874) publicly demonstrated the Reis telephone be-
255
A modern mobile phone, also called a cell phone
fore the Physical Society of Frankfurt. Reis tele-
phone was not limited to musical sounds. Reis also
used his telephone to transmit the phrase Das Pferd
frisst keinen Gurkensalat (The horse does not eat
cucumber salad).
22 August 1865, La Feuille d'Aoste reported It
is rumored that English technicians to whom Mr.
Manzetti illustrated his method for transmitting spo-
ken words on the telegraph wire intend to apply said
invention in England on several private telegraph
lines. However telephones would not be demon-
strated there until 1876, with a set of telephones
from Bell.
28 December 1871 Antonio Meucci les patent
caveat No. 3335 in the U.S. Patent Oce titled
Sound Telegraph, describing communication of
voice between two people by wire. A 'patent caveat'
was not an invention patent award, but only an un-
veried notice led by an individual that he or she
intends to le a regular patent application in the fu-
ture.
1874 Meucci, after having renewed the caveat
for two years does not renew it again, and the caveat
lapses.
6 April 1875 Bells U.S. Patent 161,739 Trans-
mitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs is
granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in
make-break circuits.
11 February 1876 Gray invents a liquid transmit-
ter for use with a telephone but does not build one.
256 CHAPTER 66. TELEPHONE

14 February 1876 Elisha Gray les a patent a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant person-
caveat for transmitting the human voice through a nel was to visit each telephone periodically to inspect the
telegraphic circuit. battery. During the 20th century, common battery op-
eration came to dominate, powered by talk battery from
14 February 1876 Alexander Bell applies for the the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried
patent Improvements in Telegraphy, for electro- the voice signals.
magnetic telephones using what is now called am-
plitude modulation (oscillating current and voltage) Early telephones used a single wire for the subscribers
but which he referred to as undulating current. line, with ground return used to complete the circuit (as
used in telegraphs). The earliest dynamic telephones also
19 February 1876 Gray is notied by the U.S. had only one port opening for sound, with the user alter-
Patent Oce of an interference between his caveat nately listening and speaking (or rather, shouting) into the
and Bells patent application. Gray decides to aban- same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in
don his caveat. pairs at each end, making conversation more convenient
but also more expensive.
7 March 1876 Bells U.S. patent 174,465 Im-
provement in Telegraphy is granted, covering the
method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or
other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical
undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the
air accompanying the said vocal or other sound.

10 March 1876 The rst successful telephone

transmission of clear speech using a liquid transmit-
ter when Bell spoke into his device, Mr. Watson,
come here, I want to see you. and Watson heard
each word distinctly.

30 January 1877 Bells U.S. patent 186,787 is

granted for an electromagnetic telephone using per-
manent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.

27 April 1877 Edison les for a patent on a car-

bon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was
granted 3 May 1892, after a 15-year delay because
of litigation. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for
a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.

66.3.2 Early commercial instruments

Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used a
liquid transmitter, some had a metal diaphragm that in- Acoustic telephone ad, The Consolidated Telephone Co., Jersey
duced current in an electromagnet wound around a per- City, NJ 1886
manent magnet, and some were dynamic - their di-
aphragm vibrated a coil of wire in the eld of a permanent At rst, the benets of a telephone exchange were not
magnet or the coil vibrated the diaphragm. The sound- exploited. Instead telephones were leased in pairs to a
powered dynamic kind survived in small numbers through subscriber, who had to arrange for a telegraph contractor
the 20th century in military and maritime applications, to construct a line between them, for example between a
where its ability to create its own electrical power was home and a shop. Users who wanted the ability to speak
crucial. Most, however, used the Edison/Berliner carbon to several dierent locations would need to obtain and
transmitter, which was much louder than the other kinds, set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union,
even though it required an induction coil which was an already using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the
impedance matching transformer to make it compatible principle to its telephones in New York City and San
with the impedance of the line. The Edison patents kept Francisco, and Bell was not slow in appreciating the po-
the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which tential.
time the network was more important than the instru- Signalling began in an appropriately primitive manner.
ment. The user alerted the other end, or the exchange operator,
Early telephones were locally powered, using either a dy- by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation
namic transmitter or by the powering of a transmitter with soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell in
66.3. HISTORY 257

a ringer box, rst operated over a second wire, and later

over the same wire, but with a condenser (capacitor) in se-
ries with the bell coil to allow the AC ringer signal through
while still blocking DC (keeping the phone "on hook").
Telephones connected to the earliest Strowger automatic
exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife switch, one
for each telegraph key, one for the bell, one for the push-
button and two for speaking. Large wall telephones in
the early 20th century usually incorporated the bell, and
separate bell boxes for desk phones dwindled away in the
middle of the century.
Rural and other telephones that were not on a common
battery exchange had a magneto hand-cranked generator
to produce a high voltage alternating signal to ring the
bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the oper- Video shows the operation of an Ericofon
ator. Some local farming communities that were not con-
nected to the main networks set up barbed wire telephone
lines that exploited the existing system of eld fences to
transmit the signal.
In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was intro-
duced, packaged in three parts. The transmitter stood on
a stand, known as a "candlestick" for its shape. When
not in use, the receiver hung on a hook with a switch
in it, known as a switchhook. Previous telephones re-
quired the user to operate a separate switch to connect
either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user
was less likely to leave the phone o the hook. In
phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induc-
tion coil, battery and magneto were in a separate bell box
or "ringer box".[7] In phones connected to common bat-
Telephone used by American soldiers (WWII, Minalin, Pam-
tery exchanges, the ringer box was installed under a desk,
panga, Philippines)
or other out of the way place, since it did not need a bat-
tery or magneto.
Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle
with the receiver and transmitter attached, now called a
handset, separate from the cradle base that housed the
magneto crank and other parts. They were larger than
the candlestick and more popular.

AT&T push button telephone made by Western Electric model

2500 DMG black 1980

Ericsson DBH 1001 (ca. 1931), the rst combined telephone Disadvantages of single wire operation such as crosstalk
made with a Bakelite housing and handset. and hum from nearby AC power wires had already led to
the use of twisted pairs and, for long distance telephones,
258 CHAPTER 66. TELEPHONE

four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of the 20th cen- reects the methodology memorably. VoIP has proven
tury did not place long distance calls from their own tele- to be a disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing
phones but made an appointment to use a special sound- traditional telephone network infrastructure.
proofed long distance telephone booth furnished with the As of January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers
latest technology. in Japan and South Korea have switched to this digital
What turned out to be the most popular and longest last- telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article
ing physical style of telephone was introduced in the suggested that Internet telephony may be the next big
early 20th century, including Bells 202-type desk set. A thing.[9] As of 2006 many VoIP companies oer service
carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver to consumers and businesses.
were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when
not in use sat in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit di-
agram of the model 202 shows the direct connection of
the transmitter to the line, while the receiver was induc-
tion coupled. In local battery congurations, when the
local loop was too long to provide sucient current from
the exchange, the transmitter was powered by a local bat-
tery and inductively coupled, while the receiver was in-
cluded in the local loop.[8] The coupling transformer and
the ringer were mounted in a separate enclosure, called
the subscriber set. The dial switch in the base interrupted
the line current by repeatedly but very briey disconnect-
ing the line 1 to 10 times for each digit, and the hook
switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) disconnected An IP desktop telephone attached to a computer network, with
the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was touch-tone dialing
on the cradle.
In the 1930s, telephone sets were developed that com- From a customer perspective, IP telephony uses a high-
bined the bell and induction coil with the desk set, obviat- bandwidth Internet connection and specialized customer
ing a separate ringer box. The rotary dial becoming com- premises equipment to transmit telephone calls via the In-
monplace in the 1930s in many areas enabled customer- ternet, or any modern private data network. The customer
dialed service, but some magneto systems remained even equipment may be an analog telephone adapter (ATA)
into the 1960s. After World-War II, the telephone net- which interfaces a conventional analog telephone to the
works saw rapid expansion and more ecient telephone IP networking equipment, or it may be an IP Phone that
sets, such as the model 500 telephone in the United States, has the networking and interface technology built into the
were developed that permitted larger local networks cen- desk-top set and provides the traditional, familiar parts of
tered around central oces. A breakthrough new tech- a telephone, the handset, the dial or keypad, and a ringer
nology was the introduction of Touch-Tone signaling us- in a package that usually resembles a standard telephone
ing push-button telephones by American Telephone & set.
Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1963. In addition, many computer software vendors and tele-
phony operators provide softphone application software
that emulates a telephone by use of an attached micro-
66.4 Digital telephones and voice phone and audio headset, or loud speaker.

over IP Despite the new features and conveniences of IP tele-

The invention of the transistor in 1947 dramatically
changed the technology used in telephone systems and in
the long-distance transmission networks. With the de-
velopment of electronic switching systems in the 1960s,
telephony gradually evolved towards digital telephony
which improved the capacity, quality, and cost of the net-
work.
The development of digital data communications
method, such as the protocols used for the Internet,
it became possible to digitize voice and transmit it as
real-time data across computer networks, giving rise to
the eld of Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, also known
as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), a term that
phones, some may have notable disadvantages compared
to traditional telephones. Unless the IP telephones com-
ponents are backed up with an uninterruptible power sup-
ply or other emergency power source, the phone ceases
to function during a power outage as can occur during an
emergency or disaster when the phone is most needed.
Traditional phones connected to the older PSTN network
do not experience that problem since they are powered by
the telephone companys battery supply, which will con-
tinue to function even if there is a prolonged power out-
age. Another problem in Internet-based services is the
lack of a xed physical location, impacting the provision-
ing of emergency services such as police, re or ambu-
lance, should someone call for them. Unless the regis-
tered user updates the IP phones physical address loca-
66.8. SEE ALSO
tion after moving to a new residence, emergency services
can be, and have been, dispatched to the wrong location.
Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 19972007
66.5 Symbols
Graphic symbols used to designate telephone service or
phone-related information in print, signage, and other
media include (U+2121), (U+260E), (U+260F),
(U+2706), and (U+2315).
66.6 Use
By the end of 2009, there were a total of nearly 6 billion
mobile and xed-line telephone subscribers worldwide.
This included 1.26 billion xed-line subscribers and 4.6
billion mobile subscribers.[10]
66.7 Patents
US 174,465 -- Telegraphy (Bells rst telephone
patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell
US 186,787 -- Electric Telegraphy (permanent mag-
net receiver) -- Alexander Graham Bell
US 474,230 -- Speaking Telegraph (graphite trans-
mitter) -- Thomas Edison
US 203,016 -- Speaking Telephone (carbon button
transmitter) -- Thomas Edison
US 222,390 -- Carbon Telephone (carbon granules
transmitter) -- Thomas Edison
US 485,311 -- Telephone (solid back carbon trans-
mitter) -- Anthony C. White (Bell engineer) This de-
sign was used until 1925 and installed phones were
used until the 1940s.
259
US 3,449,750 -- Duplex Radio Communication and
Signalling AppartusG. H. Sweigert
US 3,663,762 -- Cellular Mobile Communication
SystemAmos Edward Joel (Bell Labs)
US 3,906,166 -- Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC
cell phone) -- Martin Cooper et al. (Motorola)
66.8 See also
Bell System
Bell Telephone Memorial
Cordless telephone
Harvard sentences
Index of telephone-related articles
List of telephone operating companies
Satellite phone
Spamming
Telephone keypad
Telephone plug
Telephone switchboard
Telephone tapping
Tip and ring
Videophone
Phone hacking
66.9 References
[1] Dodd, Annabel Z., The Essential Guide to Telecommuni-
cations. Prentice Hall PTR, 2002, p. 183.
[2] Timbs, John; Year Book of Facts in Science and Art,
1844 edition, p. 55. Google Books. This citation is re-
ferred to also in the book The Telephone and Telephone
Exchanges by J. E. Kingsbury published in 1915.
[3] Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several Inven-
tors: A History. Jeerson, NC: McFarland & Company,
Inc. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7864-2609-6.
[4] Brown, Travis (1994). Historical rst patents: the rst
United States patent for many everyday things (illustrated
ed.). University of Michigan: Scarecrow Press. p. 179.
ISBN 978-0-8108-2898-8.
[5] US 174465 Alexander Graham Bell: Improvement in
Telegraphy led on February 14, 1876, granted on March
7, 1876.
260 CHAPTER 66. TELEPHONE

[6] Pusks, Tivadar. Omikk.bme.hu. Retrieved 2010-05- 66.11 External links

23.
[7] Ringer Boxes. Telephonymuseum.com. Retrieved
2010-05-23.
[8] Circuit Diagram, Model 102, Porticus Telephone website.
[9] Sheridan, Barrett. Newsweek National News, World
News, Health, Technology, Entertainment and more... -
Newsweek.com. MSNBC. Archived from the original
on January 18, 2005. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[10] Next-Generation Networks Set to Transform Commu-
nications, International Telecommunications Union web-
site, 4 September 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2009.
66.10 Further reading
Brooks, John. (1976) Telephone: The rst hundred
years (Harpercollins, 1976).
Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Graham
Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Cornell University
Press.
Casson, Herbert Newton. (1910) The history of the
telephone online.
Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data
1911 Britannica Telephone article
Virtual museum of early telephones
The Telephone, 1877
Telephone Citizendium
The short lm Now You're Talking (1927)" is avail-
able for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm Communication (1928)" is available
for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm Telephone Memories (Reel 1 of 2)
(1931)" is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm Telephone Memories (Reel 2 of 2)
(1931)" is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm Far Speaking (ca. 1935)" is available
for free download at the Internet Archive

Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several

Inventors: A History. Jeerson, NC: McFarland &
Co.

Evenson, A. Edward (2000). The Telephone Patent

Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray Alexander
Bell Controversy. Jeerson, NC: McFarland & Co.

Fischer, Claude S. (1994) America calling: A social

history of the telephone to 1940 (Univ of California
Press, 1994)

Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide His-

tory of Telecommunications Hoboken: NJ: Wiley-
IEEE Press.

John, Richard R. (2010). Network Nation: Inventing

American Telecommunications. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.

MacDougall, Robert. The Peoples Network: The

Political Economy of the Telephone in the Gilded Age.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Mueller, Milton. (1993) Universal service in tele-

phone history: A reconstruction. Telecommunica-
tions Policy 17.5 (1993): 352-369.

Todd, Kenneth P. (1998), A Capsule History of

the Bell System. American Telephone & Telegraph
Company (AT&T).
Chapter 67

Telephone card

more closely analogous to a change purse. While ATMs

2000s telephone card from the United States.
A telephone card, calling card or phonecard for short, by SIDA, was issued in 1976 in Italy.
is a credit card size plastic or paper card, used to pay for
telephone services (often international or long distance
calling). It is not necessary to have the physical card ex-
cept with a stored-value system; knowledge of the access
telephone number to dial and the PIN is sucient. Stan-
dard cards which can be purchased and used without any
sort of account facility give a xed amount of credit and
are discarded when used up; rechargeable cards can be
topped up, or collect payment in arrears. The system for
payment and the way in which the card is used to place a
telephone call vary from card to card.
Calling cards usually come equipped with PIN for user
protection and security. Most companies require user to
enter the PIN before granting access to the calling cards
funds. PINs often are printed on a piece of paper found
inside the calling cards packaging. Once the users makes
their rst call, some companies oer the option of elimi-
nating the PIN altogether to speed up the calling process.
Companies that sell virtual calling cards online typically
PIN via email.[1]
67.1 Stored-value phone cards
A stored-value phonecard contains the balance available
on the card. This balance can be read by a public
payphone machine when the card is inserted into the pay-
phones card reader. This is supercially similar to a
bank automated teller machine, but a stored-value card is
(as well as the remote memory systems discussed be-
low) use the card merely to identify the associated ac-
count and record changes in a central database, stored-
value systems make a physical alteration to the card to
reect the new balance after a call. Used primarily for
payphones, stored-value systems avoid the time lag and
expense of communication with a central database, which
would have been prohibitive before the 1990s. There are
several ways in which the value can be encoded on the
card.
The earliest system used a magnetic stripe as informa-
tion carrier, similar to the technology of ATMs and key
cards. The rst magnetic strip phonecard, manufactured
Optical phonecards from Austria. The balance is shown by the
vertical marks on the white bar
The next technology used optical storage. Optical
phonecards get their name from optical structure em-
bossed inside the cards. This optical structure is heated
and destroyed after use of the units. Visible marks are left
on the top of the cards, so that the user can see the bal-
ance of remaining units. Optical cards were produced by
Landis+Gyr and Sodeco from Switzerland and were pop-
ular early phonecards in many countries with rst optical
phonecards successfully introduced in 1977 in Belgium.
Such technology was very secure and not easily hackable
but chip cards phased out the optical phone cards around
the world and the last Landis+Gyr factory closed in May

261
262 CHAPTER 67. TELEPHONE CARD

2006 when optical phonecards were still in use in few countered by fears of vandalism of the machines.
countries like Austria, Israel and Egypt. The rst public prepaid remote memory phonecard was
The third system of stored-value phonecards is chip cards, issued in the United States in December 1980 by Phone
rst launched on a large scale in 1986 in Germany by Line. As telecom industries around the world became
Deutsche Bundespost after three years of testing, and in deregulated, remote memory cards were issued in various
France by France Tlcom. Many other countries fol- countries. Remote memory phonecards can be used from
lowed suit, including Ireland in 1990 and the UK circa any tone-mode phone and do not require special card
1994-1995, which phased out the old green Landis+Gyr readers. Since remote memory cards are more accessi-
cards in favor of the chip (smart) cards. The initial mi- ble and have lower costs, remote memory phone cards
crochips were easy to hack, typically by scratching o have proliferated. However, the utility of these cards is
the programming-voltage contact on the card, which ren- reduced by the large number of digits that need to be en-
dered the phone unable to reduce the cards value after a tered during usage. To call a long distance number, the
call. But by the mid-to-late 1990s, highly secure technol- user rst dials the local access number, then keys in the
ogy aided the spread of chip phonecards worldwide. secret code, followed by the actual long distance number.
Making a prepaid or calling card call requires the user to Based on the long distance number entered, the time re-
make two calls. Regardless of the type of card it is neces- maining on the card is announced, and the call is nally
sary to dial an access telephone number to connect to the processed through.
calling card system. There are several methods. One is Remote memory phonecards are in essence text; requir-
via a toll-free number, with larger companies oering this ing an access number, a unique PIN and instructions.
internationally. Access through a local number has be- Therefore, the instructions can be printed on virtually
come increasingly popular in recent years. Toll-free calls anything, or can be delivered via e-mail or the Internet.
are paid for by the recipient (the calling card company), Currently many websites post phone card details through
which passes on the cost through higher call charges; to- e-mail.
tal cost of a call to the user is often lower using a local
Phone cards are available in most countries in retail
number. When travelling through several local areas a stores, retail chains and commonly post oces or corner
toll-free service may be preferable.
stores. In general, remote memory phonecards can be
Once connected to the access number, the account is issued by any company and come in countless varieties.
identied by keying in a PIN (the most popular method) They can focus on calling to certain countries or regions
or by swiping a card with embedded chip or magnetic and have specic features such as rechargeability, pinless
stripe. After validation the balance remaining on the card dial, speed dial and more. Phone cards may have connec-
may be announced, and the desired number may be keyed tion fees, taxes and maintenance fees, all inuencing the
in. The available minutes may be announced, and the call rates.
is connected. Many cards make a verbal announcement
if credit is running out.
Prepaid or calling cards are usually much cheaper than 67.2.2 Accounts without a card (Virtual
other telephone services, particularly for travelers who phonecards)
do not have easy access to other services. Hotel tele-
phones can be very expensive, particularly for long- Since the early 2000s calling card service providers have
distance calls. Cellular services are exible, but may at- introduced calling accounts not associated with a physical
tract high roaming charges away from the home area. card. Calling accounts can be purchased over the Inter-
net using credit cards and are instantly delivered to the
customer via e-mail. This e-mail contains the PIN and
67.2 Remote memory systems instructions for using the service. The service may be pre-
paid, or may take payment from a credit card or by direct
debit. Some prepaid card companies allow accounts to be
67.2.1 Telephone accounts symbolized by a recharged online manually or automatically via a method
card called auto-top-up.

The second main technology of phonecards is remote
memory, which uses a toll or toll-free access number to
reach the database and check for balance on product. As
the United States never had a single nationalized tele-
phone service (or even the same rm for every part of
a state), and with the deregulation of its major telecom-
munications providers, there was no incentive to be con-
sistent with the rest of the world. The ease of use of slid-
ing a card into a machine just as in a teller machine was
Some virtual cards oer PINless Dialing, either by di-
alling a number unique to the customer, or by recognising
the telephone number which originated the call by Caller
ID and relating it to the appropriate account. Some vir-
tual phone cards allow customers to view their call detail
reports (CDRs) online by logging into their account.
The virtual phonecard has become a multi-billion US
dollar industry as of 2009, with a number of large cor-
porations and smaller Dot Com companies.[2] While
67.6. SEE ALSO 263

long-distance inland calls have been oered by calling 67.6 See also
cards, by the mid-2000s conventional carriers reduced
their rates to be competitive; however in many countries Telephone token
calling-card type indirect services can be much cheaper
than normal calls. Prepaid mobile phone
SIM card
67.3 Phonecard as an artifact or
collectible
Telecom companies have placed advertising on
phonecards, or featured celebrity portraits, artwork,
or attractive photography. As the supply of any one
design is limited, this has led some people to collect
disposable phonecards.
The hobby is sometimes called fusilately in the UK and
a collector is known as a fusilatelist";[3] In the USA it is
called telegery. Phonecards have been collected world-
wide since the mid-1970s and peaked in the mid-1990s,
when over 2 million people collected phonecards.
There are many web sites dedicated to this hobby, some
of which oer catalogs and show the stories behind the
cards. Colnect is a site providing the worlds most exten-
sive online phonecards catalog.[4]

67.4 Support in telephones

Most modern telephones, both mobile and xed, have
memory locations in which telephone numbers can be
stored. Some telephones have facilities to make calls
through a calling card service whose access details and
PIN are also stored in the telephones memory. This may
be implemented in dierent ways, often by pressing one
button before making a call; some telephones support
chain dialing, allowing additional numbers to be dialed
when on a call (e.g., dial a PIN and a second number after
connecting to an access number). So long as long enough
sequences can be stored it is possible to store an access
number, pause, PIN, and ultimate telephone number in
a single normal phone memory location. Software appli-
cations which add calling card support are available for a
small charge or free for some smartphones.

67.5 Notes and references

[1] Gosford, Jane. How Does a Calling Card Work?". De-
mand Media. USA Today. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
[2] Eliminating the Calling Card [SFGate]
[3] Phone Card Collecting. Barbara Crews, About.com.
2000-04-24. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
[4] Addicted to Phone Card Collecting. Guy Grimland.
2008-05-08. Archived from the original on January 30,
2009. Retrieved 2009-02-24.
Chapter 68
Telephone company
The Edison Bell Telephone Company building of 1896 in
Birmingham, England
A telephone company, also known as a telco, telephone
service provider,[1] or telecommunications operator,
is a kind of communications service provider (CSP)
(more precisely a telecommunications service provider or
TSP) that provides telecommunications services such as
telephony and data communications access. Many tele-
phone companies were at one time government agencies
or privately owned but state-regulated monopolies. The
government agencies are often referred to, primarily in
Europe, as PTTs (postal, telegraph and telephone ser-
vices).
Telephone companies are common carriers, and in the
United States are also called local exchange carriers.
With the advent of mobile telephony, telephone compa-
nies now include wireless carriers, or mobile network op-
erators.
Most telephone companies now also function as internet
service providers (ISPs), and the distinction between a
telephone company and an ISP may disappear completely
over time, as the current trend for supplier convergence in
the industry continues.
68.1 Popular culture
Comedian Lily Tomlin frequently satirized the tele-
phone industry (and the countrys then-dominant
264
Bell System in particular) with a skit playing the
telephone operator Ernestine. Ernestine, who be-
came one of Tomlins trademark characters, was
perhaps most famous for the following line: We
don't care; we don't have to. We're the phone com-
pany.
In the satirical 1967 lm The Presidents Analyst,
TPC, The Phone Company, is depicted as plot-
ting to enslave humanity by replacing landlines with
implanted mobile phones.
In the 1988 video game Zak McKracken and the
Alien Mindbenders, The Phone Company (TPC) was
used by the Caponian aliens to secretly reduce the
intelligence of humans.
68.2 See also
Bell Telephone Company, forerunner of AT&T in
the U.S.
Internet telephony service provider
Competitive local exchange carrier (in Canada and
the U.S.)
Communications service provider
History of the telephone
Incumbent local exchange carrier (of the Bell Sys-
tem)
List of telephone operating companies
List of mobile network operators
Mobile network operator
Plain old telephone service (POTS)
Public switched telephone network
Telecommunications Industry Association (for the
development of U.S. telecom standards)
Regional Bell Operating Company (in the U.S.)
68.4. EXTERNAL LINKS 265

Service provider

Telecommunications service provider

The Phone Company, free, non-commercial email-
to-fax service

68.3 References
Citations

[1] Operability: Keeping Your Telephone Number When You

Change Service Provider. FCC.gov. Retrieved on 2013-
09-18.

Bibliography

Huurdeman, Anton A. The Worldwide History Of

Telecommunications, Wiley-IEEE, 2003, ISBN 0-
471-20505-2, ISBN 978-0-471-20505-0

68.4 External links

Village Telco - site about microtelcos

Business Telecoms Company - site about business

broadband
Chapter 69
Telephone exchange
A telephone operator manually connecting calls with cord pairs
at a telephone switchboard.
A modern central oce, equipped for voice communication and
broadband data.
A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system
used in the public switched telephone network or in large
enterprises. An exchange consists of electronic compo-
nents and in older systems also human operators that in-
terconnect (switch) telephone subscriber lines or virtual
circuits of digital systems to establish telephone calls be-
tween subscribers.
In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have
been used with dierent semantics over time. The term
telephone exchange is often used synonymously with cen-
tral oce (CO), a Bell System term. Often, a central of-
ce is dened as a building used to house the inside plant
equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges,
266
each serving a certain geographical area. Such an area
has also been referred to as the exchange. Central of-
ce locations may also be identied in North America
as wire centers, designating a facility from which a tele-
phone obtains dial tone.[1] For business and billing pur-
poses, telephony carriers also dene rate centers, which
in larger cities may be clusters of central oces, to dene
specied geographical locations for determining distance
measurements.
In the United States and Canada, the Bell System estab-
lished in the 1940s a uniform system of identifying cen-
tral oces with a three-digit central oce code, that was
used as a prex to subscriber telephone numbers. All cen-
tral oces within a larger region, typically aggregated by
state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code.
With the development of international and transoceanic
telephone trunks, especially driven by direct customer di-
aling, similar eorts of systematic organization of the
telephone networks occurred in many countries in the
mid-20th century.
For corporate or enterprise use, a private telephone ex-
change is often referred to as a private branch exchange
(PBX), when it has connections to the public switched
telephone network. A PBX is installed in enterprise fa-
cilities, typically collocated with large oce spaces or
within an organizational campus to serve the local pri-
vate telephone system and any private leased line cir-
cuits. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key
telephone system in the oce of a receptionist.
69.1 History
In the era of the electrical telegraph, post oces, railway
stations, the more important governmental centers (min-
istries), stock exchanges, very few nationally distributed
newspapers, the largest internationally important corpo-
rations and wealthy individuals were the principal users of
such telegraphs.[2] Despite the fact that telephone devices
existed before the invention of the telephone exchange,
their success and economical operation would have been
impossible on the same schema and structure of the con-
temporary telegraph, as prior to the invention of the tele-
69.1. HISTORY 267

Tivadar Pusks
1903 manual crosspoint switch

tal telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Pusks,

and it was built by the Bell Telephone Company in Boston
in 1877.[9] The worlds rst commercial telephone ex-
change opened on November 12, 1877 in Friedrichsberg
close to Berlin.[10] George W. Coy designed and built the
rst commercial US telephone exchange which opened in
New Haven, Connecticut in January, 1878. The switch-
board was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot
lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous
conversations.[11] Charles Glidden is also credited with
establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 sub-
1922 diagram of 1877 Boston exchange scribers in 1878.
In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based
phone exchange switchboard, early telephones were hard- in London and Manchester,
[12]
both of which opened under
wired to and communicated with only a single other tele- Bell patents in 1879. Belgium had its rst International
phone (such as from an individuals home to the persons Bell exchange (in Antwerp) a year later.
business[3] ). In 1887 Pusks introduced the multiplex switchboard. .
[13]
A telephone exchange is a telephone system located at
service centers (central oces) responsible for a small ge- Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug
ographic area that provided the switching or interconnec- boards staed by switchboard operators. Each operator
tion of two or more individual subscriber lines for calls sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of -
made between them, rather than requiring direct lines be- inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which
tween subscriber stations. This made it possible for sub- was the local termination of a subscriber's telephone line.
scribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel contain-
spaces. These made telephony an available and comfort- ing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord
able communication tool for everyday use, and it gave the circuit.
impetus for the creation of a whole new industrial sector.When a calling party lifted the receiver, the local loop
One of the rst to propose a telephone exchange was current lit a signal lamp near the jack.[14] The operator re-
Hungarian Tivadar Pusks in 1877 while he was work- sponded by inserting the rear cord (answering cord) into
ing for Thomas Edison.[4][5][6][7][8] The rst experimen- the subscribers jack and switched her headset into the
268 CHAPTER 69. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

circuit to ask, Number, please?" For a local call, the op- other tone signaling systems.
erator inserted the front cord of the pair (ringing cord) A transitional technology (from pulse to DTMF) had
into the called partys local jack and started the ringing converters to convert DTMF to pulse, to feed to older
cycle. For a long distance call, she plugged into a trunk Strowger, panel, or crossbar switches. This technology
circuit to connect to another operator in another bank of was used as late as mid-2002.
boards or at a remote central oce. In 1918, the average
time to complete the connection for a long-distance call
was 15 minutes.[14]
Early manual switchboards required the operator to oper-
ate listening keys and ringing keys, but by the late 1910s
and 1920s, advances in switchboard technology led to
features which allowed the call to be automatically an-
swered immediately as the operator inserted the answer-
ing cord, and ringing would automatically begin as soon
as the operator inserted the ringing cord into the called
partys jack. The operator would be disconnected from
the circuit, allowing her to handle another call, while the
caller heard an audible ringback signal, so that that op-
erator would not have to periodically report that she was
continuing to ring the line.[15] Exchange building in Miskolc, Hungary
In the ringdown method, the originating operator called
another intermediate operator who would call the called
subscriber, or passed it on to another intermediate
operator.[16] This chain of intermediate operators could 69.2 Technologies
complete the call only if intermediate trunk lines were
available between all the centers at the same time. In
1943 when military calls had priority, a cross-country US
call might take as long as 2 hours to request and schedule
in cities that used manual switchboards for toll calls.
On March 10, 1891, Almon Brown Strowger, an under-
taker in Kansas City, Missouri, patented the stepping
switch, a device which led to the automation of tele-
phone circuit switching. While there were many exten-
sions and adaptations of this initial patent, the one best
known consists of 10 levels or banks, each having 10 con-
tacts arranged in a semicircle. When used with a rotary
telephone dial, each pair of digits caused the shaft of the
central contact hand of the stepping switch to rst step
(ratchet) up one level for each pulse in the rst digit and
then to swing horizontally in a contact row with one small
rotation for each pulse in the next digit.
Later stepping switches were arranged in banks, the rst
stage of which was a linender. If one of up to a hun-
dred subscriber lines had the receiver lifted o hook, a
linender connected the subscribers line to a free rst se-
lector, which returned the subscriber a dial tone to show
that it was ready to receive dialed digits. The subscribers
dial pulsed at about 10 pulses per second, although the
speed depended on the standard of the particular tele-
phone administration.
Exchanges based on the Strowger switch were eventu-
ally challenged by other exchange types and later by
crossbar technology. These exchange designs promised
faster switching and would accept pulses faster than the
Strowgers typical 10 ppstypically about 20 pps. At a
later date many also accepted DTMF touch tones or An old telephone system used in Colombia ETB Phones
69.2. TECHNOLOGIES 269

Many terms used in telecommunication technology dif-

fer in meaning and usage in various regions of the world
among English speaking regions. For the purpose of this
article the following denitions are made:

Manual service is a condition in which a human op-

erator routes calls inside an exchange without the use
of a dial.
Dial service is when an exchange routes calls by a
switch interpreting dialed digits.
A telephone switch is the switching equipment of an
exchange.
A concentrator is a device that concentrates trac,
be it remote or co-located with the switch.
An o-hook condition is a tip condition or describes
a circuit that is in use, e.g., when a phone call is in
progress.
An on-hook condition represents an idle circuit, i.e.
no phone call is in progress.
A wire center is the area served by a particular switch
or central oce.

Central oce originally referred to switching equipment

and its operators, it is also used generally for the building
that houses switching and related inside plant equipment.
In United States telecommunication jargon, a central of-
ce (C.O.) is a common carrier switching center Class
5 telephone switch in which trunks and local loops are
terminated and switched.[17] In the UK, a telephone ex-
change means an exchange building, and is also the name
for a telephone switch.
69.2.1 Manual service exchanges
With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver o-
hook and asks the operator to connect the call to a re-
quested number. Provided that the number is in the same
central oce, and located on the operators switchboard,
the operator connects the call by plugging the ringing cord
into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to the
called customers line. If the called partys line is on a
dierent switchboard in the same oce, or in a dier-
ent central oce, the operator plugs into the trunk for
the destination switchboard or oce and asks the opera-
tor answering (known as the B operator) to connect the
call.
Most urban exchanges provided common-battery service,
meaning that the central oce provided power to the sub-
scriber telephone circuits for operation of the transmitter,
as well as for automatic signaling with rotary dials. In
common-battery systems, the pair of wires from a sub-
scribers telephone to the exchange carry 48V (nominal)
DC potential from the telephone company end across the
1924 PBX switchboard
conductors. The telephone presents an open circuit when
it is on-hook or idle.[18]
When a subscribers phone is o-hook, it presents an elec-
trical resistance across the line which causes current to
ow through the telephone and wires to the central oce.
In a manually operated switchboard, this current owed
through a relay coil, and actuated a buzzer or a lamp on
the operators switchboard, signaling the operator to per-
form service.[18]
In the largest cities, it took many years to convert every
oce to automatic equipment, such as a panel switch.
During this transition period, once numbers were stan-
dardized to the 2L-5N format (two-letter exchange name
and ve digits), it was possible to dial a number on a man-
ual exchange and be connected without requesting oper-
ator assistance. The policy of the Bell System stated that
customers in large cities should not need to be concerned
about whether they were calling a manual or automated
oce.
If a subscriber dialed a manual number, an operator at
the destination oce would answer, see the number on an
indicator, and connect the call by plugging into the cor-
rect circuit and ringing the call. For instance, if a dial cus-
tomer calling from TAylor 4725 dialed a number served
by a manual exchange, e.g., ADams 1383, the call would
be completed, from the subscribers perspective, exactly
as would a call to LEnnox 5813-W, in an automated ex-
270 CHAPTER 69. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

change.

A rural telephone exchange building in Australia.

Montreal telephone exchange (c. 1895)

condition of the telephone when the user removes the
In contrast to the format MAin 1234, indicating an auto- handset from the switchhook or cradle. The exchange
mated oce, or a manual oce with operator indicators provides dial tone at that time to indicate to the user that
for incoming dialed calls, a listing such as Hillside 834 orthe exchange is ready to receive dialed digits. The pulses
East 23 were recognizable as being on a manual exchange or DTMF tones generated by the telephone are processed
because the second letter was not capitalized. and a connection is established to the destination tele-
The smallest towns with manual service often had phone within the same exchange or to another distant ex-
magneto telephones, which had an external crank for the change.
internal signaling generator. Using this type of service, The exchange maintains the connection until one of the
the subscriber turned a crank to generate ringing cur- parties hangs up. This monitoring of connection status
rent to gain the operators attention. The switchboard is called supervision. Additional features, such as billing
would respond by interrupting the circuit, which dropped equipment, may also be incorporated into the exchange.
a metal tab above the subscribers line jack and sounded a
buzzer. Dry cell batteries (normally two large N. 6 cells) The Bell System dial service implemented a feature called
in the subscribers telephone provided the DC power for automatic number identication (ANI) which facilitated
the transmitter. Such magneto systems were in use in the services like automated billing, toll-free 800-numbers,
US as late as 1983, as in the small town, Bryant Pond, and 9-1-1 service. In manual service, the operator knows
Woodstock, Maine. where a call is originating by the light on the switchboard
jack eld. Before ANI, long distance calls were placed
Many small town magneto systems featured party lines, into an operator queue and the operator asked the calling
anywhere from two to ten or more subscribers sharing a partys number and recorded it on a paper toll ticket.
single line. When calling a party, the operator used a dis-
tinctive ringing signal sequence, such as two long rings Early exchanges were electromechanical systems using
followed by one short ring. Everyone on the line could motors, shaft drives, rotating switches and relays. Some
hear the signals, and could pick up and monitor other types of automatic exchanges were the Strowger switch
peoples conversations. On rural lines that were not con- or step-by-step switch, All Relay, X-Y, panel switch and
nected to a central oce (thus not connected to the out- the crossbar switch.
side world), subscribers would crank the correct sequence
of rings to reach their party. Electromechanical signaling

Main article: Signalling (telecommunications)

69.2.2 Early automatic exchanges
Automatic exchanges, or dial service, came into ex- Circuits interconnecting switches are called trunks. Be-
istence in the early 20th century. Their purpose was to fore Signalling System 7, Bell System electromechanical
eliminate the need for human switchboard operators who switches in the United States communicated with one an-
completed the connections required for a telephone call. other over trunks using a variety of DC voltages and sig-
Automation replaced human operators with electrome- naling tones. It would be rare to see any of these in use
chanical systems and telephones were equipped with a today.
dial by which a caller transmitted the destination tele-
Some signalling communicated dialed digits. An early
phone number to the automatic switching system. form called Panel Call Indicator Pulsing used quaternary
A telephone exchange automatically senses an o-hook pulses to set up calls between a panel switch and a
69.2. TECHNOLOGIES 271

manual switchboard. Probably the most common form A second common form of signaling for supervision was
of communicating dialed digits between electromechan- called single-frequency or SF signaling. The most com-
ical switches was sending dial pulses, equivalent to a mon form of this used a steady 2,600 Hz tone to identify
rotary dial's pulsing, but sent over trunk circuits between
a trunk as idle. Trunk circuitry hearing a 2,600 Hz tone
switches. for a certain duration would go idle. (The duration re-
In Bell System trunks, it was common to use 20 pulse-per- quirement reduced falsing.) Some systems used tone fre-
second between crossbar switches and crossbar tandems. quencies over 3,000 Hz, particularly on SSB frequency
This was twice the rate of Western Electric/Bell System division multiplex microwave radio relays.
telephone dials. Using the faster pulsing rate made trunk On T-carrier digital transmission systems, bits within
utilization more ecient because the switch spent half as the T-1 data stream were used to transmit supervision.
long listening to digits. DTMF was not used for trunk By careful design, the appropriated bits did not change
signaling. voice quality appreciably. Robbed bits were translated
Multi-frequency (MF) was the last of the pre-digital to changes in contact states (opens and closures) by elec-
methods. It used a dierent set of tones sent in pairs tronics in the channel bank hardware. This allowed di-
like DTMF. Dialing was preceded by a special keypulse rect current E and M signaling, or dial pulses, to be sent
(KP) signal and followed by a start (ST). Variations of between electromechanical switches over a digital carrier
the Bell System MF tone scheme became a CCITT stan- which did not have DC continuity.
dard. Similar schemes were used in the Americas and in
some European countries including Spain. Digit strings
between switches were often abbreviated to further im-
prove utilization.
For example, one switch might send only the last four or Sounds
ve digits of a telephone number. In one case, seven digit
numbers were preceded by a digit 1 or 2 to dierentiate
between two area codes or oce codes, (a two-digit-per- A characteristic of electromechanical switching equip-
call savings). This improved revenue per trunk and re- ment is that the maintenance sta could hear the mechan-
duced the number of digit receivers needed in a switch. ical clattering of Strowgers, panel switches or crossbar
Every task in electromechanical switches was done in big relays. Most Bell System central oces were housed in
metallic pieces of hardware. Every fractional second cut reinforced concrete buildings with concrete ceilings and
o of call set up time meant fewer racks of equipment to oors.
handle call trac. In rural areas some smaller switching facilities, such as
Examples of signals communicating supervision or call community dial oces (CDOs), were housed in prefabri-
progress include E and M signaling, SF signaling, and cated metal buildings. These facilities almost always had
robbed-bit signaling. In physical (not carrier) E and M concrete oors. The hard surfaces reected sounds.
trunk circuits, trunks were four wire. Fifty trunks would During heavy use periods, it could be dicult to con-
require a hundred pair cable between switches, for ex- verse in a central oce switch room due to the clatter of
ample. Conductors in one common circuit conguration calls being processed in a large switch. For example, on
were named tip, ring, ear (E) and mouth (M). Tip and Mothers Day in the US, or on a Friday evening around
ring were the voice-carrying pair, and named after the 5pm, the metallic rattling could make raised voices nec-
tip and ring on the three conductor cords on the manual essary. For wire spring relay markers these noises resem-
operators console. bled hail falling on a metallic roof.
In two-way trunks with E and M signaling, a handshake On a pre-dawn Sunday morning, call processing might
took place to prevent both switches from colliding by di- slow to the extent that one might be able to hear individ-
aling calls on the same trunk at the same time. By chang- ual calls being dialed and set up. There were also noises
ing the state of these leads from ground to 48 volts, the from whining power inverters and whirring ringing gen-
switches stepped through a handshake protocol. Using erators. Some systems had a continual, rhythmic clack-
DC voltage changes, the local switch would send a signal clack-clack from wire spring relays that made reorder
to get ready for a call and the remote switch would reply (120 ipm) and busy (60 ipm) signals.
with an acknowledgment to go ahead with dial pulsing.
Bell System installations typically had alarm bells, gongs,
This was done with relay logic and discrete electronics.
or chimes to announce alarms calling attention to a failed
These voltage changes on the trunk circuit would cause switch element. A trouble reporting card system was con-
pops or clicks that were audible to the subscriber as nected to switch common control elements. These trou-
the electrical handshaking stepped through its protocol. ble reporting systems punctured cardboard cards with a
Another handshake, to start timing for billing purposes, code that logged the nature of a failure. Reed relay tech-
caused a second set of clunks when the called party an- nology in stored program control exchange nally quieted
swered. the environment.
272 CHAPTER 69. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

Maintenance tasks tem and provided a wide range of advanced services. Lo-
cal versions were called ARE11 while tandem versions
Electromechanical switching systems required sources of were known as ARE13. They were used in Scandinavia,
electricity in form of direct current (DC), as well as al- Australia, Ireland and many other countries in the late
ternating ring current (AC), which were generated on- 1970s and into the 1980s when they were replaced with
site with mechanical generators. In addition, telephone digital technology.
switches required adjustment of many mechanical parts. These systems could use the old electromechanical sig-
Unlike modern switches, a circuit connecting a dialed call naling methods inherited from crossbar and step-by-step
through an electromechanical switch had DC continuity switches. They also introduced a new form of data
within the local exchange area via metallic conductors. communications: two 1ESS exchanges could communi-
The design and maintenance procedures of all systems cate with one another using a data link called Common
involved methods to avoid that subscribers experienced Channel Interoce Signaling, (CCIS). This data link was
undue changes in the quality of the service or that they based on CCITT 6, a predecessor to SS7. In European
noticed failures. A variety of tools referred to as make- systems R2 signalling was normally used.
busys were plugged into electromechanical switch ele-
ments upon failure and during repairs. A make-busy
identied the part being worked on as in-use, causing the 69.2.3 Digital switches
switching logic to route around it. A similar tool was
called a TD tool. Delinquent subscribers had their ser-
vice temporarily denied (TDed). This was eected by
plugging a tool into the subscribers oce equipment on
Crossbar systems or line group in step-by-step switches.
The subscriber could receive calls but could not dial out.
Strowger-based, step-by-step oces in the Bell System
required continuous maintenance, such as cleaning. Indi-
cator lights on equipment bays in step oces alerted sta
to conditions such as blown fuses (usually white lamps)
or a permanent signal (stuck o-hook condition, usually
green indicators). Step oces were more susceptible to
single-point failures than newer technologies.
Crossbar oces used more shared, common control cir-
cuits. For example, a digit receiver (part of an element
called an Originating Register) would be connected to a A typical satellite PBX with front cover removed.
call just long enough to collect the subscribers dialed dig-
its. Crossbar architecture was more exible than step of- Digital switches work by connecting two or more digital
ces. Later crossbar systems had punch-card-based trou- circuits, according to a dialed telephone number or other
ble reporting systems. By the 1970s, automatic number instruction. Calls are set up between switches. In modern
identication had been retrotted to nearly all step-by- networks, this is usually controlled using the Signalling
step and crossbar switches in the Bell System. System 7 (SS7) protocol, or one of its variants. Many
networks around the world are now transitioning to voice
over IP technologies which use Internet-based protocols
Electronic switches such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). These may
have superseded TDM and SS7 based technologies in
Electronic switching systems gradually evolved in stages some networks.
from electromechanical hybrids with stored program con- The concepts of digital switching were developed by var-
trol to the fully digital systems. Early systems used ious labs in the United States and in Europe from the
reed relay-switched metallic paths under digital control. 1930s onwards. The rst prototype digital switch was de-
Equipment testing, phone numbers reassignments, circuit veloped by Bell Labs as part of the ESSEX project while
lockouts and similar tasks were accomplished by data en- the rst true digital exchange to be combined with digital
try on a terminal. transmission systems was designed by LCT (Laboratoire
Examples of these systems included the Western Elec- Central de Telecommunications) in Paris. The rst digi-
tric 1ESS switch, Northern Telecom SP1, Ericsson AKE, tal switch to be placed into a public network was the Em-
Philips PRX/A, ITT Metaconta, British GPO/BT TXE press Exchange in London, England which was designed
series and several other designs were similar. Ericsson by the General Post Oce research labs. This was a tan-
also developed a fully computerized version of their ARF dem switch that connected three Strowger exchanges in
crossbar exchange called ARE. These used a crossbar the London area. The rst commercial roll-out of a fully
switching matrix with a fully computerized control sys- digital local switching system was Alcatel's E10 system
69.2. TECHNOLOGIES 273

which began serving customers in Brittany in Northwest-

ern France in 1972.
Prominent examples of digital switches include:

Ericsson's AXE telephone exchange is the most

widely used digital switching platform in the world
and can be found throughout Europe and in most
countries around the world. It is also very popular
in mobile applications. This highly modular system
was developed in Sweden in the 1970s as a replace-
ment for the very popular range of Ericsson crossbar A digital exchange (Nortel DMS-100) used by an operator to of-
switches ARF, ARM, ARK and ARE used by many fer local and long distance services in France. Each switch typ-
European networks from the 1950s onwards.
Alcatel-Lucent inherited three of the worlds most
iconic digital switching systems : Alcatel E10, 1000-
S12, and the Western Electric 5ESS.
Alcatel developed the E10 system in France
during the late 1960s and 1970s. This widely
used family of digital switches was one of the
earliest TDM switches to be widely used in
public networks. Subscribers were rst con-
nected to E10A switches in France in 1972.
This system is used in France, Ireland, China,
and many other countries. It has been through
many revisions and current versions are even
integrated into All IP networks.
Alcatel also acquired ITT System 12 which
when it bought ITTs European operations.
The S12 system and E10 systems were merged
into a single platform in the 1990s. The S12
system is used in Germany, Italy, Australia,
Belgium, China, India, and many other coun-
tries around the world.
Finally, when Alcatel and Lucent merged, the
company acquired Lucents 5ESS and 4ESS
systems used throughout the United States of
America and in many other countries.
Nokia Siemens Networks EWSD originally devel-
oped by Siemens, Bosch and DeTeWe for the Ger-
man market is used throughout the world.
Nortel now Genband DMS100 is very popular with loop carrier, a remote switch can route calls between local
operators all over the world.
ically serves 10,000-100,000+ subscribers depending on the ge-
ographic area
process occurs, to produce the sound for the receiving
phone. In other words, when someone uses a telephone,
the speakers voice is encoded then reconstructed for
the person on the other end. The speakers voice is de-
layed in the process by a small fraction of one second it
is not live, it is reconstructed delayed only minutely.
(See below for more info.)
Individual local loop telephone lines are connected to a
remote concentrator. In many cases, the concentrator
is co-located in the same building as the switch. The
interface between remote concentrators and telephone
switches has been standardised by ETSI as the V5 pro-
tocol. Concentrators are used because most telephones
are idle most of the day, hence the trac from hundreds
or thousands of them may be concentrated into only tens
or hundreds of shared connections.
Some telephone switches do not have concentrators di-
rectly connected to them, but rather are used to con-
nect calls between other telephone switches. These com-
plex machines (or a series of them) in a central ex-
change building are referred to as carrier-level switches
or tandem switches.
Some telephone exchange buildings in small towns now
house only remote or satellite switches, and are homed
upon a parent switch, usually several kilometres away.
The remote switch is dependent on the parent switch for
routing and number plan information. Unlike a digital
phones itself, without using trunks to the parent switch.

NEC NEAX used in Japan, New Zealand and many Telephone switches are usually owned and operated by a
other countries. telephone service provider or carrier and located in their
premises, but sometimes individual businesses or private
Marconi System X originally developed by GPT and commercial buildings will house their own switch, called
Plessey is a type of digital exchange used by BT a PBX, or Private branch exchange.
Group in the UK public telephone network.

Digital switches encode the speech going on, in 8,000 69.2.4 The switchs place in the system
time slices per second. At each time slice, a digital PCM
representation of the tone is made. The digits are then Telephone switches are a small component of a large net-
sent to the receiving end of the line, where the reverse work. A major part, in terms of expense, maintenance,
274
Map of the Wire Center locations in the US
Map of the Central Oce locations in the US
and logistics of the telephone system is outside plant,
which is the wiring outside the central oce. While many
subscribers were served with party-lines in the middle of
the 20th century, it was the goal that each subscriber tele-
phone station was connected to an individual pair of wires
from the switching system.
A typical central oce may have tens of thousands of
pairs of wires that appear on terminal blocks called the
main distribution frame (MDF). A component of the
MDF is protection: fuses or other devices that protect the
switch from lightning, shorts with electric power lines, or
other foreign voltages. In a typical telephone company, a
large database tracks information about each subscriber
pair and the status of each jumper. Before computeriza-
tion of Bell System records in the 1980s, this information
was handwritten in pencil in accounting ledger books.
To reduce the expense of outside plant, some companies
use "pair gain" devices to provide telephone service to
subscribers. These devices are used to provide service
where existing copper facilities have been exhausted or
by siting in a neighborhood, can reduce the length of cop-
per pairs, enabling digital services such as Integrated Ser-
vices Digital Network (ISDN) or Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL).
CHAPTER 69. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
Pair gain or digital loop carriers (DLCs) are located
outside the central oce, usually in a large neighbor-
hood distant from the CO. DLCs are often referred to
as Subscriber Loop Carriers (SLCs), after a Lucent pro-
prietary product.
DLCs can be congured as universal (UDLCs) or inte-
grated (IDLCs). Universal DLCs have two terminals,
a central oce terminal (COT) and a remote terminal
(RT), that function similarly. Both terminals interface
with analog signals, convert to digital signals, and trans-
port to the other side where the reverse is performed.
Sometimes, the transport is handled by separate equip-
ment. In an Integrated DLC, the COT is eliminated. In-
stead, the RT is connected digitally to equipment in the
telephone switch. This reduces the total amount of equip-
ment required.
Switches are used in both local central oces and in
long distance centers. There are two major types in the
Public switched telephone network (PSTN), the Class 4
telephone switches designed for toll or switch-to-switch
connections, and the Class 5 telephone switches or sub-
scriber switches, which manage connections from sub-
scriber telephones. Since the 1990s, hybrid Class 4/5
switching systems that serve both functions have become
common.
Another element of the telephone network is time and
timing. Switching, transmission and billing equipment
may be slaved to very high accuracy 10 MHz standards
which synchronize time events to very close intervals.
Time-standards equipment may include Rubidium- or
Caesium-based standards and a Global Positioning Sys-
tem receiver.
69.3 Switch design
Long distance switches may use a slower, more ecient
switch-allocation algorithm than local central oces, be-
cause they have near 100% utilization of their input and
output channels. Central oces have more than 90% of
their channel capacity unused.
Traditional telephone switches connected physical cir-
cuits (e.g., wire pairs) while modern telephone switches
use a combination of space- and time-division switching.
In other words, each voice channel is represented by a
time slot (say 1 or 2) on a physical wire pair (A or B).
In order to connect two voice channels (say A1 and B2)
together, the telephone switch interchanges the informa-
tion between A1 and B2. It switches both the time slot
and physical connection. To do this, it exchanges data
between the time slots and connections 8,000 times per
second, under control of digital logic that cycles through
electronic lists of the current connections. Using both
types of switching makes a modern switch far smaller
than either a space or time switch could be by itself.
69.6. FIRE AND DISASTER RECOVERY 275

The structure of a switch is an odd number of layers nections between layers in the switch are allocated using
of smaller, simpler subswitches. Each layer is intercon- rst-in-rst-out lists (queues). As a result, if a connec-
nected by a web of wires that goes from each subswitch, tion is faulty or noisy and the customer hangs up and re-
to a set of the next layer of subswitches. In most designs, dials, they will get a dierent set of connections and sub-
a physical (space) switching layer alternates with a time switches. A last-in-rst-out (stack) allocation of connec-
switching layer. The layers are symmetric, because in a tions might cause a continuing string of very frustrating
telephone system callers can also be callees. failures.
A time-division subswitch reads a complete cycle of time
slots into a memory, and then writes it out in a dierent
order, also under control of a cyclic computer memory. 69.6 Fire and disaster recovery
This causes some delay in the signal.
A space-division subswitch switches electrical paths, of-
ten using some variant of a nonblocking minimal span-
ning switch, or a crossover switch.

69.4 Switch control algorithms

69.4.1 Fully connected mesh network

One way is to have enough switching fabric to assure that

the pairwise allocation will always succeed by building a
fully connected mesh network. This is the method usually
used in central oce switches, which have low utilization
of their resources.

69.4.2 Closs nonblocking switch algo-

rithm

Main article: Nonblocking minimal spanning switch

The scarce resources in a telephone switch are the con-

nections between layers of subswitches. The control logic
has to allocate these connections, and most switches do Second Avenue exchange, NYC
so in a way that is fault tolerant. See nonblocking mini-
mal spanning switch for a discussion of the Charles Clos In July 1951, during massive ooding in Kansas and
algorithm, used in many telephone switches, and a very Missouri, a manual switchboard in Manhattan, Kansas
important algorithm to the telephone industry. was abandoned as water levels rose in the central oce;
operators regained access to the towns four trunk lines
from a local lling station on higher ground to send emer-
69.5 Fault tolerance gency messages and radiotelephone was used to bypass
damaged facilities.[19]
Composite switches are inherently fault-tolerant. If a sub- On February 27, 1975 a re at New York Tele-
switch fails, the controlling computer can sense it dur- phone's building at 204 Second Avenue (at East 13th
ing a periodic test. The computer marks all the con- Street) in Manhattan destroyed the main distribution
nections to the subswitch as in use. This prevents new frame and damaged much of the underground cabling,
calls, and does not interrupt old calls that remain working. disconnecting 170,000 subscribers. This oce connects
As calls in progress end, the subswitch becomes unused, many circuits to Brooklyn which were disrupted. Equip-
and new calls avoid the subswitch because its already in ment was redirected from other Bell System operating
use. Some time later, a technician can replace the circuit companies in multiple US states to establish temporary
board. When the next test succeeds, the connections to service and rebuild the destroyed exchange.[20]
the repaired subsystem are marked not in use, and the In 1978, a central oce re in Mebane, North Carolina
switch returns to full operation. knocked out every one of the small communitys 3900
To prevent frustration with unsensed failures, all the con- phones.[21]
276
In May 1988, a central oce re in the Chicago sub-
urb of Hinsdale, Illinois knocked out 35,000 local sub-
scribers, broke the link between the FAA and air traf-
c control at Chicago O'Hare International Airport (then
the worlds busiest) and disrupted the Midwests ability to
communicate with the rest of the country. The oce had
a re alarm but no automatic re suppression equipment.
The facility was unattended and monitored remotely by an
Illinois Bell technician in Springeld; it took an hour to
notify reghters of the blaze as the distant technicians
attempts to call the re department in Hinsdale did not
get through. The re had already knocked out the phone
lines.[22]
In 1991, all twenty-eight exchanges serving Kuwait were
out of service in the wake of a 1990 invasion by Iraq;
equipment had been looted and central oces destroyed.
Service was initially restored via satellite.[23]
On September 11, 2001 a terrorist attack destroyed a cen-
tral oce in the World Trade Center in New York City
and heavily damaged an adjacent exchange. The Verizon [9] Frank Lewis Dyer: Edison His Life And Inventions.
Building at 140 West Street was restored by 3500 work-
[24]
ers at a cost of $1.2 billion, after 200,000 voice lines [10] 120 Year Telephone anniversary
and three million data circuits had been knocked out of
operation.[25]
The central exchange, due to the systems design, is al-
most always a single point of failure for local calls. As
the capacity of individual switches and the optical bre
which interconnects them increases, potential disruption
caused by destruction of one local oce will only be mag-
nied. Multiple bre connections can be used to pro-
vide redundancy to voice and data connections between
switching centres, but careful network design is required
to avoid situations where a main bre and its backup both
go through the same damaged central oce as a potential
common mode failure.[22]
69.7 See also
History of telecommunication
List of telephone switches
Pair gain system
Full Availability, Limited Availability and Gradings
Softswitch
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
Telephone exchange names
Faraday Building - First telephone exchange in UK
69.8 References
[1] General Denitions. Verizon service. Verizon Enter-
prise Solutions.
CHAPTER 69. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
[2] Private Telegraphs, The Sydney Morning Herald, credited
to The Times, April 19, 1878, p. 6.
[3] Bo Leuf (2002). Peer to Peer: Collaboration and Shar-
ing Over the Internet. Addison-Wesley. p. 15. ISBN
9780201767322.
[4] Alvin K. Benson (2010). Inventors and inventions Great
lives from history Volume 4 of Great Lives from History:
Inventors & Inventions. Salem Press. p. 1298. ISBN
9781587655227.
[5] TIVADAR PUSKS (1844 - 1893)
[6] SZTNH. Mszh.hu. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
[7] Pusks, Tivadar. Omikk.bme.hu. Retrieved 2012-07-
01.
[8] Welcome hunreal.com - BlueHost.com. Hunreal.com.
Archived from the original on 2012-03-16. Retrieved
2012-07-01.
(page: 71)
[11] See National Park Service rst switchboard page.
[12] Early Manchester telephone exchanges (PDF).
mosi.org.uk. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[13] Francis S. Wagner: Hungarian Contributions to World
Civilization - Page 68
[14] Calvert, J. B. (2003-09-07). Basic Telephones. Re-
trieved 2007-09-13.
[15] http://www.strombergcarlsontelephone.com/kellogg/
PDF/1921%20SW%20BD%20INSERT.pdf
[16] Calvert, J. B. (2003-09-07). Basic Telephones, The
Switchboard (ringdown is near bottom)". Retrieved 2006-
09-13.
[17] Source: from Federal Standard 1037C.
[18] Connected to a switch, an o-hook condition operates a
relay to connect the line to a dial tone generator and a de-
vice to collect dialed digits.
[19] AT&T Tech Channel (2011-06-17). AT&T Archives :
Flood Waters. AT&T. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[20] Miracle on Second Avenue: Reconnecting 170,000
Phone Customers in NYC After a Major Fire (archive
video, 0:22:40 including modern introduction). AT&T.
[21] AT&T Tech Channel (2012-07-13). AT&T Archives :
The Town That Lost Its Voice. AT&T. Retrieved 2013-
07-30.
[22] Andrew Pollack (1988-05-26). Phone System Feared
Vulnerable To Wider Disruptions of Service (PDF). New
York Times. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[23] Operation Desert Switch (archive video, 0:17:04).
AT&T. 1991.
69.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 277

[24] Wall Street a year on: Annus horribilis. The Economist.

2002-09-05. Retrieved 2013-07-30.

[25] Bond trading resumes, stocks remain on hold. The

Mount Airy News. Sep 14, 2001.

Ronayne, John P. (1986). Introduction to Digital

Communications Switching (1st ed.). Indianapolis:
Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc. ISBN 0-672-22498-
4.

69.9 External links

Telephone Central Oce History and Pictures

Clive Feathers guide to the BT network

Basic Telephones Technology

Roger W. Haworths guide to London (UK) Director

Exchange Names

National Park Services page about the rst tele-

phone exchange

patent 252,576 for the rst telephone switchboard in

1881

A Telecom Exchange Tour in NZ

Picture collection Telephon and Exchange
Chapter 70

Telephone hook

A telephone hook or switchhook is an electrical switch O the Hook: radio show

which indicates when the phone is hung up, often with a
lever or magnetic button inside the cradle or base where Permanent signal
a telephone handset resides. It takes its name from
old wooden wall telephones and candlestick telephones,
where the mouthpiece was mounted on the telephone box
and, due to sidetone considerations, the receiver was sep-
arate, on a cable. When the telephone was not in use,
the receiver was hung on a spring-loaded hook; its weight
would cause the hook to swing down and open an elec-
trical contact, disconnecting something, but not the tele-
phone from the line or the phone could not ring. When
the handset is on the cradle, the telephone is said to be
"on-hook", or ready for a call. When the handset is o
the cradle, the telephone is said to be "o-hook", or un-
able to receive any (further) calls.
Pushing the switchhook quickly is termed a "hook ash".

70.1 Example usage

I tried calling you all day, but your phone must have been
o the hook, because all I got was a busy signal.

70.2 Additional usage

A phone receiving many calls in rapid succession can be
said to be ringing o the hook. (Often cartoons will
show a telephone handset literally bouncing above the
ringing base unit.) This most likely led to the present use
of o the hook as a synonym for crazy or exciting.
Last night was o-the-hook may mean last night was
really awesome.
O the hook, meaning freed from responsibility or
culpability is not related to the telephone, but most likely
derives from the image of a worm or sh dislodging itself
from a sh hook.

70.3 See also

Hook ash

278
Chapter 71

Telephone number mapping

ENUM redirects here. For enumeration types in 71.2 System details

programming languages, see Enumerated type.
For an ENUM subscriber to be able to activate and use
Telephone number mapping is a system of unifying the ENUM service, it needs to obtain three elements from
the international telephone number system of the public a Registrar:
switched telephone network with the Internet address-
ing and identication name spaces. Internationally, tele- A personal Uniform Resource Identier (URI) to be
phone numbers are systematically organized by the E.164 used on the IP part of the network, as explained be-
standard, while the Internet uses the Domain Name Sys- low.
tem (DNS) for linking domain names to IP addresses and
other resource information. Telephone number mapping One E.164 regular personal telephone number as-
systems provide facilities to determine applicable Internet sociated with the personal URI, to be used on the
communications servers responsible for servicing a given PSTN part of the network.
telephone number using DNS queries.
The most prominent facility for telephone number map- Authority to write their call forwarding/termination
ping is the E.164 Number to URI Mapping (ENUM) preferences in the NAPTR record accessible via the
standard. It uses special DNS record types to translate personal URI.
a telephone number into a Uniform Resource Identier
(URI) or IP address that can be used in Internet commu- This works as follows: (1) the Registrar provides the Sub-
nications. scriber (or Registrant) with a domain name, the URI,
that will be used for accessing a DNS server to fetch a
NAPTR record, (2) a personal E.164 telephone number
(the ENUM number). The URI domain name of (1) is
biunivocally associated (one-to-one mapped) to the sub-
scriber E.164 ENUM number of (2). Finally (3) the
NAPTR record corresponding to the subscriber URI con-
tains the subscriber call forwarding/termination prefer-
71.1 Rationale ences.
Therefore, if a calling party being at the PSTN network
dials a called party ENUM number by touch typing the
Being able to dial telephone numbers the way customers E.164 called party number, the number will be translated
have come to expect is considered crucial for the con- at the ENUM gateway into the corresponding URI. This
vergence of classic telephone service (PSTN) and Inter- URI will be used for looking-up and fetching the NAPTR
net telephony (Voice over IP, VoIP), and for the develop- record obtaining the called party wishes about how the
ment of new IP multimedia services. The problem of a call should be forwarded or terminated (either on IP or
single universal personal identier for multiple commu- on PSTN terminations) the so-called access informa-
nication services can be solved with dierent approaches. tion which the registrant (the called party) has specied
One simple approach is the Electronic Number Mapping by writing his/her choice at the NAPTR record (Nam-
System (ENUM), developed by the IETF, using existing ing Authority Pointer Resource Records as dened in
E.164 telephone numbers, protocols and infrastructure to RFC 3403), such as e-mail addresses, a fax number, a
indirectly access dierent services available under a sin- personal website, a VoIP number, mobile telephone num-
gle personal identier. ENUM also permits connecting bers, voice mail systems, IP-telephony addresses, web
the IP world to the telephone system in a seamless man- pages, GPS coordinates, call diversions or instant mes-
ner. saging. Alternatively, when the calling party is at the IP

279
280 CHAPTER 71. TELEPHONE NUMBER MAPPING

side, the User Agent (UA) piece of software of the di-
aller will allow to dial a E.164 number, but the dialler
UA will convert it into a URI, to be used for looking-
up at the ENUM gateway DNS and fetch the NAPTR
record obtaining the called party wishes about how the
call should be forwarded or terminated (again, either on
IP or on PSTN terminations).
Calling by using a new personal E.164 number (the
ENUM number) to look-up at a database is therefore an
indirect calling support service.
The ITU ENUM allocates a specic zone, namely
e164.arpa for use with ENUM E.164 numbers on the
IP side of the network. RFC 6116 denes how any
E.164 number, such as +1 555 42 42 can be trans-
formed into a URI, by reversing the numbers, separat-
ing them with dots and adding the e164.arpa sux thus:
2.4.2.4.5.5.5.1.e164.arpa
The URI can then be used for obtaining the Internet Pro-
tocol addresses for services such as the Session Initiation
Protocol (SIP) VoIP telephony. In the DNS, NAPTR
records are used for setting the subscriber call forward-
ing/termination preferences. Therefore, the whole sys-
tem can 'translate' E.164 addresses to SIP addresses. An
example NAPTR record is:
$ORIGIN 2.4.2.4.5.5.5.1.e164.arpa. IN NAPTR 100
10 u E2U+sip "!^.*$!sip:phoneme@example.net!"
. IN NAPTR 102 10 u E2U+mailto "!^.*$!mailto:
myemail@example.com!" .
This example species that if you want to use the
E2U+sip service, you should use sip:phoneme@
example.net as the address. The regular expression can
be used by a telephone company to easily assign ad-
dresses to all of its clients. For example, if your number
is +15554242, your SIP address is sip:4242@555telco.
example.net; if your number is +15551234, your SIP ad-
dress is sip:1234@555telco.example.net.
The following Figure illustrates how ENUM works by 71.3.1
giving an example: Subscriber A sets out to call Sub-
scriber B.
ENUM domain 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.4.3.e164.arpa.
A request is sent to the DNS for the
NAPTR record of the domain name
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.4.3.e164.arpa.
The query returns a result set of NAPTR records, as
per RFC 3403. In the example above, the response
is an address that can be reached in the Internet using
the VoIP protocol SIP per RFC 3261.
The terminal application now sets up a communica-
tion link, and the call is routed via the Internet.
The ENUM user does not notice anything of this rever-
sal and the DNS database look-up, as this is done auto-
matically behind the scenes using a user agent software
in his PC or terminal, or at the PABX or Gateway. For
instance, when the user types the telephone number in
his web browser ENUM enabled agent and indicates what
item of information he is looking for (email address, tele-
phone number, web address, etc.) in the PC or termi-
nal the number is converted to a domain name. This is
sent to ENUM servers on the Internet, which send back
the NAPTR records associated with the name. The ac-
cess information and any priority indicated for them are
stored in these. The user gets the requested address back
on his PC or terminal. ENUM therefore in fact functions
as a mechanism for translating a telephone number into a
domain name with the requested address or number as-
sociated with it, but without the user viewing how this is
done, just as he is currently unaware that he is using the
DNS when he makes a connection with the Internet or
what is going on at the telephone switch when he makes
a call.
71.3 Uses
Call forwarding

Application scenario for Voice over IP (VoIP) with ENUM.

The user agent of an ENUM-enabled subscriber ter- Call forwarding with ENUM
minal device, or a PBX, or a gateway, translates the
request for the number +34 98 765 4321 in accor- One way of doing call forwarding with ENUM is illus-
dance with the rule described in RFC 6116 into the trated in the next gure. The caller uses the telephone
71.4. ENUM VARIETIES
to dial the number of another subscriber, which leads
to an ENUM lookup (such as is provided by SIP Bro-
ker). The DNS responds to the caller by returning a
list with NAPTR records for VoIP communication, tele-
phone numbers and email addresses. Next, an attempt
will be made, using the VoIP record from this list, to es-
tablish a connection with the subscriber. If the subscriber
is not online, the next record selected will be that for a
connection to a PSTN or mobile telephone. If this at-
tempt fails too, a voice message will be sent to the sub-
scriber via a listed email address.
Subdomains of e164.arpa are delegated on a country-
code basis by the ITU. Each delegation is normally made
to a regulatory body designated by the national gov-
ernment for the country code concerned. What hap-
pens at a country level is a National Matter. In gen-
eral the conventional DNS registry-registrar model is
used. The national ENUM registry manages and operates
the DNS infrastructure and related systems for country-
code.e164.arpa. It takes registration requests from regis-
trars who are agents of the end users, the registrants. Reg-
istrars are typically VoIP providers and telcos who bundle
an ENUM registration as part of a VoIP service package.
People using an ENUM-enabled VoIP service can dial the
registrants existing number and be connected to the reg-
istrants VoIP telephone over the Internet instead of us-
ing the PSTN. When they call someone who does not use
ENUM, calls complete over the Public Switched Tele-
phone Network or PSTN in the usual manner. Support
for .e164.arpa varies widely between countries; many do
not support it at all.
Alternative ENUM-like registries such as E164.org have today. Quite often, people speaking of ENUM are really
also emerged. These services verify PSTN numbers referring to only one of the following:
and can be used in addition to or as an alternative to
e164.arpa. However, if the registry in which a callees
number is not known by the caller, the choice between
registries can create confusion and complexity. Multiple
DNS lookups may be needed and it is far from simple
to know which E.164 numbers are registered in which of
these alternate ENUM-like trees. It is also possible that
if an E.164 number is registered in several of these trees,
there can be inconsistencies in the information that is re-
turned. Furthermore, the subscriber owning a particu-
lar E.164 number may not be aware that their number has
been entered into one or more of these alternate ENUM-
like trees or what information these alternate trees are re-
turning for their E.164 number.
71.3.2 Called party facility
ENUM can also be viewed as a called party facility. Ba-
sically, it is an indirect dialling service designed to work
seamlessly on PSTN and VoIP that builds on the great
value of the E.164 numbers: billions of people knowing
how to dial using numbers.
If the called person has opted to use ENUM she/he will
281
have published the ENUM number and have entered (via
ENUM NAPTR) his/her wishes for how the call should
be terminated. This might be a single VoIP identier,
but most likely it will be a list of how the call should be
forwarded to various xed-line, cellphones, secretarial or
voice mail services, either at the IP or at the PSTN side of
the network. It is the called party choice to opt-in ENUM
and also to decide to let the calling party know her/his
wishes.
Today when a user places a regular phone call, he has to
begin deciding how to establish the call with the other
party: via VoIP, Fixed-line PSTN, cellphone, entering a
URI or dialling a number. With ENUM indirect dialling
it is the called party wishes that matter and solve that de-
cision. Another benet of indirect dialling is to free the
user to change his phone telco, webpage, IMS, email or
whatever telecom service he uses without having to tell
all his contacts about that.
A presence enhanced ENUM facility having various pro-
les could automatically change the called party wishes
as a function of where he/she is available. This could be
a mechanism to automatically switch between cellphone
and VoIP to the most convenient (or the less costing) ter-
mination.
71.4 ENUM varieties
One potential source of confusion, when talking about
ENUM, is the variety of ENUM implementations in place
Public ENUM: The original vision of ENUM as
a global, public directory-like database, with sub-
scriber opt-in capabilities and delegation at the
country code level in the e164.arpa domain. This
is also referred to as user ENUM.
Open Enum: An eort of mobile carriers and
other parties involved in mobile numbering plans
to generate complete, public database of all inter-
national numbering plan, available via public dns
(e164num.eu)
Private ENUM: A carrier, VoIP operator or ISP may
use ENUM techniques within its own networks, in
the same way DNS is used internally to networks.
Carrier ENUM: Groups of carriers or communica-
tion service providers agree to share subscriber in-
formation via ENUM in private peering relation-
ships. The carriers themselves control subscriber
information, not the individuals. Carrier ENUM is
also referred to as infrastructure ENUM, and is being
the subject of new IETF recommendations to sup-
port VoIP peering.....
282 CHAPTER 71. TELEPHONE NUMBER MAPPING

71.5 Parties having a direct inter-
est in ENUM
Various parties are involved with ENUM. These include:
Hence, if the registrant wishes to change his initial num-
ber holder operator (that might also coincide being
his gateway operator) there have to be provisions for
the ENUM number to be ported from the initial op-
erator to other number holder operators.

The registrant or subscriber The registrant is the per- You can nd more information and further parties in-
son or subscriber that makes his access information volved in the ENUM ecosystem in RFC 4725.
available to others through ENUM. The registrant
or subscriber is thus the person whose information
has been included in ENUM and must not be con- 71.6 See also
fused with the person who uses the Internet to nd
an address through ENUM.
Carrier of Record

The registrar The registrar is the party who manages DNS mapping of E.164 numbers
the registrants access information and ensures that
it is publicly available on the Internet.
71.7 References
The registry The registry is the manager of a national
ENUM zone. The registry forms, as it were, the top RFC 6116 - The E.164 to Uniform Resource Identi-
of the national ENUM hierarchy and ensures that ers (URI) Dynamic Delegation Discovery System
reference is made to the registrars servers on which (DDDS) Application (ENUM)
the access information is located.
RFC 6117 - IANA Registration of Enumservices:
Because of the hierarchical structure of the DNS, there Guide, Template, and IANA Considerations
can only be one registry for every national ENUM
zone. To prevent abuse of this position, require- RFC 4725 - ENUM Validation Architecture
ments are strict with respect to the impartiality of RFC 3403 - Dynamic Delegation Discovery System
the registry and the costs and quality of the service. (DDDS) Part Three: The Domain Name System
In addition every registrant must receive equal and (DNS) Database
open access.
ENUM - The bridge between telephony and internet
The government or the regulator Usually a govern- ENUM - Its All in the Numbers
mental entity or a regulatory authority has control
over the National zone of ENUM and will play a http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/enum/
role in the appointment of the registry.

The number holder operator Telephony services or 71.8 External links

telecommunication services operators have been as-
signed blocks of numbers by the regulator. They Country Code 1 ENUM LLC
subsequently enable their users to use individual
telephone numbers from those number blocks. Ex- GSMA PathFinder Carrier ENUM Technology
amples are the numbers for xed telephony and mo-
CircleID: ENUM Convergence
bile telephony. The number holder operator will be
interconnected to other operators and will receive ENUM: Mapping the E.164 Number Space into the
from them calls to his assigned range of numbers, DNS
for the calls to be terminated.
ENUM: Open E.164 Numbering Plan available
In ENUM the number holder operator will typically be through public DNS
the gateway operator or, alternatively, will have an
arrangement with a gateway operator, to whom he
will transit the calls.

But ENUM is a personal number, meant to be valid for

the registrant life. Consequently in ENUM once the
operator number holder assigns a number to a reg-
istrant, the number belongs to that registrant during
his/her entire life.
Chapter 72

Telephone numbering plan

areacode redirects here. It is not to be confused with a country calling code (country code) for each state or
Areekode. region which is prexed to each national numbering plan
telephone number for international destination routing.
A telephone numbering plan is a type of numbering Private numbering plans exist in telephone networks that
scheme used in telecommunication to assign telephone are privately operated in an enterprise or organizational
numbers to subscriber telephones or other telephony end- campus. Such systems may be supported by a private
points. Telephone numbers are the addresses of partici- branch exchange (PBX) which controls internal commu-
pants in a telephone network, reachable by a system of nications between telephone extensions.
destination code routing. Telephone numbering plans are In contrast to numbering plans, which determine tele-
dened in each of administrative regions of the public phone numbers assigned to subscriber stations, a dial plan
switched telephone network (PSTN) and they are also establishes the customer dialing procedures, i.e. the se-
present in private telephone networks. quence of digits users are required to dial to reach a des-
Numbering plans may follow a variety of design strate- tination. Even in closed numbering plans, it is not always
gies which have often arisen from the historical evolution necessary to dial all digits of a number. For example, an
of individual telephone networks and local requirements. area code may often be omitted when the destination is
A broad division is commonly recognized, distinguishing in the same area as the calling station.
open numbering plans and closed numbering plans. A
closed numbering plan imposes a xed number of dig-
its to every telephone number, while an open numbering
plan allows variance in the numbers of digits. Many num- 72.1 North American Numbering
bering plans subdivide their territory of service into ge-
ographic regions designated by an area code, which is a
Plan
xed-length or variable-length set of digits forming the
most-signicant part of the dialing sequence to reach a Main article: North American Numbering Plan
telephone subscriber.
The North American Numbering Plan is a closed num- In early telephone systems, connections were made in the
bering plan[1][2] which prescribes ten digits for each com- central oce by switchboard operators using patch cords
plete destination routing code that is divided into three to connect one party to another. To make a telephone
parts. The most signicant part is a three-digit Number- call, a person would wind a crank to generate a ring sig-
ing Plan Area (NPA) code (area code). Within each plan nal to the central oce operator, either before or after the
area central oces are numbered with a three-digit cen- user took the telephone handset o-hook. At the central
tral oce (CO) code, the second part. The remaining oce a gong or later an electric light indicated the need
four digits number the specic line assigned to each tele- to respond to the customer, upon which the operator in-
phone. Other countries with open numbering plans may serted a patch cord into a socket and assisted the customer
use variable-length numbers; in some, such as Finland, with the call by voice. Another patch cord connected the
subscriber numbers may vary in length even within a lo- caller to the destination telephone line. If the destination
cal exchange. party belonged to another exchange, the operator used a
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has patch cord to connect to that exchange where an operator
established a comprehensive numbering plan, designated would complete the call setup. As technology advanced,
E.164, for uniform interoperability of the networks of its automatic electro-mechanical switches were introduced
member state or regional administrations. It is an open and telephones were equipped initially with rotary dials
numbering plan, however, imposing a maximum length for pulse-dialing and then Touch-Tone key pads in the
of 15 digits to telephone numbers. The standard denes 1960s, which increased the speed of dialing and enabled
other vertical telephone features.

283
284 CHAPTER 72. TELEPHONE NUMBERING PLAN

In the United States and Canada, area codes were rst example, 305 was split in 1995, and had served both the
allocated in 1947 and some large cities used soon after Miami and Fort Lauderdale area. Dade County (Miami-
as operator routing codes for connecting long-distance Dade) kept 305 and Broward County (Fort Lauderdale
telephone calls between toll switching centers.[3] The rst area) had to change to 954. Another method was us-
customer-dialed long-distance calls were possible in En- ing area code overlays, which avoided renumbering ex-
glewood, NJ in 1951. By 1966, the system was imple- isting stations. An overlay is a new area code that covers
mented fully in both countries.[4] the same geographical area as an existing code. Over 75
[7]
The Bell System organized the numbering plan to min- overlays have been introduced since 1995.
imize the cost of providing automatic dialing to large Area code overlays invariably require ten-digit dialing of
population centers, as calls crossing numbering plan area telephone numbers in the numbering plan area. Internet
boundaries were required to be switched by special toll telephony services are not tied to physical locations and
switching systems. Thus, it was avoided to cut heav- area codes often no longer correspond to the physical lo-
ily used toll routes by area boundaries. Tributary routes cation of the provider, nor the subscriber.[8]
were placed into the same area as the major toll center.[5]
States that foreseeably required more than ca. 500 central
oces, a technical limitation of the number plan, were 72.2 Number structure
split into multiple areas, receiving a code with the mid-
dle digit being 1, while area codes that covered an entire
state, had the digit 0 in the middle. In contrast to the Most national telephone administrations issue telephone
area code, the second digit of the three-digit exchange numbers that conform to the E.164 numbering plan.
code was never 0 or 1, thus aording a simple rule for E.164 conformant telephone numbers consist of a
recognition of whether a user was dialing a full ten-digit country calling code and a national telephone number.
telephone number or merely dialing within the local area National telephone numbers are dened by national or
code using seven-digit dialing. Toll operators were able regionalo numbering plans, such as the European Tele-
to dierentiate between the two types of areas from the phony Numbering Space, the North American Number-
middle digit of the area code when a routing operator had ing Plan (NANP), or the UK number plan.
to be consulted.[6] Numbering plans also decide on the routing of Signaling
By the 1990s, the electromechanical central oce System 7 (SS7) signaling messages as part of the Global
switches were replaced with electronic switching system Title. In public land mobile networks, the E.212 num-
(ESS) equipment and the previous area code logic was bering plan is used for subscriber identities, e.g., stored
no longer necessary. The demand for telephone numbers in the GSM SIM, while E.214 is used for routing database
was increasing rapidly, and the remaining n0n and n1n queries across PSTN networks.
combinations were insucient to sustain growth. This In general, the structure of telephone numbers issues
area code scheme was abandoned, with the result that area within a national telephone numbering plan follow both
codes and central oce codes could not necessarily be the international formats and the national standards. With
automatically distinguished by the switching equipment. in the international system administered by the ITU, each
The solution was to require the dialing of a preceding 1 national plan has a unique country code.
for calls across area codes, in which case the equipment
Within the national numbering plan, a complete destina-
expected 10 more digits. If the rst digit dialed was not
tion telephone number is composed of an area code and
a 1, only 7 digits were expected and the area code was
a subscriber telephone number.
inferred from the originating subscribers area code. For
a short while, in some area codes, one could enter the full The subscriber number is the number assigned to a line
11 digits for a call within their own neighborhood or just connected to customer equipment. It must always be di-
enter the last 7 digits, and the call would be routed and aled in its entirety. The rst few digits of the subscriber
billed identically. number typically indicate smaller geographical areas or
individual telephone exchanges. In mobile networks they
The rising popularity of fax machines and pagers required
may indicate the network provider. Callers in a given
far more telephone numbers than were anticipated in the
area or country usually do not need to include the par-
design of the numbering system. As a remedy, the re-
ticular area prexes when dialing within the same area.
strictions on the format of area codes were eased. Since
Devices that dial telephone numbers automatically may
1995, over 380 new area codes were added to the North
include the full number with area and access codes.
American Numbering Plan. Some areas used area code
splits, by which an existing numbering plan area (NPA)
was split into multiple divisions each assigned a new area
code. Thus, many businesses were required to reprint 72.3 Country code
business stationery, catalogs, and directories. Area code
splits were often contested as to which area could keep the Country codes are necessary only when dialing telephone
existing code, which usually fell to the largest city. For numbers in other countries than the originating telephone.
72.5. CALL PRICING BASED ON AREA CODES 285

These are dialed before the national telephone number. outside the code area, from mobile phones, and, espe-
By convention, international telephone numbers are indi- cially within North America, within overlay plans. Area
cated by prexing the country code with a plus sign (+), codes historically designated geographical areas served
which is meant to indicate that the subscriber must dial by perhaps hundreds of telephone exchanges, although
the international dialing prex in the country from which the strict correlation to a geographical area has been bro-
the call is placed. For example, the international dialing ken by technical advances.[9]
prex or access code in all NANP countries is 011, while The area code is usually preceded in the dialing sequence
it is 00 in most European countries. On GSM networks, + by either the national access code (0 for many countries,
is an actual keypad code that may be recognized automat-
1 in USA and Canada) or the international access code
ically by the network carrier in place of the international and country code. However, this is not always the case,
access code.
especially when 10-digit dialing is used. For example, in
Montreal, where area codes 514, 438, 450 and 579 are
in use, users dial 10-digit numbers (e.g., 514 555 1234),
72.4 Area code dialing a 1 before this results in a recording advising not
to dial a 1 as it is a local call. For non-geographic num-
Many numbering plans are structured based on divisions bers, as well as mobile telephones outside of the North
into geographic areas of the service territory. Each plan American Numbering Plan area, the area code does not
area is assigned a numeric routing code. This concept was correlate to a particular geographic area. However, until
rst developed in the North American Numbering Plan the 1990s, some areas in the United States and Canada
in 1947, which divided the North American service ter- required the use of a 1 before dialing a 7-digit number
ritories into numbering plan areas (NPAs) and called the within the same area code if the call was beyond the local
numerical prex the numbering plan area code, which be- toll-free area, indicating that the caller wished to make
came known in a short-form as area code. This area code what was referred to as a toll call.
was prexed to each telephone number assigned within Area codes are often quoted by including the national ac-
each area. cess code. For example, a number in London should be
National telecommunication authorities use various for- listed as 020 7946 0321. Users must correctly interpret
mats for area codes. When the Bell System designed the 020 as the code for London. If they call from another
the area codes concept, the three-digit format was NBX, station within London, they may merely dial 7946 0321,
where N could be any digit from 2 through 9, B either 0 or if dialing from another country, the initial 0 should be
or 1, and X any digit, although no area code ended in 0 omitted after the country code: +44 20 7946 0321.
until the toll-free code 800 was introduced. The pattern
of assignment to geographical areas avoided nearby areas
having similar area codes, to avoid confusion and mis-
dialed numbers. In 1995, during the expansion of area 72.5 Call pricing based on area
codes the center-digit rule was relaxed, dening it as any codes
digit except 9. 9 as the middle digit of an NPA is reserved
in case the three-digit area code pool is exhausted and has
In countries other than the United States and Canada, the
to be augmented to four digits.
area codes generally determine the cost of a call, and calls
Common format are: within an area code and often a small group of adjacent
or overlapping area codes are normally charged at a lower
A xed length, e.g., three digits in the United States rate than outside the area code. This is not necessarily the
and Canada as dened in the NANP; two digits in case in the United States or Canada, where area codes
Brazil; one digit in Australia and New Zealand, cover a suciently large territory that dierent rates will
apply within the same area code and toll rates may be
A variable length, e.g., between 2 and 5 in Germany, determined by the distance between rate centers. The
Argentina, and in the United Kingdom; between 1 area code and central oce prex (NPA-NXX) dene
and 5 in Japan and between 1 to 4 in Austria; 1 or 2 the rate center, which is assigned geographic coordinates
in Syria and Peru. V&H. Each rate center has a local calling plan that deter-
mines which other rate centers are a local call, regardless
of distance, and other tolls are based on the tari dis-
Area codes may also be included in the subscriber num-
tance between the two rate centers, using this formula:
ber, as is the case in many countries, such as Spain,
(V 1V 2)2 +(H1H2)2
Norway or Uruguay. These systems use a closed tele- 10 .
phone numbering plan. Therefore, calls between nearby rate centers in dierent
In the UK, area codes were rst known as subscriber area codes may be cheaper than calls to more distant rate
trunk dialling (STD) codes. Depending on local dial centers in the same area code. Rates are set in zones of
plans, they are often necessary only when dialed from 0-6 mi, 6-12 mi, and so on, with these bands determined
286 CHAPTER 72. TELEPHONE NUMBERING PLAN

on a state-by-state basis for intrastate calls (calls within for local calls within the area code, as well as alternate,
the same state) and determined by federal regulation for optional sequences, such as adding the trunk code 1 be-
interstate calls (calls which cross a state line). As a spe- fore the telephone number.
cic example, callers in the Falls Church, Virginia, rate
center, which is ocially named Washington Zone 17,
VAexample numbers begin with 703-534, V=5636, 72.6.1 Variable-length dialing
H=1600, may make unmetered local calls to 31 other
nearby rate centers in Virginia, Maryland, and the Dis- Despite a closed numbering plan, dierent dialing pro-
trict of Columbia in area codes 703, 571, 202, 301, and cedures exist in many of the territories for local and long
240, while calls to distant locations in 703, such as Man- distance telephone calls. This means that to call another
assas and Haymarket, VA, are charged as long distance. number within the same city or area, callers need to dial
only a subset of the full telephone number. For exam-
Calls within a state [regulated by that states public util- ple, in the NANP, only the 7-digit number may need to
ities commission] are often higher than rates to call be dialed, but for calls outside the area, the full number
more distant locations in some other state [regulated by including the area code is required. In these situations,
the Federal Communications Commission]. The partial the ITU-T Recommendation E.123 suggests to list the
deregulation and introduction of competition for long- area code in parentheses, signifying that in some cases
distance phone services has established other methods of the area code is optional or is not required. Typically
determining call pricing that do not necessarily follow the the area code is prexed by a domestic trunk access code
traditional model. Each year, more customers switch to a (usually 0) when dialing from inside a country, but is not
xed rate, all-you-can-dial plan covering the state, the necessary when calling from other countries, but there are
United States, or all North America generally (as of May exceptions, such as for Italian land lines.
2008 and exclusive of taxes) for approximately $30 per
month. Competition with cable telephony and Voice over To call a number in Sydney, Australia, for example:
Internet Protocol services has helped drive the cost of ser-
vice down for residential and business customers. xxxx xxxx (within Sydney and other locations within
New South Wales and the Australian Capital Terri-
Special area codes are generally used for free, premium-
tory - no area code required)
rate, mobile phone systems (in countries where the mo-
bile phone system is caller pays) and other special-rate (02) xxxx xxxx (outside New South Wales and the
numbers. There are, however, some exceptions: in some Australian Capital Territory, but still within Aus-
countries, such as Egypt, calls are charged at the same tralia - the area code is required)
rate regardless of area and in others, such as the UK, an
area code is occasionally treated as two areas with dier- +61 2 xxxx xxxx (outside Australia)
ent rates.
The plus character (+) in the markup signies that the fol-
Landline telephony operators in United States maintain
lowing digits are the country code, in this case 61. Some
a separate pricing structure for IntraLATA phone calls,
phones, especially mobile telephones, allow the + to be
also known as local long distance. The tari rate for
entered directly. For other devices the user must replace
these calls to nearby areas may greatly exceed the rates
the + with the international access code for their current
for long distance dometic calls that are on the other side
[10] location.
of the continent.
New Zealand has a special case dial plan. While most
nations require the area code to be dialed only if it is dif-
72.6 Subscriber dialing procedures ferent, in New Zealand, one needs to dial the area code if
the phone is outside the local calling area. For example,
the town of Waikouaiti is in the Dunedin City Council ju-
A dial plan establishes the expected sequence of digits risdiction, and has phone numbers (03) 465 7xxx. To call
dialed on subscriber premises equipment, such as tele- the city council in central Dunedin (03) 477 4000, resi-
phones, in private branch exchange (PBX) systems, or in dents must dial the number in full including the area code
other telephone switches to eect access to the telephone even though the area code is the same, as Waikouaiti and
networks for the routing of telephone calls, or to eect Dunedin lie in dierent local calling areas (Palmerston
or activate specic service features by the local telephone and Dunedin respectively)[11]
company, such as 311 or 411 service.
In the United States, Canada, and other countries or
A variety of dial plans may exist within a numbering plan territories using the North American Numbering Plan
and these often depend on the network architecture of the (NANP), the international trunk access code is 1, which
local telephone operating company. is also the country calling code. The same rule also ap-
Within the North American Numbering Plan, the admin- plies in many parts of the NANP, including all areas of
istration denes standard and permissive dialing plans, Canada that still have variable-length dial plan. This is not
specifying the number of mandatory digits to be dialed universal, as there are locations within the United States
72.6. SUBSCRIBER DIALING PROCEDURES 287

that allow long distance calls within the same area code to 1 610 xxx xxxx (calls from numbers outside the
be dialed as seven digits. In Canada, the domestic trunk 610/484 and 215/267 area codes; second of two
code (long distance access code) must also be dialed along completion options for mobile phones within the
with the area code for long distance calls even within the U.S.)
same area code. For example, to call a number in Regina
in area code 306 (Regina and the rest of the province of +1 610 xxx xxxx (outside the NANP)
Saskatchewan are also served by the overlay code 639):
In California & New York, because of the existence of
306 xxx xxxx (within Regina, Lumsden and other both overlay area codes (where an area code must be di-
local areas) aled for every call) and non-overlay area codes (where an
area code is dialed only for calls outside the subscribers
1 306 xxx xxxx (within Saskatchewan, but home area code), permissive home area code dialing
not within the Regina local calling areae.g., of 1 + the area code within the same area code, even if
Saskatoon) no area code is required, has been permitted since the
mid-2000s (decade). For example, in the 213 area code
1 306 xxx xxxx (anywhere within the NANP outside (a non-overlay area code), calls may be dialed as 7 digits
Saskatchewan) (XXX-XXXX) or 1-213 + 7 digits. The manner in which
a call is dialed does not aect the billing of the call. This
+1 306 xxx xxxx (outside NANP) permissive home area code dialing helps maintain uni-
formity and eliminates confusion given the dierent types
To call a number in Oakland, California, which has only of area code relief that has made California the nations
one area code, the dialing procedure varies: most area code intensive State. Unlike other states with
overlay area codes (Texas, Maryland, Florida and Penn-
sylvania and others), the California Public Utilities Com-
xxx xxxx (local or long-distance within area code
mission and the New York State Public Service Commis-
510, no area code required)
sion maintains two dierent dial plans: Landlines must
1 510 xxx xxxx (local or long-distance outside of dial 1 + area code whenever an Area Code is part of the
510 but within the U.S., Canada, and other countries dialed digits while cellphone users can omit the 1 and
in the NANP) just dial 10 digits.
Many organizations have private branch exchange sys-
+1 510 xxx xxxx (outside the NANP - 1 is the coun- tems which permit dialing the access digit(s) for an out-
try code for the U.S.) side line (usually 9 or 8), a 1 and nally the local area
code and xxx xxxx in areas without overlays. This aspect
However, in parts of North America, especially where a is unintentionally helpful for employees who reside in one
new area code overlays an older area code, dialing the area code and work in an area code with one, two, or three
area code, or 1 and the area code, is required even for adjacent area codes. 1+ dialing to any area code by an
local calls. Dialing from mobile phones is dierent in the employee can be done quickly, with all exceptions pro-
U.S., as the trunk code is not necessary, although it is cessed by the private branch exchange and passed onto
still necessary for calling all long distance numbers from the public switched telephone network.
a mobile phone in Canada. Most mobile phones can be
congured to automatically add a frequently-called area
code as a prex, allowing calls within the desired area to 72.6.2 Full-number dialing
be dialed by the user as seven-digit numbers, though sent
by the phone as 10-digit numbers. In small countries or areas, the full telephone number is
used for all calls, even in the same area. This has tra-
In some parts of the United States, especially northeast- ditionally been the case in small countries and territories
ern states such as Pennsylvania served by Verizon Com- where area codes have not been required. However, there
munications, the full 10-digit number must be dialed. If has been a trend in many countries towards making all
the call is not local, the call will not complete unless the numbers a standard length, and incorporating the area
dialed number is preceded by digit 1. In this situation, code into the subscribers number. This usually makes
where the area code is not optional, the area code is not the use of a trunk code obsolete. For example, to call
enclosed in parentheses. Thus: Oslo in Norway before 1992, one would dial:

610 xxx xxxx (local calls within the 610 area code
and its overlay, 484, as well as calls to or from
the neighboring 215 area code and its overlay, 267.
Area code required; one of two completion options
for mobile phones within the U.S.)
xxx xxx (within Oslo - no area code required)
(02) xxx xxx (within Norway - outside Oslo)
+47 2 xxx xxx (outside Norway)
288 CHAPTER 72. TELEPHONE NUMBERING PLAN

After 1992, this changed to a closed eight-digit number- Some countries already switched, but trunk prex re-
ing plan, e.g.: added with the closed dialing plan, for example in
Bangkok, Thailand before 1997:
22xx xxxx (within Norway - including Oslo)
xxx-xxxx (inside Bangkok)
+47 22xx xxxx (outside Norway)
02-xxx-xxxx (inside Thailand)
Therefore, in other countries, such as France, Belgium, +66 2-xxx-xxxx (outside Thailand)
Japan, Switzerland, South Africa and some parts of North
America where the numbering plan is closed, the trunk has been switched in 1997:
code is retained for domestic calls, whether local or na-
tional, e.g., 2-xxx-xxxx (inside Thailand)
+66 2-xxx-xxxx (outside Thailand)
Paris 01 xx xx xx xx (outside France +33 1 xxxx
xxxx)
Trunk prex has re-added in 2001
Brussels 02 xxx xxxx (outside Belgium +32 2 xxx
xxxx) 02-xxx-xxxx (inside Thailand)

Geneva 022 xxx xxxx (outside Switzerland +41 22 +66 2-xxx-xxxx (outside Thailand)
xxx xxxx)

Cape Town 021 xxx xxxx (outside South Africa +27 72.7 International numbering plan
21 xxx xxxx)

New York 1 212 xxx xxxx (outside the North Amer- The E.164 standard of the International Telecommuni-
ican Numbering Plan +1 212 xxx xxxx) cations Union is an international numbering plan and es-
tablishes a country calling code (country code) for each
Fukuoka 092 xxx xxxx (outside the Japanese Num- member organization. Country codes are prexes to na-
bering Plan +81 92 xxx xxxx) tional telephone numbers that denote call routing to the
network of a subordinate number plan administration,
while some, like Italy, require the initial zero to be dialed, typically a country, or group of countries with a uni-
even for calls from outside the country, e.g., form numbering plan, such as the NANP. E.164 permits
a maximum length of 30 digits for the complete inter-
Rome 06 xxxxxxxx (outside Italy +39 06 xxxxxxxx) national phone number. E.164 does not dene regional
numbering plans, however, it does provide recommenda-
tions for new implementations and uniform representa-
Further, there are locations with closed dialing plans in tion of all telephone numbers.
the NANP that require the full phone number including
area code to be dialed for all calls, but the trunk code is Within the system of country calling codes, the ITU has
required for only long distance calls, even in the same area dened certain prexes for special services and assigns
code. such codes for independent international networks, such
as satellite systems, spanning beyond the scope of re-
While the use of full national dialing is less user-friendly gional authorities.
than using only a local number without the area code, the
increased use of mobile phones, which can store numbers,
means that this is of decreasing importance. It also makes 72.7.1 Satellite telephone systems
easier to display numbers in the international format, as
no trunk code is requiredhence a number in Prague, Satellite phones are usually issued with numbers with
Czech Republic, can now be displayed as: a special country calling code. For example, Inmarsat
satellite phones are issued with code +870, while Global
2xx xxx xxx (inside Czech Republic) Mobile Satellite System providers, such as Iridium, issue
numbers in country code +881 (Global Mobile Satel-
+420 2xx xxx xxx (outside Czech Republic) lite System) or +882 (International Networks). Some
satellite phones are issued with ordinary phone numbers,
as opposed to before September 21, 2002:[12] such as Globalstar satellite phones issued with NANP
telephone numbers.
02 / xx xx xx xx (inside Czech Republic)
Inmarsat: +870: SNAC (Single Network Access
+420 2 / xx xx xx xx (outside Czech Republic) Code)
72.9. PRIVATE NUMBERING PLAN 289

ICO Global: +881 0, +881 1. 72.9 Private numbering plan

Ellipso: +881 2, +881 3.
Like a public telecommunications network, a private tele-
Iridium: +881 6, +881 7. phone network in an enterprise or within an organiza-
tional campus may implement a private numbering plan
Globalstar: +881 8, +881 9. for the installed base of telephones for internal communi-
cation. Such networks operate a private switching system
Emsat: +882 13. or a private branch exchange (PBX) within the network.
The internal numbers assigned are often called extension
Thuraya: +882 16. numbers, as the internal numbering plan extends an of-
cial, published main access number for the entire net-
ACeS: +882 20. work. A caller from within the network only dials the ex-
tension number assigned to another internal destination
+ 88184 telephone.
A private numbering plan provides the convenience of
mapping station telephone numbers to other commonly
72.7.2 Special services used numbering schemes in an enterprise. For example,
station numbers may be assigned as the room number of
Some country calling codes are issued for special ser- a hotel or hospital. Station numbers may also be strate-
vices, or for international/inter regional zones. gically mapped to certain keywords composed from the
letters on the telephone dial, such as 4357 (help) to reach
+388 5 shared code for groups of nations a help desk.
The internal number assignments may be independent of
+388 3 European Telephony Numbering Space any direct inward dialing (DID) services provided by ex-
Europe-wide services (discontinued) ternal telecommunication vendors. For numbers without
DID access, the internal switch relays externally origi-
+800 International Freephone (UIFN) nated calls via an operator, an automated attendant or an
electronic interactive voice response system. Telephone
+808 reserved for Shared Cost Services
numbers for users within such systems are often pub-
lished by suxing the ocial telephone number with the
+878 Universal Personal Telecommunications ser-
extension number, e.g., 1-800-555-0001 x2055.
vices
Some systems may automatically map a large block of
+881 Global Mobile Satellite System DID numbers (diering only in a trailing sequence of
digits) to a corresponding block of individual internal
+882 and +883 International Networks stations, allowing each of them to be reached directly
from the public switched telephone network. In some
+888 - international disaster relief operations of these cases, a special shorter dial-in number can be
used to reach an operator who can be asked for general
+979 International Premium Rate Service information, e.g. help looking up or connecting to in-
ternal numbers. For example, individual extensions at
+991 International Telecommunications Public Universitt des Saarlandes can be dialed directly from
Correspondence Service trial (ITPCS) outside via their four-digit internal extension +49-681-
302-xxxx, whereas the universitys ocial main num-
+999 reserved for future global service
ber is +49-681-302-0[13] (49 is the country code for
Germany, 681 is the area code for Saarbrcken, 302 the
prex for the university).
72.8 Numbering plan indicator Callers within a private numbering plan often dial a trunk
prex to reach a national or international destination (out-
The numbering plan indicator (NPI) is a number which is side line) or to access a leased line (or tie-line) to another
dened in the ITU standard Q.713, paragraph 3.4.2.3.3, location within the same enterprise. A large manufac-
indicating the numbering plan of the attached telephone turer with factories and oces in multiple cities may use a
number. NPIs can be found in Signalling Connection prex (such as '8') followed by an internal routing code to
Control Part (SCCP) and short message service (SMS) indicate a city or location, then an individual four or ve-
messages. As of 2004, the following numbering plans digit extension number at the destination site. A common
and their respective numbering plan indicator values have trunk prex for an outside line on North American sys-
been dened: tems is the digit 9, followed by the outside destination
290 CHAPTER 72. TELEPHONE NUMBERING PLAN

number. 72.12 External links

Additional dial plan customisations, such as single digit
access to a hotel front desk or room service from an in-
dividual room, are available at the sole discretion of the
PBX owner.
List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 assigned
country codes as of 15 Dec 2016
List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 Dialling
Procedures as of 15 DEC 2011

72.10 See also

Category:Telephone numbers by country

National conventions for writing telephone numbers

List of country calling codes

List of North American Numbering Plan area codes

Carrier access code

72.11 References
[1] AT&T. Notes on the Network, Section 10, p.3 (1980).

[2] World Telephone Numbering Guide Glossary.

[3] Area Code History. area-codes.com.

[4] LincMads Area Codes of the 1970s. lincmad.com.

[5] AT&T (1955) Notes on Nationwide Dialing

[6] W. H. Nunn (1952-05-15). Nationwide Numbering

Plan. Bell System Technical Journal. AT&T. 31 (5): 856.

[7] GreatData.com and NANPA.com. Retrieved 5 Febru-

ary 2013.

[8] Joseph Steinberg (June 22, 2015). US area codes are no

longer area codes but they can still be used for scam-
ming. BusinessInsider. Retrieved June 25, 2015.

[9] Saunders, Amy (2009-05-16). Cell-phone age turns the

614 into just numbers. The Columbus Dispatch. Re-
trieved 2009-08-21.

[10] https://www.verizon.com/support/residential/phone/
homephone/billing/charges+and+taxes/explanation+of+
billing+terms/98783.htm

[11] 2010 Otago White Pages. Yellow Pages Group. pp. 8, 80,
177.

[12] "slovac pln veejnch telefonnch st" (PDF). Teleko-

munikan vstnk (in Czech). Czech Telecommunication
Oce. 9/2000. 2000-09-25. Archived from the original
(PDF) on November 1, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-13.

[13] Contacting Saarland University

Chapter 73

Teletrac engineering

Telecommunications trac engineering, teletrac operators should use the Erlang formulas or the Engset
engineering, or trac engineering is the application of calculation.
trac engineering theory to telecommunications. Tele-
Exchanges in the PSTN make use of trunking concepts to
trac engineers use their knowledge of statistics includ- help minimize the cost of the equipment to the operator.
ing queuing theory, the nature of trac, their practical
Modern switches generally have full availability and do
models, their measurements and simulations to make pre- not make use of grading concepts.
dictions and to plan telecommunication networks such
as a telephone network or the Internet. These tools and Overow systems make use of alternative routing circuit
knowledge help provide reliable service at lower cost. groups or paths to transfer excess trac and thereby re-
duce the possibility of congestion.
The eld was created by the work of A. K. Erlang for
circuit-switched networks but is applicable to packet- A very important component in PSTNs is the SS7 net-
switched networks, as they both exhibit Markovian prop- work used to route signalling trac. As a supporting
erties, and can hence be modeled by e.g. a Poisson arrivalnetwork, it carries all the signalling messages necessary
process. to set up, break down or provide extra services. The sig-
nalling enables the PSTN to control the manner in which
The crucial observation in trac engineering is that in trac is routed from one location to another.
large systems the law of large numbers can be used to
make the aggregate properties of a system over a long pe- Transmission and switching of calls is performed using
riod of time much more predictable than the behaviour the principle of time-division multiplexing (TDM). TDM
of individual parts of the system. allows multiple calls to be transmitted along the same
physical path, reducing the cost of infrastructure.

73.1 In PSTN architectures

73.2 In call centers
The measurement of trac in a public switched telephone
network (PSTN) allows network operators to determine A good example of the use of teletrac theory in practice
and maintain the quality of service (QoS) and in partic- is in the design and management of a call center. Call
ular the grade of service (GoS) that they promise their centers use teletrac theory to increase the eciency of
subscribers. The performance of a network depends on their services and overall protability through calculating
whether all origin-destination pairs are receiving a satis- how many operators are really needed at each time of the
factory service. day.
Networks are handled as: Queueing systems used in call centers have been studied
as a science. For example, completed calls are put on
hold and queued until they can be served by an operator.
loss systems where calls that cannot be handled are
If callers are made to wait too long, they may lose pa-
given equipment busy tone or
tience and default from the queue (hang up), resulting in
queuing systems where calls that cannot be handled no service being provided.
immediately are queued.

Congestion is dened as the situation when exchanges or 73.3 In broadband networks

circuit groups are inundated with calls and are unable to
serve all the subscribers. Special attention must be given Teletrac Engineering is a well-understood discipline
to ensure that such high loss situations do not arise. To in the traditional voice network, where trac patterns
help determine the probability of congestion occurring, are established, growth rates can be predicted, and vast

291
292 CHAPTER 73. TELETRAFFIC ENGINEERING

amounts of detailed historical data are available for anal- Trac mix
ysis. However, in modern broadband networks, the tele-
trac engineering methodologies used for voice net- Trac generation model
works are inappropriate.[1] Trac contract

Trac shaping
73.4 Long-tail trac
Of great importance is the possibility that extremely in- 73.7 References
frequent occurrences are more likely than anticipated.
This situation is known as long-tail trac. In some de- [1] What is the role of teletrac engineering in broadband
signs, the network might be required to withstand the networks? by Jones Kalunga cnx.org
unanticipated trac.
Deploying IP and MPLS QoS for Multiservice
Networks: Theory and Practice by John Evans,
73.5 Teletrac economics and Clarence Filsls (Morgan Kaufmann, 2007, ISBN
0-12-370549-5)
forecasting
V. B. Iversen, Teletrac Engineering handbook, ()
As mentioned in the introduction, the purpose of tele- M. Zukerman, Introduction to Queueing Theory and
trac theory is to reduce cost in telecommunications Stochastic Teletrac Models, PDF)
networks. An important tool in achieving this goal is
forecasting. Forecasting allows network operators to cal-
culate the potential cost of a new network / service for a
given QoS during the planning and design stage, thereby
ensuring that costs are kept to a minimum.
An important method used in forecasting is simulation,
which is described as the most common quantitative mod-
elling technique in use today. An important reason for
this is that computing power has become far more acces-
sible, making simulation the preferred analytical method
for problems that are not easily solved mathematically.
As in any business environment, network operators must
charge taris for their services. These charges must be
balanced with the supplied QoS. When operators supply
services internationally, this is described as trade in ser-
vices and is governed by the General Agreement on Trade
in Services (GATS).

73.6 See also

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Busy hour call attempts

Cellular trac

Erlang unit

Flow Control (disambiguation)

Long-tail trac

Mobile QoS

Routing

RSVP-TE
Chapter 74
Time-division multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of
transmitting and receiving independent signals over a
common signal path by means of synchronized switches
at each end of the transmission line so that each sig-
nal appears on the line only a fraction of time in an al-
ternating pattern. It is used when the data rate of the
transmission medium exceeds that of signal to be trans-
mitted. This form of signal multiplexing was developed
in telecommunications for telegraphy systems in the late
19th century, but found its most common application in
digital telephony in the second half of the 20th century.
74.1 History
Time-division multiplexing was rst developed for ap-
plications in telegraphy to route multiple transmissions
simultaneously over a single transmission line. In the
1870s, mile Baudot developed a time-multiplexing sys-
tem of multiple Hughes telegraph machines.
In 1953 a 24-channel TDM was placed in commercial op-
eration by RCA Communications to send audio informa-
tion between RCAs facility on Broad Street, New York,
their transmitting station at Rocky Point and the receiving
station at Riverhead, Long Island, New York. The com-
munication was by a microwave system throughout Long
Island. The experimental TDM system was developed by
RCA Laboratories between 1950 and 1953.[1]
In 1962, engineers from Bell Labs developed the rst D1
channel banks, which combined 24 digitized voice calls
over a four-wire copper trunk between Bell central oce
analogue switches. A channel bank sliced a 1.544 Mbit/s
digital signal into 8,000 separate frames, each composed
of 24 contiguous bytes. Each byte represented a single
telephone call encoded into a constant bit rate signal of 64
kbit/s. Channel banks used the xed position (temporal
alignment) of one byte in the frame to identify the call it
belonged to.[2]
293
74.2 Technology
Time-division multiplexing is used primarily for digital
signals, but may be applied in analog multiplexing in
which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred
appearing simultaneously as sub-channels in one commu-
nication channel, but are physically taking turns on the
channel. The time domain is divided into several recur-
rent time slots of xed length, one for each sub-channel. A
sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted
during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc.
One TDM frame consists of one time slot per sub-channel
plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error cor-
rection channel before the synchronization. After the last
sub-channel, error correction, and synchronization, the
cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with
the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel
1, etc.
74.3 Application examples
The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system,
also known as the PCM system, for digital transmis-
sion of several telephone calls over the same four-
wire copper cable (T-carrier or E-carrier) or ber
cable in the circuit switched digital telephone net-
work
The synchronous digital hierarchy
(SDH)/synchronous optical networking (SONET)
network transmission standards that have replaced
PDH.
The Basic Rate Interface and Primary Rate Interface
for the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and
right stereo signals on a per-sample basis
TDM can be further extended into the time division mul-
tiple access (TDMA) scheme, where several stations con-
nected to the same physical medium, for example sharing
the same frequency channel, can communicate. Applica-
tion examples include:
294 CHAPTER 74. TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

The GSM telephone system about exchanges in between, where the bandwidth
can be reserved at a xed level for a xed period of
The Tactical Data Links Link 16 and Link 22
time.

Allow frames of any size to be removed or inserted

74.4 Multiplexed digital transmis- into an SDH frame of any size.
sion
Easily manageable with the capability of transferring
management data across links.
In circuit-switched networks, such as the public switched
telephone network (PSTN), it is desirable to trans- Provide high levels of recovery from faults.
mit multiple subscriber calls over the same transmis-
sion medium to eectively utilize the bandwidth of the Provide high data rates by multiplexing any size
medium.[3] TDM allows transmitting and receiving tele- frame, limited only by technology.
phone switches to create channels (tributaries) within a
transmission stream. A standard DS0 voice signal has a Give reduced bit rate errors.
data bit rate of 64 kbit/s.[3][4] A TDM circuit runs at a
much higher signal bandwidth, permitting the bandwidth
to be divided into time frames (time slots) for each voice SDH has become the primary transmission protocol in
signal which is multiplexed onto the line by the transmit- most PSTN networks. It was developed to allow streams
ter. If the TDM frame consists of n voice frames, the line 1.544 Mbit/s and above to be multiplexed, in order to cre-
bandwidth is n*64 kbit/s.[3] ate larger SDH frames known as Synchronous Transport
Modules (STM). The STM-1 frame consists of smaller
Each voice time slot in the TDM frame is called a chan- streams that are multiplexed to create a 155.52 Mbit/s
nel. In European systems, standard TDM frames contain frame. SDH can also multiplex packet based frames e.g.
30 digital voice channels (E1), and in American systems Ethernet, PPP and ATM.[3][4]
(T1), they contain 24 channels. Both standards also con-
tain extra bits (or bit time slots) for signaling and synchro- While SDH is considered to be a transmission proto-
nization bits.[3] col (Layer 1 in the OSI Reference Model), it also per-
forms some switching functions, as stated in the third bul-
Multiplexing more than 24 or 30 digital voice channels let point requirement listed above.[3] The most common
is called higher order multiplexing. Higher order mul- SDH Networking functions are these:
tiplexing is accomplished by multiplexing the standard
TDM frames. For example, a European 120 channel
TDM frame is formed by multiplexing four standard 30 SDH Crossconnect The SDH Crossconnect is
channel TDM frames. At each higher order multiplex, the SDH version of a Time-Space-Time crosspoint
four TDM frames from the immediate lower order are switch. It connects any channel on any of its in-
combined, creating multiplexes with a bandwidth of n*64 puts to any channel on any of its outputs. The
kbit/s, where n = 120, 480, 1920, etc.[3] SDH Crossconnect is used in Transit Exchanges,
where all inputs and outputs are connected to other
exchanges.[3]
74.5 Telecommunications systems
SDH Add-Drop Multiplexer The SDH Add-Drop
Multiplexer (ADM) can add or remove any multi-
There are three types of synchronous TDM: T1, plexed frame down to 1.544Mb. Below this level,
SONET/SDH, and ISDN.[5] standard TDM can be performed. SDH ADMs
Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) was developed as can also perform the task of an SDH Crossconnect
a standard for multiplexing higher order frames. PDH and are used in End Exchanges where the channels
created larger numbers of channels by multiplexing the from subscribers are connected to the core PSTN
standard Europeans 30 channel TDM frames. This so- network.[3]
lution worked for a while; however PDH suered from
several inherent drawbacks which ultimately resulted in SDH network functions are connected using high-speed
the development of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy optic bre. Optic bre uses light pulses to transmit data
(SDH). The requirements which drove the development and is therefore extremely fast. Modern optic bre trans-
of SDH were these:[3][4] mission makes use of wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) where signals transmitted across the bre are
Be synchronous All clocks in the system must align
transmitted at dierent wavelengths, creating additional
with a reference clock.
channels for transmission. This increases the speed and
Be service-oriented SDH must route trac from capacity of the link, which in turn reduces both unit and
End Exchange to End Exchange without worrying total costs.[3][4]
74.8. REFERENCES 295

74.6 Statistical time-division mul-
tiplexing
Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM) is an ad-
vanced version of TDM in which both the address of the
terminal and the data itself are transmitted together for
better routing. Using STDM allows bandwidth to be split
over one line. Many college and corporate campuses use
this type of TDM to distribute bandwidth.
On a 10-Mbit line entering a network, STDM can be used
to provide 178 terminals with a dedicated 56k connection
(178 * 56k = 9.96Mb). A more common use however is
to only grant the bandwidth when that much is needed.
STDM does not reserve a time slot for each terminal,
rather it assigns a slot when the terminal is requiring data
to be sent or received.
In its primary form, TDM is used for circuit mode com-
munication with a xed number of channels and constant
bandwidth per channel. Bandwidth reservation distin-
guishes time-division multiplexing from statistical mul-
tiplexing such as statistical time division multiplexing. In
pure TDM, the time slots are recurrent in a xed order
and pre-allocated to the channels, rather than scheduled
on a packet-by-packet basis.
In dynamic TDMA, a scheduling algorithm dynamically
reserves a variable number of time slots in each frame to
variable bit-rate data streams, based on the trac demand
of each data stream.[6] Dynamic TDMA is used in:
[1] US 2919308 Time Division Multiplex System for Signals
of Dierent Bandwidth
[2] Mara Isabel Ganda Carriedo (31 August 1998). ATM:
Origins and State of the Art. Universidad Politcnica de
Madrid. Archived from the original on 23 June 2006. Re-
trieved 2009-09-23.
[3] Hanrahan, H.E. (2005). Integrated Digital Communica-
tions. Johannesburg, South Africa: School of Electrical
and Information Engineering, University of the Witwa-
tersrand.
[4] Ericsson Ltd, Understanding Telecommunications,
http://web.archive.org/web/20040413074912/www.
ericsson.com/support/telecom/index.shtml, last accessed
April 11, 2006.
[5] White, Curt (2007). Data Communications and Computer
Networks. Boston, MA: Thomson Course Technology.
pp. 143152. ISBN 1-4188-3610-9.
[6] Guowang Miao; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Sli-
mane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107143217.

HIPERLAN/2

Dynamic synchronous transfer mode

IEEE 802.16a

Asynchronous time-division multiplexing (ATDM),[5] is

an alternative nomenclature in which STDM desig-
nates synchronous time-division multiplexing, the older
method that uses xed time slots.

74.7 See also

Frequency-division multiplexing

McASP

Time-division duplex

74.8 References
This article incorporates public domain material
from the General Services Administration document
Federal Standard 1037C (in support of MIL-STD-
188).
Chapter 75

Unlisted number

In telephony, an unlisted number (United States,

New Zealand), ex-directory number (United Kingdom)
silent number, silent line (Australia[1] ), or private
number (New Zealand, and Canada) is a telephone num-
ber that is intentionally not listed in telephone books.
Silent numbers are often telephone numbers that link to
specic tests or control apparatus for the telephone net-
work maintenance sta such as ringback and automatic
number announcement circuit and are generally not for
public use.
Such numbers are used for residential households as well,
primarily for privacy and security concerns.
In Norway (and some other countries) the directory ser-
vices in the 1970s distinguished between secret number,
unlisted number and listed number with a hidden ad-
dress. The rst type secret number was typically used
by celebrities (in this case the address was hidden as well).
The second type unlisted number was not listed in the
(paper based) phone book, but was listed on the directory
service (a voice call to 018 in the 1970s). Listed num-
ber with a hidden address is useful for womens shelter
etc., where the number needs to be listed, but where the
address shall be hidden to the general public. Naturally
there are many changes when directory services became
available on the Internet, but this case shows that sepa-
rate user groups may have dierent needs to hide various
parameters relating to privacy.

75.1 References
[1] http://www.telstra.com.au/aboutus/
community-environment/community-programs/
access-for-everyone/products-solutions/

296
Chapter 76

Vertical service code

A vertical service code (VSC) is a special code di- 76.1.3 Notes

[1]

aled prior to (or instead of) a telephone number that en-

gages some type of special telephone service or feature. [1] Code used for Cellular One service
Typically preceded with an asterisk, or * (star), key on
the touch tone keypad and colloquially referred to as star [2] Found in Pac Bell territory. Intercom ring causes a dis-
tinctive ring to be generated on the current line. Hold
codes, most are two digits in length; as more services are
keeps a call connected until another extension is picked
developed, those that use 2 or 3 as the rst digit are some-
up.
times three digits in length.
In North American telephony, VSCs were developed by [3] Applied once before each call. Caller ID to 8xx NPA
AT&T Corp. as Custom Local Area Signaling Ser- numbers and 911 cannot be blocked.
vices or CLASS codes (sometimes LASS) in the 1960s
[4] Used by certain carriers (like Verizon Wireless), but this
and 70s. Their use became ubiquitous throughout the use is non-standard.
1990s and eventually became a recognized standard. As
CLASS was an AT&T trademark, the term vertical ser- [5] ACR blocks calls from those who blocked Caller ID (used
vice code was adopted by the North American Number- in C&P territory, for instance)
ing Plan Administration. The use of the word vertical
is a somewhat dated reference to older switching methods [6] Has been mandated to be the nationwide code for, Send
and the fact that these services can only be accessed by a CLID info regardless of the default setting on this phone
line.
local telephone subscriber, going up (or vertically) inside
the local central oce instead of out (or horizontally) to [7] Cancels further return attempts
another telephone company.
[8] On the FiOS networks owned by Frontier Communica-
tions and Verizon dialing *86 connects to the subscriber
to their phones voicemail system.

76.1 List of vertical service codes
76.1.1 North America
The following are the VSCs generally used in the North
American Numbering Plan. Not all of these services
are available in all areas, and some are only available to
landline or cellular telephones. Some require additional
services be purchased from the telephone company to use
them.
Local Area Signalling Services (LASS) and Custom Call-
ing Feature Control Codes:[2][1][3]
[9] When using an OBi Analog telephone adapter in conjunc-
tion with a supported service such as Google Voice dialing
*98 followed by the telephone number will transfer the
call in an unsupervised mode i.e. the transferring party
will hear three short tone bursts and then be automatically
disconnected from the call. This VSC is not supported by
Google Voice on its Web site or app.
76.2 See also
Mobile dial code
Pat Fleet Prompt voice for most U.S. AT&T im-
plementations of VSC features

Public switched telephone network

76.1.2 United Kingdom
Signalling System 7
Main article: 1-5-7-1
Telephony

297
298 CHAPTER 76. VERTICAL SERVICE CODE

76.3 References
[1] Vertical Service Codes Code Denitions.
NANPA.com. Neustar. Retrieved 2013-03-18.

[2] voyager (1995-04-15). Erik Bloodaxe, ed. The #hack

FAQ. Phrack Magazine. p. 7. Retrieved 2013-03-18.

[3] Vertical Service Codes Code Assignments.

NANPA.com. Neustar. Retrieved 2013-03-18.

[4] OBi Feature Star Codes Directory

This article incorporates public domain material from

the General Services Administration document Federal
Standard 1037C.
Chapter 77

Voice over IP

Voice over Internet Protocol (Voice over IP, VoIP devices. Calls and SMS text messages may be sent over
and IP telephony) is a methodology and group of tech- 3G/4G or Wi-Fi.[2]
nologies for the delivery of voice communications and
multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks,
such as the Internet. The terms Internet telephony, 77.1 Pronunciation
broadband telephony, and broadband phone service
specically refer to the provisioning of communications
VoIP is variously pronounced as initials, V-O-I-P, or as
services (voice, fax, SMS, voice-messaging) over the pub-
an acronym, usually /vjp/ (voyp), as in voice,[3] but pro-
lic Internet, rather than via the public switched telephone
nunciation in full words, voice over Internet Protocol, and
network (PSTN).
voice over IP, are common.
The steps and principles involved in originating VoIP tele-
phone calls are similar to traditional digital telephony and
involve signaling, channel setup, digitization of the ana- 77.2 Protocols
log voice signals, and encoding. Instead of being trans-
mitted over a circuit-switched network; however, the dig-
ital information is packetized, and transmission occurs as Voice over IP has been implemented in various ways us-
IP packets over a packet-switched network. They trans- ing both proprietary protocols and protocols based on
port audio streams using special media delivery protocols open standards. VoIP protocols include:
that encode audio and video with audio codecs, and video
codecs. Various codecs exist that optimize the media Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
stream based on application requirements and network
bandwidth; some implementations rely on narrowband H.323
and compressed speech, while others support high delity Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
stereo codecs. Some popular codecs include -law and
a-law versions of G.711, G.722, a popular open source Gateway Control Protocol (Megaco, H.248)
voice codec known as iLBC, a codec that only uses 8
kbit/s each way called G.729, and many others. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
Early providers of voice-over-IP services oered busi- Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP)
ness models and technical solutions that mirrored the
architecture of the legacy telephone network. Second- Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP)
generation providers, such as Skype, have built closed
Session Description Protocol (SDP)
networks for private user bases, oering the benet of
free calls and convenience while potentially charging for Inter-Asterisk eXchange (IAX)
access to other communication networks, such as the
PSTN. This has limited the freedom of users to mix- Jingle XMPP VoIP extensions
and-match third-party hardware and software. Third-
Skype protocol
generation providers, such as Google Talk, have adopted
the concept of federated VoIPwhich is a departure
The H.323 protocol was one of the rst VoIP protocols
from the architecture of the legacy networks.[1] These so-
lutions typically allow dynamic interconnection between that found widespread implementation for long-distance
users on any two domains on the Internet when a user trac, as well as local area network services. However,
wishes to place a call. since the development of newer, less complex protocols
such as MGCP and SIP, H.323 deployments are increas-
In addition to VoIP phones, VoIP is available on many ingly limited to carrying existing long-haul network traf-
smartphones, personal computers, and on Internet access c.

299
300 CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP

These protocols can be used by special-purpose software, phone and speaker, or headset. The application typi-
such as Jitsi, or integrated into a web page or a mobile cally presents a dial pad and display eld to the user
application (web-based VoIP), like Google Talk. to operate the application by mouse clicks or key-
board input.

77.3 Adoption
77.3.2 PSTN and mobile network
providers
77.3.1 Consumer market
It is becoming increasingly common for telecommunica-
tions providers to use VoIP telephony over dedicated and
public IP networks to connect switching centers and to in-
terconnect with other telephony network providers; this is
often referred to as IP backhaul".[4][5]
Smartphones and Wi-Fi-enabled mobile phones may
have SIP clients built into the rmware or available as an
application download.

77.3.3 Corporate use

Because of the bandwidth eciency and low costs that

VoIP technology can provide, businesses are migrating
from traditional copper-wire telephone systems to VoIP
systems to reduce their monthly phone costs. In 2008,
80% of all new Private branch exchange (PBX) lines in-
stalled internationally were VoIP.[6]
VoIP solutions aimed at businesses have evolved into
Example of residential network including VoIP
unied communications services that treat all communi-
cations phone calls, faxes, voice mail, e-mail, Web
A major development that started in 2004 was the in- conferences, and more as discrete units that can all
troduction of mass-market VoIP services that utilize ex- be delivered via any means and to any handset, includ-
isting broadband Internet access, by which subscribers ing cellphones. Two kinds of competitors are competing
place and receive telephone calls in much the same man- in this space: one set is focused on VoIP for medium to
ner as they would via the public switched telephone net- large enterprises, while another is targeting the small-to-
work (PSTN). Full-service VoIP phone companies pro- medium business (SMB) market.[7]
vide inbound and outbound service with direct inbound
dialing. Many oer unlimited domestic calling for a at VoIP allows both voice and data communications to be
monthly subscription fee. This sometimes includes inter- run over a single network, which can signicantly reduce
national calls to certain countries. Phone calls between infrastructure costs.[8]
subscribers of the same provider are usually free when The prices of extensions on VoIP are lower than for
at-fee service is not available. A VoIP phone is neces- PBX and key systems. VoIP switches may run on com-
sary to connect to a VoIP service provider. This can be modity hardware, such as personal computers. Rather
implemented in several ways: than closed architectures, these devices rely on standard
interfaces.[8]
Dedicated VoIP phones connect directly to the IP
network using technologies such as wired Ethernet VoIP devices have simple, intuitive user interfaces,
or Wi-Fi. They are typically designed in the style of so users can often make simple system conguration
traditional digital business telephones. changes. Dual-mode phones enable users to continue
their conversations as they move between an outside cel-
An analog telephone adapter is a device that con- lular service and an internal Wi-Fi network, so that it is
nects to the network and implements the electron- no longer necessary to carry both a desktop phone and
ics and rmware to operate a conventional ana- a cell phone. Maintenance becomes simpler as there are
log telephone attached through a modular phone fewer devices to oversee.[8]
jack. Some residential Internet gateways and
Skype, which originally marketed itself as a service
cablemodems have this function built in.
among friends, has begun to cater to businesses, pro-
A softphone is application software installed on a viding free-of-charge connections between any users on
networked computer that is equipped with a micro- the Skype network and connecting to and from ordinary
77.4. QUALITY OF SERVICE 301

PSTN telephones for a charge.[9] mum transmission time by reducing the maximum trans-
In the United States the Social Security Administration mission unit. But every packet must contain protocol
(SSA) is converting its eld oces of 63,000 workers headers, so this increases relative header overhead on ev-
from traditional phone installations to a VoIP infrastruc- ery link traversed,
[15]
not just the bottleneck (usually Internet
ture carried over its existing data network.[10][11] access) link.
The receiver must resequence IP packets that arrive out
of order and recover gracefully when packets arrive too
late or not at all. Jitter results from the rapid and ran-
77.4 Quality of service dom (i.e. unpredictable) changes in queue lengths along
a given Internet path due to competition from other users
Communication on the IP network is perceived as less for the same transmission links. VoIP receivers counter
reliable in contrast to the circuit-switched public tele- jitter by storing incoming packets briey in a de-jitter
phone network because it does not provide a network- or playout buer, deliberately increasing latency to im-
based mechanism to ensure that data packets are not prove the chance that each packet will be on hand when
lost, and are delivered in sequential order. It is a best- it is time for the voice engine to play it. The added de-
eort network without fundamental Quality of Service lay is thus a compromise between excessive latency and
(QoS) guarantees. Voice, and all other data, travels excessive dropout, i.e. momentary audio interruptions.
in packets over IP networks with xed maximum ca-
Although jitter is a random variable, it is the sum of sev-
pacity. This system may be more prone to congestion
eral other random variables that are at least somewhat in-
and DoS attacks[12] than traditional circuit switched sys-
dependent: the individual queuing delays of the routers
tems; a circuit switched system of insucient capacity
along the Internet path in question. Thus according to the
will refuse new connections while carrying the remainder
central limit theorem, we can model jitter as a gaussian
without impairment, while the quality of real-time data
random variable. This suggests continually estimating
such as telephone conversations on packet-switched net-
the mean delay and its standard deviation and setting the
works degrades dramatically.[13] Therefore, VoIP imple-
playout delay so that only packets delayed more than sev-
mentations may face problems with latency, packet loss,
eral standard deviations above the mean will arrive too
and jitter.[13][14]
late to be useful. In practice, however, the variance in
By default, network routers handle trac on a rst-come, latency of many Internet paths is dominated by a small
rst-served basis. Fixed delays cannot be controlled number (often one) of relatively slow and congested bot-
as they are caused by the physical distance the packets tleneck links. Most Internet backbone links are now so
travel. They are especially problematic when satellite fast (e.g. 10 Gbit/s) that their delays are dominated by the
circuits are involved because of the long distance to a transmission medium (e.g. optical ber) and the routers
geostationary satellite and back; delays of 400600 ms driving them do not have enough buering for queuing
are typical. Latency can be minimized by marking voice delays to be signicant.
packets as being delay-sensitive with QoS methods such
It has been suggested to rely on the packetized na-
as DiServ.[13]
ture of media in VoIP communications and transmit the
Network routers on high volume trac links may in- stream of packets from the source phone to the destina-
troduce latency that exceeds permissible thresholds for tion phone simultaneously across dierent routes (multi-
VoIP. When the load on a link grows so quickly that its path routing).[16] In such a way, temporary failures have
switches experience queue overows, congestion results less impact on the communication quality. In capillary
and data packets are lost. This signals a transport proto- routing it has been suggested to use at the packet level
col like TCP to reduce its transmission rate to alleviate Fountain codes or particularly raptor codes for transmit-
the congestion. But VoIP usually uses UDP not TCP be- ting extra redundant packets making the communication
cause recovering from congestion through retransmission more reliable.
usually entails too much latency.[13] So QoS mechanisms
A number of protocols have been dened to support the
can avoid the undesirable loss of VoIP packets by imme-
reporting of quality of service (QoS) and quality of ex-
diately transmitting them ahead of any queued bulk traf-
perience (QoE) for VoIP calls. These include RTCP
c on the same link, even when that bulk trac queue is
Extended Report (RFC 3611), SIP RTCP Summary
overowing.
Reports, H.460.9 Annex B (for H.323), H.248.30 and
VoIP endpoints usually have to wait for completion of MGCP extensions. The RFC 3611 VoIP Metrics block is
transmission of previous packets before new data may be generated by an IP phone or gateway during a live call and
sent. Although it is possible to preempt (abort) a less im- contains information on packet loss rate, packet discard
portant packet in mid-transmission, this is not commonly rate (because of jitter), packet loss/discard burst metrics
done, especially on high-speed links where transmission (burst length/density, gap length/density), network delay,
times are short even for maximum-sized packets.[15] An end system delay, signal / noise / echo level, Mean Opin-
alternative to preemption on slower links, such as dialup ion Scores (MOS) and R factors and conguration infor-
and digital subscriber line (DSL), is to reduce the maxi-
302 CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP

mation related to the jitter buer. ing link speed. A full-size (1500 byte) Ethernet frame
RFC 3611 VoIP metrics reports are exchanged between takes 94 ms to transmit at 128 kbit/s but only 8 ms at 1.5
IP endpoints on an occasional basis during a call, and an Mbit/s. If this is the bottleneck link, this latency is proba-
end of call message sent via SIP RTCP Summary Report bly small enough to ensure good VoIP performance with-
or one of the other signaling protocol extensions. RFC out MTU reductions or multiple ATM VCs. The latest
3611 VoIP metrics reports are intended to support real generations of DSL, VDSL and VDSL2, carry Ethernet
time feedback related to QoS problems, the exchange without intermediate ATM/AAL5 layers, and they gen-
of information between the endpoints for improved call erally support IEEE 802.1p priority tagging so that VoIP
can be queued ahead of less time-critical trac.[13]
quality calculation and a variety of other applications.
Rural areas in particular are greatly hindered in their abil-
ity to choose a VoIP system over PBX. This is generally 77.4.2 Layer 2
down to the poor access to superfast broadband in rural
country areas. With the release of 4G data, there is a po- A number of protocols that deal with the data link layer
tential for corporate users based outside of populated ar- and physical layer include quality-of-service mechanisms
eas to switch their internet connection to 4G data, which that can be used to ensure that applications like VoIP
is comparatively as fast as a regular superfast broadband work well even in congested scenarios. Some examples
connection. This greatly enhances the overall quality and include:
user experience of a VoIP system in these areas. This
method was already trialled in rural Germany, surpassing
IEEE 802.11e is an approved amendment to the
all expectations.[17]
IEEE 802.11 standard that denes a set of quality-
of-service enhancements for wireless LAN appli-
cations through modications to the Media Access
77.4.1 DSL and ATM Control (MAC) layer. The standard is considered of
critical importance for delay-sensitive applications,
DSL modems provide Ethernet (or Ethernet over USB) such as voice over wireless IP.
connections to local equipment, but inside they are ac-
tually Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) modems. IEEE 802.1p denes 8 dierent classes of service
They use ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5) to segment (including one dedicated to voice) for trac on
each Ethernet packet into a series of 53-byte ATM cells layer-2 wired Ethernet.
for transmission, reassembling them back into Ethernet
frames at the receiving end. A virtual circuit identier The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way
(VCI) is part of the 5-byte header on every ATM cell, to create a high-speed (up to 1 gigabit per sec-
so the transmitter can multiplex the active virtual circuits ond) Local area network (LAN) using existing home
(VCs) in any arbitrary order. Cells from the same VC are wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).
always sent sequentially. G.hn provides QoS by means of Contention-Free
Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) which
However, a majority of DSL providers use only one VC are allocated to ows (such as a VoIP call) which
for each customer, even those with bundled VoIP service. require QoS and which have negotiated a contract
Every Ethernet frame must be completely transmitted be- with the network controllers.
fore another can begin. If a second VC were established,
given high priority and reserved for VoIP, then a low pri-
ority data packet could be suspended in mid-transmission
and a VoIP packet sent right away on the high priority VC. 77.5 VoIP performance metrics
Then the link would pick up the low priority VC where
it left o. Because ATM links are multiplexed on a cell-The quality of voice transmission is characterized by
by-cell basis, a high priority packet would have to wait at
several metrics that may be monitored by network el-
most 53 byte times to begin transmission. There would ements, by the user agent hardware or software. Such
be no need to reduce the interface MTU and accept the metrics include network packet loss, packet jitter, packet
resulting increase in higher layer protocol overhead, and
latency (delay), post-dial delay, and echo. The met-
no need to abort a low priority packet and resend it later.
rics are determined by VoIP performance testing and
[18][19][20][21][22][23]
ATM has substantial header overhead: 5/53 = 9.4%, monitoring.
roughly twice the total header overhead of a 1500 byte
Ethernet frame. This ATM tax is incurred by every
DSL user whether or not they take advantage of multiple 77.6 PSTN integration
virtual circuits - and few can.[13]
ATMs potential for latency reduction is greatest on slow The Media VoIP Gateway connects the digital media
links, because worst-case latency decreases with increas- stream, so as to complete creating the path for voice as
77.6. PSTN INTEGRATION 303

well as data media. It includes the interface for connect- when routing a voice call. In countries without a central
ing the standard PSTN networks with the ATM and In- database, like the UK, it might be necessary to query the
ter Protocol networks. The Ethernet interfaces are also GSM network about which home network a mobile phone
included in the modern systems, which are specially de- number belongs to. As the popularity of VoIP increases
signed to link calls that are passed via the VoIP.[24] in the enterprise markets because of least cost routing op-
E.164 is a global FGFnumbering standard for both the tions, it needs to provide a certain level of reliability when
PSTN and PLMN. Most VoIP implementations support handling calls.
E.164 to allow calls to be routed to and from VoIP MNP checks are important to assure that this quality of
subscribers and the PSTN/PLMN.[25] VoIP implementa- service is met. Handling MNP lookups before routing a
tions can also allow other identication techniques to be call provides some assurance that the voice call will actu-
used. For example, Skype allows subscribers to choose ally work.
Skype names[26] (usernames) whereas SIP implemen-
tations can use URIs[27] similar to email addresses. Of-
ten VoIP implementations employ methods of translating 77.6.2 Emergency calls
non-E.164 identiers to E.164 numbers and vice versa,
such as the Skype-In service provided by Skype[28] and
A telephone connected to a land line has a direct relation-
the ENUM service in IMS and SIP.[29]
ship between a telephone number and a physical location,
Echo can also be an issue for PSTN integration.[30] Com- which is maintained by the telephone company and avail-
mon causes of echo include impedance mismatches in able to emergency responders via the national emergency
analog circuitry and acoustic coupling of the transmit and response service centers in form of emergency subscriber
receive signal at the receiving end. lists. When an emergency call is received by a center the
location is automatically determined from its databases
and displayed on the operator console.
77.6.1 Number portability
In IP telephony, no such direct link between location and
Local number portability (LNP) and Mobile number communications end point exists. Even a provider hav-
portability (MNP) also impact VoIP business. In Novem- ing hardware infrastructure, such as a DSL provider, may
ber 2007, the Federal Communications Commission in only know the approximate location of the device, based
the United States released an order extending number on the IP address allocated to the network router and the
portability obligations to interconnected VoIP providers known service address. However, some ISPs do not track
and carriers that support VoIP providers.[31] Number the automatic assignment of IP addresses to customer
portability is a service that allows a subscriber to select equipment.[32]
a new telephone carrier without requiring a new number IP communication provides for device mobility. For ex-
to be issued. Typically, it is the responsibility of the for-
ample, a residential broadband connection may be used as
mer carrier to map the old number to the undisclosed a link to a virtual private network of a corporate entity, in
number assigned by the new carrier. This is achieved which case the IP address being used for customer com-
by maintaining a database of numbers. A dialed num- munications may belong to the enterprise, not being the
ber is initially received by the original carrier and quickly
network address of the residential ISP. Such o-premises
rerouted to the new carrier. Multiple porting references extensions may appear as part of an upstream IP PBX.
must be maintained even if the subscriber returns to the On mobile devices, e.g., a 3G handset or USB wireless
original carrier. The FCC mandates carrier compliance broadband adapter, the IP address has no relationship
with these consumer-protection stipulations. with any physical location known to the telephony ser-
vice provider, since a mobile user could be anywhere in a
A voice call originating in the VoIP environment also
faces challenges to reach its destination if the number is region with network coverage, even roaming via another
routed to a mobile phone number on a traditional mobile cellular company.
carrier. VoIP has been identied in the past as a Least At the VoIP level, a phone or gateway may identify it-
Cost Routing (LCR) system, which is based on checking self with a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) registrar by
the destination of each telephone call as it is made, and its account credentials. In such cases, the Internet tele-
then sending the call via the network that will cost the phony service provider (ITSP) only knows that a partic-
customer the least. This rating is subject to some debate ular users equipment is active. Service providers often
given the complexity of call routing created by number provide emergency response services by agreement with
portability. With GSM number portability now in place, the user who registers a physical location and agrees that
LCR providers can no longer rely on using the network emergency services are only provided to that address if
root prex to determine how to route a call. Instead, they an emergency number is called from the IP device.
must now determine the actual network of every number Such emergency services are provided by VoIP vendors
before routing the call. in the United States by a system called Enhanced 911
Therefore, VoIP solutions also need to handle MNP (E911), based on the Wireless Communications and Pub-
304 CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP

lic Safety Act of 1999. The VoIP E911 emergency- power.[35] Some VoIP service providers use customer
calling system associates a physical address with the call- premises equipment (e.g., cablemodems) with battery-
ing partys telephone number. All VoIP providers that backed power supplies to assure uninterrupted service for
provide access to the public switched telephone network up to several hours in case of local power failures. Such
are required to implement E911,[32] a service for which battery-backed devices typically are designed for use with
the subscriber may be charged. However, end-customer analog handsets.
participation in E911 is not mandatory and customers Some VoIP service providers implement services to route
may opt out of the service.[32] calls to other telephone services of the subscriber, such a
The VoIP E911 system is based on a static table lookup. cellular phone, in the event that the customers network
Unlike in cellular phones, where the location of an E911 device is inaccessible to terminate the call.
call can be traced using assisted GPS or other methods, The susceptibility of phone service to power failures is a
the VoIP E911 information is only accurate so long as common problem even with traditional analog service in
subscribers, who have the legal responsibility, are diligent areas where many customers purchase modern telephone
in keeping their emergency address information current. units that operate with wireless handsets to a base station,
or that have other modern phone features, such as built-in
voicemail or phone book features.
77.7 Fax support
Sending faxes over VoIP networks is sometimes referred 77.9 Security
to as Fax over IP (FoIP). Transmission of fax documents
was problematic in early VoIP implementations, as most
The security concerns of VoIP telephone systems are
voice digitization and compression codecs are optimized
similar to those of any Internet-connected device. This
for the representation of the human voice and the proper
means that hackers who know about these vulnerabili-
timing of the modem signals cannot be guaranteed in a
ties can institute denial-of-service attacks, harvest cus-
packet-based, connection-less network. An standards-
tomer data, record conversations and compromise voice-
based solution for reliably delivering fax-over-IP is the
mail messages. The quality of internet connection deter-
T.38 protocol.
mines the quality of the calls. VoIP phone service also
The T.38 protocol is designed to compensate for the dif- will not work if there is power outage and when the in-
ferences between traditional packet-less communications ternet connection is down. The 9-1-1 or 112 service pro-
over analog lines and packet-based transmissions which vided by VoIP phone service is also dierent from analog
are the basis for IP communications. The fax machine phone which is associated with a xed address. The emer-
may be a standard device connected to an analog tele- gency center may not be able to determine your location
phone adapter (ATA), or it may be a software application based on your virtual phone number.[36][37][38] Compro-
or dedicated network device operating via an Ethernet mised VoIP user account or session credentials may en-
interface.[33] Originally, T.38 was designed to use UDP able an attacker to incur substantial charges from third-
or TCP transmission methods across an IP network. UDP party services, such as long-distance or international tele-
provides near real-time characteristics due to the no re- phone calling.
covery rule when a UDP packet is lost or an error occurs
The technical details of many VoIP protocols create
during transmission.[34]
challenges in routing VoIP trac through rewalls and
Some newer high end fax machines have built-in T.38 network address translators, used to interconnect to tran-
capabilities which are connected directly to a network sit networks or the Internet. Private session border con-
switch or router. In T.38 each packet contains a portion of trollers are often employed to enable VoIP calls to and
the data stream sent in the previous packet. Two succes- from protected networks. Other methods to traverse
sive packets have to be lost to actually lose data integrity. NAT devices involve assistive protocols such as STUN
and Interactive Connectivity Establishment (ICE).
Many consumer VoIP solutions do not support encryp-
77.8 Power requirements tion of the signaling path or the media, however secur-
ing a VoIP phone is conceptually easier to implement
Telephones for traditional residential analog service are than on traditional telephone circuits. A result of the
usually connected directly to telephone company phone lack of encryption is a relative easy to eavesdrop on VoIP
lines which provide direct current to power most basic calls when access to the data network is possible.[39] Free
analog handsets independently of locally available elec- open-source solutions, such as Wireshark, facilitate cap-
trical power. turing VoIP conversations.
IP Phones and VoIP telephone adapters connect to Standards for securing VoIP are available in the Secure
routers or cable modems which typically depend on Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) and the ZRTP pro-
the availability of mains electricity or locally generated tocol for analog telephony adapters as well as for some
77.14. REGULATORY AND LEGAL ISSUES 305

softphones. IPsec is available to secure point-to-point such as digitizing and digital transmission, are already
VoIP at the transport level by using opportunistic encryp- in place with VoIP. It is only necessary to encrypt and
tion. authenticate the existing data stream. Automated soft-
Government and military organizations use various secu- ware, such as a virtual PBX, may eliminate the need of
rity measures to protect VoIP trac, such as voice over personnel to greet and switch incoming calls.
secure IP (VoSIP), secure voice over IP (SVoIP), and
secure voice over secure IP (SVoSIP).[40] The distinc-
tion lies in whether encryption is applied in the telephone 77.14 Regulatory and legal issues
or in the network[41] or both. Secure voice over secure
IP is accomplished by encrypting VoIP with protocols As the popularity of VoIP grows, governments are be-
such as SRTP or ZRTP. Secure voice over IP is accom- coming more interested in regulating VoIP in a manner
plished by using Type 1 encryption on a classied net- similar to PSTN services.[51]
work, like SIPRNet.[42][43][44][45][46] Public Secure VoIP
is also available with free GNU programs and in many Throughout the developing world, countries where regu-
popular commercial VoIP programs via libraries such as lation is weak or captured by the dominant operator, re-
ZRTP.[47] strictions on the use of VoIP are imposed, including in
Panama where VoIP is taxed, Guyana where VoIP is pro-
hibited and India where its retail commercial sales is al-
lowed but only for long distance service.[52] In Ethiopia,
77.10 Caller ID where the government is nationalising telecommunica-
tion service, it is a criminal oence to oer services using
Voice over IP protocols and equipment provide caller ID VoIP. The country has installed rewalls to prevent in-
support that is compatible with the facility provided in the ternational calls being made using VoIP. These measures
public switched telephone network (PSTN). Many VoIP were taken after the popularity of VoIP reduced the in-
service providers also allow callers to congure arbitrary come generated by the state owned telecommunication
caller ID information.[48] company.

77.11 Compatibility with tradi- 77.14.1 European Union

tional analog telephone sets In the European Union, the treatment of VoIP service
Most analog telephone adapters do not decode dial pulses
generated by rotary dial telephones, supporting only
touch-tone signaling, but pulse-to-tone converters are
commercially available.
77.12 Support for other telephony
devices
Some special telephony services, such as those that op-
erate in conjunction with digital video recorders, satellite
television receivers, alarm systems, conventional modems
over PSTN lines, may be impaired when operated over
VoIP services, because of incompatibilities in design.
providers is a decision for each national telecommunica-
tions regulator, which must use competition law to dene
relevant national markets and then determine whether any
service provider on those national markets has signi-
cant market power (and so should be subject to certain
obligations). A general distinction is usually made be-
tween VoIP services that function over managed networks
(via broadband connections) and VoIP services that func-
tion over unmanaged networks (essentially, the Internet).
The relevant EU Directive is not clearly drafted concern-
ing obligations which can exist independently of market
power (e.g., the obligation to oer access to emergency
calls), and it is impossible to say denitively whether
VoIP service providers of either type are bound by them.
A review of the EU Directive is under way and should be
complete by 2007.

77.13 Operational cost 77.14.2 Middle East

VoIP has drastically reduced the cost of communica-
tion by sharing network infrastructure between data and
voice.[49][50] A single broad-band connection has the abil-
ity to transmit more than one telephone call. Secure calls
using standardized protocols, such as Secure Real-time
Transport Protocol, as most of the facilities of creating a
secure telephone connection over traditional phone lines,
In the UAE and Oman it is illegal to use any form of VoIP,
to the extent that Web sites of Gizmo5 are blocked. Pro-
viding or using VoIP services is illegal in Oman. Those
who violate the law stand to be ned 50,000 Omani Rial
(about 130,317 US dollars) or spend two years in jail or
both. In 2009, police in Oman have raided 121 Internet
cafes throughout the country and arrested 212 people for
306
using/providing VoIP services.[53]
77.14.3 India
In India, it is legal to use VoIP, but it is illegal to have
VoIP gateways inside India.[54] This eectively means that
people who have PCs can use them to make a VoIP call
to any number, but if the remote side is a normal phone,
the gateway that converts the VoIP call to a POTS call is
not permitted by law to be inside India. Foreign based
Voip server services are illegal to use in India.[54]
In the interest of the Access Service Providers and Inter-
national Long Distance Operators the Internet telephony
was permitted to the ISP with restrictions. Internet Tele-
phony is considered to be dierent service in its scope,
nature and kind from real time voice as oered by other
Access Service Providers and Long Distance Carriers.
Hence the following type of Internet Telephony are per-
mitted in India:[55]
(a) PC to PC; within or outside India
(b) PC / a device / Adapter conforming to stan-
dard of any international agencies like- ITU or
IETF etc. in India to PSTN/PLMN abroad.
(c) Any device / Adapter conforming to stan-
dards of International agencies like ITU, IETF
etc. connected to ISP node with static IP ad-
dress to similar device / Adapter; within or out-
side India.
(d) Except whatever is described in condition
(ii) above, no other form of Internet Telephony
is permitted.
(e) In India no Separate Numbering Scheme is
provided to the Internet Telephony. Presently
the 10 digit Numbering allocation based on
E.164 is permitted to the Fixed Telephony,
GSM, CDMA wireless service. For Internet
Telephony the numbering scheme shall only
conform to IP addressing Scheme of Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Trans-
lation of E.164 number / private number to IP
address allotted to any device and vice versa,
by ISP to show compliance with IANA num-
bering scheme is not permitted.
(f) The Internet Service Licensee is not permit-
ted to have PSTN/PLMN connectivity. Voice
communication to and from a telephone con-
nected to PSTN/PLMN and following E.164
numbering is prohibited in India.
77.14.4 South Korea
In South Korea, only providers registered with the gov-
ernment are authorized to oer VoIP services. Unlike
many VoIP providers, most of whom oer at rates, Ko-
rean VoIP services are generally metered and charged at
CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP
rates similar to terrestrial calling. Foreign VoIP providers
encounter high barriers to government registration. This
issue came to a head in 2006 when Internet service
providers providing personal Internet services by con-
tract to United States Forces Korea members residing on
USFK bases threatened to block o access to VoIP ser-
vices used by USFK members as an economical way to
keep in contact with their families in the United States,
on the grounds that the service members VoIP providers
were not registered. A compromise was reached between
USFK and Korean telecommunications ocials in Jan-
uary 2007, wherein USFK service members arriving in
Korea before June 1, 2007, and subscribing to the ISP
services provided on base may continue to use their US-
based VoIP subscription, but later arrivals must use a
Korean-based VoIP provider, which by contract will of-
fer pricing similar to the at rates oered by US VoIP
providers.[56]
77.14.5 United States
In the United States, the Federal Communications
Commission requires all interconnected VoIP service
providers to comply with requirements comparable
to those for traditional telecommunications service
providers.[57] VoIP operators in the US are required to
support local number portability; make service accessible
to people with disabilities; pay regulatory fees, universal
service contributions, and other mandated payments; and
enable law enforcement authorities to conduct surveil-
lance pursuant to the Communications Assistance for
Law Enforcement Act (CALEA).
Operators of Interconnected VoIP (fully connected to
the PSTN) are mandated to provide Enhanced 911 ser-
vice without special request, provide for customer lo-
cation updates, clearly disclose any limitations on their
E-911 functionality to their consumers, obtain ar-
mative acknowledgements of these disclosures from all
consumers,[58] and 'may not allow their customers to
opt-out of 911 service.'[59] VoIP operators also re-
ceive the benet of certain US telecommunications reg-
ulations, including an entitlement to interconnection and
exchange of trac with incumbent local exchange carri-
ers via wholesale carriers. Providers of nomadic VoIP
servicethose who are unable to determine the location
of their usersare exempt from state telecommunica-
tions regulation.[60]
Another legal issue that the US Congress is debating con-
cerns changes to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Act. The issue in question is calls between Americans
and foreigners. The National Security Agency (NSA)
is not authorized to tap Americans conversations with-
out a warrantbut the Internet, and specically VoIP
does not draw as clear a line to the location of a caller
or a calls recipient as the traditional phone system does.
As VoIPs low cost and exibility convinces more and
more organizations to adopt the technology, the surveil-
77.15. HISTORY
lance for law enforcement agencies becomes more di-
cult. VoIP technology has also increased security con-
cerns because VoIP and similar technologies have made
it more dicult for the government to determine where a
target is physically located when communications are be-
ing intercepted, and that creates a whole set of new legal
challenges.[61]
77.15 History
The early developments of packet network designs by
Paul Baran and other researchers were motivated by a
desire for a higher degree of circuit redundancy and net-
work avalability in face of infrastructure failures than was
possible in the circuit-switched networks in telecommu-
nications in the mid-twentieth century. In 1973, Danny
Cohen rst demonstrated a form of packet voice as part
of a ight simulator application, which operated across
the early ARPANET.[62][63] In the following time span
of about two decades, various forms of packet telephony
were developed and industry interest groups formed to
support the new technologies. Following the termination
of the ARPANET project, and expansion of the Inter-
net for commercial trac, IP telephony became an es-
tablished area of interest in commercial labs of the ma-
jor IT concerns, such Microsoft and Intel, and open-
source software, such as VocalTec, became available by
the mid-1990s. By the late 1990s, the rst softswitches
became available, and new protocols, such as H.323,
the Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) and the
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) gained widespread at-
tention. In the early 2000s, the proliferation of high-
bandwidth always-on Internet connections to residential
dwellings and businesses, spawned an industry of Inter-
net telephony service providers (ITSPs). The develop-
ment of open-source telephony software, such as Asterisk
PBX, fueled widespread interest and entrepreneurship in
voice-over-IP services, applying new Internet technology
paradigms, such as cloud services to telephony.
77.15.1 Milestones
1973: Packet voice application by Danny Cohen
1974: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic En-
gineers (IEEE) publishes a paper entitled A Proto-
col for Packet Network Interconnection.[64]
1974: Network Voice Protocol (NVP) tested over
ARPANET in August 1974, carrying 16k CVSD
encoded voice.
1977: Danny Cohen and Jon Postel of the USC
Information Sciences Institute, and Vint Cerf of
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), agree to separate IP from TCP, and cre-
ate UDP for carrying real-time trac.
307
1981: IPv4 is described in RFC 791.
1985: The National Science Foundation commis-
sions the creation of NSFNET.[65]
1986: Proposals from various standards organiza-
tions for Voice over ATM, in addition to commer-
cial packet voice products from companies such as
StrataCom
1991: First Voice-over-IP application, Speak
Freely, is released into the public domain. It was
originally written by John Walker and further devel-
oped by Brian C. Wiles.[66]
1992: The Frame Relay Forum conducts develop-
ment of standards for Voice over Frame Relay.
1994: MTALK, a freeware VoIP application for
Linux[67]
1995: VocalTec releases the rst commercial Inter-
net phone software.[68][69]
Beginning in 1995, Intel, Microsoft and
Radvision initiated standardization activities
for VoIP communications system.[70]
1996:
ITU-T begins development of standards for
the transmission and signaling of voice com-
munications over Internet Protocol networks
with the H.323 standard.[71]
US telecommunication companies petition
the US Congress to ban Internet phone
technology.[72]
1997: Level 3 began development of its rst
softswitch, a term they coined in 1998.[73]
1999:
The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) speci-
cation RFC 2543 is released.[74]
Mark Spencer of Digium develops the rst
open source private branch exchange (PBX)
software (Asterisk).[75]
2004: Commercial VoIP service providers prolifer-
ate.
2007: VOIP device manufacturers and sellers boom
in Asia, specically in the Philippines where many
families of overseas workers reside.[76][77]
2011: Raise of WebRTC technology which allows
VoIP directly in browsers
2015: Trend of using VoIP services in cloud: PBXes
and contact centers, it means higher requirements to
IP network to achieve good quality of service and
reliability
308 CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP

77.16 See also [9] Skype For Business. skype.com. Retrieved 2009-03-
16.
Audio over IP [10] Jackson, William (May 27, 2009). SSA goes big on
VOIP. Government Computer News. Retrieved 2009-
Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement
05-28.
Act
[11] Social Security to Build Worlds Largest VOIP"". Gov-
Comparison of audio network protocols ernment Technology. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
Comparison of VoIP software [12] VOIP Vulnerability over Internet Protocol?".
Dierentiated services [13] Quality of Service for Voice over IP. Retrieved May 3,
2011.
High bit rate audio video over Internet Protocol
[14] Prabhakar, G.; Rastogi, R.; Thotton, M (2005).
Integrated services OSS Architecture & Requirements for VoIP Net-
works. Bell Labs Technical Journal. 10 (1): 3145.
Internet fax
doi:10.1002/bltj.20077.
IP Multimedia Subsystem
[15] Quality of Service for Voice over IP. Retrieved May 3,
List of VoIP companies 2011.

[16] IEEE Multipath routing with adaptive playback schedul-

Mobile VoIP
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Network Voice Protocol Sarno Symposium, 2008 IEEE: 15. 2830 April
2008. doi:10.1109/SARNOF.2008.4520089. ISBN 978-
RTP audio video prole 1-4244-1843-5.

SIP Trunking [17] New 4G technology set to bring benets of VoIP to rural
areas.
UNIStim
[18] CableLabs, PacketCable Residential SIP Telephony Feature
Voice VPN Denition, Technical Report, PKT-TR-RST-V03-071106
(2007)
VoiceXML
[19] VoIP performance measurement using QoS parameters
VoIP recording (PDF). A.H.Muhamad Amin. 2016-08-14.

[20] Methodology for SIP Infrastructure Performance Test-

77.17 References
[1] XMPP Federation. Google Talkabout. 2006. Retrieved
2012-05-11.
[2] Booth, C (2010). Chapter 2: IP Phones, Software VoIP,
and Integrated and Mobile VoIP. Library Technology Re-
ports. 46 (5): 1119.
[3] VoIP. Cambridge Dictionaries Online.
[4] WIRELESS: Carriers look to IP for backhaul. www.
eetimes.com. EE Times. Archived from the original on
August 9, 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
[5] Mobiles IP challenge. www.totaltele.com. Total Tele-
com Online. Archived from the original on February 17,
2006. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
ing (PDF). Miroslav Voznak, Jan Rozhon. 2016-08-14.
[21] Voice over IP (VoIP) Performance Evaluation on
VMware vSphere 5 (PDF). VMware. 2016-08-14.
[22] Performance and Stress Testing of SIP Servers, Clients
and IP Networks. StarTrinity. 2016-08-13.
[23] Testing Voice over IP (VolP) Networks (PDF). IXIA.
2016-08-14.
[24] Importance of Softswitch VoIP Technology. ixc.ua.
May 20, 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
[25] RFC 3824 Using E.164 numbers with the Session Initi-
ation Protocol (SIP)". The Internet Society. June 1, 2004.
Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[26] Create a Skype Name. Skype. Retrieved 2009-01-21.

[6] Michael Dosch and Steve Church. VoIP in the Broadcast
Studio. Axia Audio. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
[7] Callahan, Renee (December 9, 2008). Businesses Move
To Voice-Over-IP. Forbes. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
[27] RFC 3969 The Internet Assigned Number Authority
(IANA) Uniform Resource Identier (URI) Parameter
Registry for the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)". The
Internet Society. December 1, 2004. Retrieved 2009-01-
21.

[8] Korzeniowski, Peter (January 8, 2009). Three Technolo- [28] Your personal online number. Skype. Retrieved 2009-
gies You Need In 2009. Forbes. Retrieved 2009-03-02. 01-21.
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[29] Application-level Network Interoperability and the Evo-
lution of IMS. TMCnet.com. May 24, 2006. Retrieved
2009-01-21.
[30] Je Riddel (2007). Packetcable Implementation. Cisco
Press. p. 557. ISBN 978-1-58705-181-4.
[31] Keeping your telephone number when you change your
service provider. FCC.
[32] FCC Consumer Advisory VoIP and 911 Service (PDF).
Retrieved May 2, 2011.
[33] Soft-Switch.org, Faxing over IP networks
[34] UMass Discussion on UDP transmission Characteris-
tics.
[35] ICT Regulation Tool Kit 4.4 VOIP Regulatory Issues
Universal Service
[36] Taub, Eric (April 2, 2008). VOIP System Security: Time
to Worry, or Maybe Not. New York Times. Retrieved
2009-03-02.
[37] Stanton, Ray (2006). Secure VoIP an achievable
goal. Computer Fraud & Security. 4 (4): 1114.
doi:10.1016/S1361-3723(06)70333-5.
[38] Stanton, R. (2006). Secure VoIP- an achievable
goal. Computer Fraud & Security. 4 (4): 1114.
doi:10.1016/S1361-3723(06)70333-5.
[39] Examining Two Well-Known Attacks on VOIP. Cir-
cleID. Retrieved 2006-04-05.
[40] Disa.mil, Internet Protocol Telephony & Voice over Inter-
net Protocol Security Technical Implementation Guide
[41] Secure Voice over IP (SVoIP) vs. Voice over Secure IP
(VoSIP) Installations General Dynamics C4 Systems
[42] Dunte, Markus; Ruland, Christoph (June 2007). Secure
Voice-over-IP (PDF). International Journal of Computer
Science and Network Security. 7 (6): 6368.
[43] Sans.org, SANS Institute InfoSec Reading Room
[44] White, C.M.; Teague, K.A.; Daniel, E.J. (710 Nov
2004). Browse Conference Publications > Signals, Sys-
tems and Computer ... Help Working with Abstracts
Packet loss concealment in a secure voice over IP environ-
ment (PDF). Signals, Systems and Computers, 2004. Con-
ference Record of the Thirty-Eighth Asilomar Conference
on. 1: 415419. doi:10.1109/ACSSC.2004.1399165.
[45] GDC4S.com, State-of-the-art voice over IP encryptor
[46] Cellcrypt secure VOIP heading to BlackBerry. Net-
workworld.com.
[47] Secure VOIP calling, free software, and the right to pri-
vacy. Free Software Magazine.
[48] VOIPSA.org, Blog: Hello Mom, I'm a Fake!" (Telespoof
and Fakecaller).
[49] FCC.gov, What are some advantages of VOIP?
[50] Voip Infrastructure (PDF).
309
[51] Global VOIP Policy Status Matrix. Global IP Alliance.
Retrieved 2006-11-23.
[52] Proenza, Francisco J. The Road to Broadband Devel-
opment in Developing Countries is through Competition
Driven by Wireless and VOIP (PDF). Retrieved 2008-
04-07.
[53] Metz, Cade. Oman cus 212 for selling VoIP calls. The
Register. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
[54] Mahanagar Doorsanchar Bhawan and Jawahar Lal Nehru
Marg (May 2008). Telecom Regulatory Authority of In-
dia (TRAI) Consultation paper on Issues related to Inter-
net Telephony. Consultation Paper No. 11/2008. (PDF).
New Delhi India: Telecom Regulatory Authority of In-
dia (TRAI). p. 16 (Section 2.2.1.2 PC-to-Phone Internet
telephony). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-
10-06. Retrieved September 19, 2012. An end user is al-
lowed to make PCto-Phone Internet Telephony calls only
on PSTN/PLMN abroad.
[55] Harish Kumar Gangwar Technical Note on Illegal Inter-
national Long Distance telephone Exchange in India
[56] Stripes.com, Stars and Stripes: USFK deal keeps VoIP
access for troops
[57] Cybertelecom :: VoIP :: Federal Activity
[58] GPO.gov, 47 C.F.R. pt. 9 (2007)
[59] VoIP and 911 Service. FCC. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
[60] FCC.gov
[61] Greenberg, Andy (May 15, 2008). The State Of Cyber-
security Wiretappings Fuzzy Future. Forbes. Retrieved
2009-03-02.
[62] Danny Cohen. INTERNET HALL of FAME. Re-
trieved 2014-12-06.
[63] Advanced Content Delivery, Streaming, and Cloud Services
(Pg 34). Willey. Retrieved 2014-12-06.
[64] Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (May 1974). A Protocol for
Packet Network Intercommunication. IEEE Trans-
actions on Communications. 22 (5): 637648.
doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259.
[65] The Launch of NSFNET. The National Science Foun-
dation. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[66] Speak Freely History. Brian C. Wiles. April 18, 1999.
Retrieved 2013-03-19.
[67] MTALK-Readme (TXT). Sunsite.edu. Retrieved
2012-04-29.
[68] Keating, Tom. Internet Phone Release 4 (PDF). Com-
puter Telephony Interaction Magazine. Retrieved 2007-
11-07.
[69] The 10 that Established VOIP (Part 1: VocalTec)". iLo-
cus. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
310 CHAPTER 77. VOICE OVER IP

[70] The free Library RADVision and Intel Target Compatibil-

ity Between RADVisions H.323/320 Videoconferencing
Gateway And Intels Business Video Conferencing And
TeamStation Products. June 2, 1997 VoiP Developer So-
lutions

[71] H.323 Visual telephone systems and equipment for local

area networks which provide a non-guaranteed quality of
service. ITU-T. Retrieved 2009-01-21.

[72] RFC 2235. R. Zakon. Retrieved 2009-01-21.

[73] The 10 that Established VOIP (Part 2: Level 3)". iLocus.

July 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-07.

[74] RFC 2543, SIP: Session Initiation Protocol. Hand-

ley,Schulzrinne,Schooler,Rosenberg. Retrieved 2009-01-
21.

[75] What is Asterisk. Asterisk.org. Retrieved 2009-01-21.

[76] Prospects bright for voice calls over Internet. Retrieved

2015-01-01.

[77] Philippine Daily Inquirer - Google News Archive. Re-

trieved 2015-01-01.

77.18 External links

The dictionary denition of VoIP at Wiktionary

Internet telephony travel guide from Wikivoyage

Chapter 78

Voicemail

For other uses, see Voicemail (disambiguation).
Voice Mail System (also known as voice mail, voice
message or voice bank) is a computer-based system
that allows users and subscribers to exchange personal
voice messages; to select and deliver voice information;
and to process transactions relating to individuals, orga-
nizations, products and services, using an ordinary tele-
phone. The term is also used more broadly to denote any
system of conveying a stored telecommunications voice
messages, including using an answering machine. Most
cell phone services oer voice-mail as a basic feature,
many corporate PBXs include versatile internal voice-
messaging services and *98 Vertical service code sub-
scription is available to most individual and small busi-
ness land line subscribers.
78.1 History of voicemail
The term Voicemail was coined by Televoice Interna-
tional (later became Voicemail International) for intro-
duction of the rst US wide Voicemail service in 1980.
Although VMI trademarked the term, it eventually be-
came a generic term used for referring to virtually all
automated voice services employing a telephone. Voice-
mail popularity continues today with Internet telephone panys PABX, with a call center ACD for automatic call
services such as Skype, Google Voice and ATT that in-
tegrate voice, voicemail and text services for tablets and
smartphones
Voicemail systems were developed in the late 70s by
Voice Message Exchange (VMX). They became popular
in the early 80s when they were made available on PC-
[1]
based boards. In September 2012 a report from USA
Today and Vonage claimed that Voice mail was in de-
cline. The report said that the number of voicemail mes-
sages declined 8 percent compared to 2011.[2][3]
tain a user interface to select, play, and manage messages;
a delivery method to either play or otherwise deliver the
message; and a notication ability to inform the user of a
waiting message. Most systems use phone networks, ei-
ther cellular- or landline-based, as the conduit for all of
these functions. Some systems may use multiple telecom-
munications methods, permitting recipients and callers to
retrieve or leave messages through multiple methods such
as PCs, PDA, Cellphones or Smartphones.
Simple voicemail systems function as a remote answering
machine using touch-tones as the user interface. More
complicated systems may use other input devices such
as voice or a computer interface. Simpler voice-mail
systems may play the audio message through the phone,
while more advanced systems may have alternative deliv-
ery methods, including email or text message delivery,
message transfer and forwarding options, and multiple
mailboxes.
Almost all modern voicemail systems use digital storage
and are typically stored on computer data storage. Noti-
cation methods also vary based on the voice-mail system.
Simple systems may not provide active notication at all,
instead requiring the recipient to check with the system,
while others may provide an indication that messages are
waiting.
More advanced systems may be integrated with a com-
distribution; with mobile or paging terminals for mes-
sage alert; and computer systems/data bases for delivering
information or processing orders. Interactive Voice Re-
sponse (IVR) systems may use digital information stored
in a corporate data base to select pre-recorded words and
phrases stored in a voice-mail vocabulary to form sen-
tences that are delivered to the caller.
78.3 Message centers

The conventional solution to ecient handling of tele-

78.2 Voicemail features phone communication in businesses was the "message
center. A message center or message desk was a cen-
Voicemail systems are designed to convey a callers tralized, manual answering service inside a company
recorded audio message to a recipient. To do so they con- staed by a few operators who answered all incoming

311
312
phone calls. Extensions that were busy or rang no an-
swer would forward to the message center using a device
called a call director. The call director had a button for
each extension in the company which would ash when
that persons extension forwarded to the message center.
A little label next to the button told the operator the per-
son being called.
While it was an improvement over basic multi-line sys-
tems, the message center had many disadvantages. Many
calls would come in simultaneously at peak periods, such
as lunch time, and operators were often busy. This left
message attendants with little time to take each message
accurately. Often, they were not familiar with employees
names and buzzwords and how to spell or pronounce
them. Messages were scribbled on pink slips and dis-
tributed by the internal mail system and messages, often
arrived at peoples desks after lengthy delays, contained
little content other than the callers name and number, and
were often inaccurate, with misspelled names and wrong
phone numbers.
Tape-based telephone answering machines had come into
the residential telephone market, but they weren't used
much in the corporate environment due to physical lim-
itations of the technology. One answering machine
was needed for each telephone; messages couldn't be
recorded if the user was using the phone; messages had
to be retrieved in sequential order; and messages couldn't
be retrieved remotely, selectively discarded, saved, or
forwarded to others. Further, the manufacturers of
PBXs (private branch exchangesthe name for corpo-
rate phone systems) used proprietary digital phone sets in
order to increase the functionality and value of the PBX.
These phone sets were, by design, incompatible with an-
swering machines.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, the cost of long dis-
tance calling decreased and more business communica-
tions were conducted by telephone. As corporations grew
and labor rates increased, the ratio of secretaries to em-
ployees decreased. With multiple time zones, fewer sec-
retaries and more communication by phone, real-time
phone communications were hampered by callers being
unable to reach people. Some early studies showed that
only 1 in 4 phone calls resulted in a completed call and
half the calls were one-way in nature (that is, they did not
require a conversation). This happened because people
were either not at work (due to time zone dierences, be-
ing away on business, etc.), or if they were at work, they
were on the phone, away from their desks in meetings, on
breaks, etc. This bottleneck hindered the eectiveness
of business activities and decreased both individual and
group productivity. It also wasted the callers time and
created delays in resolving time-critical issues.
CHAPTER 78. VOICEMAIL
78.4 Voicemail invention
The rst public records describing voice recording were
reported in a New York newspaper and the Scientic
American in November, 1877. Thomas A. Edison had
announced the invention of his phonograph saying the
object was to record telephone messages and transmit
them again by telephone. Edison applied for a U. S.
patent on December 1877 and shortly thereafter demon-
strated the machine to publishers, the U.S. congress and
President Hayes, recording and playing Mary had a lit-
tle lamb... " and there was a little girl who had a lit-
tle curl... " and other ditties popular at the time. In an
article outlining his own ideas of the future usefulness
of his machine Edisons list began with Letter writing,
and all kinds of dictation without the aid of a stenogra-
pher. In other words, voice messages or Voice-mail.
By 1914, Edisons phonograph business included a dic-
tating machine (the Ediphone) and the Telescribe, a
machine combining the phonograph and the telephone,
which recorded both sides of telephone conversations.[4]
For nearly one hundred years, there were few innovations
or advances in telephone services. Voicemail was the
result of innovations in telephone products and services
made possible by developments in computer technology
during the 1970s. These innovations began with the
Motorola Pageboy, a simple pager or beeper intro-
duced in 1974 that was generally oered in conjunction
with answering services that handled busy / no-answer
overloads and after hours calls for businesses and profes-
sionals. Operators wrote down a callers message, sent a
page alert or beep and when the party called back, an
operator dictated the message.
With the introduction of voice pagers, like the
Motorola Pageboy II operators could transmit a voice
message directly to the pager and the user could hear the
message. However, messages arrival was often untimely
and privacy issues as well as the high cost eventually
caused the demise of these services. By the mid 1970s
digital storage and analog to digital conversion devises
had emerged and paging companies began handling client
messages electronically. Operators recorded a short mes-
sage (56 seconds, e.g. please call Mr. Smith) and the
messages were delivered automatically when the client
called the answering service. It would only take a short
step for the rst voicemail application to be born.
Computer manufacturers, telephone equipment manu-
facturers and software rms began developing more so-
phisticated solutions as more powerful and less expen-
sive computer processors and storage devices became
available. This set the stage for a creation of a broad
spectrum of computer based Central Oce and Cus-
tomer Premises Equipment that would eventually sup-
port enhanced voice solutions such as voicemail, audio-
tex, interactive voice response (IVR) and speech recog-
nition solutions that began emerging in the 1980s. How-
ever, broad adoption of these products and services would
78.6. PIONEERING APPLICATIONS 313

depend on the global proliferation of touch tone phones ADS used the human voice and the xed-line touch-tone
and mobile phone services which would not occur until telephones that predated computer screens and mobile
the late 1980s. phones. The rst operational prototypes were used by
750 IBM executives mainly in the USA for their daily
work. Those prototypes ran on an IBM System/7 com-
78.5 Invention of voicemail contro- puter attached to an IBM VM370 for additional storage.
versy In 1978 the prototype was converted to run on an IBM
Series/1 computer. In September 1981 IBM started mar-
keting ADS in America and Europe: the rst customer
Many contributed to the creation of the modern-day installation was completed in February 1982.
voice-mail. Legal battles ensued for decades.[5] The
[10]
true rst inventor of voicemail, patent number 4,124,773 ADS, marketed by IBM and briey by AT&T Corpo-
(Audio Storage and Distribution System), is Elkins.[6] ration, was well featured for voice messaging, the result
Though Elkins received a patent in 1978, telecommu- of IBMs considerable human-factors research plus ob-
nications giants began oering voicemail without paying servation of operational use. Using a 1980s computer re-
Elkins a penny in royalties. [7] Elkins never expected quiring air conditioning, it was expensive and physically
to spend 10 years of his life battling some of the worlds large. With further development it grew to handle up to
largest corporations, either. But once he patented his sys- 3000 users, 100 hours of messages, multiple languages,
tem, he gured he should protect it.[8] Later, Elkins suc- message notication to a host computer, and 16 simulta-
[11]
cessfully licensed his patented technology to IBM, DEC, neous users.
WANG, among many others. Unfortunately, his patent ADS could be connected to exchange lines and private
did not address simultaniety of voice message access and exchanges including the IBM 2750 and 3750 Switching
storage and the application for patent was led after the Systems available in Germany, France, Italy, Belgium,
patent application of the system patented by Kolodny and and the UK.
Hughes. as described below.
IBM sold many systems.[10] Installations[11] included:

The 1984 Atlanta Olympic Games with 7 systems

78.6 Pioneering applications
One of the rst modern day voicemail applications was
invented by Gerald M. Kolodny and Paul Hughes, which
was described in an article in the medical journal, Radi-
ology (Kolodny GM, Cohen HI, Kalisky A. Rapid-access
system for radiology reports: a new concept. Radiol-
ogy. 1974;111(3):717-9) A patent was applied for by
Kolodny and Hughes in 1975, prior to the patent appli-
cations of both Elkins and Matthews and was issued in
1981 (U.S. patent 4,260,854). The patent was assigned
to Sudbury Systems of Sudbury Massachusetts who pro-
ceeded to market and sell such systems to corporations
and hospitals. IBM, Sony and Lanier, as well as sev-
eral smaller makers of voice-mail systems, licensed the
Sudbury patent for their voice-mail systems. A patent
suit, brought by Pitney Bowes, claiming prior art to the
Sudbury patent, was denied by the U.S. District Court,
District of Connecticut on November 8, 2000. A simi-
lar suit brought byVDI Technologies against the Kolodny
and Hughes patent claiming prior art was dismissed by the
U.S. District Court in New Hampshire on 12/19/1991.
serving 7800 athletes and 6000 sta and com-
puter voice prompts in 12 languages for 55,000 mes-
sages
General Motors, USA with 8 ADS systems saving
30% of the costs of its long-distance calls
Systems across America and Europe for insurance-
company sta to report their appraisals of damaged
vehicles and hear the locations of their next appraisal
sites
Esso in France and Mars in England for salesforce
coordination
Rowntrees in York, England to liaise with the
chocolate-makers agents across time zones in Eu-
rope, North America, the Middle East, and Aus-
tralia
Italy: 10 systems across Italy for the public to call
to hear locally-relevant autostrade trac-delay in-
formation
Milan, Italy: two systems for automated airport an-
nouncements, handling multiple languages.

78.6.1 IBM Audio Distribution System

The rst voice-messaging application, the Speech Filing
System, was developed at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Re-
search Center in 1973 under the leadership of Stephen
Boies.[9] It was later renamed the Audio Distribution Sys-
tem (ADS).
78.6.2 Delta 1
Another company, Delphi Communications of Califor-
nia, deserves some partial credit for invention of voice-
mail. Under the leadership of Jay Stoer, Delphi de-
veloped a proprietary system called Delta 1 that picked
314 CHAPTER 78. VOICEMAIL

up incoming calls directly from the telephone company.
Stoer presented the Delphi concept publicly to the as-
sociation of Telephone Answering Services around 1973
and the prototype system was launched in San Francisco
in 1976 by a Delphi company called VoiceBank. Delphi
developed Delta 1 as a purely service-oriented voice mes-
saging system to answer subscriber telephones for busi-
nesses and professionals. Delta 1 required human in-
tervention for message deposit. While three machines
were built, only one machine was put into operational
service. The completely automated voice messaging sys-
tem (Delta 2) was developed for initial operational use
in Los Angeles in 1981. Apparently Delta 2 was built,
installed and operational for a short while, but unfortu-
nately Delphis major early investor, Exxon Enterprises,
abruptly shut down Delphi in July, 1982. Nothing further
was done with Delphis technology. A patent was applied
for and issued for Delphis Automated Telephone Voice
Service System. The patent, U.S. Patent No. 4,625,081,
was issued after Delphis closure, but Delphis assets (and
the patent) were transferred to another Exxon company,
Gilbarco, which made equipment for gas pumps at lling
stations. Gilbarco is now owned by GEC in the United
Kingdom.
then Wang, but all three companies reportedly would
have been able to invalidate the patent on the basis of
prior art and their licenses from Sudbury Systems Inc, for
their Kolodny and Hughes patent (see above). VMX clev-
erly achieved a settlement where the patent was let stand,
not challenged in court and IBM, Wang and AT&T (in
separate settlements) received royalty-free licenses to all
VMX patents. Wang, the last of the majors to get such
a license for itself and Voice-mail International, essen-
tially paid $20,000 and cross licensed a few patent appli-
cations (not issued patents). IBM and AT&T also cross-
licensed a number of patents to VMX, most of which
were obsolete or outdated. VMX could claim that sev-
eral major companies licensed the patent (even though
they paid almost nothing to VMX for the rights), but that
part wasn't disclosed. The patent was never challenged in
court and VMX then continued to assert (incorrectly) that
it had invented voice-mail and that Matthews was the fa-
ther of voice-mail. Following the settlement with Wang,
VMX settled with Octel Communications in exchange for
a small payment and Octels agreeing not to litigate any
VMX patent, Octel received a paid-up, royalty-free li-
cense on all existing and future VMX patents.

78.6.3 VMX

In 1979, a company was founded in Texas by Gordon

Matthews called ECS Communications (the name was
later changed to VMX, for Voice Message exchange). 78.6.4 IVR Voice Recognition
VMX developed a 3000-user voice messaging system
called the VMX/64 and was the rst company to oer
a voice messaging system for sale commercially for cor-
In 1985, Voice Response Inc. (formerly Call-It Co) a
porate use. In the early 1980s, VMX sold voice mes-
subsidiary of Lee Enterprises, Davenport IA, entered the
saging systems to several large corporations, such as 3M,
fast-growing Interactive Voice (IVR) response market un-
Kodak, American Express, Intel, HomannLa Roche, der the direction of Bob Ross, President.[12] About a year
Corning Glass, Arco, Shell Canada and Westinghouse.
later, VRI introduced one of the rst successful IVR
The impressive list of early adopters started the ball
applications that utilized voice recognition (rather than
rolling on corporate voice-mail. While VMX began with
touch tone) to capture caller responses. Voice recogni-
a good start, it failed at developing the market, and the
tion technology had great diculty with regional and eth-
company was not a commercial success. It took sev-nic dierences and nuances which resulted in a high in-
eral years before its products could answer outside calls
cidence of error. VRI discovered that hesitation (delayed
(and then only under certain circumstances), they were
response) signaled caller confusion or misunderstanding
physically enormous, expensive, light on important user
which often resulted in an inaccurate response. VRI de-
features and had serious reliability issues. In addition,
veloped proprietary techniques that measured user re-
the user interface was cumbersome, requiring the users
sponse times and used the data to make real-time changes
to remember non-intuitive multi-digit Touch-tone com-
to the applications dialog with the caller. VRI found that
mands. Matthews, a prolic entrepreneur and paten-the condence level of a suspect caller response could
ter, applied for and was granted a patent on voice-mail
be increased by asking Did you say (Chicago), Yes or
(patent number 4,371,752) which issued in February,
No, a standard queston heard in order taking or reser-
1983. The patent was promoted as the pioneering patent
vation making IVR applications today. VRI pioneering
for voice-mail. However, the patent application was led
applications, including subscription fulllment for Time
on 11/26/1979, 5 years after and issued in 1983, 2 years
-Life Magazine, proved faster and less expensive than call
after that of Kolodny and Hughes as described above, and
centers using live operators and although VRI did not sur-
cannot therefore be considered as the pioneering founda-
vive, their voice recognition processes became industry
tion of voice mail. standards and VRIs patent USPTO - patent RE34,587
VMX asserted infringement rst with IBM, AT&T and was eventually licensed by Intel/Dialogic and Nuance.
78.8. CORPORATE VOICEMAIL 315

78.7 International Voicemail Asso- nancial disaster for the protable ROLM, as IBM clearly
could not grasp the laid back, "think outside the box" at-
ciation titude of ROLM, which was the #2 PBX supplier in the
US from the mid 70s to late 80s), then sold half interest
In 1987, Voice-mail service providers in the U.S. and Eu- to the German company Siemens.[15] In 1992, Siemens
rope joined together to form the Voice Mail Association bought ROLM entirely from IBM and the original ROLM
of Europe (VMA) with Ren Beusch, Radio-Suisse and product line was done for, except for PhoneMail (the only
Paul Finnigan, Finnigan USA[13] serving as VMA Chair- product Siemens did not destroy). VMX suered from
man and President respectively. The VMA invited ser- poor product and ineective management and was about
vice providers, vendors and consultants to attend semi- to fold when Opcom merged with it. The surviving com-
annual conferences that included presentations, discus- pany was called VMX, but VMX was all but erased by
sions and reporting of experiences. VMA membership Opcom except for its name and patent portfolio.
was eventually expanded to include representatives from
Opcom, a company founded by David Ladd, developed
telecommunication organizations worldwide and became
a voicemail system primarily marketed to smaller en-
The International Voice-mail Association. By the late
terprises. Opcom pioneered and patented the feature
1980s, the Bell Operating companies, Tigon and other in-
of automated attendant (U.S. Patent numbers 4,747,124
dependent service providers in the U.S. had joined the
and 4,783,796 both issued in 1988), an integral part of
VMA. In 1992, VMA members conducted an Infor-
any voicemail systems. The automated attendant enables
mation Week Tour of the U.S., sharing ideas with ma-
callers to direct calls by pressing single digit keys, e.g.
jor telecom operators. VMA working groups promoted
If you are making domestic reservations, press 1; for in-
collaboration and adoption of industry standards to the
ternational reservations, press 2'; etc. Opcom later pio-
ITU and CCITT and at the 1999 CCITT conference in
neered the concept of Unied Messaging (to be discussed
Geneva, Switzerland, demonstrated worldwide exchange
later in this article). Opcom eventually acquired VMX
of messages between the major voice-mail vendors plat-
through a reverse merger, (Opcom was private and VMX
forms using the VPIM networking standard. Beusch and
was public) and the surviving company VMX was even-
Finnigan led the VMA until 1998 and 1999 respectively
tually acquired by Octel.
and the organization continues to serve the voice services
industry today.[14] Octel Communications, founded in 1982 by Bob Cohn
and Peter Olson, broadly commercialized the corporate
voice messaging market. While Octel beneted from the
work and experiments of others it was the rst stand-
78.8 Corporate voicemail alone voicemail company to build a strong business and
strategy to win in this dicult market. In addition, Oc-
In the early 1980s there were over 30 companies vy- tel innovated substantially new technology which con-
ing for the corporate voicemail market. Among the tributed heavily to its success including a system archi-
many contenders were IBM, VMX, Wang, Octel, ROLM, tecture that was physically smaller, faster, more reliable,
AT&T, Northern Telecom, Delphi Communications, and much less costly than other corporate vendors. Oc-
Voice and Data Systems, Opcom, Commterm, Gene- tels voicemail system, was introduced in 1984, included
sis, Brook Trout, Innovative Technology (ITI), Glenayre, unique system features, many of which were patented,
BBL, AVT, AVST, Digital Sound, Centigram, Voice- which gave Octel market leadership. In 1990 Octel was
mail International and Active Voice. Only a few of these one of the rst companies to introduce the concept of
companies were successful in capturing a signicant mar- Unied Messaging.
ket share and remain in the voice-mail business today. AT&T/Lucent created its version of voicemail in the
ROLM Corporation, founded in 1969 by Gene Richeson, early 1990s (called Audix) but it would only work on
Ken Oshman, Walter Loewenstern and Robert Maxeld, AT&T/Lucent PBXs. Northern Telecom|Nortel devel-
was the rst PBX manufacturer to oer integrated voice- oped Meridian Mail and followed the same strategy as
mail with its PhoneMail system, its registered trade- AT&T in that Meridian Mail only worked with Northern
mark. PhoneMail oered impressive recording quality Telecom PBXs. As a result, neither company achieved
of its digitized messages. ROLMs digital PBX (called much market share with large national or multi-national
a CBX, for Computerized Branch eXchange) was the accounts. AT&T spun o its equipment business into a
rst to enable PhoneMail to illuminate a message wait- company called Lucent Technologies, and Northern Tele-
ing light on ROLM phones equipped with message wait- com changed its name to Nortel.
ing lights (also a stutter dialtone is used with analog and By the mid-1990s, Octel had become the number one
digital phones). Rolm was sold to IBM, who later sold supplier of voicemail both to corporations and to carri-
it to Siemens who oer PhoneMail in various congura- ers. Octel had about a 60% market share in the U.S.,
tions/sizes (including a micro-sized version) and its uni- Canada, Europe and Japan (for large corporations) and
ed messaging successor, Xpressions 470. ROLM was between a 30% and 100% of the carrier market, depend-
purchased by IBM in the mid 1980s (which was a -
316 CHAPTER 78. VOICEMAIL

ing on the country. By 1997 Octels biggest competitors mail platforms for virtually all of the major US wireless
were Audix, made by Lucent, and Meridian Mail, made carriers (including the seven RBOCs, AT&T Wireless
by Nortel. In July 1997, Octel was purchased by Lucent and McCaw), Canadian cellular carriers and a large per-
Technology. Lucents AUDIX division was merged into cent of the GSM carriers around the world.
Octel to form the Octel Messaging Division. By 2000, However it didn't take long for Comverse to become the
some estimate that there were over 150,000,000 active largest supplier to the BOCs and PTTs with Lucent/Octel
users of corporate and carrier voicemail made by the Oc- holding its leadership in the corporate market and second
tel Messaging Division. Shortly thereafter, Lucent spun place with carriers. Boston was eventually acquired by
o its corporate business, including the Octel Messaging
Comverse making it the second largest supplier to carriers
Division, into a company known as Avaya.[16] after Octel.
Boston Technology, uReach Technologies and Comverse
Technology all entered the carrier market in the early
1990s. Boston was eventually acquired by Comverse, 78.10 Unied messaging
making it the second largest supplier to carriers after Oc-
tel. However, in a few years Comverse became the largest
supplier to carriers with Lucent/Octel holding its leader- Unied Messaging integrated voice-mail into Microsoft
ship in the corporate market and second place with car- Exchange, the corporate email system made by
riers. Comverse today retains its leadership of legacy Microsoft. Unied Messaging had been invented by
voicemail systems sold to carriers around the world. For Roberta Cohen, Kenneth Huber and Deborah Mill at
IP-based voicemail systems, Ericsson claims market lead- AT&T Bell Labs. The patent for Unied Messaging was
ership with its Ericsson Messaging-over-IP (MoIP) so- received in June, 1989 (Patent number 4,837,798).
lution. uReach provides VoiceMail services for Verizon Unied Messaging allowed users to access voicemail and
and a host of other Tier 1 and Tier 2 carriers and is the email messages using either the graphical user interface
voice-mail system used by Verizon FIOS. uReach Tech- (GUI) on their PC, or using the telephone user interface
nologies was acquired by GENBAND in 2014.[17] (TUI). Using a PC, users could see voice-mails and emails
mixed together in their email inbox. Voice mails had a
little telephone icon next to them and emails had a little
envelope icon next to them (see gure below). For voice-
78.9 Public telephone services mail, they'd see the header information (sender, date
sent, size, and subject). Users could double-click a voice-
In the U.S., the Bell Operating Companies and their cel- mail from their email inbox and hear the message through
lular divisions had been prohibited by the FCC from of- their PC or a phone next to their desk.
fering voicemail and other enhanced services such as pag- Using any phone in the world, users could listen to voice
ing and telephone answering services (no such prohibition messages like they normally did, plus have emails read
existed in foreign countries). A ruling by Judge Harold to them (in synthesized voice). Voice messages could be
H. Greene on March 7, 1988 removed this barrier and sent using email or telephone addressing schemes, and
allowed the BOCs to oer voice-mail service, however the data networking infrastructure was used to send mes-
they were not allowed to design or manufacture equip- sages between locations rather than the public switched
ment used to provide voice-mail services. telephone network. It wasn't until the early 2000s and the
The opportunity created by the Greene decision, plus availability of reliable, high capacity email servers, high
Voicemail Internationals abandonment of its market lead speed internet connections and PCs with speakers or mi-
for carrier grade systems, created a new opportunity for crophones that Unied Messaging achieved commercial
competing manufacturers and those who had been focus- success.
ing on the corporate market. Unisys, Boston Technol-
ogy, and Comverse Technology were quick to address the
BOC and PTT marketplace. Octel, who had high capac- 78.11 Virtual telephony
ity systems in use interally by all seven Regional Bell Op-
erating companies, launched a new generation of its large Other interesting markets developed from the carrier
system specically designed for carriers and was compli- market including a concept called "virtual telephony.
ant with "NEBS standards, the tight standard required Virtual Telephony, developed by Octel, used voice-mail
by phone companies for any equipment located in their to provide phone service rapidly in emerging countries
central oces. without wiring for telephones. The problem this solved
While Unisys eventually secured PacBells residential was that emerging countries did not have many tele-
voice-mail services, Boston Technology became the phones. Wiring for telephones was very expensive, and
mainstay of Bell Atlantics residential voicemail oering many poorer citizens didn't have homes to wire. The
and Comverse Technology enjoyed some success in the economies of emerging countries were held back partly
European market; Octel became the provider of voice- because people could not communicate beyond the area
78.13. UNIFIED MESSAGING WITH VOIP 317

where they could walk or ride a bicycle. Giving them initiate a real-time text messaging exchange with you.
phones was one way to help their economies, but there Presence and Instant Messaging has since evolved into
was not a practical way to do it. In some countries, the more than short text messages, but now can include the
wait for a phone was several years and the cost was in exchange of data les (documents, pictures) and the es-
the thousands of dollars. Cellular phones were not an op- calation of the contact into a voice conversational con-
tion at the time because they were extremely expensive nection.
(thousands of dollars per handset) and the infrastructure
to install cell sites was also costly.
With virtual telephony, each person could be given a 78.13 Unied messaging with VoIP
phone number (just the number, not the phone) and a
voice mailbox. The citizen would also be given a pager. If
Corporate voice-mail did not change much until the ad-
someone called the phone number, it never rang on an ac-
vent of Voice over IP (VoIPvoice being transmitted
tual phone, but would be routed immediately to a central
over the internet) and the development of IP telephony
voice-mail system. The voice-mail system answered the
applications to replace legacy PBX telephony (called
call and the caller could leave a long, detailed message.
TDM technologies). IP (Internet Protocol) telephony
As soon as the message was received, the voice-mail sys-
changed the style and technology of PBXs and the way
tem would trigger the citizens pager. When the page was
voice-mail systems integrated with them. This, in turn,
received, the citizen would nd a pay phone and call in to
facilitated a new generation of Unied Messaging, which
pick up the message. This concept was used successfully
is now likely to catch on widely. The exibility, man-
in South America and South Africa.
ageability, lower costs, reliability, speed, and user conve-
nience for messaging convergence is now possible where
it wasn't before. This might include intra- and inter-
enterprise contacts, mobile contacts, proactive applica-
78.12 Instant messaging in voice tion information delivery, and customer contact applica-
tions.
By the year 2000, voicemail had become a ubiquitous fea-
The corporate IP telephony-based voice-mail CPEmarket
ture on phone systems serving companies, cellular and
is served by several vendors including Avaya, Cisco sys-
residential subscribers. Cellular and residential voice-
tems, Adomo, Interactive Intelligence, Nortel, Mitel,
mail continue today in their previous form, primarily
3Com, and AVST.[18] Their marketing strategy will have
simple telephone answering. Email became the preva-
to address the need to support a variety of legacy PBXs
lent messaging system, email servers and software be-
as well as new Voice over IP as enterprises migrate to-
came quite reliable, and virtually all oce workers were
wards converging IP-based telecommunications. A sim-
equipped with multimedia desktop PCs.
ilar situation exists for the carrier market for voice-mail
The increase in wireless mobility, originally through cel- servers, currently dominated by Comverse Technology,
lular services and today through IP-based Wi-Fi, was with some share still held by Lucent Technologies.
also a driver for messaging convergence with mobile tele-
VoIP telephony enables centralized, shared servers, with
phony. Today it is not only fostering the use of speech
remote administration and usage management for cor-
user interfaces for message management, but increasing
porate (enterprise) customers. In the past, carriers lost
the demand for retrieval of voice messages integrated
this business because it was far too expensive and inexi-
with email. It also enables people to reply to both voice
ble to have remote managed facilities by the phone com-
and email messages in voice rather than text. New ser-
pany. With VoIP, remote administration is far more eco-
vices, such as GotVoice, SpinVox and YouMail, are help-
nomical. This technology has re-opened opportunities for
ing to blur the boundaries between voice-mail and text by
carriers to oer hosted, shared services for all forms of
delivering voice-mails to mobile phones as SMS text mes-
converged IP telecommunications, including IP-PBX and
sages.
voice-mail services. Because of the convergence of wired
Instant messaging in voice: The next development in mes- and wireless communications, such services may also in-
saging was in making text messaging real-time, rather clude support of a variety of multi-modal handheld and
than just asynchronous store-and-forward delivery into a desktop end user devices. This service, when oered for
mailbox. It started with Internet service provider Amer- multiple extensions or phone numbers is sometimes also
ica Online (AOL) as a public Internet-based free text called Unied Voice-mail.
chat service for consumers, but soon was being used
by business people as well. It introduced the concept of
Internet Protocol presence management or being able
to detect device connectivity to the Internet and contact 78.14 Voicemail benets
recipient availability status to exchange real-time mes-
sages, as well as personalized Buddy list directories to Voice mails introduction enabled people to leave lengthy,
allow only people you knew to nd out your status and secure and detailed messages in natural voice, working
318 CHAPTER 78. VOICEMAIL

hand-in-hand with corporate phone systems. The adop- ringing Freds extension and forwards the call to an exten-
tion of voice-mail in corporations improved the ow of sion connected to the voicemail system (C). It does this
communications and saved huge amounts of money. GE, because PBXs are generally programmed to forward busy
one of the pioneer adopters of voice-mail in all of its of- or unanswered calls to another extension. Simultaneously
ces around the world, claimed that voice-mail saved, on the PBX tells the voicemail system (through signaling link
average, over US$1,100 per year per employee. Need- D) that the call it is forwarding to voice-mail is for Fred
less to say, the ability to tell someone something with- at extension 2345. In this way, the voicemail system can
out talking to them, can be a powerful reason to choose answer the call with Freds greeting.
Voice-mail for delivery of a particular message.
Voicemail has two main modes of operation: telephone
answering and voice messaging. Telephone answering
mode answers outside calls and takes a message from any
outside caller (either because the extension was busy or
rang no-answer). Voice messaging enables any subscriber
(someone with a mailbox number) to send messages di-
rectly to any or many subscribers mailboxes without rst
calling them. Both of these modes are described below.

78.15 How voicemail works

This section describes how the original style, standalone,
voicemail system worked with a corporate PBX. The
principle is the same with Central Oce Switches (CO There are many microprocessors throughout the system
Switches) or Mobile Telephone Switching Oce (MT- since the system must handle large amounts of data and
SOs). More modern voice-mail systems work on the it is unacceptable to have any wait times (for example,
same principle, but some of the components may be when the system is recording or playing your message, its
shared with other systems, such as email systems. unacceptable if the system stops recording momentarily
like computers often do while accessing large les).
Voicemail systems contain several elements shown in the
gure below: When Freds extension forwards to the voicemail sys-
tem, the Telephone Interface detects ringing. It signals
to the Central Processor (CPU) that a call is coming in.
A central processor (CPU) which runs the oper- The CPU simultaneously receives a signal on the PBX-
ating system and a program (software) that gives Voicemail Data Link (D) telling it that extension 2345
the system the look-and-feel of a voicemail system. is being forwarded on ring-no-answer to the specic ex-
This software includes thousands of pre-recorded tension that is now ringing. The CPU directs the Tele-
prompts that speak to the users as they interact phone Interface (which controls the line interface cards)
with the system; to answer the call. The CPUs program realizes that its
a call for Fred so it looks up Freds greeting immedi-
Disk controller and multiple disk drives for message
ately and directs the Disk Controller to start playing it
storage;
to the caller. It also plays some system prompts instruct-
System disks which not only include the software ing the caller what comes next (for example, When you
above, but also contain a complete directory of all have nished recording, you may hang up or press #' for
users with pertinent data about each (name, exten- more options). All talking to the caller is done through
sion number, voice-mail preferences, and pointers prompts that are selected by the CPU according to the
to each of the messages stored on the message disk program stored in the voicemail system. The CPU selects
that belong to them); the prompts in response to the keys the caller presses.
The callers message is digitized by the Telephone Inter-
Telephone interface system that enables many phone face system and transmitted to the Disk Controller for
lines to be connected to it. storage onto the Message Disks. Some voicemail sys-
tems will scramble the message for further security. The
The drawing below shows how the voicemail system in- CPU then stores the location of that message in the Sys-
teracts with the PBX. Suppose an outside caller is call- tem Disk inside Freds mailbox directory entry. After the
ing Freds extension 2345. The incoming call comes in caller hangs up and the message has been stored, the CPU
from the public network (A) and comes into the PBX. sends a signal to the PBX through the link (D) instructing
The call is routed to Freds extension (B), but Fred doesn't the PBX to turn on the message waiting light on Freds
answer. After a certain number of rings, the PBX stops phone.
78.16. SEE ALSO
When Fred comes back to his desk and sees the light on
his phone, he calls a designated extension number for the
voicemail system (an actual extension number assigned to
the lines in C in the gure above).
Again the Telephone Interface alerts the CPU that a call
is coming in on a particular line, but this time the signal-
ing from the PBX-Voicemail Data Link (D) indicates that
Fred is calling directly, not being forwarded. The CPU
directs the Telephone Interface to answer the call.
Since the CPU knows it is Fred (from the signaling on
the Data Link D), it looks up Freds information on the
System Disk, specically his password. The CPU then
directs Disk Controller to play a log-on prompt to the
user: Please enter your password. Once the password
is entered (via Touch-tones), the CPU compares it to the
correct one and, if entered correctly, allows Fred to con-
tinue.
The CPU then determines (from Freds directory entry)
that Fred has a new message. The CPU then presents
Fred his options (e.g., You have a new message. To listen
to your new message, press 1; to record a message, press
2 etc.) The options are presented by the CPU directing
the Disk Controller to play prompts, and the CPU listens
for Touch-tones from Fred. This interaction of playing
prompts and responding with Touch-tones enables Fred
to interact with the voicemail system easily.
If Fred presses 1 to listen to his message, the CPU looks [7]
up the location of Freds new message in his mailbox di-
rectory (on the System Disk), and directs the Disk Con-
troller to play that message. The Disk Controller nds the
message on the Message Disks, and sends the data stream
directly to the Telephone Interface. The Telephone Inter- [9]
face then converts the data stream to sound and plays it
to Fred through the Line Interface Card which Fred is
connected to.
Playback controls (like rewind, pause, fast forward,
changing volume, etc.) are all input via Touch-tones, are
read by the CPU, and the appropriate actions are taken
based on the stored program in the system. For example,
if Fred wants to pause message playback, he might press
2. Since the CPU is constantly listening for Touch-tones
from Fred, his command causes the CPU to direct the
Disk Controller to stop playing the message. A variety of
playback controls and options are available on most so-
phisticated voice-mail systems so that users can control
message playback, store messages in archives, send mes-
sages to groups, change their preferences, etc.
The better designed voicemail systems have a user- [16] Avaya Octel. Voice Main, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2008-
friendly interface with clear and meaningful prompts so
the interaction with the voicemail system is quick and
easy. [17] Reedy, Sarah (February 18, 2014). Genband Extends
319
78.16 See also
Vertical service code
Visual voicemail
78.17 References
[1] The History of Voicemail. Everyvoicemail.com. 2002-
02-23. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
[2]
[3] Moscaritolo, Angela (2012-09-04). Poll: Is Voicemail
Dead? Weigh In | News & Opinion. PCMag.com. Re-
trieved 2013-04-30.
[4] Edison A Biography, Mathew Josephson Chapter 9 http:
//memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyldr.html
[5] Dexter Hutchins (October 28, 1985). The Legal Battles
Over Voice Messaging: A young inventor from Florida
says the technology is his. So does a small company in
Texas. Both have sued to protect it.. FORTUNE.
[6] United States Patent: 4124773. United States Patent
and Trademark Oce.
Mimi Whiteeld (February 5, 1996). How to Survive the
Road from Invention to Marketplace. The Miami Herald.
[8] Viki McCash (August 7, 1995). Inventor Battles to Pro-
tect Patents. Sun Sentinel.
J. D. Gould, S. J. Boies (1984). Speech ling - an oce
system for principals. 23. IBM Systems Journal: 65.
[10] Eight editions of IBM UKs Talking lines magazine with
a print run of over 10,000
[11] IBM UK 1980s publicity material researched and written
by Duncan Ogilvie
[12] History of Lee Enterprises Inc. FundingUniverse.
Fundinguniverse.com. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
[13] Finnegan USA LLC
[14] VMA home page
[15] COMPANY NEWS; Rolm Sale By I.B.M. To Siemens.
New York Times. May 8, 1992. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
01-09.
UC Reach With uReach Buy. Light Reading. Retrieved
2014-03-23.
[18] Popova, Elka (2007-07-05). Customers Attest to the
Value of Flexible Independent Messaging Solutions.
Frost & Sullivan. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
320
78.18 Further reading
A Reactive Telephone Message Network for the
Oce of the Future, Business Communications
Review, July-Aug 1980; Voice Mail Arrives in the
Oce, Business Week, June 9, 1980, p. 81.
The Case for Voice Mail: Conrmed. GE Corpo-
rate Telecommunications publication, May, 1989,
Constance C. Kelly, editor.
IBM Audio Distribution System, IBM publication
GX60-0075-0
Toward Competitive Provision of Public Record
Message Services, Experimental Technology In-
centives Program, National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC. Publication NBX-GCR-ETIP-81-
97 October, 1991.
Speech Filing System Reference Manual, 1975,
by J. W. Schoonard and S. J. Boies, IBM Research
Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, 10598.
How to Shoulder Aside the Titans, Gene Bylin-
sky, Fortune, May 18, 1992; Octel Keeps Bringing
You Voice Mail, Global Telecoms Business (UK),
February/March 1996, pp. 2224
Human Factors Challenges In Creating A Principal
Support Oce System: The Speech Filing System
Approach, by John D. Gould and Stephen J. Boies,
IBM Tomas J. Watson Research Center, as quoted
in a paper presented to the Association for Com-
puter Machinery. See ACM Transactions on Oce
Information Systems, Vol. 1, No. 4, October 1983,
pp. 273298.
Speech Filing: An Oce System For Principals,
by J.D. Gould and S.J. Boies, IBM Systems Journal,
Volume 23, Number 1, 1984, p. 65.
IBM Audio Distribution System Subscribers
Guide and IBM Audio Distribution System, Ad-
ministrators Guide. IBM Publications SC34-
0400-3 and SC34-0400-1
Correspondence with Jay Stoer, March 26, 2006:
" As to Gordon Matthews, I was introduced to
him by a Venture Capitalist that later invested in
Delphi. I met with Gordon and his wife at their
home in Dallas with the objective of ascertaining
if he could contribute to our product planning pro-
cess. I concluded that he would not be likely to add
value in that activity but that my colleagues should
evaluate his potential contribution to Engineering.
To that end, we ew Gordon back to LA where he
was interviewed by members of our technical team.
It was at this time (1973/1974) that he would have
seen a demonstration of the voice application. He
CHAPTER 78. VOICEMAIL
had denitely been thinking about a voice-mail sys-
tem prior to this visit but he had denitely not es-
tablished his company or raised the capital to do so.
Furthermore, his product plan was still very much in
the formative stage and never reached the sophisti-
cation of the Delphi oering. Needless to say, there
was no employment oer made to Matthews by Del-
phi.
Transcriptions of various seminars sponsored by
Probe Research, Inc., September, 1982:
Voice Message Service, Proceedings of
Voice Processing Seminar, September 15,
1982;
BBL Industries, Inc., Proceedings of Voice
Processing Seminar, September 15, 1982;
Wang Laboratories, Proceedings of Voice
Processing Seminar, September 16, 1982;
American Telephone and Telegraph, Inc.,
Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar,
September 16, 1982;
Commterm, Inc., Proceedings of Voice Pro-
cessing Seminar, Sep. 16, 1982.
Voice Store and Forward for the Automated Of-
ce, a presentation by Lawrence E. Bergeron, Den-
nis B. Howell and Dean Osborne, Wang Labora-
tories, Inc., Lowell, Mass., transcribed in Com-
puter Controlled Voice Message Systems and the
Oce of the Future, Professional Program Session
Record (10), Wescon/81, Electronic Show and Con-
vention, September 1517 September 1981, section
2, pp. 18.
The PhoneMail System for the ROLM CBX, pub-
lication by ROLM Corporation.
Octel Emerges as Rising Star in Voice Messaging
Systems, Peninsula Times Tribune, November 7,
1988, page C-1; Investors Waking Up to Octels
Leadership, Investors Daily, February 17, 1989;
Octels Stock Gamble Has Paid O, USA Today,
Friday, February 24, 1989, page 3B.
Octel Communications Corporation, lings with
the Securities and Exchange Commission for its
prospectus for secondary public oering, August
15, 1989; Various internal manuals and publications
from Octel Communications Corporation.
All Your Messages in One Place, Michael H. Mar-
tin, Fortune, May 12, 1997, p. 172.
Toward Competitive Provision of Public Record
Message Services, ETIP (Experimental Technol-
ogy Incentives Program), National Bureau of Stan-
dards, Washington, D.C., October, 1981; do-
mestic Public Message Services, FCC publication
71FCC 2d 471; Telecommunications Competition
78.18. FURTHER READING 321

and Deregulation Act of 1981 (FCC Computer In-

quiry II), Docket 20828, December 30, 1980; De-
nial of AT&T Petition for Waiver of Section 64.702
of the Commission Rules and Regulations, October
7, 1981, Federal Communications Reports 88FCC
2d.
United States of America (Plainti) v. Western
Electric Company, Inc., et al. (Defendants). Civil
action no. 82-0192, Section VII pp. 5165: The
judge on review considers the threat to possible
competition in the voice-mail and storage business
to be less real than the opportunities lost to the pub-
lic welfare by these services not being broadly avail-
able. Hence, the BOCs should be able to provide
voice-mail.
AT&T Wireless ultimately bought McCaw Cellular.
The combined company was eventually bought by
Cingular.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Carriers) is one

of the various cellular technologies which include
TDMA, CDMA, iDEN and others. GSM is cur-
rently the technology used by Cingular in the US
and is the prevalent technology in over 100 coun-
tries around the world.

Investors Business Daily, February 1, 1996. Octels

Robert Cohn: CEO of Voice-Messaging Firm Puts
Premium on Speed, by Kathleen Doler.
Lucent Is Set To Buy Leader In Voice Mail, Seth
Schiesel, New York Times, July 18, 1997, Page C1.
Chapter 79

VoIP phone

ferred in industry such as large scale call centers or PBX

replacement applications, because PoE has the following
advantages over USB:

Much greater and more exible power allocation:

PoE switches typically support 4, 8, 16, 24, 48 or
more ports each, with each device drawing up to
30W. By contrast, a USB 3.0 only supports up to
4.5W devices, insucient for cordless, conference,
videoconferencing and other common-use devices.

Much greater cord range. While DC power dimin-

ishes rapidly over long cables, and is inecient to
supply further than 3m for high-draw devices, the
low power draw of modern indoor radios permits
full use of cat5 Ethernet cables of up to 100m length.
By contrast USB supports under 3m and with exten-
sions and boosters perhaps 10m maximum.

Single connector: PoE relies on the single uniform

Avaya VoIP phone
A VoIP phone or IP phone uses Voice over IP technolo-
gies for placing and transmitting telephone calls over an
IP network, such as the Internet, instead of the traditional
Ethernet protocol: Scalable from its original 1
public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Digital IP-based telephone service uses control pro-
tocols such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP),
Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) or various other
proprietary protocols.
RJ-45 connector, a close relative of the proven RJ-
11 connector used for analog phones. By contrast
there are six USB connectors and each change to the
USB standard so far has involved at least one new
type of connector.
megabit to modern 100 gigabit applications, cop-
per Ethernet has no peer for scalability. It makes
eective use of many dierent cable types (espe-
cially cat3 and coaxial cable) and has robust wireless
equivalents (802.11/WiFi) when power and wired
security is not required.

79.1 Types For these reasons, USB and softphone PC applications

are considered transitional by many industrial users and
VoIP phones can be simple software-based softphones makers of larger telephone switches, used only to build
or purpose-built hardware devices that appear much like markets for VoIP that will eventually shift over to the
an ordinary telephone or a cordless phone. Traditional more robust PoE technology shipped by Cisco, Siemens,
PSTN phones are used as VoIP phones with analog tele- Alcatel and other large switch makers.
phone adapters (ATA). A VoIP phone or application may have many features an
Two combined signal-and-power wired cable interfaces analog phone doesn't support, such as e-mail-like IDs for
are in common use to communicate between computer contacts that may be easier to remember than names or
networks (or computers) and physically separate VoIP phone numbers, or easy sharing of contact lists among
phones: USB and Power over Ethernet. The latter is pre- multiple accounts. Generally the features of VoIP phones

322
79.3. HARDWARE 323

follow those of Skype, Google Voice and other PC-based quired when the two SIP phones connecting are routable
phone services, which have richer feature sets but (be- from each other and no rewall exists in between.
cause they rely on mainstream operating systems IP sup-
port) latency-related audio problems.
A competing view is that as mainstream operating sys- 79.2.2 DHCP client
tems become better at voice applications with appropri-
ate Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees and 5G hand- A DHCP client may be used to congure the TCP/IP pa-
o (IEEE 802.21 etc.) becomes available from outdoor rameters and server details if a network segment uses
wireless carriers, netbooks and smartphones will simply dynamic IP address conguration. The DHCP client
become the dominant interfaces. iPhone, Android and then provides central and automatic management of VoIP
the QNX OS used in 2012-and-later BlackBerry phones phones conguration.
are generally capable of VoIP performance even on small
battery-charged devices. They also typically support the
USB but not Ethernet or Power over Ethernet interfaces, 79.3 Hardware
at least as of late 2011. According to this view, the
smartphone becomes the dominant VoIP phone because
it works both indoors and outdoors and shifts base sta-
tions/protocols easily to trade o access costs and call
clarity and other factors personal to the user, and the
PoE/USB VoIP phone is thus the transitional device.

79.2 Components and software

The components of a VoIP telephone consist of the hard-
ware and software components. The software requires
standard networking components such as a TCP/IP net-
work stack, client implementation for DHCP, and the
Domain Name System (DNS). In addition, a VoIP sig-
nalling protocol stack, such as for the Session Initia-
tion Protocol (SIP), H.323, Skinny Call Control Proto-
col (Cisco), and Skype, is needed. For media streams,
the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is used in most
VoIP systems. For voice and media encoding, a variety
of coders are available, such as for audio: G.711, GSM,
iLBC, Speex, G.729, G.722, G.722.2 (AMR-WB), other
audio codecs, and for video H.263, H.263+, H.264. User
interface software controls the operation of the hardware
components, and may respond to user actions with mes-
sages to a display screen.
The Cisco Unied IP Phone 7965G, a hardware-based VoIP
phone

79.2.1 STUN client

The overall hardware may look like a telephone or mo-
A Session Traversal Utilities for NAT (STUN) client is bile phone. A VoIP phone has the following hardware
used on some SIP-based VoIP phones as rewalls on net- components.
work interface sometimes block SIP/RTP packets. Some
special mechanism is required in this case to enable rout- Speaker/ear phone and microphone
ing of SIP packets from one network to other. STUN is
used in some of the sip phones to enable the SIP/RTP Key pad/touch pad to enter phone number and text
packets to cross boundaries of two dierent IP networks. (not used for ATAs).
A packet becomes unroutable between two sip elements
if one of the networks uses private IP address range and Display hardware to feedback user input and show
other is in public IP address range. Stun is a mechanism caller-id/messages (not used for ATAs).
to enable this border traversal. There are alternate mech-
anisms for traversal of NAT, STUN is just one of them. General purpose processor (GPP) to process appli-
STUN or any other NAT traversal mechanism is not re- cation messages.
324
A voice engine or a digital signal processor (DSP)
to process RTP messages. Some IC manufacturers
provides GPP and DSP in single chip.
AD and DA converters: To convert voice to digital
data and vice versa.
Ethernet or wireless network hardware to send and
receive messages on data network.
Most IP phones have an Ethernet port for a PC.
This allows your computer and phone to share one
data connection, routed through the phone and to the
computer.
Power source might be a battery or AC source.
Some VoIP phones receive electricity from Power
over Ethernet.
Some VoIP phones include an RJ-11 port to connect
the phone to the PSTN.
For wireless VoIP phones
Battery
Wireless network interface controller
79.3.1 Other devices
79.5 Technology issues
There are several Wi-Fi enabled mobile phones and
PDAs that have pre-installed SIP client software, or are
capable of running IP telephony clients. Some VoIP
phones also support PSTN phone lines directly.
Analog telephone adapters provide an interface for tra-
ditional analog telephones to a voice-over-IP network.
They connect to the Internet or local area network using
an Ethernet port and have jacks that provide a standard
RJ11interface for an analog local loop.
Another type of gateway device acts as a simple GSM
base station and regular mobile phones can connect to this
and make VoIP calls. While a license is required to run
one of these in most countries these can be useful on ships
or remote areas where a low-powered gateway transmit-
ting on unused frequencies is likely to go unnoticed.
79.4 Common functionality and
features
Caller ID
Call transfer and call hold
Dialing using name/ID (diers from speed dial in
that no number is stored on the client)
Locally stored and network-based directories
CHAPTER 79. VOIP PHONE
Conference and multiparty call
Call park
Multiple VOIP accounts. The phone may register
with more than one VOIP server/provider.
Accounts are usually set and memorized on
the phone itself. A more sophisticated feature
is dynamic download of account settings, also
known as extension mobility. This feature
allows settings stored on a server to be down-
loaded to the phone, based on user login. The
user logs into the phone and that phone be-
comes the users extension. This feature re-
quires both a client (phone) and a server, usu-
ally in the context of unied communications
systems.
Encrypted communications
Applications like weather report, Attendance in
school and oces, Live news etc.
Preserving user name/ number when choosing a dif-
ferent service provider (not widely supported).
Call blocking feature.[1]
Requires Internet access to make calls outside the
local area network (LAN) unless a compatible local
private branch exchange (PBX) is available to handle
calls to and from outside lines.
VoIP phones and the routers depend on mains elec-
tricity for power, unlike PSTN phones, which are
supplied with power from the telephone exchange.
However, this can be mitigated by installing a UPS.
The Power over Ethernet interface simplies this
immensely since power can be injected at any
connector (especially in passive mode where all de-
vices are drawing the same voltage) or at the router.
This is a major reason the dominant call center and
PBX VoIP systems rely on PoE exclusively, but UPS
and PoE are only helpful if the upstream Internet
provider also has reliable backup power.
IP networks, particularly residential Internet con-
nections are easily congested. This can cause poorer
voice quality or the call to be dropped completely.
As commercial grade routers begin to incorporate
managed or "carrier" QoS features, this is less of
an issue, but such features typically require expert
conguration.
VoIP phones, like other network devices can be sub-
jected to denial-of-service attacks as well as other
attacks especially if the device is given a public IP
79.7. REFERENCES 325

address.[2] This is especially signicant as an issue

with wireless devices using 802.11 protocols.
Due to the latency induced by protocol overhead and
other factors they do not work as well on satellite In-
ternet, analog cell (edge networks) and other high-
latency Internet connections. Extremely latency sen-
sitive applications (music, remote device control) as
of 2012 simply cannot exploit VoIP protocols.
Proprietary vendors such as Skype and Google
Voice focus on improving call quality between their
own users to grow their user base, which to some de-
gree competes and conicts with the goal of better
connections from Skype to Google Voice, or from
either to the existing PSTN and cellular networks.
The best codecs tend to be proprietary and not li-
censed to competitors, retarding the growth of the
industry and causing incompatibility.
Various schemes exist to allow one Internet tele-
phony user to talk to another entirely via Internet and
without incurring the cost of a PSTN call. Some are
based on SIP addresses, some on proprietary pro-
tocol such as webcam or Internet chat applications.
While its not uncommon for two clients of the same
voice over IP provider to talk to each other online for
free, the various Internet telephony applications of-
ten do not talk directly to each other - requiring calls
be gated to PSTN and back at full toll rates.
Some Internet-to-Internet calling schemes use non-
numeric names for users, gateway or provider
names. Any character which is valid in an e-mail
address could be used in a SIP address, for instance,
but a VoIP phone with a standard telephone keypad
can only dial numbers. Various workarounds (such
as e164.arpa or SIP Broker-like directories) exist to
associate names to numbers.

79.6 See also

List of SIP software
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)

Media phone
Mobile VoIP

79.7 References
[1] Voip Providers.

[2] VoIP Vulnerability over Internet Protocol

Chapter 80

X.25

Study Group VII based upon a number of emerging data

X.25 NETWORK
network projects.[8] Various updates and additions were
PSE PSE

DTE
DCE worked into the standard, eventually recorded in the ITU
DCE DTE series of technical books describing the telecommunica-
tion systems. These books were published every fourth
year with dierent-colored covers. The X.25 specica-
tion is only part of the larger set of X-Series[9] specica-
DCE PSE PSE
DCE
tions on public data networks.[10]

DTE
The public data network was the common name given to
PAD
the international collection of X.25 providers. Their com-
DTE bined network had large global coverage during the 1980s
and into the 1990s.[11]
Publicly accessible X.25 networks (Compuserve,
X.25 network diagram
Tymnet, Euronet, PSS, Datapac, Datanet 1 and Telenet)
were set up in most countries during the 1970s and
X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for packet
1980s, to lower the cost of accessing various online
switched wide area network (WAN) communication. An
services.
X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange (PSE)
nodes as the networking hardware, and leased lines, plain Beginning in the early 1990s, in North America, use of
old telephone service connections, or ISDN connections X.25 networks (predominated by Telenet and Tymnet)[11]
as physical links. X.25 is a family of protocols that started to be replaced by Frame Relay, service oered
was popular during the 1980s with telecommunications by national telephone companies.[12] Most systems that
companies and in nancial transaction systems such as required X.25 now use TCP/IP, however it is possible to
automated teller machines. X.25 was originally dened transport X.25 over TCP/IP when necessary.[13]
by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consul- X.25 networks are still in use throughout the world. A
tative Committee (CCITT, now ITU-T) in a series of variant called AX.25 is also used widely by amateur
drafts[1] and nalized in a publication known as The Or- packet radio. Racal Paknet, now known as Widanet, is
ange Book in 1976.[2] still in operation in many regions of the world, running
While X.25 has, to a large extent, been replaced by on an X.25 protocol base. In some countries, like the
less complex protocols, especially the Internet protocol Netherlands or Germany, it is possible to use a stripped
(IP), the service is still used (e.g. as of 2012 in credit version of X.25 via the D-channel of an ISDN2 (or
card payment industry) and available in niche and legacy ISDN BRI) connection for low volume applications such
applications.[3] as point-of-sale terminals; but, the future of this service
in the Netherlands is uncertain.
Additionally X.25 is still under heavy use in the aeronau-
80.1 History tical business (especially in the Asian region) even though
a transition to modern protocols like X.400 is without
X.25 is one of the oldest packet-switched services avail- option as X.25 hardware becomes increasingly rare and
able. It was developed before the OSI Reference costly. As recently as March 2006, the United States Na-
Model.[4] The protocol suite is designed as three concep- tional Airspace Data Interchange Network has used X.25
tual layers, which correspond closely to the lower three to interconnect remote airelds with Air Route Trac
layers of the seven-layer OSI model.[5] It also supports Control Centers.
functionality not found in the OSI network layer.[6][7] France was one of the last remaining countries where
X.25 was developed in the ITU-T (formerly CCITT) commercial end-user service based on X.25 operated.

326
80.2. ARCHITECTURE 327

Known as Minitel it was based on Videotex, itself run- The X.25 model was based on the traditional telephony
ning on X.25. In 2002, Minitel had about 9 million users, concept of establishing reliable circuits through a shared
and in 2011, it still accounted for about 2 million users in network, but using software to create "virtual calls"
France when France Tlcom announced it would com- through the network. These calls interconnect data ter-
pletely shut down the service by 30 June 2012.[14] As minal equipment (DTE) providing endpoints to users,
planned, service was terminated 30 June 2012. There which looked like point-to-point connections. Each end-
were 800 000 terminals still in operation at the time.[15] point can establish many separate virtual calls to dierent
endpoints.
For a brief period, the specication also included a con-
80.2 Architecture nectionless datagram service, but this was dropped in the
next revision. The fast select with restricted response
The general concept of X.25 was to create a universal facility is intermediate between full call establishment
and global packet-switched network. Much of the X.25 and connectionless communication. It is widely used in
system is a description of the rigorous error correction query-response transaction applications involving a single
needed to achieve this, as well as more ecient sharing request and response limited to 128 bytes of data carried
of capital-intensive physical resources. each way. The data is carried in an extended call request
packet and the response is carried in an extended eld of
The X.25 specication denes only the interface between
the call reject packet, with a connection never being fully
a subscriber (DTE) and an X.25 network (DCE). X.75,
established.
a very similar protocol to X.25, denes the interface be-
tween two X.25 networks to allow connections to traverse Closely related to the X.25 protocol are the protocols to
two or more networks. X.25 does not specify how the connect asynchronous devices (such as dumb terminals
network operates internally many X.25 network imple- and printers) to an X.25 network: X.3, X.28 and X.29.
mentations used something very similar to X.25 or X.75 This functionality was performed using a Packet Assem-
internally, but others used quite dierent protocols inter- bler/Disassembler or PAD (also known as a Triple-X de-
nally. The ISO equivalent protocol to X.25, ISO 8208, is vice, referring to the three protocols used).
compatible with X.25, but additionally includes provision
for two X.25 DTEs to be directly connected to each other
with no network in between. By separating the Packet- 80.2.1 Relation to the OSI Reference
Layer Protocol, ISO 8208 permits operation over addi- Model
tional networks such as ISO 8802 LLC2 (ISO LAN) and
the OSI data link layer.[16] Although X.25 predates the OSI Reference Model
(OSIRM), the physical Layer of the OSI model corre-
X.25 originally dened three basic protocol levels or ar-
sponds to the X.25 physical layer, the data link layer to
chitectural layers. In the original specications these
the X.25 data link layer, and the network layer to the
were referred to as levels and also had a level number,
X.25 packet layer.[10] The X.25 data link layer, LAPB,
whereas all ITU-T X.25 recommendations and ISO 8208
provides a reliable data path across a data link (or multi-
standards released after 1984 refer to them as layers.[17]
ple parallel data links, multilink) which may not be reli-
The layer numbers were dropped to avoid confusion with
able itself. The X.25 packet layer provides the virtual call
the OSI Model layers.[1]
mechanisms, running over X.25 LAPB. The packet layer
includes mechanisms to maintain virtual calls and to sig-
Physical layer: This layer species the physical, nal data errors in the event that the data link layer cannot
electrical, functional and procedural characteristics recover from data transmission errors. All but the ear-
to control the physical link between a DTE and a liest versions of X.25 include facilities[18] which provide
DCE. Common implementations use X.21, EIA- for OSI network layer Addressing (NSAP addressing, see
232, EIA-449 or other serial protocols. below).[19]
Data link layer: The data link layer consists of the
link access procedure for data interchange on the
link between a DTE and a DCE. In its implementa- 80.2.2 User device support
tion, the Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)
is a data link protocol that manages a communica- X.25 was developed in the era of computer terminals con-
necting to host computers, although it also can be used
tion session and controls the packet framing. It is a
bit-oriented protocol that provides error correctionfor communications between computers. Instead of di-
and orderly delivery. aling directly into the host computer which would
require the host to have its own pool of modems and
Packet layer: This layer dened a packet-layer pro- phone lines, and require non-local callers to make long-
tocol for exchanging control and user data packets distance calls the host could have an X.25 connection
to form a packet-switching network based on virtual to a network service provider. Now dumb-terminal users
calls, according to the Packet Layer Protocol. could dial into the networks local PAD (Packet As-
328 CHAPTER 80. X.25

80.2.3 Error control

Error recovery procedures at the packet layer assume that
the data link layer is responsible for retransmitting data
received in error. Packet layer error handling focuses on
resynchronizing the information ow in calls, as well as
clearing calls that have gone into unrecoverable states:

Level 3 Reset packets, which re-initializes the ow

on a virtual call (but does not break the virtual call).
Restart packet, which clears down all virtual calls on
the data link and resets all permanent virtual circuits
on the data link.

A Televideo terminal model 925 made around 1982

80.3 Addressing and virtual cir-
cuits

sembly/Disassembly facility), a gateway device connect-

ing modems and serial lines to the X.25 link as dened
by the X.29 and X.3 standards.
Having connected to the PAD, the dumb-terminal user
tells the PAD which host to connect to, by giving a phone-
number-like address in the X.121 address format (or by
giving a host name, if the service provider allows for
names that map to X.121 addresses). The PAD then An X.25 Modem once used to connect to the German Datex-P
places an X.25 call to the host, establishing a virtual call. network
Note that X.25 provides for virtual calls, so appears to be
a circuit switched network, even though in fact the data it- X.25 supports two types of virtual circuits, virtual calls
self is packet switched internally, similar to the way TCP (VC) and permanent virtual circuits (PVC). Virtual calls
provides connections even though the underlying data is are established on an as-needed basis. For example, a
packet switched. Two X.25 hosts could, of course, call VC is established when a call is placed and torn down af-
one another directly; no PAD is involved in this case. In ter the call is complete. VCs are established through a
theory, it doesn't matter whether the X.25 caller and X.25 call establishment and clearing procedure. On the other
destination are both connected to the same carrier, but in hand, permanent virtual circuits are precongured into
practice it was not always possible to make calls from one the network.[20] PVCs are seldom torn down and thus pro-
carrier to another. vide a dedicated connection between end points.
For the purpose of ow-control, a sliding window proto- VC may be established using X.121 addresses. The
col is used with the default window size of 2. The ac- X.121 address consists of a three-digit data country code
knowledgements may have either local or end to end sig- (DCC) plus a network digit, together forming the four-
digit data network identication code (DNIC), followed
nicance. A D bit (Data Delivery bit) in each data packet
indicates if the sender requires end to end acknowledge-by the national terminal number (NTN) of at most ten
ment. When D=1, it means that the acknowledgement digits. Note the use of a single network digit, seemingly
has end to end signicance and must take place only af- allowing for only 10 network carriers per country, but
ter the remote DTE has acknowledged receipt of the data.some countries are assigned more than one DCC to avoid
When D=0, the network is permitted (but not required) tothis limitation. Networks often used fewer than the full
acknowledge before the remote DTE has acknowledged NTN digits for routing, and made the spare digits avail-
or even received the data. able to the subscriber (sometimes called the sub-address)
While the PAD function dened by X.28 and X.29 where they could be used to identify applications or for
specically supported asynchronous character terminals, further routing on the subscribers networks.
PAD equivalents were developed to support a wide range NSAP addressing facility was added in the X.25(1984)
of proprietary intelligent communications devices, such revision of the specication, and this enabled X.25 to bet-
as those for IBM System Network Architecture (SNA). ter meet the requirements of OSI Connection Oriented
80.5. X.25 PACKET TYPES 329

Network Service (CONS).[21] Public X.25 networks were a price-per-segment on top of this.[30] Link speeds var-
not required to make use of NSAP addressing, but, to ied, typically from 2400 bit/s up to 2 Mbit/s, although
support OSI CONS, were required to carry the NSAP speeds above 64 kbit/s were uncommon in the public net-
addresses and other ITU-T specied DTE facilities trans- works. A segment was 64 bytes of data (rounded up,
parently from DTE to DTE.[22] Later revisions allowed with no carry-over between packets),[31] charged to the
multiple addresses in addition to X.121 addresses to be caller[32] (or callee in the case of reverse charged calls,
carried on the same DTE-DCE interface: Telex address- where supported).[33] Calls invoking the Fast Select facil-
ing (F.69), PSTN addressing (E.163), ISDN addressing ity (allowing 128 bytes of data in call request, call con-
(E.164), Internet Protocol addresses (IANA ICP), and lo- rmation and call clearing phases)[34] would generally at-
cal IEEE 802.2 MAC addresses.[23] tract an extra charge, as might use of some of the other
X.25 facilities. PVCs would have a monthly rental charge
PVCs are permanently established in the network and
therefore do not require the use of addresses for call and a lower price-per-segment than VCs, making them
cheaper only where large volumes of data are passed.
setup. PVCs are identied at the subscriber interface
by their logical channel identier (see below). However,
in practice not many of the national X.25 networks sup-
ported PVCs. 80.5 X.25 packet types
One DTE-DCE interface to an X.25 network has a max-
imum of 4095 logical channels on which it is allowed to 80.6 X.25 details
establish virtual calls and permanent virtual circuits,[24]
although networks are not expected to support a full 4095
The network may allow the selection of the maximal
virtual circuits.[25] For identifying the channel to which a
length in range 16 to 4096 octets (2n values only) per vir-
packet is associated, each packet contains a 12 bit logi-
tual circuit by negotiation as part of the call setup pro-
cal channel identier made up of an 8-bit logical chan-
cedure. The maximal length may be dierent at the two
nel number and a 4-bit logical channel group number.[24]
ends of the virtual circuit.
Logical channel identiers remain assigned to a virtual
circuit for the duration of the connection.[24] Logical
channel identiers identify a specic logical channel be- Data terminal equipment constructs control packets
tween the DTE (subscriber appliance) and the DCE (net- which are encapsulated into data packets. The pack-
work), and only has local signicance on the link between ets are sent to the data circuit-terminating equip-
the subscriber and the network. The other end of the con- ment, using LAPB Protocol.
nection at the remote DTE is likely to have assigned a Data circuit-terminating equipment strips the layer-
dierent logical channel identier. The range of possible 2 headers in order to encapsulate packets to the in-
logical channels is split into 4 groups: channels assigned ternal network protocol.
to permanent virtual circuits, assigned to incoming virtual
calls, two-way (incoming or outgoing) virtual calls, and
outgoing virtual calls.[26] (Directions refer to the direc- 80.6.1 X.25 facilities
tion of virtual call initiation as viewed by the DTE they
all carry data in both directions.)[27] The ranges allowed X.25 provides a set of user facilities dened and de-
a subscriber to be congured to handle signicantly dif- scribed in ITU-T Recommendation X.2.[35] The X.2 user
fering numbers of calls in each direction while reserving facilities fall into ve categories:
some channels for calls in one direction. All International
networks are required to implement support for perma- Essential facilities;
nent virtual circuits, two-way logical channels and one-
way logical channels outgoing; one-way logical channels Additional facilities;
incoming is an additional optional facility.[28] DTE-DCE
Conditional facilities;
interfaces are not required to support more than one logi-
cal channel.[26] Logical channel identier zero will not be Mandatory facilities; and,
assigned to a permanent virtual circuit or virtual call.[29]
The logical channel identier of zero is used for packets Optional facilities.
which don't relate to a specic virtual circuit (e.g. packet
layer restart, registration, and diagnostic packets). X.25 also provides X.25 and ITU-T specied DTE op-
tional user facilities dened and described in ITU-T Rec-
ommendation X.7.[36] The X.7 optional user facilities fall
into four categories of user facilities that require:
80.4 Billing
Subscription only;
In public networks, X.25 was typically billed as a at
monthly service fee depending on link speed, and then Subscription followed by dynamic invocation;
330
Subscription or dynamic invocation; and,
Dynamic invocation only.
80.6.2 X.25 protocol versions
The CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol specications
are for public data networks (PDN).[37] The ISO/IEC
versions address additional features for private networks
(e.g. local area networks (LAN) use) while maintaining
compatibility with the CCITT/ITU-T specications.[38]
The user facilities and other features supported by each
version of X.25 and ISO/IEC 8208 have varied from
edition to edition.[39] Several major protocol versions of
X.25 exist:[40]
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1976) Orange
Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1980) Yellow Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1984) Red Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1988) Blue Book
ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1993) White
Book[41]
ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1996) Grey
Book[42]
The X.25 Recommendation allows many options for each
network to choose when deciding which features to sup-
port and how certain operations are performed. This
means each network needs to publish its own document
giving the specication of its X.25 implementation, and
most networks required DTE appliance manufacturers to
undertake protocol conformance testing, which included
testing for strict adherence and enforcement of their net-
work specic options. (Network operators were particu-
larly concerned about the possibility of a badly behaving
or miscongured DTE appliance taking out parts of the
network and aecting other subscribers.) Therefore, sub-
scribers DTE appliances have to be congured to match
the specication of the particular network to which they
are connecting. Most of these were suciently dierent
to prevent interworking if the subscriber didn't congure
their appliance correctly or the appliance manufacturer
didn't include specic support for that network. In spite
of protocol conformance testing, this often lead to inter-
working problems when initially attaching an appliance
to a network.
In addition to the CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol,
four editions of ISO/IEC 8208 exist:[39]
ISO/IEC 8208:1987, First Edition, compatible with
X.25 (1980) and (1984)
CHAPTER 80. X.25
ISO/IEC 8208:1990, Second Edition, compatible
with 1st Ed. and X.25 (1988)
ISO/IEC 8208:1995, Third Edition, compatible
with 2nd Ed. and X.25 (1993)
ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, compatible
with 3rd Ed. and X.25 (1996)
80.7 See also
OSI protocol suite
Packet switched network protocols related to X.25
Frame Relay has its technical base in X.25 packet-
switching technology, but does not attempt to cor-
rect errors
iberpac the Spanish X.25 network, and rst pub-
licly operated packet switching network
DATAPAC Canadian variant of X.25 oered by
Bell Canada
TRANSPAC The French variant of X.25 public
data network
AUSTPAC an Australian public X.25 network
XOT X.25 Over TCP X25 encapsulation on
TCP/IP networks
X.PC
packeting the Philippine X.25 network, and rst
publicly operated packet switching network
80.8 References
[1] CCITT, Study Group VII, Draft Recommendation X-25,
March 1976
[2] History of X.25, CCITT Plenary Assemblies and Book
Colors
[3] Foregenix (February 2012). X.25 within the Payment
Card Industry (PDF). Retrieved 25 May 2016.
[4] (Friend et al. 1988, p. 242)
[5] (Friend et al. 1988, p. 243)
[6] ITU-T Recommendation X.28.
[7] ITU-T Recommendation X.3.
[8] X.25 Virtual Circuits Transpac in France Pre-Internet
Data Networking.
[9] X-Series recommendations
[10] (Friend et al. 1988, p. 230)
80.9. FURTHER READING 331

[11] (Schatt 1991, p. 200). 80.9 Further reading

[12] (Schatt 1991, p. 207).
[13] Running X.25 over TCP/IP on Cisco routers. 1 Febru-
ary 2001. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012.
[14] (French) Presse, Agence France (21 July 2011). Le
Minitel disparatra en juin 2012 [Minitel will disappear
in June 2012]. Le Figaro (in French).
[15] (French)
[16] ISO 8208:2000
[17] ISO 8208, Annex B.
Computer Communications, lecture notes by Prof.
Chaim Ziegler PhD, Brooklyn College
Motorola Codex (1992). The Basics Book of X.25
Packet Switching. The Basics Book Series (2nd
ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-
56369-X.
Deasington, Richard (1985). X.25 Explained. Com-
puter Communications and Networking (2nd ed.).
Chichester UK: Ellis Horwood. ISBN 978-0-
85312-626-3.

[18] ITU-T Recommendation X.25, G.3.2 Called address ex-
tension facility, pp. 141142.
[19] ITU-T Recommendation X.223, Appendix II.
[20] ITU-T Recommendation X.7 (04/2004), pp. 1718.
[21] ITU-T Recommendation X.223.
[22] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96), Annex G, p. 140.
Friend, George E.; Fike, John L.; Baker, H. Charles;
Bellamy, John C. (1988). Understanding Data Com-
munications (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Howard W.
Sams & Company. ISBN 0-672-27270-9.
Pooch, Udo W.; William H. Greene; Gary G.
Moss (1983). Telecommunications and Networking.
Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-
71498-4.

[23] ITU-T Recommendation X.213, Annex A. Schatt, Stan (1991). Linking LANs: A Micro Man-
agers Guide. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8306-3755-9.
[24] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96), p. 45.
Thorpe, Nicolas M.; Ross, Derek (1992). X.25
[25] ITU-T Recommendation X.283 (12/97), p. 42. Made Easy. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-972183-5.
[26] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96), Annex A, pp.
119120.
80.10 External links
[27] ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, p. 61.
Recommendation X.25) at ITU-T
[28] ITU-T Recommendation X.2 (03/2000), p. 4.
Cisco X.25 Reference
[29] ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, 3.7.1, p. 7.
An X.25 Networking Guide with comparisons to
[30] ITU-T Recommendation D.11 (03/91), p. 2.
TCP/IP
[31] ITU-T Recommendation D.12 (11/88), p. 1.
X.25 Directory & Informational Resource
[32] ITU-T Recommendation X.7 (04/2004), p. 42.
RFCs and other resources by Open Directory
[33] ITU-T Recommendation D.11 (03/91), p. 3.

[34] ITU-T Recommendation X.7 (04/2004), p. 38.

[35] ITU-T Recommendation X.2

[36] ITU-T Recommendation X.7

[37] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96), Summary, p. v.

[38] ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, Section 1: Scope, p.

1.

[39] ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, Annex C.

[40] ITU-T Recommendation X.25.

[41] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1993) White Book

[42] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1996) Grey Book

332 CHAPTER 80. X.25

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thing counts, Dorfner, RandomXYZb, BrianRecchia, Cmcnicoll, Dcarriso, Ulf Abrahamsson~enwiki, Michael Frind, Kbrose, Pinball fan,
HSeganfredo, VVVBot, FabianEng, Flyer22 Reborn, Bagatelle, Techman224, Calleridexpert, Anchor Link Bot, Mywikimoe, Poszest16,
Fishnet37222, Lewis-hamilton, Nerdygeek101, Wdwd, ClueBot, Davepusey, Drmies, Gavron, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tts7376, Thanasiskount,
Arunsingh16, Namazu-tron, Baldvinhansson, Jjtennisman, Dalionli, Darren23, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Dgtsyb, Good Olfactory, Osar-
ius, Addbot, SeptemberWizard, MrOllie, Sillyfolkboy, Netpi, Sjcramer, Legobot, PlankBot, Luckas-bot, Themfromspace, Ptbotgourou,
UltraMagnus, MCCSteve, Spamless, Haagenti, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, LilHelpa, PabloCastellano, Jaxyl, DataWraith,
Silicondope, Neuwelt~enwiki, Corrector63, IbraimQuixabeira, VittGam, Juliaebean, FrescoBot, Mu Mind, JMeurisse, Teuxe, Pinethicket,
334 CHAPTER 80. X.25

LittleWink, Tinton5, Kat724, Full-date unlinking bot, RussNobbs, Lotje, Sgt. R.K. Blue, Hexwarrior, BrightBlackHeaven, Mean as cus-
tard, Alph Bot, Dewritech, Anthony.selby, Freakgeek, AndyTheGrump, ClueBot NG, Widr, BG19bot, Roberticus, NutwiisystemRocks,
ChrisGualtieri, Arcandam, FoCuSandLeArN, K7L, Lugia2453, SFK2, Rogr101, AnthonyJ Lock, Brianbwa, Billpeppernyc, Telconerd,
Wikiuser13, Javimalaga, Jianhui67, Lagoset, Kirill2485, Gronk Oz, KasparBot, Kathyslice, Nextop, Danlinke, Kdh69, Itinerantmarshmal-
low, Joelamae, Shuvojit412, InternetArchiveBot, Sahu.s701, Chrissymad and Anonymous: 297
Caller ID spoong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_ID_spoofing?oldid=749230408 Contributors: Taral, Pnm, Lquilter,
Ronz, Baylink, Julesd, Mushroom, Rpyle731, Rchandra, Bobblewik, Chowbok, Beland, CaribDigita, GaidinBDJ, Rich Farmbrough,
DGoncz, JoeSmack, Triona, Kappa, Giraedata, Wrs1864, Pearle, Ynhockey, MoraSique, Cmprince, Martian, Kay Dekker, Sburke, Ar-
mando, Ianweller, Matthew Platts, Magister Mathematicae, Elvey, HowardLeeHarkness, Micler, Peterl, Wavelength, Bobby1011, Woseph,
Chuck Carroll, SpuriousQ, Hydrargyrum, Nick, FlyingPenguins, Zzuuzz, PennaBoy, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Jprg1966, SchftyThree,
Hgrosser, Dethme0w, Microfrost, S Roper, Shadow1, Jidanni, Beetstra, Boomshadow, Twalls, Newbi, Enkelman, JoeBot, Twisted an-
imator, Natas802, Sgould, Dr. Pizza, N5iln, Magioladitis, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, QofASpiewak, J.delanoy, Shadow604, AntiSpamBot,
Malcolmredheron, Funandtrvl, Coreyxbs, JPWhiteFitMan, Jcf129, Wykypydya, Sp07019, SQL, Michael Frind, Chuck Sirloin, Slash616,
TJRC, Swingline 2005, Ravensre, Wiki-ny-2007, Calleridexpert, Denisarona, ClueBot, Connor.carey, CiudadanoGlobal, Xitit, Vivapaco,
Mspraveen, PixelBot, SoxBot, Wikiguy83, Versus22, RockStar1985, CIDBrainiac, DumZiBoT, Winxp93, Canders123, Redbullonw1ngs,
Duncan, Rudysalas, Dovidb, Phonephreak9, Addbot, CompUSAMe, CL, Vishnava, Volanaro, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Ti-
tanhacker, Jim1138, Galoubet, Eumolpo, Retrogamer42, Tabledhote, Melanielbanks, SanFranCal, Keri, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot,
Leetz1337, Tommy2010, Ponydepression, AzuaHart, Kilopi, Leitz31337, Gstr-er, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, Nephelim103, Stephanie Lahey,
Nyknights, Proxy616, Harizotoh9, BattyBot, Badonree, K7L, ZarhanFastre, Brianbwa, FockeWulf FW 190, Barlekha, InternetArchiveBot
and Anonymous: 180
Cellular frequencies Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_frequencies?oldid=755301170 Contributors: Darker Dreams, Swis-
terTwister, Omnipaedista, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Nightwalker-87, Dough34 and Anonymous: 4
Cellular network Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network?oldid=753451227 Contributors: Frecklefoot, Edward, Lexor,
Cherkash, Smack, David Shay, Robbot, Modulatum, Securiger, Hadal, Everyking, Mcapdevila, Wmahan, Xmnemonic, Beland, Mozzerati,
Sam Hocevar, Markalex, Discospinster, Cacophony, Bobo192, Longhair, Somebodympc, Ogress, Alansohn, ChrisUK, Guy Harris, An-
drewpmk, Hu, BanyanTree, *Kat*, RJFJR, Gene Nygaard, Bellenion, Armando, Julo, Gimboid13, Qwertyus, Vegaswikian, Ewlyahoocom,
Bgwhite, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Wavelength, Bhny, Sneak, Gaius Cornelius, Willpo~enwiki, Geertivp, Dbrs, Tomisti, Closedmouth,
Puru~enwiki, Petri Krohn, Ddspell, SmackBot, Elk Salmon, Unforgettableid, Gilliam, Kmarinas86, Chris the speller, J00tel, Callahad, Dy-
lanW, RJBurkhart, A5b, Kuru, Mattjm, Nbhatla, Userdce, GFellows, Blasterman 95, JohnCD, Casper2k3, Cydebot, Kozuch, SvenAERTS,
AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, CosineKitty, Hut 8.5, Greensburger, PhilKnight, T-H~enwiki, KyleAndMelissa22,
SHCarter, QrczakMK, Wshallwshall, Sinigagl, MartinBot, Anaxial, Mange01, Jesant13, Bot-Schafter, McSly, Pyrospirit, Binba, Rpeh,
Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Falcon8765, Geanixx, Biscuittin, Jamessungjin.kim, SieBot, Ori, Hertz1888, YourEyesOnly,
Caltas, Yintan, Techbiz, SimonTrew, Freude.schoner.gotterfunken, Igstarx, Elch Yenn, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, NX7U,
Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Ptcla, Excirial, Muhandes, Gregott, XLinkBot, Avoided, Hector.C.Jorge, ZooFari, MystBot, Addbot, Jncraton,
Ashton1983, Download, Chzz, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, Money2themax, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Guy1890, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Eikoseidel,
Materialscientist, ArthurBot, WaeMaster44, DataWraith, Shulini, Thehelpfulbot, GliderMaven, Webconnect123, kebrke, Chronula-
tor, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Timtempleton, Dewritech, Primefac, GJDR, Wikipelli, K6ka, ZroBot, Ebrambot,
Alrino, Fritz.grobbelaar, Roostercogburn9, ClueBot NG, Talha483, Pedrotairum, Volker pauli, Cntras, Ashishtayal333, Frmin, Snaevar-
bot, Mavroudisv, Millennium bug, ChrisGualtieri, FoCuSandLeArN, Webclient101, HerrB92, Phamnhatkhanh, Epicgenius, StephenTX,
Jofson Garnett, Cleis89, , Retartist, David quinto, Wyn.junior, Monkbot, Lester.Mercado, Astralbike18, Kaufmanitay, Birdday, Yolo
jacome, Tamurlang, Kaushik Dhandapani, AndreBattle, AedanMetz, Bananovaya and Anonymous: 208
Circuit switching Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching?oldid=751927552 Contributors: Andre Engels, B4hand,
JohnOwens, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Jpatokal, EdH, Mxn, Bevo, Secretlondon, Robbot, Danutz, Fleminra, Tagishsimon, Slowking Man,
Thparkth, R, JTN, Pearle, Water Bottle, Markrod, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Mindmatrix, Ilario, NormanEinstein, Turnstep, FlaBot, Lmatt,
BradBeattie, Chobot, Bgwhite, Rocketgoat, Pi Delport, Dugosz, BertK, Rodran~enwiki, CockBot, SmackBot, Basil.bourque, Thunder-
boltz, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, MK8, Onceler, Frap, Episteme-jp, JonHarder, Tompsci, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, A.Petrenko, Kvng,
Chetvorno, Eastlaw, JohnTechnologist, Eric, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Bellhead, VoABot II, Ee02b022, Jim.henderson, Li-
hui912, Lilac Soul, Mange01, Mojodaddy, KylieTastic, Nxavar, Biasoli, Kbrose, SieBot, Alex.muller, StaticGull, ClueBot, Lawrence
Cohen, Dthomsen8, Dgtsyb, Addbot, SpBot, Ben4mai, Foelectric, Yobot, Gobbleswoggler, Ashpilkin, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Almabot,
GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Shadowjams, LucienBOT, Serols, Vajira102, A.wasylewski, , Sricciar, Horcrux92, EmausBot,
Acather96, Olof nord, Dcirovic, GZ-Bot, Orange Suede Sofa, Jabourdette, MacStep, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, BG19bot, Rijinatwiki,
IluvatarBot, Mr. Wikipediania, Assignmentlanka, Charlie Street, Horseless Headman, Lukem234, AkashValliath, KH-1, B2u9vm1ea8g,
GSS-1987 and Anonymous: 121
Code division multiple access Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access?oldid=755808207 Contributors:
Mav, Maury Markowitz, Edward, Michael Hardy, Goatasaur, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Jpatokal, Salsa Shark, Ka9q, Kaihsu, Dysprosia, An-
drewman327, Furrykef, Thue, Hemanshu, Baloo rch, Hadal, Eliashedberg, Dave6, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Fleminra, Goofrider, Bookcat,
Pgan002, Beland, OverlordQ, Oneiros, Yohsuke, Canterbury Tail, Mike Rosoft, Markalex, Mormegil, Rich Farmbrough, Sladen, Pak21,
Wk muriithi, Pavel Vozenilek, Gauge, Lankiveil, Art LaPella, .:Ajvol:., A-Day, Citruswinter, Sasquatch, Ascheinberg, Towel401, Van-
ished user lkjsdkf34ij48fjhk4, Apatterno, Guy Harris, Jiing, Wdfarmer, VladimirKorablin, BRW, Cburnett, Dan100, Hyfen, Tournesol,
Toyoda, Poppafuze, Eras-mus, Sega381, Graham87, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Dananderson, Rjwilmsi, Lars T., Jake Wartenberg, Golden
Eternity, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Brighterorange, Makru, SystemBuilder, Alejo2083, FlaBot, Gurch, Fresheneesz, Pevernagie, Kbrams,
Srleer, Chobot, Bgwhite, Gridlock Joe, Sparky132, DanMS, CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Dugosz, MonMan, Thiseye, PrologFan,
Zwobot, BOT-Superzerocool, Asbl, Zzuuzz, Wsiegmund, Chriswaterguy, Kevin, Rdschwarz, Whaa?, Erudy, Jarrodchambers, Shepard,
PeterBrett, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Jasonuhl, Prodego, Deon Steyn, Wjmallard, ProveIt, Relaxing, Unforgettableid, Gilliam, Eug,
Desonia, Hugo-cs, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Repetition, DHN-bot~enwiki, Glloq, JonHarder, Nakon, DylanW, Kuru, Ocee, Ksn, Dick-
lyon, Mariersteve, LPH, Aditi.nsit, George100, JohnTechnologist, Errandir, Requestion, Cydebot, Mblumber, Christian75, Starionwolf,
Ameliorate!, Kozuch, Omicronpersei8, TAG.Odessa, Wernight, DmitTrix, Khottorp, Marcotulio, Qarel, Philippe, Dawnseeker2000, An-
tiVandalBot, Davido, Nisselua, EarthPerson, Isilanes, AlekseyFy, Storkk, Randy549, JAnDbot, PopsHunsinger, Tc-engineer, MER-C,
Jonashart, Methgon, RBBrittain, Fusionmix, Malcolmst, Sanoj1234, Email4mobile, Aka042, Recurring dreams, Boob, DerHexer, JaGa,
Bayboy4, MartinBot, Mschel, Smokizzy, RockMFR, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Euku, Sigmundpetersen, P0p-s3cr37, Ellisbjohns, McSly,
GS3, Subedisan, Halmstad, Plasm980, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Orie0505, BotKung, Richard Kervin, Bugone, Dirkbb, SieBot, Ytoledano,
Vijrohit, Jim77742, Sara Aab, Theaveng, Galib.cse, Dlindqui, Guycalledryan, Svick, Telecomwave, Timeastor, C0nanPayne, ClueBot,
80.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 335

Tamelion, Scottstensland, Mild Bill Hiccup, Vidhyardhi, DragonBot, LeoFrank, Mohit677, Pearmaster, BOTarate, Jonverve, 7, Berean
Hunter, Sylvestersteele, Samdamsam~enwiki, InternetMeme, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, WikHead, Wca08, PL290, Dsimic, Addbot, Speer320,
Some jerk on the Internet, Robaston, John Chamberlain, Download, Corey21, Marcos vicente, AndersBot, Doniago, LemmeyBOT, Semi-
wiki, Tavenger5, Cjerrells, Legobot, , The.Nth, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Theoprakt, Xqbot, JimVC3, TechBot, Shulini, Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Mdhivya, Karghazini,
Mathonius, Shadowjams, Frumphammer, Dave3457, RetiredWikipedian789, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Janolabs, PorkchopLarue, Syed-
kamran1988, I dream of horses, Adlerbot, Delan006, Jschnur, Cupid1889, Aoidh, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Mield, Bento00, Hardik-
vasa, NerdyScienceDude, Indianw200i, EmausBot, MrFawwaz, ScottyBerg, Dcirovic, Gurmeetluvteddy, Wieralee, H3llBot, Netknowle,
Learns visits aw, John Smith 104668, ChuispastonBot, Cimp3, Shi Hou, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Cyberbisson, Michael-stanton,
Clearlyfakeusername, Snotbot, Dan.aboimov, Vendrizi, Helpful Pixie Bot, Shlyopa, Truesnder, Your Trusted Friend In Science, Ils20,
Tetrapole, Wikih101, Raphael cendrillon, Poppopsun, Marty Crabneck, Osama7ssn, Dhani.sahani, Darth Sitges, Sandip.dalvi, Cdmaware,
Brian Giiligan, BenefactorDubsta, Supdiop, TheoriginalGeorgeW, Kenitobeta and Anonymous: 458
Conference call Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_call?oldid=752099234 Contributors: MichaelJanich, Egil, Nucle-
arWinner, Haakon, Ronz, Poor Yorick, Dysprosia, Radiojon, Fredrik, Altenmann, Rfc1394, Dina, Meursault2004, Everyking, Jfd-
wol, Wmahan, Kevin B12, AAAAA, Discospinster, Pmsyyz, Andrewferrier, ArnoldReinhold, Verbalcontract, JoeSmack, Jerrysein-
feld, Atlant, Versageek, Woohookitty, Mangojuice, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Utuado, Evanwolf, Kcarnold, Wavelength, Borgx, Pe-
ter S., Gcapp1959, Irishguy, Misza13, Elkman, Wknight94, StevenL, Zzuuzz, GraemeL, Whouk, Andrewgorry, Veinor, Zhw, Smack-
Bot, Chairman S., Thumperward, Mistnee, Blake-, Ithizar, Kuru, Robosh, Brucemacbruce, Ttishgar, Haveronjones, Hetar, Iridescent,
Zmiller923, Yourmanstan, Timtrent, Valodzka, Sweepthelegnate, GRBerry, Jonny72o, Red lobster, Kingv, Seaphoto, Harryzilber, Siob-
hanHansa, Nposs, Loonymonkey, Kgeischmann, Calltech, Jim.henderson, JMabry, Reggy73, Nono64, Adavidb, Psycho Kirby, McSly,
B64, Mufka, VolkovBot, Pbaral, Mmckibben, Jplwebdesign, Sweetness46, LeaveSleaves, Pvb90, Tgilro01, Ulf Abrahamsson~enwiki,
CarbonRod85, Sofrin, June w, Webmeetme, Elagerway, StaticGull, JJblack, Danaudersten, Nerdygeek101, ClueBot, A-conference-call,
Pacicus, NOKESS, Deanvesuvio, Paullees, Jamesedwardlong, Rx4ray, DumZiBoT, Derekleeholder, Duncan, Addbot, Hermgenes Teix-
eira Pinto Filho, Heanderson, Mac Dreamstate, Chzz, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Stefan.1972, Brookecoin, Accuruss, Aabrilru, FabulosWorld,
Pbpglobalguy, , BobFitzgerald201, Joey1978, Mishae, RestChem, Pwellner, Mean as custard, ZroBot, AvicAWB, Scott112233, Asaun-
ders.canada, Peter Karlsen, ClueBot NG, Heshamaj, DavidB96, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Suganux, Notlivingdead, Roninstudio77,
Mills8268, ForConsumers, Johnthesmith, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Mogism, Killerfore, Isayoldbean, Akppandey1, Dylan Wong, Art-
peoplenz, Headtransplant, EJGlobal, Jameshillford, InternetArchiveBot, Eno Lirpa, John MUC, Nationalpresswiz and Anonymous: 150
Digital AMPS Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_AMPS?oldid=737546020 Contributors: The Anome, Jpatokal, Mxn, Timwi,
Snickerdo, Shantavira, Fredrik, Baloo rch, Hadal, Bsoft, Uzume, Bobblewik, Beland, Mozzerati, Markalex, JTN, Rich Farmbrough,
Cfailde, Andros 1337, Closeapple, Kjkolb, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, FlaBot, Musser, Roboto de Ajvol, AKADriver, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Yrithinnd, Jeh, Foamy, SmackBot, ABACA, Dethme0w, Metageek, Mcoder, Anoopkn, Ksn, Kal1917, DangerousPanda, Jesse Vi-
viano, CrisKatz, Cydebot, Kozuch, Landroo, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Daniel, EwaDuan, Zorbatron, Scepia, Davewho2, HistreBu, Tcasar,
Mange01, Mojodaddy, Adavidb, Shadowaltar, Zeno333, Tach47, Iw, Jmoz2989, Lightmouse, Alexbot, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Bunnyhop11, LilHelpa, The sock that should not be, Full-date unlinking bot, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, Dcirovic, Dondervogel 2,
Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 39
Direct inward dial Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_inward_dial?oldid=731924504 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Lzur, Alf Bog-
gis, Mr Bound, Discospinster, Oliver Lineham, Wk muriithi, Polluks, Rakk~enwiki, Pearle, Nsaa, Espoo, Deathphoenix, Alex Jaspersen,
Bookandcoee, Armando, Tslocum, Ub~enwiki, Mariocki, Chills42, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, Shaddack, Dugosz, SmackBot, F, Chris
the speller, U, Rehan33, Melonite, Nakon, Supersuzanne, Lambiam, Kuru, Teemuk, Mirzaobaig, John254, Dawnseeker2000, Pilot 51, Hut
8.5, Calltech, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Vent~enwiki, J.delanoy, Hopper96, STBotD, DorganBot, Bonadea, Elvo86, AlleborgoBot, Jimvanm,
Kbrose, Didnumbers, Jandem87, DragonBot, Didnumber, XLinkBot, Addbot, YanaShuster, Solbadguyakira, Cognatus, Tekhammer, Vlk,
Ucilia, Niazza, ClueBot NG, K7L, Hoppeduppeanut, ArnettePradier32, Vliegenderob and Anonymous: 98
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lefoot, Edward, Michael Hardy, Pekkapihlajasaari, Nixdorf, Karada, (, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Baylink, Arteitle, Mydogategodshat, Timwi,
Dcoetzee, Radiojon, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Topbanana, Pakaran, Ldo, Phil Boswell, R3m0t, RedWolf, Altenmann, Pengo, Alexwcoving-
ton, Sj, Wolfkeeper, HangingCurve, Zsweden, Brequinda, Niteowlneils, Leonard G., Andre Riemann, AlistairMcMillan, Khalid hassani,
Matthus Wander, Tagishsimon, Neilc, Ehusman, Toytoy, Yufu, Piotrus, Kegill, Grstain, Bishonen, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Chairboy,
Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Fritz freiheit, Mdd, Turbotas, Mdbest, Anthony Appleyard, Keenan Pepper, Yamla, Goodoldpolonius2, Oleg
Alexandrov, DanielVonEhren, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mindmatrix, Dandv, Jersyko, Jfr26, BillC, Pol098, Dodiad, KingsleyIde-
hen, Trilussa, Mandarax, Graham87, ConradKilroy, Ilyak, Rjwilmsi, Hulagutten, ElKevbo, Dmccreary, Imperdimper, FlaBot, Ian Pitch-
ford, Kammerbulle, AndriuZ, Simonpockley, DVdm, Manscher, Wavelength, Rada, Gaius Cornelius, Welsh, Megapixie, Jorowi~enwiki,
Daniel C, Paul Magnussen, Gorgonzilla, Arthur Rubin, Loy, Spikespeigel42, Spon, DVD R W, Yvwv, SmackBot, PaulWay, Mae-
stro44, Jtneill, Anastrophe, Kintetsubualo, Yamaguchi , Brianski, Oli Filth, Egsan Bacon, Frap, Rrburke, Gavin Moodie, EVula,
Lhadnus, Ligulembot, Lunarbunny, Nakamura2828, Guyjohnston, Rexhammock, Kuru, Robosh, Blueprint18, Slakr, Sucker pvn, Kvng,
Jc37, DabMachine, PaulGS, OnBeyondZebrax, Kencf0618, Tosenton, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Erik Kennedy, ZsinjBot, Anil Kumar
Kartham, TheRegicider, Cydebot, JPalonus, Frzl, Pdxuser, Kozuch, UberScienceNerd, JamesBrownJr, Letranova, Thijs!bot, Rkrish67,
Electron9, AgentPeppermint, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, CZmarlin, Manushand, Dylan Lake, AOB, Greensburger, SteveSims, Ma-
gioladitis, Gamaro, Eltener, KConWiki, DataGazetteer, Mmoitzh, Elinruby, Gwern, CommonsDelinker, Jayantaism, Crakkpot, Iiai-
ialover, Largoplazo, Elkadi, TopGun, Sford, JDS2005, Joeinwap, Ddd1600, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Seattle Skier, Oshwah, Bernium,
Lradrama, Haseo9999, Valkyryn, Feudonym, Rainier3, Logan, Stambi, Speedclimb, EverGreg, Debgall, Ravensre, Manway, Charles-
Gillingham, Nezavisim~enwiki, Mcorson, IPAddressConict, Binksternet, Rilak, Eddroid, Sbolat, OccamzRazor, Stefanbcn, BigChilli,
Oxymo, Three-quarter-ten, PixelBot, Frozen4322, Thanhbv, Fryn, Tathurst, MystBot, Addbot, Disruptivetechnologyllc, Poco a poco,
ContiAWB, Brice07~enwiki, MrOllie, Download, Guydrawers, Stidmatt, Lightbot, Zorrobot, SasiSasi, WikiDreamer Bot, Yobot, Clock-
werkMao, Bruce404, AnomieBOT, Keithbob, Two Companions, Citation bot, Marshallsumter, Mdawes2, Xqbot, Vik2, Crookesmoor,
Khajidha, Krbolen, Anna Frodesiak, Cs82, Shadowzone1001, CorporateM, Vladimir.frolov, FrescoBot, Fit, Sanpitch, Mondoblu, Khertko,
Louperibot, Citation bot 1, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, Fadm. Notbob, Mondozilla, Trappist the monk, Kauron, RjwilmsiBot, Burntcloth,
Ultimatetime, Ripchip Bot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Andreim27, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Midas02, Laneways, Addalittle, Doctor-
ambient, ClueBot NG, Klaakri, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bootpalish, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, FRibeiro66, FiveColourMap, EricGhent, Juli-
jlapidus, ChrisGualtieri, Brantcooper, Innovatewiki, Cwobeel, The Anonymouse, Faizan, Randykitty, Interestingcomments, Opnminded1,
Iwantfreebooks, WPGA2345, Zhuyuxiang, Fixuture, Mellon2030, Monkbot, Welcome1To1The1Jungle, Hobbitschuster, Verbal.noun, You
336 CHAPTER 80. X.25

better look out below!, NerudaPoet, InternetArchiveBot, John kidder, Woodstop45, Outaouaisregina, Bender the Bot, Epickduck15, Ed-
munds2915 and Anonymous: 275
E.164 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.164?oldid=753804489 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome, Ed Poor, Johan Dahlin, Si-
monP, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Karada, Docu, Smack, Radiojon, Bloodshedder, Tagishsimon, Antandrus, Beland, AnandKumria, Dmit-
ryKo, Oskar Sigvardsson, Guanabot, Wk muriithi, Smyth, Plugwash, Barcex, Drmagic, MarkWahl, John Vandenberg, Pearle, Quantu-
mEleven, Jaroslavle, Tabor, Areia, Stephan Leeds, LFaraone, WilliamKF, Evolve75, Woohookitty, Shanedidona, Leeyc0, Vegaswikian,
Hathawayc, FlaBot, Alex Sims, Rand08, RobyWayne, Glenn L, MithrandirMage, Fabricationary, Cate, Gaius Cornelius, Nick, Smack-
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EagleOne, Kmccoy, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Stesmo, GChriss, Andrewpmk, Ricky81682, Angr, Mindmatrix, Bluemoose, Rjwilmsi,
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338 CHAPTER 80. X.25

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Northamerica1000, BattyBot, Skype565, Ninzkit, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 62
Media Gateway Control Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Gateway_Control_Protocol?oldid=750079622 Contrib-
utors: Haakon, Angela, Yaronf, Guaka, RedWolf, Rchandra, Wpjonathan, JTN, Byrial, Kagato, Mattingly23, Cje~enwiki, Tmh, Wrs1864,
Anthony Appleyard, Voxadam, Mindmatrix, Unixer, FlaBot, MMuzammils, Bytemaster, Bluezy, Eskimbot, Chris the speller, Thumper-
ward, Tsca.bot, Wizardman, Kvng, Dl2000, Teemuk, AshokSrinath, Thijs!bot, Avi.dorfman, Dawnseeker2000, Kgeischmann, Calltech,
Abasota, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Kbrose, CultureDrone, DragonBot, Armeld, Addbot, Kjboyleii, Abhayani, MathsPoetry, Fres-
coBot, Miracle Pen, Smithag64, EmausBot, BG19bot, Archer4523, Wielkizielonymelon, Arcandam, TwoTwoHello, ArmbrustBot, YiFei-
Bot, SJ Defender and Anonymous: 69
Media gateway control protocol architecture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_gateway_control_protocol_architecture?
oldid=723666533 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, Kbrose, WereSpielChequers, Timberframe, Niceguyedc, Yobot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, John
of Reading, Dewritech, Archer4523, Khazar2, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 3
Message Session Relay Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_Session_Relay_Protocol?oldid=739130684 Contribu-
tors: Frank Shearar, Netje, Uzume, Chris the speller, B timmins, Kbrose, France3470, Addbot, Letiemble, MrOllie, Yobot, FrescoBot,
Gshaham, Adigeo reloaded, Joantune, Poland B and Anonymous: 8
Mobile network operator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator?oldid=755126653 Contributors: Timo
Honkasalo, Ant, Kku, NuclearWinner, Jpatokal, Radiojon, Masken, Maximaximax, Neutrality, Bobo192, ChrisUK, Joolz, Versageek,
Instantnood, Wiki-vr, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Vegaswikian, RCRC, JdforresterBot, Mathiastck, CAD6DEE2E8DAD95A, YurikBot,
Bikeborg, Sharkb, Petri Krohn, Nelson50, Allens, SmackBot, Mauls, Jerome Charles Potts, ABACA, DylanW, Shyamsunder, Hu12, Cy-
debot, Kozuch, Epbr123, Nick Number, Tradlos~enwiki, Harryzilber, Barek, Kiore, SuperMarioMan, VolkovBot, Arruzzo, Abdullais4u,
Wirelessfed, SieBot, ClueBot, Samuel Grant, The Thing That Should Not Be, Texnik, Dthomsen8, Addbot, EjsBot, MrOllie, Snoopdogsl,
Yobot, Ciphers, MasterKiller, JaimeABM, HamburgerRadio, SeoMac, Bamyers99, VictorianMutant, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Singiriyar,
EngGerm12, D7oomy0711, Hoathainguyen32, YiFeiBot, Krishnawtar, JJMC89, Requiem II, Dubbzup, Techdba and Anonymous: 63
Mobile phone operator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_operator?oldid=754367820 Contributors: Jpatokal, Bearcat,
ChrisUK, Tony1, Shans p s, Barek, Dane, Materialscientist, Alvin Seville, Dcirovic, BG19bot, Touranushertz, Mussab elhadi, Hoathain-
guyen32, SkateTier, Ayalajaay, Clarkson65, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 6
Mobile telephony Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony?oldid=750170861 Contributors: Andres, Radiojon, Top-
banana, SchmuckyTheCat, Cek, Qui1che, Bender235, ChrisUK, 119, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Mathiastck, Srleer, An-
tiuser, Bgwhite, SmackBot, Rrburke, Ohconfucius, WilliamJE, Gogo Dodo, Christian75, Kozuch, Obiwankenobi, Lfstevens, Harryzilber,
Greensburger, PhilKnight, Swikid, Bongwarrior, Mittosi, Mange01, PCock, Insertrealname, MWJamesLDS, Crazypaco, Martinevans123,
Isaac Sanolnacov, PDFbot, Logan, Flyer22 Reborn, Nopetro, Manway, Asocall, Martarius, Unbuttered Parsnip, Muhandes, Rhododen-
drites, Addbot, Ben Ben, Yobot, Benjamin Lamowski, Bartacus1704, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Termininja, UrusHyby,
SD5, FrescoBot, HealthyFuture, Citation bot 1, Full-date unlinking bot, Gliktch, Baxtreet, Tanconsult, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot,
Emmalewis1, Primefac, Dcirovic, H3llBot, Sodmy, Memestreme, GermanJoe, Aseen8, Abcd888, MerlIwBot, ChristophBurger, Trepier,
BG19bot, EdwardH, Cyberbot II, Dark Silver Crow, Phamnhatkhanh, PC-XT, Tango303, Dolly123test, Eeld616, GambHerno, Monkbot,
KH-1, Rajeev Kumar Shukla, Yogito, Roni50, InternetArchiveBot, Maria1978$, GreenC bot, Davidwatson005 and Anonymous: 43
Mobile VoIP Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_VoIP?oldid=744617331 Contributors: Splatg, Notinasnaid, Peter McGin-
ley, Danhash, Kusma, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Toussaint, Rjwilmsi, Chobot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Brandon, Intershark,
Jesboat, Nelson50, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, Goplett, Rhanbury, Ohnoitsjamie, Bluebot, Oli Filth, MartynDavies, Krallja, Frap, Pjbrock-
mann, ManiacK, Beetstra, Kvng, Hu12, Iridescent, Tony Fox, Msh317, Eps0n, Gogo Dodo, Harryzilber, Desoda, Sebastienr~enwiki,
SHCarter, Sarahmanners, Kgeischmann, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Kateshortforbob, Kineto ss, Mange01, Huzarus~enwiki, Trendpimp,
Toobaz, Rasmusrefer, Shara77, Danshobiz, Yesbaby~enwiki, 2Editor, IpWorld, Robo01~enwiki, Mazarin07, Tetrar, Kbrose, Imran Ali-
raza, Rajeshontheweb, Miltiades490bc, Yintan, Minojing, Callidior, Tannline, Carl2015, EoGuy, Czarko, Choice47, Sharonpngo,
Niceguyedc, Ripsss, Yusufmotiwala, Fringster, Bobchuggs, Voipmobile, YeigoMobile, Johnuniq, Apparition11, Jarvelami, Einis, Dgtsyb,
Addbot, Socheid, Lunar looney, Cst17, MrOllie, SasiSasi, Chaldor, Luckas-bot, Jecarlson12, AnomieBOT, IveFoundit, Piano non troppo,
Bossiel, Eskyjonathan, Xqbot, Sionk, FrescoBot, Kmmrahman, LucienBOT, VoIPExpert, 2goodgoods, LittleWink, Orindlincoln, FoxBot,
Nahid5692001, Dinamik-bot, Miracle Pen, VOIP-COIP, Shawn736, Smriti tripathi, Zollerriia, Kayclose, Justin.ohanessian, Vymp2010,
Jasonon, Baxide, HKMiller, Winxpcn, Ketalanka, VC2010, JuliaGolo, Nomadolive, Monu.moni, ELNO Checking, ItsMeOrYou, Nen,
MusikAnimal, Msiuda, Etayvas, Forfone, Core4voip, Huzefamansoor, Chatterboxer, Pandit126, Itsalleasy, Eno Lirpa and Anonymous: 91
80.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 339

Modem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem?oldid=753623652 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The Anome, Taw, Lorax, Chris-
tian List, Aldie, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Europrobe, Maury Markowitz, Waveguy, Mintguy, Dwheeler, Edward, RTC, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki,
Modster, Kku, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Angela, Darkwind, Andres, Smack, Mulad, Crissov, Paul Stansifer,
Evgeni Sergeev, Radiojon, LMB, Floydian, Traroth, Olathe, Guppy, Jeq, Robbot, Ktims, Tremblay, Fredrik, Boy b, Nurg, Romanm,
Naddy, Sekicho, Lord Bob, Zidane2k1, AndreasB, Patcat88, Mushroom, Mdrejhon, Dave6, Alexwcovington, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWat-
son42, Brouhaha, MaGioZal, DavidCary, Kim Bruning, Everyking, Dratman, Rookkey, Moogle10000, Rchandra, Pne, Bobblewik, Tag-
ishsimon, Stevietheman, Utcursch, CryptoDerk, PauloColacino~enwiki, Antandrus, Anduin13, Sam Hocevar, Cab88, CALR, Discospin-
ster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Jpk, Smyth, MeltBanana, R.123, Forbsey, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog, Andrejj, Kjoonlee, Plugwash,
Sietse Snel, Lunaverse, Bobo192, Longhair, Aydee, Shenme, Brim, Citruswinter, Krellis, Nsaa, Poweroid, Liao, Arthena, Somebody
in the WWW, Monty Dickerson, Super-Magician, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, Jheald, SteinbDJ, LukeSurl, Markaci, John-
wcowan, Feezo, Dingobully, Alvis, Jerey O. Gustafson, Muftak, Woohookitty, Yansa, Ylem, Uncle G, Lupinelawyer, WadeSimMiser,
Rtdrury, SCEhardt, Eyreland, Gimboid13, Palica, Marudubshinki, The Nameless, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Monk, Kbdank71,
FreplySpang, NebY, Ketiltrout, Sjakkalle, Tizio, Koavf, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Viktor~enwiki, Vegaswikian, Brighterorange, Double-
Blue, Dbsanfte, FlaBot, VKokielov, Chris Pressey, RobertG, Flydpnkrtn, Twipley, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Preslethe, Synchrite, Chobot,
Jared Preston, DVdm, Korg, NSR, Adoniscik, Binladen~enwiki, YurikBot, RussBot, Petiatil, DMahalko, Me and, Expertu, Markpeak,
Stephenb, Eleassar, Cryptic, Canageek, NawlinWiki, DragonHawk, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Mortein, Reneh, Voidxor, Bkil, Mysid,
Zephalis, Fender123, Yudiweb, Rdmoore6, Ageekgal, E Wing, Nentuaby, Tdangkhoa, GraemeL, Rlove, Dutch-Bostonian, Pursin1, G-
smooth2k, AGToth, Finell, Vanka5, SmackBot, Bobet, KnowledgeOfSelf, Unyoyega, SeanCollier, Arny, ProveIt, Yamaguchi , Gilliam,
Loveable bishounen, Anastasios~enwiki, Marc Kupper, Chris the speller, Trampikey, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Warren Young, Jlpayton,
Nmajoros, Nbarth, Krallja, Jimmy116, Simpsons contributor, Newmanbe, Onceler, Johndhackensacker3d, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
SheeEttin, Nixeagle, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Addshore, Kcordina, Adamantios, Soosed, Ghiraddje, JanCeuleers, HarisM, Hammer1980,
DMacks, Kukini, TenPoundHammer, Kkailas, Nmnogueira, SashatoBot, Tazmaniacs, Gobonobo, CaptainVindaloo, Gregorydavid, Ckatz,
Tfmurphhk, Beetstra, Ryulong, Peyre, Kvng, DabMachine, Iridescent, JoeBot, BenStrauss, Tawkerbot2, Sakurambo, CmdrObot, Ram-
bam rashi, Raysonho, Remaker, Zarex, Scohoust, Woudloper, MicahDCochran, Nczempin, Nunquam Dormio, Jesse Viviano, Neelix,
Phatom87, HalJor, Cydebot, Swhitehead, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Monkey modem, Ctennis, The snare, Omicronpersei8, Noahsachs, Satori
Son, Malleus Fatuorum, Akb4, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, Memty Bot, Adammosessss, Electron9, Reswobslc, Dikteren, AntiVandal-
Bot, Ais523, Yupik, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Mk*, Credema, Gkhan, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, MER-C, CosineKitty, John a s, RastaKins,
Hut 8.5, Douglas Whitaker, LittleOldMe, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, RBBrittain, Xb2u7Zjzc32, Xeddy, Nikevich, Ihafez, Indon, Nposs,
Robotman1974, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Pkrecker, Jonesl84, DerHexer, Jorbettis, Tux404, Jackson Peebles, Yobol, Conquerist, MartinBot,
Arjun01, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Mange01, Trusil-
ver, Wa3frp, Silverxxx, Lhbts~enwiki, Blood reaper, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Nagakumari, Bonadea, Ja 62, Godlvall2, Bwaav, Nyquist562,
Idioma-bot, Reelrt, Johndoe6666, Abcd4312, Deor, Nitrowolf, VolkovBot, ABF, Dogsgomoo, Beesforan, Je G., Wvereeck, Barneca,
Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Maximillion Pegasus, Dwight666, Technopat, DocGratis, Qxz, Jomankeithtest, Martin451, Bored461, Man-
nafredo, Maxim, Cbreaker, Softtest123, Tikki hit, Haseo9999, Grande.rhapsody, ImaMousse, Spinningspark, WatermelonPotion, VISION-
TEKTELE, Bobo The Ninja, The Last Melon, AlleborgoBot, Thunderbird2, Logan, EmxBot, Austriacus, Kbrose, SieBot, Hertz1888,
Crazy Louco, Stanly mcknob, Radon210, Theaveng, Oda Mari, Nopetro, Oxymoron83, Kpdipen, Miniapolis, Lightmouse, Int21h, Corre-
ogsk, Anchor Link Bot, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Tomtrunnel, The Thing That Should Not Be, Lawrence Cohen, Wutsje, Drmies, Mild Bill
Hiccup, Markstuart44, Pointillist, Ordinaterr, Sv1xv, DragonBot, Mumiemonstret, Excirial, Jusdafax, AndyFielding, Patrick.ivers, Aitias,
Ranjithsutari, DumZiBoT, Azam jafari~enwiki, XLinkBot, Davisremmel, Stickee, Duncan, Ost316, Chanakal, Dsimic, Addbot, Cxz111,
Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Guoguo12, Fyrael, Next-Genn-Gamer, Metagraph, Shirtwaist, Download, Sanjayms, AndersBot,
Smplguy, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Kivar2, ZX81, Yobot, Bdog9121, DJ LoPaTa, Yaroslav Kontsevoy, KamikazeBot,
, Sambrena, AnomieBOT, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, RandomAct, Materi-
alscientist, CoMePrAdZ, Jonathen Skews, Clark89, G0dxilla, Grey ghost, TheAMmollusc, Biology lord, Lowar, GetLinkPrimitiveParams,
Almabot, Solphusion~enwiki, Dspmandavid, ProtectionTaggingBot, Sparcloud, Shadowjams, Taka76, GliderMaven, Angelus Delapsus,
FrescoBot, Ryryrules100, 802geek, Itusg15q4user, RFtechnology, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, BigDwiki, SpaceFlight89, Ran-
domStringOfCharacters, Footwarrior, Siliconboy, Cnwilliams, TobeBot, , Tbhotch, JeepdaySock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Slhck,
Luigiwax, Pierpao, Jfmantis, Lilly granger, Ripchip Bot, Xvolter, DASHBot, J36miles, EmausBot, Davejohnsan, Orphan Wiki, Gfo-
ley4, Super48paul, Dewritech, Racerx11, FozzTexx, L235, 8r455, Tommy2010, Thecheesykid, ZroBot, Traxs7, Dondervogel 2, Rails,
Tolly4bolly, L Kensington, Boots8181, TaxMax, Gsarwa, Peter Karlsen, Sebdog69, ResearchRave, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG,
Louagie, TriumFant, Movses-bot, Snotbot, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Cntras, ScottSteiner, Asukite, Antiqueight, Wbm1058, HReuter,
Kawkab10hijazi, True Tech Talk Time, Jobin RV, Altar, Kya ross, Rynsaha, Snow Blizzard, Philpill691, NorthCoastReader, Hripsimepiso,
BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, Hemmy33, Cyberbot II, Dasfd, DDragon789, Khazar2, Georey H.W., Rich Cecil, Lugia2453, SFK2, The
Quirky Kitty, Sriharsh1234, The Anonymouse, Asis8000, ErinsonMan, Jesiel~enwiki, Carolina Amaral, DavidLeighEllis, Comp.arch,
Justin Urquhart Stewart, Quenhitran, JulianVilla26, Jesdsej, Wyn.junior, JohnSHicks, TuxLibNit, Joe Stitt, Porrige51122, Kinetic37,
Meeee11, Cpt Wise, Mary rose52, Thenorthernstar, DiscantX, Lxylxy123456, Equinox, Galv2015, MBlaze Lightning, NgYShung, GreenC
bot, Bender the Bot, SappyIsHere and Anonymous: 638
Multi-frequency signaling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequency_signaling?oldid=752452475 Contributors: Tbackstr,
Maury Markowitz, Yaronf, Radiojon, Rchandra, Beland, Timsheridan, Mandarax, Graham87, NTBot~enwiki, Deville, DCDuring, Andy
M. Wang, Alaibot, Jim.henderson, Kbrose, Johnuniq, Dgtsyb, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista, Some standardized rigour, Lyla1205,
Lincoln Josh, ChrisGualtieri, K7L, DenJoker, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 8
Orange box Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_box?oldid=744133381 Contributors: Pnm, Rl, Doradus, Toreau, Fvw, Perl,
CDN99, Sdornan, Srleer, Kiscica, Alynna Kasmira, Voidxor, Spawn Man, Dethme0w, SuperMidget, Alaibot, Fluxbot, Magioladitis,
Ariel., R'n'B, Fleebo, Philip Trueman, Ulf Abrahamsson~enwiki, Kbrose, Escape Orbit, Mrchris, SoxBot III, Dawynn, AnomieBOT,
JediMaster362, Drewwwwwww, ClueBot NG, Wbm1058, Hlo12321, K7L, JaconaFrere, CAPTAIN RAJU and Anonymous: 16
Packet switching Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching?oldid=754028773 Contributors: The Anome, PierreAbbat,
William Avery, Waveguy, DonDaMon, Jpatokal, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Jm34harvey, Itai, Jnc, Bevo, Toreau, GPHemsley, RedWolf,
Donreed, Chancemill, Jondel, Jy, Diberri, Giftlite, Niteowlneils, Edcolins, The Singing Badger, Lesgles, Karol Langner, Oneiros, Th-
parkth, Zondor, JTN, Rich Farmbrough, MCBastos, Foobaz, Maurreen, K12u, Giraedata, Helix84, Merope, Jhertel, Andrewpmk, Ashley
Pomeroy, Ynhockey, Rabarberski, Cburnett, Hjf, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Ilario, Philbarker, GraemeLeggett, Dave Cohoe, Mendaliv,
Rjwilmsi, Vary, Teemu Maki~enwiki, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Fresheneesz, Wingsandsword, BradBeattie, Chobot, YurikBot, RobotE,
Wester, Manop, CarlHewitt, Johnbojaen~enwiki, Welsh, Barberio, Jpbowen, BertK, DeadEyeArrow, ThreePD, Rdmoore6, Closedmouth,
Dspradau, JoanneB, Kungfuadam, Timsk~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, Benhoyt, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the
340 CHAPTER 80. X.25

speller, Bluebot, Jopsen, Oli Filth, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JonHarder, Gerfaut, LouScheer, Rspanton, Reliablesources, A.Petrenko,
Kashmiri, Kvng, Lee Carre, Wizard191, Dead3y3, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Fumblebruschi, Jamesceld, Dgw, Penbat, Nmacu, Phatom87,
Cydebot, A876, Tom94022, Jedonnelley, Igby, Kablammo, Hcberkowitz, Headbomb, Wmasterj, Logicat, Seaphoto, R2jitu, Deadbeef,
JAnDbot, Harryzilber, VoABot II, JNW, Mbarbier, Ee02b022, Zsh, Jim.henderson, J.delanoy, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Wa3frp, Fishyghost,
JohnGrantNineTiles, Akld guy, Philip Trueman, The Original Wildbear, TedColes, Synthebot, Groundeyes, GoddersUK, Kbrose, SieBot,
Nubiatech, AlphaPyro, ToePeu.bot, Jauerback, PerryTachett, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Sabri76, Rob Bednark, Excirial, Anon lynx, Sun Creator, Jedi Master Brownlow, LeviathinXII, XLinkBot,
Ali Esfandiari, Dgtsyb, Noctibus, Airplaneman, Dsimic, Addbot, Synchrodyne, Torla42, , PRL42, Lightbot, Brewha-
haitsme, Foelectric, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Materialscientist, Neurolysis, Xqbot, Capricorn42,
Nameless23, FrescoBot, Cgdallen, W Nowicki, Alxeedo, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, LittleWink, FriedrickMILBarbarossa, RedBot,
Gentleman wiki, A.wasylewski, Freedomghter21, Trappist the monk, Cgarciap86, Vrenator, Kabdcn, Usangel1066, Sricciar, Deema Al-
Shamaa, Bp2010.hprastiawan, EmausBot, Tuankiet65, Dewritech, GoingBatty, RA0808, Ballofstring, W163, ChuispastonBot, MacStep,
28bot, ClueBot NG, Mahuzu, Delusion23, Oddbodz, HMSSolent, Sowsnek, IluvatarBot, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, NeruYume, Xmikus01,
Thom2729, TwoTwoHello, Referenceguy147, Acetotyce, Chrono85, Praemonitus, Westside oregonian, TheChipWizard, Whizz40, Ja-
conaFrere, T3chman94, Concord hioz, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Eczanne, Gareld Gareld, KH-1, Uyless Black, Ayalajaay, Gsya-
dav1994, Whalestate, Tdadamemd sioz, Randyl Foster and Anonymous: 232
Peer-to-peer SIP Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer_SIP?oldid=723739878 Contributors: Stephan Leeds, Rjwilmsi,
Alynna Kasmira, SmackBot, Kvng, Alaibot, Leolaursen, Kbrose, XLinkBot, Filim 83, Addbot, Symac, AnomieBOT, Miym, Citation
bot 1, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, Kns10, Obankston, RjwilmsiBot, Dcirovic, Chadpharris and Anonymous: 7
Personal identication number Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identification_number?oldid=755590150 Contributors:
Imran, Heron, Michael Hardy, Ronz, Poor Yorick, IMSoP, Zoicon5, Saltine, JVittes, FrankSier, Smjg, Tsca, Finlay, Falcon Kirtaran,
OldakQuill, Mike Rosoft, ArnoldReinhold, Bobo192, Ziggurat, Ekevu, PaulHanson, Pol098, GregorB, Eras-mus, Holek, Sj, Rjwilmsi,
Gudeldar, FlaBot, Alphachimp, LeCire~enwiki, Dkam, Roboto de Ajvol, Hede2000, Fender123, CLW, Red Jay, SmackBot, McGed-
don, Grawity, Gilliam, Snori, Terraguy, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Zaian, BIL, Burto88, GaryMorris, John M Baker, Cydebot,
CiaranG, Thijs!bot, Wikijimmy, NESFreak, JAnDbot, MER-C, Joshua, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Gscut, WikiXan, Seba5618, Wiki
Raja, Bdodo1992, Sebcastle, Resnitzky, Mail10, Steinberger, GrahamHardy, UnicornTapestry, VolkovBot, Epson291, Dormskirk, Mar-
tin451, Helen Hincks, Carinemily, Qaywsxedc, WereSpielChequers, RJaguar3, Yintan, Flyer22 Reborn, Jasgrider, Jojalozzo, Luciengav,
Svick, Ken123BOT, ClueBot, Enthusiast01, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Deep2409, Muro Bot, BOTarate, Mitch Ames, Mm40, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, H92Bot, AndersBot, Favonian, SamatBot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Ettrig, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Koman90, AnomieBOT,
Ciphers, Materialscientist, Jordav, Cyberssecurity, Kaisle, Harrykitten, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, MastiBot,
Shanmugamp7, Bearsharexx, Saadisaadsaadi, WesUGAdawg, Throwaway85, Lotje, Ripchip Bot, WikitanvirBot, Dooley789, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, Ronk01, QuentinUK, Stardarks, Ivolocy, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Widr, Titodutta, Benzband, Nadeem8064, BattyBot,
Pharrel101, Tanderson596, GOAT Roger, Redd Foxx 1991, Malcolmmwa, John Ozyer-Key, Tropicalkitty, Olivershawn, CAPTAIN RAJU,
Daudi karimu, Kizami, Winshate2016, Bender the Bot, Masidul Sekh, Testuser213 and Anonymous: 101
Primary Rate Interface Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_Rate_Interface?oldid=748726415 Contributors: Big Bob the
Finder, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Wpjonathan, Icd, Amigaholic, Danhash, Sid1138, Descendall, The wub, The Rambling Man, Yurik-
Bot, Wknight94, SmackBot, Trailbum, JanCeuleers, Uweschwoebel, Majora4, Eastlaw, Jokes Free4Me, Sp!ke, Xhienne, Trickv, Bellhead,
Nevun, Tomgreeny, Calltech, Jyrejoice, Jim.henderson, Thaurisil, Meridian911, ReverseEngineered, Wykypydya, Kbrose, SieBot, Ncam-
pion, Andromeda451, Editore99, Hobartimus, Fratrep, Zil, Wysprgr2005, Coigrich, Manco Capac, Dgtsyb, Addbot, Lightbot, Fraggle81,
AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, GrouchoBot, Shadowjams, Tharaka3000, Mickeyhill, Dewritech, Slightsmile, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Rudy-
ort, ClueBot NG, Bamim2, Strike Eagle, Data5812, ~riley, K7L, Lugia2453, Frosty, Narky Blert, Crocodilaius and Anonymous: 114
Public switched telephone network Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network?oldid=753258571 Con-
tributors: The Anome, Andre Engels, Gsl, Aldie, William Avery, SteveDay, MikkoM, Youandme, Steverapaport, Patrick, JohnOwens,
Michael Hardy, Darkaddress, Cameron Dewe, Looxix~enwiki, Tusixoh, Glenn, Crissov, Dysprosia, Radiojon, SEWilco, Robbot, Rfc1394,
DavidCary, Markus Kuhn, Niteowlneils, Leonard G., Rchandra, Falcon Kirtaran, Tagishsimon, Gloop, Chowbok, JeremiahOeltjen, Adrian
Sampson, Hugh Mason, JTN, Richardelainechambers, MBisanz, Fourpointsix, Bobo192, MarkWahl, Redlentil, Espoo, Disneyfreak96,
Poweroid, ChrisUK, Rohaq, Guy Harris, Wtmitchell, HenryLi, OwenX, ^demon, Ruud Koot, Graham87, BD2412, Yurik, Snaekid,
Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Makru, FlaBot, Ian Georey Kennedy, Polaralex, Chobot, YurikBot, Rsrikanth05, Cryptic, Hm2k, NickBush24, Adamn,
Jpbowen, Tony1, Nethgirb, Mysid, Elkman, Max Schwarz, Sharkb, Closedmouth, Petri Krohn, Hirudo, SmackBot, MerlinMM, JMiall,
Rick7425, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, Duckbill, AmiDaniel, -ramz-, Nobodyinpart, Dicklyon, H, Kvng, Iridescent, BobbyLee, Joseph So-
lis in Australia, Az1568, Chetvorno, JohnTechnologist, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, BeenAroundAWhile, Yukoba~enwiki, Alaibot, Dragont,
Thijs!bot, Simeon H, Escarbot, Agnvoip, Alphachimpbot, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Jan Friberg, Sln3412, Albany NY, Bellhead, Verkhoven-
sky, AlephGamma, Kgeischmann, Calltech, I-baLL, Zahakiel, MartinBot, DrDorkus, Jim.henderson, Nono64, J.delanoy, Peter Chas-
tain, NewEnglandYankee, Manassehkatz, Ishanbhanu, Birczanin, Netmonger, PNG crusade bot, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, Abtinb, Rei-bot,
Monkey Bounce, Doug, Isdnip, AlleborgoBot, Kbrose, Quietbritishjim, SieBot, Dwandelt, Gerakibot, Yunghkim, Mahehere, Jojalozzo,
Ebernat, Machina.sapiens, WordyGirl90, ClueBot, EoGuy, Taroaldo, Trivialist, Mlas, XLinkBot, Deadlyturtletank, WikHead, Silvo-
nenBot, Dgtsyb, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Download, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Loupeter, Zorrobot, , Luckas-bot, Bunnyhop11, Kamikaze-
Bot, Vini 17bot5, AnomieBOT, New2way, Rubinbot, Kingpin13, Abdulraheemsidz, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Ranjandutta, Toetoetoetoe,
GrouchoBot, SimonInns, FrescoBot, Nageh, Haeinous, Austria156, Ezhuttukari, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Super48paul, Boundarylayer,
Rkononenko, Midas02, Anthony.selby, Miguelito2010, ClueBot NG, Widr, ZombieRamen, Bmbaker88, Voipsatellite, Rlegends, Earaps,
Rp8083, Mogism, Ptuttle123, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Slumberbus, Haminoon, Tc.guho, Spasticsociety, Anarchyte, Rajuarya125,
Dinnypaul, Zupotachyon, Jannatmouri and Anonymous: 243
Public-safety answering point Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-safety_answering_point?oldid=664376428 Contributors:
Voidvector, Ronz, Radiojon, Cacophony, MarkWahl, Woohookitty, Dovid, Jeprobertson, Jake Wartenberg, Mashmore, YurikBot, Clib,
AVM, Kimchi.sg, JogCon, SmackBot, Lefteh, Badboyjamie, BeenAroundAWhile, WeggeBot, Ernstl, Jc3, Scottalter, Jim.henderson, Lan-
darski, Kris.berg, SieBot, Jdaloner, Addbot, Chzz, Yobot, NextGen911, Jodypro, The Polish, Jprovenz, Faizan, YiFeiBot and Anonymous:
15
Pulse dialing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_dialing?oldid=747388581 Contributors: The Anome, Aldie, Nommonomanac,
Cameron Dewe, Dysprosia, Astronautics~enwiki, Tagishsimon, Stevietheman, Mike R, JTN, Rich Farmbrough, Evice, Longhair, Armando,
Eyreland, Nick1nildram, Rjwilmsi, Preslethe, Hairy Dude, PrologFan, Fender123, Deville, LeonardoRob0t, Incnis Mrsi, Aaron of Mpls,
80.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 341

Evilandi, Quadm, Octahedron80, BobJones, KLLvr283, Jam01, Cornlad, Denham062, MeekMark, Djy, Rhardiii, Thijs!bot, GSTQ, Har-
ryzilber, PhilKnight, Kingpin29, Kiore, Jim.henderson, Hugo999, Emsearcy, Michael Frind, Kbrose, Dvv, Doctoruy, PipepBot, Pixel-
Bot, Johnuniq, Ost316, Sweetpoet, Addbot, AnomieBOT, An805Guy, Jkbw, Some standardized rigour, Daniel the Monk, Alcapwned86,
EdoBot, Lincoln Josh, 2001:db8, ChrisGualtieri, K7L, Vieque, Amortias, Purtil and Anonymous: 48
Pulse-code modulation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation?oldid=751185170 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,
Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Ap, Amillar, Aldie, Waveguy, Mjb, Heron, Bobdobbs1723, Michael Hardy, Chris-martin, Tannin,
Ixfd64, Karada, MichaelJanich, Ahoerstemeier, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, CatherineMunro, Kragen, Glenn, Coren, Jdstroy, Dysprosia, Fur-
rykef, AnthonyQBachler, Lumos3, Ktims, Dittaeva, Jleedev, Giftlite, Ssd, Tom-, Matt Crypto, Adam McMaster, SWAdair, Bobblewik,
Neilc, Alexf, DRE, Mikko Paananen, Starx, Kelson, Abdull, Discospinster, Lovelac7, Khalid, Lankiveil, SickTwist, .:Ajvol:., Giraedata,
Unused0022, Mote, Gerweck, Andrewpmk, Hu, 25or6to4, MRB, Tslocum, Graham87, BD2412, SudoMonas, MordredKLB, KamasamaK,
Nneonneo, Miserlou, KirkEN, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Ewlyahoocom, Kolbasz, Sstrader, Intgr, Lmatt, GreyCat, Chobot, Bgwhite,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kymacpherson, RussBot, Bjoern.thalheim~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, Retired username, Malcolma, Brandon, Shep-
azu, Mysid, Thetrilogy, ReCover, Deville, Pb30, Dan Kee, Dystopianray, Zvika, Emanuel.munteanu, Qoqnous, SmackBot, Haza-w, Jagged
85, Stuarta, Jcarroll, JorgePeixoto, Alias777, Jerome Charles Potts, Chendy, Kalatix, Chlewbot, Daniel.Cardenas, Vina-iwbot~enwiki,
L337p4wn, SashatoBot, IronGargoyle, Vanished user 8ij3r8jwe, Frango com Nata, Dicklyon, Kvng, Lee Carre, OnBeyondZebrax,
LethargicParasite, Shoaib Meenai, Emote, Lid2000, Lanma726, Sorn67, Mblumber, Qwyrxian, Phy1729, Escarbot, Barneyg, Prolog,
Davidbrucesmith, AlexOvShaolin, Oddity-, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Dobbse, Asnac, Gloomba, Magioladitis, LorenzoB, Oicumayberight,
Ariel., Jim.henderson, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Alexwright, Acalamari, Dispenser, Skullers, Gerstman ny, Je G., TXiKiBoT, A4bot,
Broadbot, Nicodeamuz, Eubulides, The Seventh Taylor, VanishedUserABC, Abhishekdevra, EgbertE, SieBot, Bill Waggener, Callistussj,
Jmjanssen, Fishnet37222, ClueBot, Aquegg, Binksternet, Lawrence Cohen, Ndenison, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Rcoo-
ley~enwiki, SchreiberBike, ChrisHodgesUK, Rachelfenn, Ulyssix, The Zig, DumZiBoT, Stratsve, Addbot, Klane11, DOI bot, KitchM,
GyroMagician, OlEnglish, Matj Grabovsk, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Iranvijay, Nyat, Armchair info guy, Gtz, Jim1138, Sz-iwbot,
Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Sirgorpster, Albert.guiteras, Nasa-verve, Shadowjams, Kernaazti, FrescoBot, Mfwitten, Citation
bot 1, Hondootedly, Jandalhandler, AXRL, Jfmantis, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Acather96, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Kokken Tor, L Kens-
ington, Eigenbanana, Donner60, Gmt2001, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Helpful Pixie Bot, IWPAG, Pfeerz, HMSSolent, BG19bot,
Klilidiplomus, Anbu121, BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, TheJJJunk, Jochen Burghardt, Epicgenius, Boulbik, Babitaarora, Spyglasses, Yasi-
uMody, Monkbot, KasparBot, Eido95, GreenC bot, Elaareessex and Anonymous: 236
Quality of service Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service?oldid=751914675 Contributors: The Anome, Christopher
Mahan, Rkinder, Edward, Michael Hardy, MartinHarper, Wapcaplet, Dori, Yaronf, Glenn, Kyokpae~enwiki, EdH, Wik, Echoray, Motor,
Robbot, RedWolf, DocWatson42, Dinomite, Wolfkeeper, Everyking, Rchandra, Kegill, Mozzerati, BrianWilloughby, Rich Farmbrough,
Wk muriithi, JoeSmack, Mike Schwartz, HasharBot~enwiki, V2Blast, Mc6809e, JLeland, ClockworkSoul, Mark Bergsma, Suruena, Tony
Sidaway, Voxadam, Ntavares~enwiki, Simetrical, Mindmatrix, RHaworth, Morton.lin, Pol098, Contele de Grozavesti, Vandenbr, Aarghd-
vaark, Graham87, BD2412, Jclemens, Icey, Rjwilmsi, WhiteBoy, Agou~enwiki, Ttwaring, Fred Bradstadt, FlaBot, Ian Georey Kennedy,
Margosbot~enwiki, Limeyuk, Raindeer, Kakurady, PhilipR, YurikBot, Borgx, RobotE, Eraserhead1, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Stephenb,
Manop, Bovineone, Uetian118, Vanished user kjdioejh329io3rksdkj, ENeville, Robertvan1, Dbrs, Shotgunlee, Kyle Barbour, Bota47,
Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Roberts83, ASchmoo, SmackBot, Mark Tranchant, Azevedo wikipede, Yamaguchi , Agi896, Ohnoitsjamie,
Sceasary, Jishnua, Jbarcelo, Frap, DRahier, Adamantios, Radagast83, PPBlais, Kuru, Iliev, A.b.s, Camilo Sanchez, Soulkeeper, Mets501,
MTSbot~enwiki, H, Beck162, Kvng, Lee Carre, Osklil, Ndvornk, Salexandre~enwiki, Chetvorno, SkyWalker, Glendonowers, Sd58619,
Erencexor, Andkore, Whophd, Equendil, Phatom87, AnthonyCheng, Cydebot, Obornp, Mblumber, Djg2006, Broughturner, Skittleys,
Dancter, BCSWowbagger, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, RichardBennett, Headbomb, Mlogic, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Richard n, Dougher, JAnD-
bot, Barek, Raanoo, Kelcher, Rich257, SandStone, Kgeischmann, Jim.henderson, Bissinger, Cmsjustin, Keith D, Mange01, Trusilver,
Spc01, Jesant13, Benjaminzsj, Mamyles, Spainhower, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Stevevogelnu, A4bot, Rei-bot, Elimerl, MichaelStanford,
Davesnmp, ^demonBot2, Mannafredo, Acprisip, Michael Frind, Kbrose, Amatriain, Adclark88, ToePeu.bot, VVVBot, MkDoyle, Mar-
tyvis, Ctxppc, Maelgwnbot, Foglar~enwiki, ClueBot, Nsk92, Muhandes, Sun Creator, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Dgtsyb,
Elizant, Zodon, Bondjb, Tclavel, Addbot, HPNAUSER, Download, AnnaFrance, MJisnotmylover, SasiSasi, Megaman en m, Legobot, Dr-
pickem, Luckas-bot, Bunnyhop11, Grebaldar, D.alotaibi, Nallimbot, Lexoyo, AnomieBOT, Lirneasia, Rubinbot, Xxp~enwiki, Xqbot, Jor-
dav, Martnym, Pythoulon, Lahnfeear, RibotBOT, Amaury, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, W Nowicki, Itusg15q4user, D'ohBot, Francesco-lelli,
Citation bot 1, RedBot, Btilm, MastiBot, Jandalhandler, Skc7, Spakin, Donalmorris, Lopifalko, Eljazzar, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, John
of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Angrytoast, Primefac, Dcirovic, Bongoramsey, Dmatsunaga, Rewstah, Pbhurley, Karthikndr, Scott.somohano,
Mueka238, Pluggy35, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, YaseminIT, Snotbot, Dimos2k, MosesB77, BG19bot, Ireneo.heraldo, Huisman-
cljo, Ixim dschaefer, Idragan, Gburca, Haha1221, Run4health, Jamesx12345, Phamnhatkhanh, Babitaarora, Cgg1969, Samnichols, Manul,
Sdoya, Ireneshih, ScotXW, Bristot, Itsalleasy, Amenychtas, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 264
Real-time Transport Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocol?oldid=754095780 Contributors:
Nyco~enwiki, Tzartzam, JohnOwens, Nixdorf, Pagingmrherman, CesarB, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Yaronf, Glenn, Brigman, Dcoetzee,
Echoray, Itai, Tero~enwiki, Puckly, Lzur, Cedars, Alerante, Karn, Fleminra, Michael Devore, Vadmium, Mgream, Vina, Bodnotbod,
Allefant, MementoVivere, Snukin~enwiki, JTN, DrMac, Bender235, Joaopais, Bobo192, Gduy, Giraedata, Wrs1864, Kgashok, Su-
ruena, Ko-, Voxadam, Ceyockey, Kenyon, Mazevedo, Mindmatrix, Ruud Koot, Yurik, Koavf, Strait, Victor Trac, Kchoboter, FlaBot,
M7bot, FrankTobia, YurikBot, RobotE, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, MMuzammils, Tfelber, Gaius Cornelius, TheMandarin, Brandon, Bota47,
Honeyman, Attilios, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Bluebot, TheKMan, Mwtoews, Daniel.Cardenas, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, DKEdwards,
Kkailas, Chaotic Mind, Itsgeneb, Soumyasch, Kvng, Hu12, Teemuk, Dokaspar, Andy pryor, Mikewax, Thijs!bot, Avi.dorfman, Csabka,
Dawnseeker2000, Thakkar v, Dougher, JAnDbot, Doncrawley, Arvinder.virk, Enjoi4586, Malcolmst, Ling.Nut, Kgeischmann, Stan3,
Mange01, Juliancolton, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Susantab, TwilligToves, Mezzaluna, YordanGeorgiev, Antoncampos, Kbrose, SieBot, Tres-
iden, VVVBot, Woolf44, Ctxppc, Cschim, Diana cionoiu, Mild Bill Hiccup, Alex.blackbit, Cory Donnelly, Sdrtirs, Evoisard, Johnuniq,
RTP123, XLinkBot, Kurienmathew, SilvonenBot, Dgtsyb, Addbot, ConCompS, RN1970, CarsracBot, SciComTech, Smartyepp, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ChrisCPearson, Isheden, JirkaHnidek, FrescoBot, Josemariasaldana, E n sh, Wikisierracharlie,
BenzolBot, Rapsar, MastiBot, Dac04, DixonDBot, Prasado, John smith4092, Thelittlemouse, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot,
WikitanvirBot, FlippyFlink, Marlogger, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Arunsjamwal, Keancaptinh, Satellizer, TechMaker, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Lekensteyn, Jzu, Cyberbot II, TwoTwoHello, ArmbrustBot, Someone not using his real name, Paul2520, Monkbot, VeniVidiVicipedia,
Garywe51, CabbagePotato, Tortle, Yousif-7152, Necrocirco, , Akartit and Anonymous: 179
Sampling (signal processing) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)?oldid=752639460 Contributors:
Heron, Andres, Smack, Selket, Giftlite, DavidCary, Wolfkeeper, Ravn, Edcolins, OverlordQ, Kjoonlee, Rbj, Unused0022, LutzL, Jheald,
Gene Nygaard, Oleg Alexandrov, Joz3d, Adoniscik, YurikBot, RussBot, JulienBourdon, Kimchi.sg, Thiseye, BorgQueen, JLaTondre,
342 CHAPTER 80. X.25

Zvika, SmackBot, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Gutworth, Nbarth, Patriarch, Colonies Chris, Bob K, SashatoBot, Dicklyon, Kvng,
Mattbr, WeggeBot, Gionnico, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, JAnDbot, Txomin, Rami R, Email4mobile, JaGa, Pvosta, Sigmundg, Trusilver, Ste-
fanosNikolaou, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, VanishedUserABC, Spinningspark, Dan Polansky, Chemako0606, DaBler, OK-
Bot, ClueBot, Cosmin1595, Binksternet, Hongthay, Nanren888, Niceguyedc, DragonBot, Alexbot, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Dthomsen8,
MagnusA, Deineka, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Bodysurnyon, LaaknorBot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Jan Arkesteijn, AnomieBOT, John Holmes
II, Barking Mad42, Jim1138, LilHelpa, Anna Frodesiak, Infvwl, Miym, RibotBOT, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, ANDROBETA, HRoestBot,
RedBot, ContinueWithCaution, Dinamik-bot, Onel5969, EmausBot, Dadr, WikitanvirBot, K6ka, Bjbarman18, ImEditingWiki, Lorem Ip,
ChuispastonBot, Intellec7, Teapeat, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Gggbgggb, Shantham11, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nen, Physic-
sch, Rcunderw, Kondephy, Webclient101, Sowndaryab, Mnkmnkmnk990, ScotXW, Meteor sandwich yum, KH-1, Lx knb, CaseyMiller-
Wiki, GreenC bot, AnErrorBuzzerSoundEect2016At3675And4008, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 120
Satellite phone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_phone?oldid=756092352 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Michael Hardy,
Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Haabet, Andres, Tristanb, RickK, Radiojon, Saltine, Taxman, Bearcat, Fredrik, Jondel, Hcheney, DocWatson42,
Michael Devore, 159753, Sleepygreen~enwiki, Rhobite, Guanabot, Srd2005, Xcriteria, West London Dweller, Sleske, Towel401, Insom-
niacity, Alansohn, Mgaved, GNU4eva, Andrewpmk, RobertStar20, Apoc2400, Wtmitchell, Lkinkade, Toyoda, Woohookitty, Armando,
MarkPos, Graham87, Descendall, Rjwilmsi, XP1, Vegaswikian, NeonMerlin, CannotResolveSymbol, Tequendamia, Bgwhite, YurikBot,
MMuzammils, DKSalazar, CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Super Rad!, GraemeL, Draco avus, Shufengbai, SmackBot, Kittynboi, Red-
Spruce, Gilliam, Bluebot, Suamme1, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Kungming2, Digitrics, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Frap, JonHarder, BIL,
Trieste, DylanW, Bengl, Parrot of Doom, WayKurat, Moniker42, Laugh~enwiki, Dasune, Euchiasmus, Jbonneau, Rsnake123, Hu12, Ivan-
Lanin, Seven of Nine, Erencexor, Gogo Dodo, Omicronpersei8, OfFire, BetacommandBot, InfernalPanda, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandal-
Bot, Seaphoto, Jc3, Harryzilber, MER-C, Greensburger, Joshua, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Nyq, Swpb, HEAD ON APPLY DIRECTLY
TO THE FOREHEAD, LorenzoB, Cmpoel, Scottalter, CommonsDelinker, Lan1g1r0, Trusilver, JBFrenchhorn, 97198, Vanished user
g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, Iheartcorruption, Binba, BigHairRef, Equazcion, Intothemiddle, Mrkmrk, Kyle the bot, Ask123, Broadbot, Spi-
ral5800, Billinghurst, Burntsauce, Stojo34, Schnellundleicht, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Krawi, Caltas, Yulu, Lisatwo, Lightmouse, Rkarlsba,
Altzinn, Escape Orbit, Into The Fray, Jite25, Martarius, ClueBot, Timeineurope, Zeerak88, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jan1nad,
Ignorance is strength, Geofone, Alejandrocaro35, Nukeless, Stojo71, Garthwimbush, Midnight Hour, XLinkBot, JSpink137, AndreNatas,
JediSaint, Addbot, Satbu, Knight of Truth, Innv, Shirtwaist, Lightbot, OlEnglish, WuBot, Yobot, Themfromspace, GavMag, AnomieBOT,
Ipatrol, Flinders Petrie, Materialscientist, ..24, Bencmq, Xqbot, Klisanor, Tiller54, Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot, Morgan Phoenix,
Shadowjams, FrescoBot, CKyle22, Jonesey95, Emyil, Forward Unto Dawn, Msileinad, TobeBot, Comet Tuttle, Gisegre, Gregoire23,
Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, Katherine, Racerx11, Howan, Qrsdogg, Dcirovic, ZroBot, Hedonologist,
Alpha Quadrant, KazekageTR, NetworkINV, ChuispastonBot, Homer.Hapmouche, Kyle.drerup, CharlieEchoTango, Helpsome, ClueBot
NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Jonsaad, BG19bot, Teammm, Cyberbot II, SABACC, Junkyardsparkle, El Foes, Evano1van, JimMcKinley123,
Himanshu301989, Rjemma, SamanthaPuckettIndo, Wyn.junior, Addisnog, RebeccMWind, KH-1, Robertbarlow13, TimoVink, Yuil.Tr,
Reynan suba, Emanuel del olmo, SHAIKH ABDUL GAFAR, Srpatterson, GreenC bot, Satphoneguy and Anonymous: 232
Session Initiation Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol?oldid=750079678 Contributors: Magnus
Manske, RobLa, Pinkunicorn, Ed Poor, Etu, Christopher Mahan, Maury Markowitz, PeterB, Nyco~enwiki, Leandrod, Edward, Liftarn,
Seav, Pagingmrherman, Notheruser, Yaronf, Julesd, Scott, IMSoP, Mulad, Kat, Guaka, Jharrell, Zoicon5, Judzillah, Itai, Robbot, RichiH,
MrJones, RedWolf, Chris Roy, DataSurfer, Lzur, Cyrius, Alf Boggis, ShaunMacPherson, Sim~enwiki, Lupin, MSGJ, David Johnson,
Rick Block, Rchandra, Elgaard, AlistairMcMillan, Fanf, Edcolins, Matt Darby, Carlos-alberto-teixeira, Schweini, Utcursch, Dhughes,
Bigpeteb, Biot, Tietew, Now3d, , DrMac, Pmsyyz, Wk muriithi, Smyth, Gronky, Bender235, Azurepalm, OldMan, Sietse Snel,
Mboedick, Hujaza, Luser, Franl, Matt tw, Towel401, Wrs1864, Alansohn, A.M.~enwiki, Monk127, Wensong~enwiki, SeanLegassick,
Wtshymanski, Emvee~enwiki, Cburnett, Suruena, Ringbang, Algocu, Voxadam, Rzelnik, Mindmatrix, Brazil4Linux, Armando, Isnow,
Ejabberd~enwiki, Rchamberlain, McCarthur~enwiki, Graham87, Mulligatawny, Rjwilmsi, Bubuka, SudoMonas, Koavf, Strait, Tanovic,
Jehochman, Patcito, Ttwaring, FlaBot, Ausinha, Kmorozov, Wongm, GreyCat, Ttlkr, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Mclayto, Logixoul, MMuzam-
mils, Me and, TheMandarin, Satch69, Taed, Brandon, Jeme, Layer~enwiki, Voidxor, DeadEyeArrow, Pnetz, Thane Eichenauer, Leonar-
doRob0t, Johnpseudo, Batsonjay, Bluezy, Dewikipeder, Linkminer, Tom Morris, Edward Waverley, SmackBot, Bobet, Eric boutilier,
Pgk, Likethesky, Odd bloke, Laurie G, Master of Puppets, Morte, MartynDavies, Torzsmokus, Salmar, Faico, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Frap, Andyparkins, Cybercobra, Kasperd, Eewanco, Alan Smithee, Metamagician3000, Daniel.Cardenas, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki,
Doug Bell, Microchip08, Breno, Noahspurrier, Ric, Kvng, Hu12, DabMachine, Teemuk, GDallimore, Voip81, Jfayel, Amniarix, Para-
dialEditor, Requestion, Equendil, Phatom87, UncleBubba, Miguel.lima, Gogo Dodo, Bpadinha, Neustradamus, Jay.Here, Serych, Mranga,
Jadahl, GentlemanGhost, Avi.dorfman, Cub001, AdamRoach, DavidAyers, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Agnvoip, Worm-
hole80, B timmins, Altesys~enwiki, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Eproulx, Raanoo, Enjoi4586, Blatkinson, BlueRobot~enwiki, Magioladitis,
VoABot II, Voixium, Pausch, Skowa, Donsez, Kgeischmann, Calltech, R'n'B, Verdatum, Mange01, Carre, Brest, Hopper96, Tekalpha,
Mram80, Cfeet77, Touisiau, AntiSpamBot, Amirshaheen, Malcolmredheron, Jniemi, VolkovBot, Scienceguy8m, TXiKiBoT, Seyhan
Aydin, Mvineetmenon, Rei-bot, Lradrama, Nexus501, BotKung, YordanGeorgiev, Kbrose, Nubiatech, AIMSzpc, JonTeh, France3470,
Matthi2, Antzervos, Oxymoron83, Int21h, Mpm777, Rathee, Kjtobo, Dariuspomaha, Denisarona, Bchatelet, Russellbryant, Tuxa, Clue-
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boy, Ganesh Paudel, Evan Olsen, Jigshere, Mahesh 2231, Machstef, Ke Ren Chong, NYMets2000, Gsarwa, Pheenixen, Ochado, Mentibot,
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deringsoul114, Michael Thomsson, Wernerf72, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Kolarp, Khazar2, Dexbot, Dzethmayr, Dhani.sahani, 2edsphere,
344 CHAPTER 80. X.25

Wikignome1213, Stephen2u, Hillaryfoss, Isarra (HG), Sanjachetan, Corn cheese, JustAMuggle, Ipodsof, BurritoBazooka, Wasim.997,
Randykitty, Aly ElSawaf, Makasala123, Wikidamo, BB609, EvergreenFir, Rushantk, Soham, Jatinnirmal, Babitaarora, Eloquent2013,
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GreenC bot, John Hannibal Smith, Bender the Bot, -glove-, Freakthei, Abdullahdalham123 and Anonymous: 1028
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Allen3, Brandon, SmackBot, Bluebot, JonHarder, JanCeuleers, Alaibot, Kgeischmann, Jim.henderson, Bogdanwiki, Diana cionoiu, Jbono-
core, Dgtsyb, Dawynn, Luckas-bot, Erik9bot, Halestock, EmausBot, ChrisGualtieri, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 5
Signalling System No. 7 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_System_No._7?oldid=755761875 Contributors: Derek Ross,
The Anome, Gsl, Aldie, William Avery, SimonP, Maury Markowitz, Oystein, Karada, Yaronf, Crissov, Bradams, Joaopaulo1511,
Hoho~enwiki, Falcon Kirtaran, Khalid hassani, Just Another Dan, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Beland, DragonySixtyseven, Bumm13, Sam
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Harris, CyberSkull, Kotasik, Guthrie, Cmdawson, JeremyA, Graham87, Ketiltrout, Leeyc0, Raztus, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Ian Georey
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stein, Harryzilber, MER-C, Txomin, Bellhead, Cmihaic, Nikevich, Edwardando, Burgee, Drevil55, Calltech, Jim.henderson, IANCEE,
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nett, XLinkBot, Dgtsyb, Ds02006, Rahulmoksha, Addbot, Betterusername, Theleftorium, Rushikesh90, Lyndon.bye, LaaknorBot, An-
dersBot, Ginosbot, Bouvierjr, Beardybloke, Abhayani, Arbitrarily0, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cacoethes curiositas, AnomieBOT, Chuckies-
dad, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Sirgorpster, TorKr, Some standardized rigour, Djames42, FrescoBot, Galmicmi,
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ral, ClueBot NG, Lincoln Josh, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Paganinip, BattyBot, SoledadKabocha, Corn cheese, Wuerzele, ATISATIS,
Monkbot, Npriya007, Lukehinds, Thenetsec, Drain166, Frank-stallone-79 and Anonymous: 188
SIP provider Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIP_provider?oldid=735045029 Contributors: Pnm, Ronz, Bearcat, Alexf, The Red-
Burn, Rebroad, Dweekly, BiH, SmackBot, Vmatos, Kgeischmann, Nevit, KathrynLybarger, Callidior, Certes, OlEnglish, Yobot, Eikisb,
Alvin Seville, Lonaowna, Cnwilliams, Take your time, Makafre, Donner60, Senator2029, Dragoni, BG19bot, Joevf, Rocco69, Atsig4113,
Reggie2012, K7L, Lemnaminor, Broadvox, Jjemackay, Mikex5, JaconaFrere, Itsalleasy, Andolini7110, Emmanirajitha, Chriskallen and
Anonymous: 29
SIP trunking Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIP_trunking?oldid=750079707 Contributors: Ronz, Alansohn, Danhash, BDD, Sr-
leer, Tadpole256, Chris the speller, Vmatos, Visik, Spencer, Tgeairn, McSly, Billinghurst, Kbrose, Kjtobo, Addbot, Pozytyv, Mean as
custard, Pugliavi, Natttam, ClueBot NG, Widr, BG19bot, TCN7JM, Ricksantangelo, K7L, Frosty, ArmbrustBot, Elfmediainc, Monkbot,
Bart.michiels, Coryb509 and Anonymous: 32
Skinny Call Control Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinny_Call_Control_Protocol?oldid=670850733 Contributors:
Mav, Maury Markowitz, Oystein, Yaronf, Guaka, Wiwaxia, Robbot, JTN, Wk muriithi, Sietse Snel, Unquietwiki, Danhash, Ibenjamin,
Theloniouszen, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom, YurikBot, Brandon, Varano, Mellowiz, SmackBot, Addshore, Gabi S., The gorilla, DagErlingSmr-
grav, TheTito, ManosFate, JAnDbot, Xhienne, Jbond00747, Bibster, Philip Trueman, Jeheyer, Kbrose, Yintan, Niceguyedc, RocksInABox,
Infectecide, LoveMutt, Addbot, Lrm242, Alex.ryazantsev, ZroBot, Shivanarayana, ClueBot NG, Archer4523 and Anonymous: 38
Skype Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype?oldid=756155562 Contributors: Css, Christian List, Deb, Shii, Heron, DonDaMon,
Olivier, Stevertigo, Edward, Ubiquity, Nealmcb, Bewildebeast, Pnm, Graue, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Skysmith, Paul A, Greenman,
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Milksh, Andres, Mxn, Hashar, Guaka, Skylark of Space, Bemoeial, Molinari, Ike9898, David Latapie, Darac, Fuzheado, Andrew-
man327, Greenrd, WhisperToMe, Steinsky, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Morwen, LMB, SEWilco, Omegatron, Samsara, Thue, Bevo, Linuk-
samiko, Nickshanks, Dbabbitt, Scott Sanchez, Qertis, Ldo, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Frazzydee, Lars A, Hajor, Aliekens, Shan-
tavira, Denelson83, Chealer, Astronautics~enwiki, Outolumo, Korath, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim, Peak, Nurg, Pingveno, Texture, Sekicho,
Harfo32, Sunray, Saforrest, Victor, GerardM, Wereon, Mushroom, Lzur, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Smjg, DocWatson42, Dinomite, Jtg,
Sim~enwiki, WiseWoman, Brian Kendig, Bradeos Graphon, T0pem0, Erdal Ronahi, Dock, Alan Chang, Elgaard, Zeno Crivelli, Khalid
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Mike Rosoft, Gest, Reinthal, Zarxos, Newkai, Felix Wiemann, RossPatterson, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, FT2,
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Cap'n Refsmmat, Kwamikagami, Pilatus, Jarl, Richard W.M. Jones, Worldtraveller, Edward Z. Yang, RoyBoy, AJP, Orlady, JackWasey,
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raedata, Juzeris, Cncxbox, Jasonataylor, Feduciary, Anonymous Cow, Boredzo, Ire and curses, Kx1186, Towel401, MPerel, Sam Korn,
SPUI, Luckyluke, Espoo, Drangon, Rye1967, Jumbuck, Ice-Soft-Eng, JohnyDog, Nemalki, Macai, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Gary, Jhertel,
Gargaj, Twyford, Blahma, Wonglkd, Guy Harris, Halsteadk, Mcduarte2000, Borisblue, CyberSkull, Hadley, Verdlanco, Andrew Gray,
Yamla, Orelstrigo, Mrmiscellanious~enwiki, Tchalvak, Swift, Denniss, Malo, Hayk, Schaefer, Wtmitchell, Velella, BBird, VanillaDeath,
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Randy Johnston, Mikeo, Schweden, Computerjoe, Kusma, Versageek, Zootm, Sechzehn, Instantnood, Voxadam, DSatz, Mark mclaugh-
lin, Yurivict, Euphrosyne, Umapathy, Rzelnik, Richwales, Squiquifox, Muhgcee, Floweracre, DanielVonEhren, Mullet, Ankur Banerjee,
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emgenus, Chipuni, Vary, Teemu Maki~enwiki, Syced, G Clark, RobertG, Ground Zero, DuFF, DevastatorIIC, Intgr, Bmicomp, Ben-
lisquare, Lukeonia1, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Beagle2, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Kimchi.sg, TheMandarin, Dialec-
tric, Thesloth, Joelr31, Dmoss, Tony1, Deku-shrub, Tomisti, Studiosonic, CWenger, LeonardoRob0t, JDspeeder1, John Broughton, Dravir,
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Paquitotrek, Chrisdab, TXiKi, Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, Oreo Priest, I already forgot, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Majorly, Seaphoto,
Gdo01, Oddity-, Alphachimpbot, Dougher, Arsenikk, MER-C, Ph.eyes, Primarscources, Jay1279, Dp76764, VoABot II, Rohasnagpal,
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Walnut, Fskrc1, 28bytes, Wilku997, MenasimBot, Emergentchaos, Philip Trueman, NoticeBored, Jockpereira, JhsBot, BwDraco, Greswik,
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ClueBot, Wshepp, GBYehuda, Zarkthehackeralliance, Mild Bill Hiccup, Johnbourscheid, Takeaway, Alexbot, Socrates2008, Ngebendi,
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of-Earth, WikHead, Lobro~enwiki, Rosenny, Proevy, Thipburg, Namzie11, Addbot, Grayfell, WeatherFug, Johnisnotafreak, MrOl-
lie, Download, CarsracBot, Buster7, West.andrew.g, OlEnglish, Frehley, Luckas-bot, Quadrescence, Yobot, Fizyxnrd, Nirvana888, In-
emanja, Vanish user s8jswe823rnfscu8sejhr4, AnomieBOT, XL2D, DaedalusInnity, Tucoxn, JackieBot, Je Muscato, Materialscien-
tist, ArthurBot, Quebec99, The Firewall, JmCor, Xqbot, Crzer07, RibotBOT, Pradameinho, InfoSecPro, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot,
Zomgoogle, Seeoven, KuroiShiroi, Overloggingon, DivineAlpha, Pinethicket, Borninlyoko, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, Katheder, Full-date
unlinking bot, Trappist the monk, Mns556, JMMING, Lotje, Arkelweis, Skakkle, Tbhotch, Noommos, EmausBot, John of Reading, Bbar-
mada, Mugg1991, Wikipelli, K6ka, Pro translator, Frankfusco, H I T L E R37, Donner60, ColinGreenlees, ChuispastonBot, Pastore Italy,
Usg.usss, Ebehn, Keavon, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Beyondwithinitself, Augustalex, Widr, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Termi-
nated Joker, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, Faraz Davani, Thisisnotausernameyaitis, Doctorwho321, Several Pending, Pratyya Ghosh, Buped,
Jncc21, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Mogism, Frosty, UNOwenNYC, Corn cheese, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Ekips39, Yamaha5, Howicus,
Blythwood, Star767, Northwind Arrow, Iratez, FockeWulf FW 190, Wayweary, SylviaSawires, LiaJohnson, TandonAman, SEgouge, KH-
1, ChamithN, Jdiggs45, Darianpearson, Sanjeetkashyap, CAPTAIN RAJU, StarmanW, Hannahmaryfresia, Johntame, Jablestech, Seattle-
hackerspace, Ultraman87, Vamshi983, Socialwaif, Paewlostr, Darkrose24, Bender the Bot, Fearofcasanova and Anonymous: 518
Softphone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softphone?oldid=750079722 Contributors: SebastianHelm, Yaronf, Guaka, Joy, Boy
b, Nurg, Alf Boggis, Khalid hassani, Kmweber, Kenj0418, Longhair, Amontero, Darwinek, Towel401, Kelly Martin, Seidenstud, Zizzy-
baluba, The wub, Patcito, MMuzammils, Brandon, Rudykog, Vlad, Gvanan, Rearden9, Guillom, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Mel-
choir, Kuzma, Bluebot, Thumperward, MartynDavies, Frap, Pgillman, Rigadoun, Beetstra, Mauro Bieg, Kvng, Neustradamus, Pronetsys,
Divyangmithaiwala, IP 84.5, John254, Seaphoto, Harryzilber, Perspectival, Dghione, Kgeischmann, Calltech, MartinBot, Commons-
Delinker, DorganBot, Bonadea, Notbyworks, Jamelan, Kbrose, Alex andreev, Adoresoftphone, Binksternet, AmishSexy, Sharonpngo,
Mikaey, Banoj, Fastily, Jcline0, Alexius08, Splines, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Jtermaat, AnomieBOT, Wizardist, Winterst, I dream of horses,
Adoreinfo, Voipguy, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Startelelogic, Electriccatsh2, BG19bot, Badon, Mark Arsten, Johnthesmith, ArmbrustBot,
HMSLavender, Nishantkadian, DanielD001, Saleh alhomam, Eno Lirpa and Anonymous: 84
Softswitch Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softswitch?oldid=728481148 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Ed Cormany, Giftlite, Mark
Richards, Michael Birk, Bigben~enwiki, Apyule, Giraedata, Zetawoof, TheParanoidOne, Cburnett, Kusma, RHaworth, Fthiess, Edbrims,
FlaBot, RussBot, Splash, Welsh, Brandon, Coolbrother~enwiki, GraemeL, Bluezy, Tajindersingh, SmackBot, Srnelson, Gilliam, Cbh,
Beatriz.pedrosa, Markschilsky, Kuru, Khazar, AmiDaniel, Guillaume.conard, Artbeall, Ahy1, Argon233, Tawkerbot4, Gramc, Sorintopex,
Wasell, Caroldaniels, Dghione, Kgeischmann, Calltech, Kamaniskeg, DrDorkus, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Nono64, Euku, Lunaphone, Cupis,
VolkovBot, Jamelan, Billinghurst, Bogdanwiki, Wolfgangvenkman, AlleborgoBot, Futurano, Kbrose, Dwandelt, Araignee, Radon210, Doc-
toruy, Sfan00 IMG, Dekisugi, Hifzatech, Apparition11, Softswitch, Addbot, 5 albert square, Abisys, Yobot, Vinicius.neves, FrescoBot,
Dewritech, Foaly42, Midas02, Kostya V, ClueBot NG, Monu.moni, BattyBot, Run4health, Leftimage, HostedSwitch, Amitsingh02021988,
Nnnbrewery, Lexx123, Cirpack, Tusharsrivast, Nela.strenge, Wongoman, Ipsmarx, Niravbpil, Antony.alexioy, Shariramani, Fra remmers,
Madhurimadhwani, Zddleon, Nickhilliard and Anonymous: 90
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Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Aldie, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Heron, Montrealais, Hephaestos, Edward, Infrogma-
tion, Smelialichu, Oliver Pereira, Dante Alighieri, Nixdorf, Pnm, Kku, Ixfd64, Tomos, Dcljr, Cameron Dewe, Dori, Gbleem, Minesweeper,
Ian Walker, Egil, ArnoLagrange, Ellywa, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Stan Shebs, Mac, Ronz, Arwel Parry, Nanshu, Rboatright, Cather-
ineMunro, Angela, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Mark Foskey, Rossami, Nikai, Netsnipe, Azazello, Andres, Jiang, Evercat, Jordi
Burguet Castell, Alex756, Marknew, Wfeidt, Arteitle, Chuljin, Ralesk, Reddi, Dysprosia, Kbk, WhisperToMe, Wik, Traal, Zoicon5,
Timc, Radiojon, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Munford, Furrykef, Morwen, Saltine, Sabbut, Wernher, Bevo, Joy, Bloodshedder, Bcorr, Jeq,
Owen, Wst~enwiki, RadicalBender, SD6-Agent, Phil Boswell, Rogper~enwiki, Donarreiskoer, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, MrJones,
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Blainster, Timrollpickering, Hadal, Benc, Michael Snow, Mandel, Lupo, SoLando, HaeB, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Fabiform, Giftlite, Benji
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nenplatz, Tagishsimon, Golbez, Wmahan, Gadum, Wasabie, Mendel, Zeimusu, Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, JoJan, Piotrus, Stonor,
Khaosworks, ShakataGaNai, Jossi, BioPizza, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, Ruzulo, DragonySixtyseven, Wkdewey, Nick2588, Rlcantwell, Lind-
berg G Williams Jr, Jp347, Jh51681, Sonett72, Deglr6328, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Gcanyon, Valmi, Shotwell, Corti, Mike Rosoft,
Discospinster, Qwerty1234, NrDg, Oliver Lineham, MCBastos, Rama, Jpk, Dave souza, MeltBanana, Triskaideka, Xezbeth, Spooky-
Mulder, Bender235, ESkog, Mgedmin, Andrejj, Kbh3rd, JoeSmack, Brian0918, CanisRufus, El C, Kwamikagami, Shanes, RoyBoy,
Cacophony, Triona, Shoujun, Bobo192, Dralwik, Longhair, Apollo2011, Darrenlanning, Sanjiv swarup, Husker007, Giraedata, Nk,
Slambo, Towel401, Zygmunt lozinski, Pearle, Ranveig, DavidB~enwiki, Etxrge, Duman~enwiki, Jamyskis, Guy Harris, Interiot, Qrc,
Mu5ti, Atlant, Jeltz, Andrewpmk, Craigy144, Lectonar, Kurt Shaped Box, Water Bottle, Hohum, Wtmitchell, Velella, BBird, Wtshyman-
ski, Stephan Leeds, Docboat, DV8 2XL, Stepheno, HenryLi, Alex.g, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Henrik,
Mindmatrix, RHaworth, TigerShark, Brunnock, BillC, Madchester, Admrboltz, Pbhj, Before My Ken, JeremyA, MONGO, Lovingboth,
Miss Madeline, Mrs Trellis, Tabletop, Al E., I64s, SDC, Gimboid13, Graham87, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Snaekid, Phoenix-forgotten,
348 CHAPTER 80. X.25

Edison, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Strake, Hiberniantears, Tangotango, Wahkeenah, Seraphimblade, Kazrak, Jehochman, SeanMack, Plastictv,
Dar-Ape, Hermione1980, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, Titoxd, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Vandal B, MacRusgail, Hottentot,
RexNL, Gurch, Nimur, Wars, KFP, Alphachimp, Srleer, Chobot, Mhking, Bgwhite, Digitalme, Sonic Mew, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Hawaiian717, RobotE, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Kafziel, Chavash, Ostralek, RussBot, Moronoman, Crazytales, BTLizard, Bhny, Igo4U,
Lucinos~enwiki, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, David R. Ingham, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, -OOPSIE-
, Rjensen, Robchurch, Desolationwilliams, Dureo, Neoguy9090, Irishguy, Mshecket, Anetode, Cholmes75, Padajtsch-kall, Obey, Scs,
FatM1ke, Misza13, Killdevil, Emersoni, Bucketsofg, Dbrs, Bota47, Ingling, Alan Millar, Wknight94, Tigershrike, Emijrp, Lt-wiki-bot,
Encephalon, Bayerischermann, Assyria 90, Jlgm25, Esprit15d, JoanneB, Smurrayinchester, Kevin, Tyrenius, Easter Monkey, Bluezy, Kung-
fuadam, Junglecat, NeilN, Benandorsqueaks, Carlosguitar, Medicinematt, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Spam, Amalthea, User24, SmackBot,
Unschool, Demiangie, Pmppk, Lestrade, Person man345, Rose Garden, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gnangarra, C.Fred, Kilo-Lima, EncycloPetey,
Delldot, Docpurpleman, Veesicle, Wittylama, Godfoster, Flux.books, Rajesh J, Aksi great, Unforgettableid, Ohnoitsjamie, ERcheck,
Hraefen, Master Jay, Improbcat, Avin, Arcngl, Postoak, Stubblyhead, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, Robocoder, Hibernian, Deli nk, Cyber-
Sach, Nbarth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Ned Scott, Colonies Chris, A. B., Jnavas, Gracenotes, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, X570,
Chlewbot, OrphanBot, JonHarder, VMS Mosaic, CorbinSimpson, Addshore, Midnightcomm, Celarnor, ChaosSorcerer91, Bolonium,
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Golfman, Dreadstar, Wayne Stewart, Astroview120mm, Drc79, Engleham, Jmak1949, Gcbwiki, Kukini, FlyHigh, Will Beback, Sasha-
toBot, JEM7VWH, Hollities, Inthecityof, Stewie814, Kuru, Buchanan-Hermit, Soumyasch, Spiel, The Man in Question, Randomtime,
Shamrox, Beetstra, Noah Salzman, Jimmy Pitt, Dicklyon, Superjimkie74, Soysauce, Dhp1080, Ryulong, EEPROM Eagle, Jak2~enwiki,
Kvng, Hu12, Levineps, BranStark, OnBeyondZebrax, K, HeartOfGold, Wjejskenewr, J Di, Civil Engineer III, Tawkerbot2, Jonasluc,
Daniel5127, Ouishoebean, Chetvorno, JohnTechnologist, Kendroche, JForget, Stifynsemons, Deke42, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb,
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bastian789, Sopoforic, Joshua BishopRoby, ChristTrekker, Reywas92, Gogo Dodo, Wiknik, Travelbird, Crowish, Nmajdan, Dancter,
DavidMcCabe, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Leebot, Kozuch, Gionnico, Mikewax, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Daniel Olsen, LukeS, Eu-
bulide, Sohaib Khan, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, TPA5, Kablammo, Sagaciousuk, West Brom 4ever, John254, Tapir Terric, Neil916, James086,
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VandalBot, Yupik, Majorly, Sosobra, Luna Santin, Caledones, Seaphoto, Opelio, Quintote, Kidiot, Prolog, Tfj, Meskiukas, TimVickers,
Naveen Sankar, Jack69, Random user 8384993, Rico402, Storkk, Canadian-Bacon, Ingolfson, Yet-another-user, JAnDbot, Harryzilber,
MER-C, CyberAnth, Hello32020, Bahar, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Aubadaurada, Greensburger, Bzuk, Bellhead, Kerotan, Spiyspiy, Acro-
terion, BlueRobot~enwiki, , Magioladitis, Canjth, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Areuforreal, JamesBWatson, Jay Gatsby, Kin-
ston eagle, LandonChastelhassy, Think outside the box, Starch~enwiki, Pixel ;-), WODUP, Caesarjbsquitti, DAGwyn, CS46, BrianGV,
Catgut, Panser Born, Animum, BatteryIncluded, Robotman1974, Allstarecho, LorenzoB, Ceribik, Hveziris, Canyouhearmenow, JaGa,
Joeyman365, Wi-king, TheRanger, Calltech, I-baLL, Haradona, Jenny Lewis, Erpbridge, G.A.S, Hdt83, MartinBot, Bentleywannabe,
BetBot~enwiki, Poeloq, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Centpacrr, Kateshortforbob, CommonsDelinker, Phone-expert, LittleOldMe old, Pre-
stonH, Slash, BGOATDoughnut, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Tullio.grassi, EscapingLife, Jesusman1992, Gregww66,
Random06, KeepItClean, Sirtrebuchet, Aphenry, Plankton5005, TriviaKing, Gzkn, Acalamari, Thegreenzebrarevolution, Jlechem, Kata-
laveno, SpigotMap, Lgb13, Jeepday, Vetsmith1, Engunneer, Gurchzilla, Bilbobee, AntiSpamBot, The black night7777, Jway069, Uturnme,
SJP, Gregtzy, Jordan0429, RB972, Ruben the bestee., DH85868993, Thesoftbulletin82, The dragon123, Thegreatmortini, Davecrosby uk,
Xiahou, Steel1943, Mlewis000, Fr33kman, Keara69, UnicornTapestry, VolkovBot, CoolChris99, Tyger7th, Yomamawazhere, Flyingid-
iot, Je G., Nburden, AlnoktaBOT, Barneca, Hello1792, Wellybob123, S vecchiato, Glamourgirl33, TXiKiBoT, Alanan3000, Dooglez,
Technopat, Miranda, Dewarw, Qxz, Piperh, Corku, Franklin BerryII, Abdullais4u, Luciano G. Cal, LeaveSleaves, Madre2958, Mez-
zaluna, Cremepu222, BotKung, Watchdogb, Professional telephone user, Xavcam, Solidtimes, Eubulides, Hellojimbo, Andy Dingley,
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sanity Incarnate, Brianga, Symane, Oliefalcon, Sfmammamia, Yitzy1, Swimmerm91, Mikevaleriani, Kbrose, The Random Editor, Jelly-
belly88, EJF, Corcimiglia, Entoaggie09, Seanpaulk, SMC89, SieBot, Whiskey in the Jar, Madman, K. Annoyomous, Tiddly Tom, Euryalus,
Davesarchive, Hertz1888, Ubernoob363, WiCC1, Connormurray12, Purbo T, Loostick, Keilana, Sand pearls, Digwuren, Tiptoety, Ireas,
Momo san, Rjburridge, Prestonmag, Oxymoron83, Avnjay, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, Cebra, Feckyee, CharlesGilling-
ham, Kristine.clara, Supergeek101, Chan99, Larala, Jamieee, 1jokerman1, Nn123645, Escape Orbit, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, MythBus-
taMofo, Avenged Eightfold, UniQue tree, NoGringo, Lawrence Cohen, Phonender2007, Arakunem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Cryptographic
hash, Hafspajen, Wikihistorian, Blanchardb, Lormos, XxyourdesiresxX, William Ortiz, Puchiko, Jamescarpulla, Somno, Feltonmas214,
-Midorihana-, Melliuous123, Wajahatkhan1, Dcpc0807, Winston365, BobKawanaka, Lartoven, THEODORMAS214, Jotterbot, Larry-
MorseDCOhio, Cubic pear, Bumblebee3746~enwiki, Threlfall92, Walkranrunning, Fattyjwoods, WellsSt, Prof tpms, Aitias, Shj95, Henri
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Cubic pear2, Tochietoch, Ost316, Ickythumperman, Farfelou, Dgtsyb, Sweetpoet, Noctibus, PinkSock69, Danhhong, Greenismahfavcolor,
Jack2144557735, Iamsam25, Lankan-boii, Shootaburger, Fyit, Addbot, Echungx15, Ddoodm, Phil11593, Mitsenf, JHouklis, Andrewoid,
Cybersam1243, Hirschtick3, I43check, Nestorius, Crasher84, Adamdonegan1, Ja2ck2ie2, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Njardar-
Bot, Alexander94~enwiki, Skyezx, MrOllie, Lost on Belmont, Luxoran, LaaknorBot, Computermonitor, Schlerp99, Sillyfolkboy, , Ld100,
Exor674, JGKlein, Holdtheonions95, Charicters, Shninkle, Boovy1995, Letxgo x, Matthias of redwall, Legobot, Magicdudey3, Luckas-
bot, Where did all the money go?, Mattventura, KhProd1, Rogerb67, Ernestvoice, South Bay, Retro00064, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, NickK,
Jonathen Skews, Rockoprem, ArthurBot, Enok, Xqbot, Intelati, Gilo1969, The Sanest Mad Hatter, Almabot, Makeswell, Basvb, RadiX,
Kdvicious, Wizardist, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Mark Schierbecker, SassoBot, Celebration1981, Carrite, Ryanwall93,
PM800, Grinofwales, FrescoBot, Magnagr, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Hobsonlane, Sky Attacker, Endofskull, OgreBot, Wingzy, Intelligent-
sium, AstaBOTh15, JaneSprat, Elockid, HRoestBot, MJ94, Tinton5, RedBot, MastiBot, GerbilSoft, Bostonian Mike, AHeneen, Dinamik-
bot, Vrenator, Robertiki, Lyonzy90, Matrobriva, Tbhotch, Altes2009, TjBot, Bento00, Slon02, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Ramon FVe-
lasquez, Gwillhickers, P. S. F. Freitas, Djembayz, Kkm010, ZroBot, AvicAWB, H3llBot, Wiooiw, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi,
Coasterlover1994, Kaeh4, Bobbybobishere, L Kensington, Billyrednek, Jakeywakyatlass, Ian9, Gameking4000, SJH541, Yllus, Pun,
Badair123, Studmun64, Sqwertso, Kwesiidun91, ResearchRave, Heysford, W.Kaleem, BarrelProof, Chester Markel, Frietjes, Spel-
Punc-Gram, Zackaback, Helpful Pixie Bot, , ElphiBot, Jonathan Mauer, Alex.Ramek, Cadiomals, Otto Didakt, BattyBot,
Justincheng12345-bot, Cyberbot II, Dexbot, Caroline1981, Mogism, Smohammed2, Discuss-Dubious, Anonymity32, Reatlas, DerekWin-
ters, William2001, Tuckertwo, Prision, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Provacitu74, Marigold100, Programingcraze007, Whizz40, RATMRYAN,
Barjimoa, Concord hioz, SkateTier, Filedelinkerbot, Eman235, Caidin-Johnson, Aleph500Adam, Isambard Kingdom, , Kas-
parBot, RippleSax, , Marintosalla, Maltrpa, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 1014

Telephone card Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_card?oldid=748760261 Contributors: The Epopt, Zundark, Ryrivard,

ChangChienFu, PhilipMW, Kaihsu, Dying, Radiojon, Echoray, Big Bob the Finder, Secretlondon, David.Monniaux, Greudin, Oji-
80.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 349

giri~enwiki, Michael Snow, Cution~enwiki, HangingCurve, Vina, Memm~enwiki, Cab88, Perey, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Pnevares,
Surachit, Nk, Hu, Caesura, Sobolewski, RHaworth, Dan.glavin, Pol098, Chochopk, Snaekid, TimRoe1203, Brighterorange, Klonimus,
Leithp, FlaBot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Stephenb, RadioKirk, Arichnad, Nick, PhilipO, Yonidebest, Watgap, Chase me ladies, I'm
the Cavalry, GraemeL, Ajuk, SmackBot, Stepa, Beardoc, Canthusus, Unforgettableid, Armeria, Bluebot, Unint, Al Pereira, Deli nk, Neo-
Jay, A. B., Yidisheryid, Krich, Preetam.dey, Wirbelwind, Veryknowledgable, A5b, NeilFraser, Wikiaccount~enwiki, Flaviohmg~enwiki,
Hu12, NickW557, Argon233, Gogo Dodo, Red Director, Skittleys, Aosadchenko, Thijs!bot, Ejwma, Siawase, Fayenatic london, Smartse,
Courseiam, Taichiubg, TAnthony, Magioladitis, Appraiser, Fabrictramp, Somearemoreequal, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
Micburnet, Phonesh, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Goofy17, Adamdaley, Justpins, Jkeene, John L. Kenney, Someguy1221, FranchisePlayer,
Kaiketsu, Kjoseph7777, Figureo, Vpcheck, Biscuittin, Gerakibot, JetLover, Nuttycoconut, PipepBot, NancyHeise, Rjd0060, Enthusi-
ast01, Feras80, Bbb2007, Starphonecard, Arjayay, Wikiawe, Iohannes Animosus, Inspector 34, Thingg, Mhockey, Apparition11, Calling-
cardman, XLinkBot, Bilsonius, EastTN, Ezcall24x7, Skarebo, Addbot, Smartglobalcall, Jafeluv, Bestway1, Wikisocko, Mohitsg, Ind-
coolthings, Lightbot, Happyswan, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Helpamit20, Editorwiki2008, Piano non troppo, GB fan, Ober-
sachsebot, Capricorn42, JoshXF, Voip Tech, RibotBOT, Skyperventilating, AwOcBot, FrescoBot, Amiga junki, Telecartophile, Opti-
cal1, Dewritech, Freenumber, Polendino, Joshuatitsworth, VictorianMutant, Alonzo9772, Chesipiero, Delusion23, Rezabot, MerlIwBot,
BG19bot, Gurt Posh, Cyberbot II, Tomfay, P2Peter, Melonkelon, Mr RD, JudyApples, Datgrrl137, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 147
Telephone company Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_company?oldid=723086543 Contributors: The Anome, Aldie,
Mintguy, EddEdmondson, Minesweeper, Jpatokal, Yaronf, Mgsuzano, Ffransoo, Radiojon, Pedant17, Ryuch, Ann O'nyme, Joy, In-
defatigable, Alexbatko, Adam78, Evanluxzenburg, 159753, Andycjp, Beland, OwenBlacker, Oknazevad, Bender235, Stebbiv, BW,
Cmdrjameson, Travisyoung, Espoo, Aves, Lectonar, MarkGallagher, Suruena, Evolve75, Woohookitty, Kosher Fan, Sega381, Hugh-
sonj, Gerbrant, Snaekid, Josh Parris, Vegaswikian, Jehochman, Rbeas, Makru, Mathiastck, Lmatt, Josephconklin, Blob, TodorBozhi-
nov, Bovineone, Gcapp1959, Hm2k, PhilipO, Mkill, Phil Holmes, Hitchhiker89, Jmchu, SmackBot, Soms, Dingar, Bluebot, Tele-
com.portal, Cherrydude, Wiz9999, McLibra, Mwtoews, Achou79, JorisvS, Chasgee, Arjoll, Zisimos, Dkovacs, Darkcube, J Milburn,
Deljeery, NaBUru38, No1lakersfan, Luccas, Khattab01~enwiki, Kozuch, Chaleon, Smvsiyer, Chaitanya.lala, Harryzilber, Theroadislong,
Davidjcmorris, Jim.henderson, Mange01, B64, Mdumas43073, Hugo999, Gohoosiers1, VolkovBot, Virtugon, Tsystems, Rodo1~enwiki,
Mishref71, Pino100, Deletedsoul, Runewiki777, HARIKUMAR.C, Jonajosh, Nicnitro, Star Garnet, Airdis-wiki, Gegagome, Brokpik,
Cedarnetworks, Dthomsen8, SilvonenBot, Fliptopia, MystBot, Addbot, 84user, Rongavillet, AnomieBOT, Asad.mohammad, Neuroso-
journ, Bricaniwi, WikitanvirBot, Netknowle, Mseman, Davejohns5g, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Compfreak7, K7L, Stephenwardtrue,
Baptiste UWT, MRD2014 and Anonymous: 60
Telephone exchange Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange?oldid=753044059 Contributors: Eloquence, Mav, The
Anome, Eclecticology, Ray Van De Walker, Heron, Ram-Man, Edward, Shyamal, Karada, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Ronz, Rboa-
tright, Snoyes, Darkwind, Rl, Jengod, Guaka, Radiojon, Mordomo, Jeq, Lumos3, Denelson83, Ke4roh, Chris 73, Richardpitt, Se-
curiger, Rfc1394, ZekeMacNeil, David Gerard, DocWatson42, DavidCary, Laudaka, Elf, TOttenville8, Wolfkeeper, Tom harrison, Lupin,
Hoho~enwiki, Rookkey, Tron~enwiki, Xinoph, Richard cocks, Chameleon, Tagishsimon, Quadell, WhiteDragon, RetiredUser2, Hugh
Mason, Grm wnr, Trevor MacInnis, Kate, Snukin~enwiki, Sam Etler, Poccil, Vector4F, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Milkmandan,
Tim Peterson, Bender235, Cd4017, Purplefeltangel, Longhair, Jolomo, Mrbill, Nk, ChrisUK, AzaToth, GavinSharp, Velella, Wtshyman-
ski, Ron Ritzman, Gmaxwell, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Ylem, Brunnock, Splintax, Teemu Leisti, Royan, Graham87, BD2412, Yurik,
Koavf, Leithp, RobertG, Lmatt, YurikBot, Petiatil, Ironist, Alohawolf, DragonHawk, Doctor Whom, Pagrashtak, Joelr31, Reward, JulesH,
Rudykog, Zlatko, Bota47, Robot Monk, Elkman, YolanCh, David Jordan, Petri Krohn, Smurrayinchester, Phil Holmes, David Biddulph,
Reedy, TFMcQ, KelleyCook, Hmains, Chris the speller, Mark126, Seicor, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, X570, Adamantios, Rareli-
bra, Jmlk17, Pgillman, Almeo, Mattpersons, Camilo Sanchez, Arkrishna, Peter Horn, Kvng, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Redlock, ThreeBlind-
Mice, Denham062, MeekMark, Tezza2k1, Equendil, Whamel, LGReed, Kubanczyk, Oreo Priest, Rees11, QuiteUnusual, Edokter, Co-
makut, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Greensburger, Bellhead, Joshua, Mapmark, Tedickey, Schily, Dmine45, A32nh1fv4, LorenzoB, I-baLL,
Jim.henderson, JulianHensey, Joonipar, Deben Dave, Numbo3, Jesant13, Thaurisil, TomasBat, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Sbierwagen,
KylieTastic, Alex:D, Hugo999, Acsint, JhsBot, Andy Dingley, Dirkbb, Vchimpanzee, Necris, Kehrbykid, Mmarci, Kbrose, SieBot, Phe-
bot, Fratrep, PassportDude, Anchor Link Bot, Rlest, Martarius, ClueBot, PipepBot, Aaa3-other, Niceguyedc, Jusdafax, Highy3442, La
Pianista, Abdi1543, DumZiBoT, Delicious carbuncle, Ost316, Dgtsyb, Noctibus, Addbot, Kman543210, Numbo3-bot, OlEnglish, Fek-
ist, Zorrobot, Adowlen, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, AnomieBOT, Crimsonmargarine, An805Guy, Zyxw4321, YBG, GrouchoBot,
RibotBOT, Celebration1981, FrescoBot, MGA73bot, Vladmirsh, Whatever2009, Jodypro, Csilllag, Tim1357, EmausBot, Peter Karlsen,
ClueBot NG, Jh-Furth, BG19bot, EdwardH, Happenstancial, BattyBot, Khazar2, K7L, Mogism, UNOwenNYC, Jodosma, Rybec, Jadck-
ers, Thoolooexpress, JulianVilla26, Lupuscheck, 4shires, Pariah24, Sro23, Mysamiamedit, Enginerfactories, Leich7shk, CorrectorHUN
and Anonymous: 171
Telephone hook Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_hook?oldid=689298758 Contributors: Kku, Rhombus, Picapica, Night
Gyr, La goutte de pluie, Skyraider, Laurap414, Josh Parris, Rob T Firey, Hydrargyrum, Matticus78, SmackBot, Gilliam, Bluebot, Xyzzy-
plugh, Techsmith, Gogo Dodo, Wikid77, Jim.henderson, Addbot, Tassedethe, EnochBethany, O5htyk, Erik9bot, DrilBot, ClueBot NG,
Frank the Skunk and Anonymous: 5
Telephone number mapping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_number_mapping?oldid=755994377 Contributors: Ed
Poor, Ellmist, Frank Shearar, Ronz, Radiojon, Rogper~enwiki, RedWolf, Lzur, Josep1c, Fudoreaper, Eequor, Just Another Dan, Wma-
han, OwenBlacker, , Smyth, Kaisershatner, Marx Gomes, John Vandenberg, Tabor, Gwachob, Kusma, Saxifrage, WilliamKF, Rjwilmsi,
Hairy Dude, Gaius Cornelius, Hm2k, WirelessMike, David Kernow, Grawity, Chris the speller, Cybercobra, Qirtaiba, Petr Kopa, Lar-
rymcp, Prunk, Farrokhi, Phatom87, Kozuch, Magioladitis, Herwart.wermescher, Abasota, VolkovBot, Psheld, Jacobly, Purplepiano,
Jamelan, Acprisip, Kbrose, RSStockdale, ArchiSchmedes, NoGringo, Owl Jolson, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, Addbot, MrOllie,
AnomieBOT, Vatsid, Newsocialmedias, Dewritech, Raybellis, Pvr12, K7L, User26954344524345, Zcarstvnz and Anonymous: 72
Telephone numbering plan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbering_plan?oldid=755401043 Contributors: Axel-
Boldt, Jagged, Dch, Michael Hardy, Axlrosen, CesarB, Ronz, Arwel Parry, Docu, Jagdeepyadav, Bshirley, Rossami, Rob Hooft, Mxn,
Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Vanieter, Snickerdo, Timc, Radiojon, Kaare, Morwen, LMB, Phoebe, Cluth, Denelson83, Robbot, Dale
Arnett, Tomchiukc, Benwing, Bon, Lowellian, Timrollpickering, Alba, Walloon, GreatWhiteNortherner, Jordon Kalilich, Alan Lieft-
ing, Pabouk, Hashinclude, MeirM, Lmb71, Everyking, Curps, Cantus, DO'Neil, Pne, Bobblewik, Golbez, Ben Arnold, Gazibara, Sonjaaa,
Ran, Beland, CaribDigita, OwenBlacker, Huaiwei, KeithTyler, Randwicked, DmitryKo, Poccil, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farm-
brough, Cfailde, Wk muriithi, Smyth, Quiensabe, Bender235, Dewet, Kbh3rd, Plugwash, Kiand, Susvolans, Sietse Snel, Cacophony, Jlin,
Longhair, Func, Reinyday, Cmdrjameson, Pokrajac, Martg76, Caeruleancentaur, Drf5n, Jigen III, Grutness, Anthony Appleyard, Mar-
nen, Cpcallen, Paashaus, Wiesecke, Tabor, Sl, Cjcollier, Binabik80, Einstein9073, Saga City, Cburnett, Gpvos, Scott Gall, Instantnood,
Vanished user j123kmqwfk56jd, Hjf, Ceyockey, Lkinkade, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Hunding, Tripodics, Tabletop, Shonzilla, Contele
350 CHAPTER 80. X.25

de Grozavesti, KKramer~enwiki, Doco, HiFiGuy, Palica, Obersachse, Graham87, Otherails, Mno, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, XP1, Leeyc0, Vi-
akenny, Vegaswikian, Hathawayc, Andreas S., Jrlevine, Cassowary, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Pumeleon, McAusten, Ewlyahoocom, Glenn L,
Physchim62, WouterBot, Chobot, DVdm, Maxx.T, Hall Monitor, YurikBot, Gridlock Joe, Markhoney, Chaser, IByte, Cate, Gaius Cor-
nelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Gcapp1959, Dpakoha, Lcmortensen, Shaqspeare, Macanese , Texmandie, Cecilebrunel, Unforgiven24,
Lacrymology, Sandstein, Davidwil, Wikiwawawa, BorgQueen, Emc2, Fsiler, Kungfuadam, Netch, Ant ie, Yoshm, Neier, Cafe Nervosa,
Vvill, SmackBot, Xyeslam, Totoblue, C.Fred, Blue520, Nmulder, Stie, Grey Shadow, Wikiius, Fbax, Brossow, Cvdr, Razametal~enwiki,
Hmains, OldsVistaCruiser, TimBentley, DennisTheTiger, MalafayaBot, Pirhounix, Dejiolowe, Colonies Chris, Invenio, Aquarius Rising,
Ismail ngr, Chlewbot, Zaian, BoKu, Radagast83, MureninC, JanCeuleers, Squigley, TGC55, Dkurland, JohnDR, SashatoBot, Wutzofant,
GarethCollins, Oskilian, Normalityrelief, Capmo, Hvn0413, Androl, Twalls, EdC~enwiki, Sjsharksrs, Metb82, Iridescent, StuHarris, Ivan-
Lanin, Jrbbopp, Reddies007, Danceboy345, Lincmad, Ryt, Mapsax, Jmaynard, Kazubon~enwiki, Patrick O'Leary, Rcgy, Ianlopez1115,
Itsme2003, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, 00tony, Shmaltz, Leedeth, ChrisEich, Headbomb, Black1Night, Horologium, Gordon Finn, Guido.scalise,
Suk, RoboServien, Escarbot, NjtoTX, Hires an editor, Chubbles, K7aay, Erukto, JasterMereel, Caper13, Kariteh, Harryzilber, MER-C,
HouAstros1989, Charles01, Mapcat, Ufbert, Greensburger, Rothorpe, Joshua, .anacondabot, Naval Scene, VoABot II, TiaF, P0ts, Catgut,
Doesnotexist, JaGa, Hbent, Vmz, JorgeBernal, BetBot~enwiki, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Nono64, Asci080q, Numbo3, LordAnubisBOT, Leg-
endsword, STLbells, Mrdavenport, Bbourgeois, Treisijs, Funandtrvl, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Dave Andrew, PlaysInPeoria, Oshwah, A4bot,
Prince rachid, Salvar, LeaveSleaves, Wykypydya, Kirk Ouimet, Redsxfenway, Social Studiously, Kbrose, SieBot, Ori, Belle Equipe, Wht-
dlite, Marshd1000, Flyer22 Reborn, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Robster1983, Alefu, Teambob, Mingster8888, Dtvjho, Hariva, Artisol2345,
PabloStraub, Explicit, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, PipepBot, Jmarquette, NoGringo, Supasaru, Piledhigheranddeeper, Copyeditor42,
Chris1193, Sd324, Alexis Wilke, JRadel, BodhisattvaBot, Ost316, Skarebo, Addbot, Jeolson11, Jim10701, Sillyfolkboy, Daicaregos, Nico-
las Love, Luckas-bot, Yobot, MacTire02, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Codemm, Adam Anthony Watson, Xqbot, Padense, Jrcovert, J4lambert,
The Evil IP address, NOLA504ever, Bellerophon, Lladoog, Farin12, Jersey92, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Nbornstein, Trappist the monk,
Lotje, Wiki publishing, Onel5969, Shabidoo, Kakohats, XinaNicole, 4Petesake, Tommy2010, Pandukht, ZroBot, UrbanNerd, David J
Johnson, ACJohn47son, Arcorann, ChuispastonBot, DKH2010, 28bot, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Widr, Tele2001, Yiguro, Cyber-
bot II, K7L, Bhbuehler, Mogism, Nowayjose1234, DataPro2013, Hssaha, Ejl389, A0404141041, Br100x, HMSLavender, FriarTuck1981,
User sometimes known as 66,87,119,, Luis150902, Omni Flames, Siyean and Anonymous: 404
Teletrac engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletraffic_engineering?oldid=713489674 Contributors: The Anome, Ed-
ward, Michael Hardy, Karada, Mozzerati, Suruena, 2mcm, Dominic, HenryLi, RHaworth, Vandenbr, Barry22, Caltox, Y.bata, Ian Georey
Kennedy, Srleer, Robertvan1, Doncram, Ketil3, SmackBot, Bobet, Unforgettableid, Kvng, WeggeBot, Dougher, Harryzilber, Bellhead,
Ged Davies, Kgeischmann, Jim.henderson, Mange01, LordAnubisBOT, Shoessss, Logicwiki, Piggly, Xvani, Cialo, ClueBot, LeoFrank,
Tanhabot, Hern2lk, Ptbotgourou, DSisyphBot, VadimIppolitov, RibotBOT, DrilBot, Dewritech, SoledadKabocha, , YiFeiBot and
Anonymous: 28
Time-division multiplexing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing?oldid=747437539 Contributors: Marj
Tiefert, Bryan Derksen, B4hand, Bob Jonkman, Edward, Karada, Paddu, Andres, Thue, Puckly, Baloo rch, Acm, Graeme Bartlett, DocWat-
son42, Rchandra, Michael Birk, Alvestrand, Bobblewik, Gloop, Mozzerati, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Uieoa, Our Phellap, Espoo,
Guy Harris, Andrew Gray, Ceyockey, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Krille, RuM, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, AdrianMastronardi, Mirror Vax, Ian Ge-
orey Kennedy, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Aler, CecilWard, BertK, Elkman, Ninly, Spejledrejer, Qoqnous, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot,
Nbarth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Gruzd, Dreadstar, Peter Horn, Kvng, ShakingSpirit, LostTemplar, Clarityend, Tawkerbot2, Eastlaw, Thowat,
Christopher P, Enter The Crypt, Esowteric, Segfault87, Davido, WinBot, Dougher, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Thaiber123z, Meredyth, Cat-
slash, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Mange01, Trusilver, Brupat, Tcalves, Belovedfreak, Num1dgen, The enemies of god,
VolkovBot, LeaveSleaves, Tennisgirly12, Riick, Aragorn2007, AHMartin, Kbrose, Biscuittin, SieBot, NPalmius, ClueBot, PixelBot, Dgt-
syb, Addbot, Tarunsharma2006, Darhuuk, Robert The Rebuilder, OlEnglish, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Fraggle81, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT,
0majortom0, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Wheller007, MARSELIMADHE, Wfplb, SpaceFlight89, Oliverlockwood, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, RjwilmsiBot, Tomwaterman, Unreal7, Vinothkanan, ClueBot NG, ChrisGualtieri, Wywin, Tarikumehdi, Murari vinay, GreenC bot and
Anonymous: 130
Unlisted number Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlisted_number?oldid=717865660 Contributors: SimonP, Dysprosia, Radiojon,
Bloodshedder, Chrisbolt, Adam850, Night Gyr, Zachlipton, Srleer, Scoutersig, MacsBug, SmackBot, Stie, Hmains, Alaibot, North-
ernThunder, Jim.henderson, Ajfweb, JL-Bot, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot, John of Reading, Likri, BG19bot, ChrisGualtieri, Philippe97 and
Anonymous: 13
Vertical service code Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_service_code?oldid=733180487 Contributors: Baylink, Radiojon,
Rfc1394, Alexwcovington, Mboverload, Rchandra, Beland, RayBirks, Nick2588, Kevin Rector, Mike Rosoft, VCA, Matteh, Renwique,
Beinsane, Justinbb, Sjakkalle, Todd Vierling, Hydrargyrum, Voidxor, Elkman, MacsBug, SmackBot, Fitch, Unforgettableid, Lexlex, Dis-
neywizard, Mike1901, MrD9, Dkovacs, Lincmad, Eastlaw, DannyKitty, Wikiwriter706, Dbrodbeck, IamAllan, MER-C, Think outside the
box, Mike Payne, Philhower, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, RoseTech, Bluhd, PlaysInPeoria, Bstpierre, Sudhir h, Moonriddengirl, ClueBot, Spark-
Nano, NoGringo, Mardetanha, Northernhenge, JBsupreme, AnomieBOT, Grolltech, FrescoBot, Whywhenwhohow, Dcirovic, LincMad,
Sonicyouth86, Marrier & Fruitful., MerlIwBot, YborCityJohn, Qxukhgiels, $upernova9000, DarkTechnican and Anonymous: 35
Voice over IP Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP?oldid=754273725 Contributors: The Anome, Tarquin, Ed Poor,
Christopher Mahan, SimonP, Shii, Europrobe, Volker, KF, Olivier, Stevertigo, DennisDaniels, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Voidvec-
tor, Aezram, Tenbaset, Pnm, Kku, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Lquilter, 6birc, Karada, JeremyR, Gbleem, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon,
Ronz, Yaronf, Jebba, Goblin, Azazello, Samw, Mxn, Novum, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Kaare, Val42, Omegatron, Bevo, Joy, Epl18,
Johnleemk, Francs2000, Jeq, Cluth, Twang, Bearcat, Robbot, Chealer, R3m0t, Kristof vt, Vespristiano, Bon, Jmabel, ZimZalaBim,
Tim Ivorson, Postdlf, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Rasmus Faber, Hadal, JohnnyB~enwiki, ElBenevolente, Lupo, Diberri, Cyrius,
Gwicke~enwiki, Wile E. Heresiarch, Mattaschen, Tea2min, Adam78, Alan Liefting, Enochlau, Jasenlee, Connelly, Giftlite, DocWat-
son42, BenFrantzDale, Lethe, Jhknight, Fastssion, Karn, Peruvianllama, Everyking, David Johnson, Splatg, Saaga, AlistairMcMillan,
Bobblewik, Wmahan, Neilc, Rrw, Tom k&e, Gadum, Manuel Anastcio, Utcursch, 159753, Toytoy, Mendel, Beland, OverlordQ,
Scottperry, Vina, CaribDigita, Bumm13, Mysidia, Karl-Henner, Biot, Vaquerito, Tomwalden, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Egstcm, Mike
Rosoft, T2X, Mormegil, Yueni, DanielCD, Spiko-carpediem~enwiki, MattisManzel~enwiki, Discospinster, VCA, Rich Farmbrough, Rho-
bite, FT2, Pmsyyz, Smyth, Dobrien, Strib, Quiensabe, MAlvis, Paul August, Bender235, Nandini, S.K., Itsme~enwiki, JoeSmack, Evice,
CanisRufus, Pjrich, Lankiveil, The bellman, WibblyLeMoende, Skinkie~enwiki, Bobo192, 23skidoo, Aelman, Smalljim, John Vandenberg,
BrokenSegue, Enric Naval, Braeside, Apyule, IronHelix, ParticleMan, Towel401, Sam Korn, Hooperbloob, Phyzome, Landroni, Mote,
Poweroid, Alansohn, Cbarbry, LtNOWIS, Free Bear, Interiot, Atlant, Babajobu, Pogostokje, Abesford, InShaneee, Mysdaao, RoboAc-
tion~enwiki, NTK, Wtmitchell, Javacava, Wtshymanski, Mattsday, Quintin3265, Stephan Leeds, Docboat, Randy Johnston, Lerdsuwa,
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corian, DanielVonEhren, Crosbiesmith, Brycen, WilliamKF, ChrisJMoor, PdDemeter, Angr, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Cre8d, The Bel-
gain, Camw, LOL, Francis Good, Myleslong, Deeahbz, Unixer, Peter Hitchmough, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Tckma, Pchov, Kgrr, Pshi-
bles, Tabletop, Kglavin, Al E., Pgilman, Rchamberlain, Zzyzx11, Alecv, Bfurst, Tslocum, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Whicky1978, Yurik,
Mulligatawny, Phoenix-forgotten, Squideshi, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Koavf, Indangermouse, Pessi~enwiki, Strait, Rillian, Hack-Man, Leeyc0,
SMC, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Oblivious, Bonius, WhiteBoy, Lozza~enwiki, Jehochman, Ttwaring, Yahoolian, Fred Bradstadt, Yamamoto
Ichiro, Clairecare, FayssalF, Evanwolf, Apapadop, Alejo2083, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Depill.is, Ausinha, Margosbot~enwiki, Dbollard99,
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Kvng, DDeckert, Hu12, Hetar, Teemuk, Doretel, Gobbagoo, Intercompages, Joseph Solis in Australia, Mclowes, Voipfone, Beno1000,
Cindyt27, CapitalR, Quodfui, Civil Engineer III, Linkspamremover, Tawkerbot2, Vmatos, Adjektiv, Timrem, SUparJErk, Nloth, Gar-
vanet, Combes, Jjspirko, J Milburn, Linuxerist, Jptdrake, CmdrObot, AVMsoftware, Ale jrb, Wafulz, Insanephantom, Tkoeppe, Imcdnzl,
Picaroon, Atlasvoice, Kushal one, Glendonowers, Kylu, Stephen Lange Ranzini, NickW557, Argon233, Rupertb, Camie333, Shandris,
Shizane, Mac100, HUnger, Thedp, Votingontheinternet, Phatom87, .::Arbitrary::., Billhunt, Mblumber, Seajay1979, Thinkingphones,
A876, Lootzy, Cyrilfr, Frizzle~enwiki, Gogo Dodo, Anthonyhcole, Colin Keigher, Seajay19791, Solidpoint, Ibanix, Lazydaisy, Biggkid5,
Naudefj, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Ethan01, Kozuch, Hooiemajoris, Daven200520, Neustradamus, Desecrator~enwiki, Thijs!bot, Poorleno,
Epbr123, Dennis70, Qwyrxian, Makefreecalls, Richardjohnstone, Monsieur champs, Mad Carew, Ghadsall, Wikivoip, HappyInGeneral,
Avi.dorfman, Bphenix, Werelnon, Oliver202, Who123, Headbomb, Newton2, Ejwma, Marek69, Sukarn~enwiki, PaperTruths, James086,
Accountwiki2, Crutter, Wikidmoz, WhaleyTim, Dawnseeker2000, Mobutu LM2006, CTZMSC3, Thakkar v, Mentisto, KrakatoaKatie,
AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Funkyguy, Misterbigbrain, Agnvoip, Churb75, Jeholton, Flod logic, Macdmq, Yellowdesk, Camptown,
Altamel, Altesys~enwiki, Hope work, IMac4ME, JAnDbot, Husond, Harryzilber, Barek, MER-C, Dmar198, Scott0485, Iskitoofast4u,
Ikanreed, Brocha, Jahoe, LittleOldMe, Deserthawks, Magioladitis, Gabrielyan, VoABot II, Gutnick, Kevinmon, Manickaselvam, Voix-
ium, Ahecht, Stilldavid, Tmnmt, Double DKool, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, LorenzoB, Ged Davies, DerHexer, Kgeischmann, Wlpekar,
King adan, Calltech, Louietyj, Larry2342, Muru, S3000, GRD~enwiki, Kamaniskeg, AVRS, Conquerist, MartinBot, DrDorkus, Bet-
Bot~enwiki, By97aa, J Santoso, John Doe or Jane Doe, Poeloq, Jim.henderson, Glrx, R'n'B, Nono64, Dapps007, Jana Grare, Tgeairn,
RockMFR, Manticore, J.delanoy, Andre nsi, Kevincw01, Brest, Dask137, Jesant13, Hrbrendan, Hopper96, NerdyNSK, Alexander Straub,
Acalamari, It Is Me Here, Katalaveno, Gurchzilla, Beboy10, HockeyInJune, Bowensrun, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Veromark,
Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Inotbf, Hipvoice, Danr2k6, SJP, Johnnie ong, Diego.viola, Ljgua124, Shara77, Billkor, Smitty, Gimpmask,
KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Remember the dot, Vanished user 39948282, Natl1, Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Signalhead, Wikiedi-
tor06, VolkovBot, Jeman78, Holme053, Vinnythejinny, Coreyxbs, Ccowling, Wannabav8r, Pparazorback, Philip Trueman, PNG crusade
bot, CalamityGNDM, A.Ward, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, ZzzBrett, Stevevogelnu, Mark v1.0, Vipinhari, Janahan, Mcsbloom, Geep23, Ashu-
mit02, Interchangegroup, Symbianguru, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Manuelamsp, Andy Dingley, Bogdanwiki, Ulf Abrahamsson~enwiki,
Unused0030, Amalia07, Scottywong, Cyberdyme, Kbrose, Ponyo, SieBot, Coee, Miltiades490bc, Nubiatech, Adclark88, Dreamafter,
Alw75, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, JonTeh, Andromeda451, GrooveDog, Susyr, Alokagga, JetLover, Jimthing, Duckdad, Antonio Lopez,
Faradayplank, Ozeki, Tombomp, Tmaufer, Techman224, Karl2620, StaticGull, Morruga, Edtealdi, Gubbay, Dspanalyst, Zwz8406, Denis-
arona, Motoroife, Lansal, MBK004, Gopalkrishnan83, ClueBot, Adoresoftphone, LP-mn, Binksternet, JSsoftware, Stupid2, Vinogradovi-
soleksii, Abhinav, Iandiver, Ignorance is strength, David Sorf, Sharonpngo, Nikzbitz, Bensci54, Rose Booth, Joe1945-01, Miladchik,
DragonBot, Muhandes, MusicTree3, Sun Creator, Rogerbabbott, Shebazahmed, Jezaraknid, Ritterrat, Coolmac860, Thingg, CenfusRex,
Kikos, Thompsontough, Smostow, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, Shinjodenn, Jbrock11, XLinkBot, Mr.chetanladdha, Jcline0, Globaltrans-
mitter, Roxy the dog, Kw27, Sumantu.mittal, Liquid Chrome1, Rreagan007, WikHead, Dgtsyb, Sweetpoet, Dlsieradzki, Poldon, Bradley-
yard, Vy0123, Yfrwlf, Nww mag, Deineka, Addbot, David.a.gelman, Brickbeard, Jafeluv, Tcncv, Fyrael, Captain-tucker, Robertbricker,
TutterMouse, VSteiger, The Thin Man Who Never Leaves, Ashton1983, Fluernutter, Rishishringan, Cst17, Jreconomy, D.c.camero,
Jasper Deng, West.andrew.g, Twizler3, Savetheozone, Glenitec610, Murdamw, Jongrant, Tassedethe, F Notebook, Tide rolls, Mobidick0,
Gail, SasiSasi, Sharonxiv, Ochib, Snaily, , Chaldor, Yobot, Pugglewuggle, Tran Quoc123, Fraggle81, UltraMagnus,
Loganabbott, Voice99, MarcoAurelio, Mukat, Wonder, Plasticbot, Rainman74, Jalal0, Bozsingdani, Spacestationshuttle, Theh1982,
Voskypro, AnomieBOT, New2way, Daikiri, Jim1138, Galoubet, Zervaman, Piano non troppo, Fennelcm, Deeprig9, Ipatrol, Kingpin13,
Ulric1313, Ajrichens, Bluerasberry, Jignesh.4soni, Materialscientist, Whiskers9, Citation bot, Freeness, Xqbot, C172rg, Radioraiders,
Addihockey10, Capricorn42, CsamFord, Acce245, RibotBOT, Kyng, Maris Jansons, Niazza, GhalyBot, Johnan, SimonInns, Shadow-
jams, Klapouchy, Seisatsu, FrescoBot, Joe.dolivo, Nageh, Eorlov, Kryn1030, W Nowicki, Itusg15q4user, Alxeedo, Bansaribarot, Squire
of the Infernal Knight-Lord of Penguins, VoIPExpert, Matthewbulat, Vickygarg, BenzolBot, MLD7865 Auto, Wwwqq, Rubgwobouhgr-
woosf, Biker Biker, Kingkobus, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Xcvista, BRUTE, RedBot, Noel Streateld, Saadsaleh, Meaghan, Banej,
Db11710, TobeBot, Hugh168, Lotje, UnclGhost, Baruchlanda, Vrenator, Fayedizard, Aoidh, Edgeley, Sywyk, CommEvo, Mean as cus-
tard, RjwilmsiBot, Jcyrus80, Lrlfrance, Silverfox196, Polscifreak, Slon02, Skamecrazy123, Hooman.marandi, EmausBot, Rajarshic02,
John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Gfoley4, Pugliavi, Primefac, Ramshi1, GoingBatty, Ballofstring, Solarra, Voipphoneservice, Caliqt84,
ToP Racer, Anir1uph, 2blackdogs, Tliberty10, Fred Gandt, H3llBot, MajorVariola, Erianna, Mylivetech, MonoAV, Hgarciagg, Cor-
nell92, Intelafone, Tecpc2001, Jasonon, Asimzaidi123, Schmidtja, Senator2029, Teapeat, DASHBotAV, 123microsoft123, Jonuday, 28bot,
352 CHAPTER 80. X.25

Javamen, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, GlobalEdge 2010, Katiker, CocuBot, Nitinkrgupta, Mohammed 77b, Tylko, Frietjes,
Tchin-NJITWILL, Zachripples, Ken Olsen, Amandavpi, Cweath7, Widr, Ahmadalweshah, Antiqueight, Box News, Voiptopia, Eliza-
bethdmy, KillerPandaRage, Helpful Pixie Bot, , Electriccatsh2, Davfox, BG19bot, Tonkie, Redini, WR:ichibantel, Roc-
coKIT, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, MasterfulTroll, WikiBlogger61, Bigtex 1, Bprincipi, Aresnika, Bfax, Lolwarrior, GULFSIP.Engineer,
GULFSIP.voip.engineer, Voip.world, Mws1979, Akram1997, Shirudo, Secretower, Flambib, Sparklyfeet, Sandeep kumar pal, BattyBot,
SimmeD, Remobasith, Justincheng12345-bot, Miguelaustro, Cyberbot II, Respawn2003, Jmediate88, DataHead2112, Mediran, Sudha-
rana, Mikez711, Ajv39, DavidStainberg, Sangyup81, K7L, Terinavy, TwoTwoHello, Frosty, 93, Lexx123, Hawlkeye1997, Me, Myself,
and I are Here, Phamnhatkhanh, Faizan, Moony22, Artvister company, Apexace345, Omegapower, Surfer43, Broster123, Asv128, Snol-
lyPheasant, DavidLeighEllis, Locamp, Abdeaitali, Ginsuloft, FDMS4, Kwaimind, Bob Staggert, UY Scuti, Daves2013, Skr15081997,
Itsalleasy, Wyn.junior, Antrocent, MSheshera, Hoanglai6868, Mr. Smart LION, Monkbot, Vieque, Captin inpalar, Bojangel, Roshu Ban-
gal, Guevarra.jayson, Roger.bratu, The Last Arietta, Jfk84, Kellesaiconnally, Wiki Vodalink, ScrapIronIV, Sinchdev, Vivekkush1983,
Hungryce, Deborah Chiaravalloti, Anna Alexandrovna Latushkina, Jeremysimplewan, KasparBot, Putmystu, Amber Beard, Strictly-
followrulz, Kurousagi, The Editor of All Things Wikipedia, Pakelectrical, Sowmya139, Farman67, Blastofreading, Sangeethfrancis-
james, Zhuhonglin1, MLRM, Harishk.its, Eno Lirpa, Full Rune, Fjpauley33, RainFall, Rapt0r87, Monvoip, V4switch, Mamakaze1,
HONDAGUY, Akartit and Anonymous: 1658
Voicemail Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voicemail?oldid=748984285 Contributors: Cameron Dewe, Minesweeper, Skyfaller,
Radiojon, Jeq, Robbot, Jmabel, Altenmann, Hadal, DocWatson42, Sundar, Edcolins, Jh51681, Kate, Rich Farmbrough, Sietse
Snel, Bookofjude, Deathawk, Reinyday, Pearle, Ommnomnomgulp, Alansohn, Velella, Stephan Leeds, Anthony Ivano, Blaxthos,
Dan100, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, W3bbo, Win777, Andymadigan, Ewlyahoocom, Preslethe, RobotE, Family Guy Guy, Vanished user
jw8ej23rnalajfdoi3rfx, Rygelski, Peter S., Rsrikanth05, Gcapp1959, Wiki alf, Moe Epsilon, IceCreamAntisocial, Avalon, Closedmouth,
Ahmad510, SmackBot, Unschool, Cavenba, DCDuring, Jacek Kendysz, Edgar181, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Salvo46, Deli nk, Lexlex,
Hgrosser, Frap, BoKu, Jwy, DMacks, Pgillman, Rsc~enwiki, Disneywizard, Kuru, Khazar, Linnell, Waggers, J Di, Kulldominique,
No1lakersfan, Alton, Drewches, Thijs!bot, TuvicBot, Robina Fox, Bongwarrior, JamesBWatson, Sarahj2107, Tedickey, Calltech, Lkinzler,
Richard Odin Johnson, Casieg, R'n'B, Trusilver, Mrceleb2007, Lynseyr, Erik Swanson, KylieTastic, TobyDZ, Lvcipriani, LeaveSleaves,
BotKung, Natg 19, Wawerner~enwiki, WiccaWeb, Steven Weston, Enkyo2, SieBot, BotMultichill, RJaguar3, ElrondPA, WacoJacko,
Fratrep, Chris Newport, Sphilbrick, ClueBot, Unbuttered Parsnip, Mild Bill Hiccup, Skugell, Ottawahitech, Anon lynx, Peterparker3000,
Imcgaw, Aitias, SoxBot III, Apparition11, Avstmw, Mitch Ames, Dgtsyb, Addbot, Researchwatch, Harpervi, 53mgtd, Fieldday-sunday,
Leszek Jaczuk, Tassedethe, Jarble, Yobot, Banjohunter, Jim1138, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Kyng, Eikisb, Duncanogi,
Shadowjams, Pusa, Taka76, Klapouchy, Krinkle, DrilBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Electricmaster, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dewritech, Go-
ingBatty, AsceticRose, Ktopits, Dolovis, Culturalexchange, Ebrambot, Monterey Bay, RaptureBot, Telcomdata1, Donner60, Mikecynar,
ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Widr, Gkolodny, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Jamesgmeade, Pnnigan, Cyberpower678, Graceindesign,
Itsjustmee, Relkins711, NancyLeonard, David.moreno72, Retanep, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Karkettrr, Nagasaku, Bahloul, Captain Conun-
drum, YiFeiBot, UY Scuti, Justme1762, Seinbinder, Matthewfaichney, Sayeed.sprd.bd, Buntee2, Jhansiranim, Minavo, Maddycakes051
and Anonymous: 151
VoIP phone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP_phone?oldid=746736869 Contributors: Pnm, Glenn, Robbot, Geeoharee,
Mcapdevila, Vadmium, Towel401, Ahbanks, Woohookitty, Pol098, BD2412, NeonMerlin, Summitraj, Krzysiu, Xcali, MMuzammils,
RussBot, CambridgeBayWeather, Brandon, Naasking, SmackBot, Stepa, KVDP, Oli Filth, Deli nk, Lboulton, Frap, Dicklyon, Kvng, Lee
Carre, Hu12, 345Kai, Pgr94, Phatom87, Gogo Dodo, Jay.Here, Koptor, Davidhorman, Widefox, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Barek, JaGa,
Kgeischmann, Pitagora, Stuii, CommonsDelinker, Trusilver, McSly, Dchall1, Ziounclesi, Jamelan, Wbrenna36, Puddington, RaseaC,
Kbrose, SieBot, Freddyzdead, Flyer22 Reborn, MicoFils~enwiki, Binksternet, PixelBot, Apparition11, Bluesky7425, Jcline0, Nww
mag, Addbot, Jafeluv, Socheid, Jojhutton, Joshith, Suwa, P.matel, Mickyb1882, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AVB, Retro00064, AnomieBOT,
E2eamon, Nerminbarman, Eyal.zach, Eorlov, Nakakapagpabagabag, Geek2003, Freebirds, MLD7865 Auto, OgreBot, RedBot, Btilm,
Nancycil, Vrenator, Kmlacroix, EmausBot, Observer6, Dewritech, ZroBot, John Cline, Tliberty10, Cymru.lass, Rcsprinter123, Bomazi,
Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Nitinkrgupta, Snotbot, Cntras, Fairlyoddparents1234, Voipsatellite, Johnthesmith, VoIP Guru 2011, Batty-
Bot, GoShow, Connor2349, K7L, Sriharsh1234, Wilson.stella, JaconaFrere, Pariah24, Jfk84, KasparBot, Joelamae, UniqueUnbique and
Anonymous: 76
X.25 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25?oldid=741479852 Contributors: Aldie, Maury Markowitz, Vaughan, Ahoerstemeier,
Ronz, Yaronf, Smack, Crissov, Itai, Finlay McWalter, Lumos3, Kizor, Stewartadcock, Hella~enwiki, Gidonb, Hadal, Xanzzibar, Vac-
uum, Itpastorn, Gzornenplatz, VampWillow, Tagishsimon, Karlward, Beland, Bumm13, Karl Dickman, MementoVivere, Abdull, Rich
Farmbrough, Guanabot, Wk muriithi, YUL89YYZ, Eric Shalov, Ray Dassen, MarkWahl, Nwsmith, Ivansanchez, Helix84, Guy Har-
ris, RoySmith, GL, Stephan Leeds, Danhash, RJII, Blaxthos, Ilario, Tabletop, Eyreland, Commking, Haikupoet, Rjwilmsi, Gary Brown,
SAK, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom, Overand, YurikBot, NTBot~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, Barberio, Mortein, Mikeroetto, SmackBot, Reedy,
Bernard Franois, Chris the speller, GK tramrunner, Dvermeirre, Villarinho, JonHarder, Adamantios, Kotul, HarisM, Sparky-sama, Chari-
vari, SashatoBot, Dave314159, Deceglie, Kvng, Huntscorpio, Prof 7, Caomhin, Mblumber, Gogo Dodo, Daenney, Quibik, Thijs!bot,
Hcberkowitz, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Cocjh1, KMeyer, Dougher, IrishFlukey, JAnDbot, PrimroseGuy, Scostas, CommonsDelinker,
Mange01, ISC PB, Cpiral, Birczanin, VolkovBot, Vrac, SkinnyV, Kurgus, TXiKiBoT, Dermots, Gbuchana, BotKung, Kbrose, SieBot,
Dialate, LeadSongDog, Lightmouse, CharlesGillingham, Ken123BOT, EoGuy, Kanchanghavle, Alexbot, PixelBot, IlliniFlag, Dgtsyb, Ad-
dbot, Pieman196, Tonkie67, Enduser, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Giddeon Fox, FrescoBot, Pepper, Merlion444,
FromOrleans, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, RFClover, The Mysterious El Willstro, Jasonanaggie, ZroBot, Westley Turner, Jgood-
child, Ermishin, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Wdchk, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Doodlebug777, Leikai Meetei, Cwobeel, Mogism,
Cerabot~enwiki, Comp.arch, Monkbot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 106

80.11.2 Images
File:1140E.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/1140E.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Geek2003
File:1896_telephone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/1896_telephone.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Edited version of http://runeberg.org/teleapp/0004.html
Original artist: ?
80.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 353

File:18butt~{}1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/18butt~{}1.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-

tors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here * 00:42, 23 July 2006 [[:en:User:David Jordan|David Jordan]] 300181
(52,943 bytes) <span class="comment">(An eighteen-button Western Electric Call Director with a rotary dial. Please credit David Jordan
when using this photo.)</span> Original artist: User David Jordan on en.wikipedia
File:2003-09-23_Convenience_of_a_cell_phone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/2003-09-23_
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Graham_Telephone_in_Newyork.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_
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ba/Au_CDMA_1X_WIN_W31SAII_gravelly_silver_expansion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Qurren's le Original artist:
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SA 3.0 Contributors: Theodore G. Paraskevakos Original artist: Sjcramer (talk)
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354 CHAPTER 80. X.25

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