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AbstractTraditionally, switched-capacitor (SC) converters capacitors are directly charged/discharged by other capacitors
have suffered from high transient currents, which limit both the or voltage sources, large transient current spikes can occur,
efficiency and power density of such converters. Soft-charging which limit the efficiency and power density of the con-
operation can be employed to eliminate the current transients
and greatly improve the power density of SC converters. In this verter. Moreover, these transient effects increase the device
approach, a second-stage magnetic converter is cascaded with the stress and can cause undesirable electromagnetic interference
SC stage to act as a controlled current load. Another approach is (EMI) problems. To reduce the current spikes, either large
to use resonant SC converters with zero current switching. This capacitors or higher switching frequency has to be employed,
paper shows that resonant and soft-charging operations of SC neither of which is a satisfactory solution. The quasi-switched-
converters are closely related, and a technique will be proposed
which achieves either operation by adding a single inductor capacitor converter given in [14] manages to reduce the
to existing SC topologies. In addition, since most preexisting peak of the current transient, but results in the same power
resonant or soft-charging SC converters were devised in an ad loss as conventional SC converters. Resonant SC converters
hoc manner, this paper formulates an analytical method that (or soft-switching SC converters), which incorporate one or
can determine whether an existing conventional SC converter more inductors, have been proposed to eliminate the current
topology is compatible with the proposed approach. A number
of common SC topologies are analyzed, including Dickson, series- transients [15][25]. Because of the resonant inductor, the
parallel, ladder, Fibonacci and doubler configurations. Through capacitor current becomes sinusoidal, and if the switching
comparison to simulated results as well as experimental work, the takes place at the moment when the current reaches zero,
proposed method is validated and a family of high performance resonant SC converters can operate in zero current switching
SC converters is obtained. (ZCS) mode. This mode of operation enables such converters
Index Termssoft-charging, switched-capacitor converter, zero to operate at higher frequencies and achieve higher power
current switching, resonant. density than their hard-switched counterparts.
Another drawback of SC converters is that high efficiency is
I. I NTRODUCTION only achieved at one or a few conversion ratios. This limits the
application of SC converters to mostly low power applications.
OLTAGE-SOURCE power converters are predominantly
V implemented using magnetic components (inductors or
transformers) as energy storage elements. Due to their rel-
In higher power applications, the solution is usually to cascade
a magnetic converter to act as a post-regulation stage [26]
[29]. However, the overall converter size may increase and
atively low energy density, the magnetic components are the peak conversion efficiency may be reduced.
bulky in size and costly to build. On the other hand, the An effective method to enable lossless regulation and elim-
efficiency and power-density of dc-dc converters need to be inate the detrimental current transients in SC converters si-
continuously improved due to increasing demands in areas multaneously is called soft-charging operation, as first demon-
such as computing and portable devices. As a result, switched- strated with a merged two-stage converter in [30], [31]. In this
capacitor (SC) converters [1][10] are gaining popularity. architecture, a second-stage buck converter is cascaded to the
These converters use capacitors as the energy storage element output of a step-down SC converter and acts as a controlled
and consequently can achieve higher power density and greater current load. The buck converter operates at a low voltage
suitability for on-chip integration compared to magnetic-based and high frequency, enabling high bandwidth regulation and
converters. Additionally, SC converters also tend to achieve a reduced magnetic component size. The difference between
higher efficiency at large voltage conversion ratios [11]. These soft-charging operation and the aforementioned two stage
advantages make SC converters desirable for a broad range designs is that in soft-charging operation, the output capacitor
of applications, including voltage balancing [2], [3], energy of the SC stage is removed and the flying capacitors of the
buffering [4], CMOS integrated power conversion [5], [7], [12] SC converter are charged/discharged by a controlled current
and renewable energy harvesting [8]. source (the buck converter). This mode of operation eliminates
However, SC converters also have certain drawbacks, which current transients, enabling the SC converter to operate with
limit their performance in some applications [13]. Since the large capacitor voltage ripples with high efficiency. Larger ca-
pacitor voltage ripples result in larger energy transfer through
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineer-
ing, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA. capacitors in each switching cycle, yielding significant power
E-mail: {lei10, pilawa}@illinois.edu density improvements of the SC converter. Therefore, the size
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of both the buck converter as well as the SC converter can m:n Rout
be reduced. It is also possible to achieve the same regulated
+ +
soft-charging operation by adding only an inductor and utilizes
the existing switches from the SC converter to form a buck
Vin Vout
converter cell. In this approach, no additional switches are
necessary and the control of the converter is simlified [32] The
- -
switched-capacitor stage employed in [30], [31] had a series-
parallel configuration that readily lends itself to soft-charging Fig. 1: Generic model of a switched-capacitor converter.
operation. Another recent implementation of the soft-charging
two-stage design utilizes a variable ratio SC stage and achieves
100
significant power density improvements over conventional
approaches [33], [34]. There are many SC topologies that
Output impedance ()
may also be designed to operate in soft-charging mode and SSL
yield similar benefits, but to date, no formal method exists to
evaluate SC converters for their potential use in soft-charging
architecture. One of the main contributions of this work is the
development of such a formal method.
In this paper, the origin of the transient current and associ- 101
FSL
ated loss are first introduced and the concept of soft-charging
revisited. The requirements imposed on the SC converters by
soft-charging operation are postulated. Resonant SC converters 105 106 107
and soft-charging SC converters are then analyzed, and it is
Frequency (Hz)
shown that their terminal behaviors are closely related. This
makes it possible to use similar techniques to analyze and Fig. 2: Output impedance of a typical SC converter.
synthesize both types of converters. We present a technique
to achieve soft-charging or resonant mode of operation with
a single inductor added to existing SC converter topologies. lowering the series resistance. Fundamentally, the SSL power
In addition, in order to expand the family of soft-charging SC loss is the result of charging/discharging the capacitor with a
converters, a formal method is presented to analyze arbitrary constant voltage source or another capacitor, as illustrated in
SC topologies to determine their suitability for the proposed Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b respectively. We will examine case 2 (Fig.
technique. Supported by simulation and experimental results, 3b) more closely since case 1 (Fig. 3a) can be seen identical to
this new family of SC converters is shown to have the case 2 with C2 being infinite. When the switch closes, since the
potential to achieve a higher efficiency and higher power capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, the mismatch
density compared to traditional SC converters. of the initial capacitor voltages will be present across the
series resistor, resulting in a large instantaneous current as
II. C APACITOR C HARGE S HARING L OSS AND shown in Fig. 4. The power loss incurred for complete charge
S OFT- CHARGING C ONCEPT redistribution for the schematic showing in Fig. 3b can be
easily calculated and is given by
A generic SC converter model is shown in Fig. 1, which
consists of an ideal fixed-conversion-ratio stage with an 1
C1 (VC1(t=0) VC2(t=0) )2 fsw
Ploss =
output-referred impedance [35]. The output impedance directly 4
1
reflects the efficiency of the converter, and incorporates both = C1 V(t=0)2
fsw , (1)
the conduction loss and the capacitor charging/discharging 4
loss. This impedance is usually plotted against the switching assuming C1 = C2 . This equation is valid provided that the
frequency to reveal the characteristics of the SC converters. A duration of each phase is much larger than the time-constant
typical such plot is shown in Fig. 2, which shows two asymp- of the circuit, i.e. in SSL region of operation. As can be
totic operating regions for SC converters: the fast switching seen, this power loss does not depend on the value of the
limit (FSL) and the slow switching limit (SSL) [11] [36] series resistance. Instead, it depends on the initial voltage
[39]. The FSL occurs at high switching frequencies, when the difference between the capacitors. Additionally, the initial
dominating loss is the conduction loss due to the resistance difference in capacitor voltages is due to the charge transfer in
of the switches as well as the ESR of the capacitors. As can the previous cycle, and thus is proportional to the charge drawn
be seen in Fig. 2, the output impedance in the FSL region is by the load and inversely proportional to the capacitor values.
independent of the switching frequency. On the other hand, Moreover, the change of charge in the capacitor is proportional
the SSL occurs at low switching frequencies, when the output to the duration of the charge/discharge, and thus is inversely
impedance is dominated by the charging/discharging loss of proportional to the switching frequency. These relations are
the capacitors during the charge redistribution process at phase summarized below.
transitions. The SSL impedance depends on the switching 1 1
V , , (2)
frequency and capacitor values, and cannot be reduced by fsw Cf ly
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Current (A)
Voltage (V)
0.6 60
pacitor network during phase transitions. In [30], [31], a
0.4 40
series-parallel SC stage was chosen as the SC topology,
0.2 20 since the flying capacitors are simultaneously connected to
Current of C2
0 0 the output either in series or in parallel, and therefore, can
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
5
always be charged/discharged in the same manner through
Time (s) 10
the load current. Other SC topologies tend to have more
Fig. 4: Capacitor voltages and current waveform in charge complex switching configuration and it is not immediately
redistribution process. apparent whether soft-charging of all flying capacitors can
be achieved by cascading a second-stage converter (or an
inductor) alone. Section IV introduces a formal method for
where Cf ly represents the overall flying capacitor value, and evaluating an arbitrary SC topology and determining whether
for the circuit in Fig. 3b, it is simply C1 . Substituting (2) into soft-charging operation is possible. This method replaces the
the power loss equation in (1), we have ad-hoc approaches that have been employed to date [30], [33].
1 1
Ploss , (3)
fsw Cf ly . III. S OFT- CHARGING O PERATION WITH AN I NDUCTOR
For more complex SC converters, more complicated charge Since an inductor allows instantaneous change of its ter-
sharing scenarios will arise, but the general relationship stays minal voltage, it can also act as a controlled current load
the same, as shown by the analytical results given in [11]. [40] [32]. In fact, the buck converter is able to facilitate
To reduce the charge sharing loss, one may simply increase soft-charging operation precisely because of the inductor it
the switching frequency so that the converter operates in the contains. In this section, the technique of adding an inductor
FSL region. However, it is often not favorable to do so, since alone to achieve soft-charging is presented. Furthermore, it
the transistor switching losses, as well as the bottom plate will be shown that resonant operation can also be achieved
capacitance losses in integrated SC converters, increase as using the same technique.
the switching frequency increases. Alternatively, increasing the To illustrate the technique, a simple 2-to-1 SC converter
flying capacitor values can push the FSL region of operation is shown in Fig. 5a, and a modified structure is shown in
to a lower frequency, but it inevitably increases the circuit size Fig. 5b. As can be seen in Fig. 5b, the technique to achieve
and cost. To overcome this dilemma, the soft-charging tech- resonant and soft-charging operation is to add an inductor at
nique was proposed to eliminate the capacitor charge sharing the output of the SC converter, immediately before the output
loss [30]. In soft-charging operation, a controlled current load capacitor. The simple circuit structure in Fig. 5b allows direct
is placed in the charging/discharging paths of the capacitors. circuit analysis using differential equations [40]. Figure 6 plots
The majority of the voltage mismatch between the capacitors the simulated output impedance as a function of frequency
and the input/output will be present across the current load, for both the original SC converter (Fig. 5a), as well as the
instead of across the switch resistance. With this technique, modified converter (Fig. 5b). It can be seen that for the original
the capacitor charging loss that is present in conventional SC SC converter, the output impedance reduces as the frequency
converters is recovered through the controlled current load, increases, while leveling off at high frequencies, marking the
which typically is a high frequency magnetic converter. As a transition from SSL to FSL. The output impedance curve
result, smaller capacitance can be used without sacrificing the is more complicated for the modified converter, but a few
efficiency, despite the resultant larger capacitor voltage ripples. key observations can be made. First, with the additional
This is the key benefit of soft-charging operation. inductor, the modified converter is able to reach the same
Given the origin of the charge sharing loss, this paper minimum impedance at a much lower switching frequency,
postulates two requirements for achieving soft-charging op- due to the elimination of the current transient and associated
eration. The first requirement is that the load must behave loss. Therefore, the proposed converter can achieve the same
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+
Phase 1 is (C1 k C2 + C3 ) and the capacitance in Phase 2
1 2 is (C2 k C3 + C1 ). Both phases have the same equivalent
Cfly capacitance of 1.5C1 assuming C1 = C2 = C3 . For converter
+ Vload topologies that have different equivalent capacitance in each
Vin 1 Cout phase (such as the Fibonacci and series-parallel), there is a crit-
2
ical frequency for each phase, and the overall critical frequency
- is the weighted average of the individual frequencies according
(a) Example 2-to-1 SC converter. to the duty ratio. Note that the critical frequency corresponds
to the resonant frequency of the circuit. To understand the
L1 frequency dependent behavior of the modified SC converter,
+
the terminal voltage before the inductor (Vsc in Fig. 5b) as
1 2 + well as the inductor current are shown in Fig. 7 at 3 different
Cfly frequencies - the resonant frequency (fcrit ) as well as below
+ Vsc Vload (f2 ) and above (f1 ) the resonant frequency. It can be seen that,
Vin 1 Cout above the resonant frequency, the current waveform (Fig. 7a)
2
- is smooth and has small ripple, due to the filtering effect of the
- inductor. Moreover, since the flying capacitor is always in the
(b) Example 2-to-1 SC converter with an inductor. same current path as the inductor, the conventional current
spikes of the capacitor are eliminated, and the capacitors
Fig. 5: Schematics of a simple SC converter. transfer charges in soft-charging mode, with no charge transfer
loss. The effect of this can be seen directly from Fig. 6, where
for switching frequencies larger than the critical frequency,
ConventionalhSChconverter the SC converter has the minimum FSL output impedance. As
0
10 SChconverterhwithhanhoutputhinductor the switching frequency is reduced, the current waveform has
larger ripple, while having the same average value, since the
Outputhimpedanceh()
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8.5 8.5 9
(V)
Vsc (V)
Vsc (V)
8 8 8
sc
V
7.5 7.5 7
0 2 4 6 0 5 10 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
10 10 10
i (A)
iL (A)
iL (A)
5 5
0 0 0
L
5 5 5
0 2 4 6 0 5 10 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(a) fsw = f1 > fcrit . (b) fsw = fcrit . (c) fsw = f2 < fcrit .
Fig. 7: SC stage voltage (Vsc in Fig. 5b) and inductor current of the modified 2-to-1 converter.
0
among the resistance, capacitance and switching frequency. On 10
the other hand, with the additional inductor presented here, the
critical frequency is decoupled from the series resistance, and 1
10
only depends on the inductance and the capacitance, as shown
in (4). The effect can be seen in Fig. 8b, where a reduction in
the series resistance instantly brings a nearly equal reduction in
2
10
4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10
power loss, without the need to increase the capacitance nor Frequency (Hz)
the frequency. Therefore, the addition of the inductor gives (b) Soft-charging SC converter.
the designer the choice of using smaller on-state-resistance
Fig. 8: Power loss at different frequencies for different Rds,on
switches and introduces a new design dimension in which
values, for the circuit in Fig. 5.
the converter can be optimized. Also can be observed from
Simulation parameters: C = 10 F , L = 0.1 H
Fig. 8b is that oscillation does not occur for the case of
Ronq= 100 m. This is because the system is over-damped
( R2 C L < 1) for large resistance values. In this case, the RC design goal of the soft-charging SC converters. In discrete
time constant starts to dominate the frequency response of the implementations, the addition of the inductors often results
system again, and soft-charging operation does not take place. in overall improvement in energy utilization of the passive
As a result, there is no change in power loss by adding the components. While the inductor is more difficult to integrate
small inductor, as can be seen by comparing the red dotted than the capacitors given the current IC technology, the energy
lines in Fig. 8a and Fig. 8b. In this case, a larger inductance density and quality of integrated inductors are improving as
would have been needed to achieve a reduction in power loss in more advanced processes are adopted [13], [41], [42], and the
the SSL region. Therefore, in addition to the critical switching proposed converter is able to take advantage of the progress
frequency requirement given in (4), the soft-charging (as well and advancement of technologies in inductors, capacitors and
as resonant) SC converters needq to be designed such that the switches simultaneously.
system is under-damped ( R2 C L < 1). Nevertheless, a lower
series resistance is one of the goals for power converters aim- IV. A NALYZING AN A RBITRARY SC T OPOLOGY FOR
ing for high conversion efficiency, especially for applications S OFT- CHARGING O PERATION
with small load resistances. This naturally coincides with the It was shown in the previous section that resonant and soft-
charging operation are closely related and both modes of op-
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loop must be zero. Similarly for phase 2, we have However, with soft-charging operation, the SC stage output
node is connected to an inductor, and the inductor voltage is
2
A2 v = 0. (14)
allowed to change instantaneously during phase transitions, as
Note that the vin component of vi is typically zero since opposed to the capacitor voltages, which must be continuous.
the input voltage is considered constant. This information can Stated in another way, the parameter vout defined previously
be included in the loop matrices by adding a row of [1 0 0 0 0] is no longer a state variable in a switch-linear circuit, and can
to both A1 and A2 , resulting in A1m and A2m respectively, be discontinuous. As a result, the change in output voltage in
where the subscript m indicates a modified reduced loop phase 1 due to the current load, vout 1
, does not necessarily
matrix. Correspondingly, (13) and (14) become equal vout . Therefore, the inductor introduces one more
2
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100
example are found to be Hard-charging
Soft-charging 1
q1 = 1 1 1 1 2 and q2 = 0
1 1 1 2 . Soft-charging 2
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2 Iload
2
2
C2 Co
1 C3 1 C2 1 C1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
+ 2 2 2
+
Vin
Co Iload Vin C3 C1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
C3 C2 C1 C3 C1
+ +
Vin 1 2 1 Co Iload Vin 1 C2 1 Co
2 2 Iload
2 1 2
v
in " #
vc1 C1
v = vc2 , C = C2
vc3 C3
vout
(a) General.
0 0 0 0
" # " #
1 11 2 1 1
1
1
2
1 1
v = , v = 1 , C = 1 v = 1 , v = 1 , C = 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 2 1
varies, typically it is preferable to have only one additional placed at the output node and is connected to the capacitor
inductor to reduce the complexity and parameter matching branches at all times, the same terminal voltage appears in all
difficulty, and thus achieving ZCS operation with a single the capacitor branches. Provided that there is no current tran-
inductor is of interest in this paper. As was demonstrated sient during phase transitions among the capacitor branches,
in section III, ZCS resonant operation can be accomplished which is guaranteed by soft-charging operation, sinusoidal
for the 2-to-1 example converter, at a switching frequency of inductor current ensures sinusoidal current in the capacitors
fcrit , by adding one inductor at the output node. However, and thus in the switches. To illustrate this concept, the currents
the basic 2-to-1 topology is simple to analyze and has already through all the switches of a resonant Fibonacci converter
been exploited by many existing work [15], [17]. To date, it (as shown in Fig. 17) are plotted in Fig. 18. It can be seen
has not been clear whether resonant operation is possible with that, since the Fibonacci converter is compatible with full soft-
only one inductor, for a general SC converter with multiple charging operation, indeed all the switches turn on and off at
charge transfer paths. the zero crossings of the current waveforms and thus sinusoidal
It is postulated here that full ZCS on all switches can be inductor current ensures ZCS for all switches. A similar case
achieved with a single inductor if the topology is compatible can be shown for the series-parallel SC converter. Therefore,
with full soft-charging operation. Since the single inductor is two new ZCS resonant two-phase SC converter based on the
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100
hard-charging hard-charging
Power loss (W) soft-charging 100 soft-charging
100 100
hard-charging hard-charging
soft-charging soft-charging
Power loss (W)
Fig. 15: Power loss of hard-charging and soft-charging SC converters from LTSpice simulation.
6
SW10 SW7 SW4 SW1 L
C3 C2 C1
4 +
Vin SW8 SW5 SW2 Co Iload
2 SW9 SW6 SW3
Current (A)
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2 Isw1
Isw2
1 Isw3
Current (A)
Isw4
0
Isw5
1 Isw6
Isw7
2 Isw8
Isw9
3
Isw10
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
Fig. 19: Schematic of the proposed soft-charging Dickson SC TABLE V: Tested specifications.
converter.
Vin 200 V DC
Conversion ratio 8:1
only difference is that in the conventional Dickson converter, Pout 53 W
there is no inductor and the flying capacitors are all of value fsw 250 kHz
2.2 F. The volume of the passive components of the two
converters are shown in Table VII. The total volume of the TABLE VI: Component listing of the proposed converter.
passive components of the SC converter with the inductor is
Component Part number Parameters
454 mm3 while that of the pure SC converter is 682 mm3 . It
can be seen that even with the additional inductor, the volume S12 , S5 - S1 EPC2014 40 V, 16 m, 10 A
S11 - S6 EPC2007 100 V, 30 m, 6 A
of the proposed converter is still smaller than that of the pure
SC converter, thanks to the improved utilization of capacitors C7 , C5 C1812X224K2RACTU 250 V, 0.22 F
C6 , C4 C2220C225MAR2CTU 250 V, 2.2 F
due to soft-charging. C3 C0805C224K1RACTU 100 V, 0.22 F
The measured efficiencies of the proposed converter as well C2 C3216X7S2A225K160AB 100 V, 2.2 F
as the conventional SC converter at various load currents C1 C1608X7R1H224K080AB 50 V, 0.22 F
Co C3216X5R1V226M160AC 35 V, 22 F
are plotted in Fig. 22. It can be seen that not only is the
Inductor XAL5030-332 3.3 H
efficiency of the soft-charging converter always higher than
that of the conventional hard-charging converter, but it also Level-shifters ADUM5210
Micro-controller STM32f051
drops at a slower pace as the current increases, due to the lower
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(a) fsw = 250 kHz > fcrit (b) fsw = 90 kHz = fcrit (c) fsw = 50 kHz < fcrit
Fig. 21: SC stage voltage (Vsc in Fig. 19) (upper) and inductor current (lower).
TABLE VII: Passive components volume comparison. frequency. In addition, we proposed a formal and general
method to determine the conditions for soft-charging operation
Conventional Soft-charging
of an arbitrary two-phase switched-capacitor converter and
Capacitor volume (mm ) 3
681.8 378.9 the method is illustrated with a Dickson SC converter. It
Inductor volume (mm3 ) - 75.0 has been shown that the Dickson converter can approach
Total volume (mm3 ) 681.8 453.9 complete soft-charging by appropriately selecting the flying
capacitor values. The technique was verified with a discrete
8-to-1 Dickson converter. The hardware prototype in soft-
charging operation has shown to exhibit higher efficiency with
much smaller ripple and the converter operates near FSL. For smaller passive component sizes compared to a conventional
fsw < fcrit (Fig. 21c), the current goes negative in each phase. Dickson converter. The analysis is also applied to four other
These experimentally obtained waveforms closely resemble SC topologies and the results agree with simulation results and
the simulated waveforms in Fig. 7, with some voltage spikes as published experimental work. It is found that both the series-
a result of switching dead-time in the practical implementation. parallel and Fibonacci SC converters are able to achieve soft-
Therefore, the hardware not only shows that soft-charging charging or resonant operation using the proposed technique.
operation is able to achieve a high efficiency with smaller The proposed method expands the family of both resonant and
passive component footprint, but also confirms that resonant soft-charging SC converters and makes SC converters suitable
operation can be achieved at the specified frequency using the for an increasing number of applications.
same technique.
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10.1109/TPEL.2014.2377738, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics
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0885-8993 (c) 2013 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/TPEL.2014.2377738, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics
0885-8993 (c) 2013 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
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