CHAPTER ONE: WORK EXPERIENCE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
I started my drive to become an Electrical engineer when I was offered an admission in the Department

of Electrical/Electronics Engineering at The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, while

proceeding for the completion of the programme at The Polytechnic Ibadan, Oyo State. Various

laboratory and workshop practices including my final year project and other forms of academic

trainings were embarked upon during my course of study in order to prepare me with the needed skill

to perform as an electrical engineer in the competitive labour market.

1.1 INDUSTRIAL EXPERIENCE

Acquiring industrial experience started at Ekiti State Electricity Board, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State in 1998. I
worked there for 4 months for the mandatory Student Industrial Work Experience (SIWES). During
these four months I was made to work in conjunction with the engineers in the wiring of the state
government house and in the extension of Low Tension and High Tension Voltage. Later i worked at
the Broadcasting Service of Ekiti State as an Engineering Assistant I, where we were taught how to
troubleshoot various kinds of electrical motors, console mixer, VTR and also repair them. Many other
related electrical works were done.

1.2 TEACHING EXPERIENCE

I joined Landmark University, Omu-Aran in 2013 as Technologist II in the department of Electrical and

Information Engineering.

Job Description
*Maintenance of the Laboratory Equipment
*Teaching the students the rules and regulations of the Laboratory
*Teaching the students the uses and applications of the Equipment
*Guiding the students on the stages of the practical works
*Instruction on the colour codes and its importance

1.3 POST GRADUATE RESEARCH PROJECT

My Post Graduate in engineering degree research project was titled SDR implementation of an

OFDM-MISO Receiver.

1
CHAPTER TWO

DESIGN OF A 2.0 KVA INVERTER WITH UNDERVOLTAGE AND OVERVOLTAGE

PROTECTION

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Inverters are electronic devices used to convert DC power into AC power. Inverters are used in a wide
range of applications, from small switching power supplies to other large utility applications that
transport bulk power. They are efficient, reliable and easy to use. The idle power loss is low, so most
inverters can be left on 24 hours a day.
Large inverters have a high surge rating which is good for starting motors. The starting current surge
for a motor is 3 to 5 times the running current. Most AC appliances and power tools will run on an
inverter as long as the inverter is not overloaded. The power company (grid power) produces sine
wave electricity while many inverters produce a modified square wave. They provide quiet AC power
compared to an engine generator. A generators run time and operating costs are greatly reduced by
using an inverter and battery bank. The inverter and battery bank can supply AC power for 24 hours a
day. The generator is used to recharge the battery. Solar and wind power can be added to help charge
the battery and reduce the generator run time even more. The inverter is so named because it performs
the opposite function of a rectifier.

2.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

This circuit design incorporates several major circuits, and their collective specifications are;
1 Power Rating = 2000VA
2 Frequency = 50HZ
3 Number of phases = Single
4 Input voltage= 24V d.c (inverter), 220V a.c (mains)
5 output voltage = 220Va.c
6 under-voltage changeover value = 170V
7 Over-voltage changeover value = 240V
8 Circuit supervisory indicators = low battery charge, inversion, mains supply, under-voltage,
over-voltage and shutdown.
9 Miniature circuit breaker overload protected

2
2.2 TRANSFORMER DESIGN
Below are the ratings of the transformer
10 Rating = 2.0KVA
11 Frequency = 50Hz
12 Number of phases = Single
13 Design type = Shell type
14 Primary voltage = 24V
15 Output voltage = 220V
16 Cooling medium = Natural air
17 under-voltage changeover value = 170V
18 Over-voltage changeover value = 240V
A Design Of Core

Voltage per Turn = K S (KVA) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1

Where S = Output KVA

Choosing K = 1.0 for shell type single phase
S = 2 KVA
V
VT = 1.0 2.0 = 1.414 turn

B Net Core Area

Knowing that the e.m.f equation of a transformer for an induced in anyone turn of the
transformer winding is
Et = 4.44fBm Ai, for F = 50HZ, Bm = 1.4T - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2
ET 1.414
Ai = 4.44 X 1.4 X 50 X 106 = 4.44 X 1.4 X 50 X 106 = 4549.54mm2

(c) Magnetic Flux (M)

m = Bm Ai - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.3
m = 1.4 x 4549.54 x10-6 = 6.36 x10-3wb
Also note that the cross sectional area Ai is related to Ag.
Where Ag is the gross cross sectional area of the core.
Ag = Stack height x width of central limb - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.4
For a lamination that fits this window parameters and its width of central limb is obtained, the
3
necessary stack height can be determined thus; for a stacking factor of 0.9.
Ai 4549.54 2
Ag = 0.9 = 0.9 = 5055 mm

For a central limb of 54mm

Ag 5055
Stack height = Wcl = 54 = 93mm

Thus the transformer chosen for the design is shown below.

Fig 2.1 Cross-section of the transformer core

Lamination pieces n= lamination thickness

93
For a thickness of 0.5mm, n = 0.5 = 186 laminations

(d) Number Of Turns

V1 24
The primary Turns N1 = Vt = 1.414 17turns

V2 220
The secondary Turns N2 = Vt = 1.44 = 156turns

Since the winding is wound twice on the primary side for both halves of the switching period,
the total primary winding will be
N1 = 2 x 17 turns = 34 turns

2.3 WINDING CALCULATIONS

4
 KVA rating
Primary current = input voltage

2000
= 24 = 84.3A

2000
Secondary current = 220

= 9.09A
2.3.1 Conductor Size
3A
Current density J = mm2

I
Cross sectional area of conductor A = J

For a primary current of 84.3A

84.3 2
A= 3 = 28.1 mm

d2
A= 4

d1 = 4 xA
= ( (43.142
x 28.1)
) = 4.2mm

For the secondary windings current,

4.35 2
A= 3 = 1.45 mm

d2 = ( ( 43.142
x 1.45)
) 1.35mm

This corresponds to Gauge 18 for the primary and for the secondary; gauge 10 is
approximate from the standard wire gauge table.
2.3.2 Total Number of Turns (Nt)
maximum voltage
NT = voltage per turn

Primary turns = 48 turns

5
 Secondary = 230 turns
Total = 278 turns
2.3.3 Winding Height
The height occupied by the winding coils is approximately
H W = (L) 5 %( L), where L = window length = 81- 4 = 77mm

2.3.4 Turns per Layer

winding height
Turns per layer = diameter of conductor

77
= 1.35 = 57 turns per layer for secondary

77
` = 4.2 = 18 turns per layer for primary

No . of turns
Total number of layers = Turns per layer

48
= 57 = 1layers for primary

230
= 18 = 13 layers for secondary

2.3.5 Total Length of Winding (Tl)

TL = M.L.T x Total No of Turns
For primary L1 = 294x48 = 14112mm
For secondary L2 = 294x230 = 67620mm
Total length = L1 + L2 = 14112 + 67620 = 81732mm
2.3.6 Total Mass of Copper
Volume of copper = Total length x Area
Primary volume = 1411.2 x 1.35x10-2 = 19.056cm3
Secondary volume = 6762 x 4.20x10-2 = 284cm3
Total volume = 304cm3
Mass = Density x volume
3 kg
9 x 10
For copper Density = cm3

6
 Mass = 9x10-3 x 304 = 2.72kg

2.4 DESIGN OF PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR

The pulse width modulator stage is designed using a dedicated PWM IC, SG3524.This versatile PWM
controller can be used in a variety of isolated and non-isolated switching power supplies such as
inverters. The figure 2.2 shows the pin configuration of the chip.

CLK1

QA2
QA3
QA4
Reset1

Fig 2.2 Pin configuration of SG3524 PWM IC

1.15
Define the frequency of Oscillation, Fr = 2 RT C T

Choosing CT = 0.2F
1.15 1.15
RT = 2 F CT = 2 x 50 x 2 x 106 = 57500 = 57.5K

Battery voltage is 24V d.c.

A fixed value of 56K and a variable resistor, which is adjusted to 10K, was used in the
design.
VIN for the PWM IC is taken from the battery source.
The chip is powered with 12 volts through a 7812 voltage regulator.

2.5 DESIGN OF MOSFET DRIVER

The MOSFET stage conducts the necessary load current through the step up transformer.
7
 The MOSFET used in the design is the IRF 150 N-channel.
Fixed resistors of 10K were connected between the gate and source to aid fast switching by
discharging any residual static charge at the gate.
RF150N DATA:
Drain to source breakdown voltage BVDSS = 100V
Gate to source voltage (cut-off) = 4V
Gate to source breakdown voltage = 20V
Drain current (continuous) = 41A
Drain to source resistance rDS = 0.055
Power Dissipation PD = 230W
A total of 10 MOSFET were used for the design of the MOSFET driver. 5 MOSFET function
for each half of the full period.

2.6 LOW BATTERY INDICATION AND SHUTDOWN

Fig 2.3 Low battery detector and shutdown circuit

The battery status monitor circuit is designed to give a visual indication using a LED
and a buzzer for audio indication of low battery condition during operation. The circuit would
delay shutdown of the system after some minutes. The circuit is presented in figure 2.3. The
circuit consists of a comparator and a voltage reference set by a zener diode, a divide by 100
counters and a 555 timer astablemultivibrator.

8
A UA741 op-amp was used for the comparator IC1. It compares the battery charge coupled to it by
variable resistor R2. The reference voltage is determined by zener diode ZD1. The zener diode rating
is;
Power rating = 300mW
Breakdown voltage = 6.2V
P 103
Thus maximum current I = V = 300x 6.2 = 48.3mA

V 6.2
R1 = I = 48.3 103 = 128

A value of 120 was chosen as closest standard value.

IC2 is a 555 timer astable-multivibrator and function is to generate a pulse frequency of 10Hz to the
counter IC3. The counters count the pulses until there is a 100 clock pulses, it will shut down the pulse-
width modulator stage. The buzzer was added as tone indication of transmission by Tr1.
The expression for frequency of oscillation is
1.44
F= ( R 4 + R 5) C 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -2.5

Choosing R 4 = 4.7K, C1 = 100uf, F = 1 Hz

1.44 1.44
R5 = ( ( F C1 ) R4 /2 ) = ( ( 1 x 100 x 106 )4700/ 2 ) = 4850

CLK1

QA2
QA3
QA4
Reset1

Fig 2.4 Pin configuration of CD4518 IC

The limiting resistor value for the LED can be determined thus,
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 V ccV f

R= IF - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -2.6

Where, RL = Limiting resistance

IF = Forward conducting current
VF = Forward voltage drop
Vcc = Comparator Output
VF IF V cc
For the LED, = 2.2V, = 8mA, = 9V

91.8
R3 = 8 x 103 = 850

A value of 820 was used in the design as the closest standard.

R7 and R8 are base resistors.
For a base current of 1mA, the resistor
V
( ccV be )
R7, R8 = I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.7

Where I = base current, Vcc = supply Voltage of 5V

5

0.6
R7, R8 = = 4.4k

A value of 4.7k was chosen as the standard value. R6 is a pull-up resistor to reset the counter when
Tr1 is at cut-off and its chosen value is 1k.
2.6.1 Changeover Switch
An automatic changeover switch was designed for this project.
A 12Volts operating relay was connected to serve as the mains voltage detector. When
mains power is interrupted this activate a switch contact to change over the supply from
mains to inverter mode supply.
The action reverses when mains power is restored, hence providing automatic
changeover action.
This is illustrated in figure 2.5

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 Fig 2.5 Changeover control circuit
Diodes D1-D4 rectifies the voltage from mains to d.c
Capacitor C filters the ripples.
R helps to discharge C when mains power is off.
D protects the semiconductors from relay coil surge during switching.
R1 and R2 serves as voltage dividers to shut down PWM IC.
Transformer T1 is a 12V transformer
Vr.m.s = 12V
Vp 2 x 12 = 6.9V
Peak voltage =

Vp Vo Vo
Rectifier output voltage = -2 ( = diode drop of 0.7V)

= 16.9 1.4 = 5.5V

Diode PIV rating = Vp -V = 16.9-0.7 = 16.2V
Diode used is the IN5392 that has a PIV of 50V and current of 1A
Capacitor of 100F was chosen for ripple filtering
R is chosen to give a short time constant at frequency of 50Hz.
1 1
Period T = f = 50 = 20mS

T
RC = 2

T 10 x 103
R= 2C = 100 x 106 = 100

R1 and R2 were chosen as 4.7K to give a voltage output of approximately 8V.

Diode D6 is connected to prevent reverse current flow during operation.
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2.6.2 Optocoupler Feedback
The Optocoupler is used in the feedback loop to control the pulse width, thereby effecting voltage
regulation.
The Optocoupler used in the design is the 4N35.Tthe chip is as shown below.

Fig 2.6 Pin configuration of the 4N35 Optocoupler

The LED has a forward current of 5mA and the photo transistor has a maximum current
of 200mA.
A bridge rectifier provides dc input to the LED of the optocoupler.
For a conducting current of 1mA, the. limiting resistor would be:
V sV f
R= IF , for Vs = 220V, VF = 2V, IF = 1mA

202
= 1 x 103 =218000 = 220k

For the pulse width control, the pin 2 is used for the reference voltage.
V ref
Using a voltage divider of equal resistance, the for pin 2 be set to 2.5V when the

V ref
supply is taken from pin 16 Choosing R1 and R2 to be 10K, this implies then

that for a collector current of 1mA in the photo transistor, the resistance R E needed will
be;
V ref 2.5
RE
= Ic = 1 x 103 = 2500

Thus a variable resistor of 5K was used and adjusted accordingly.

The feedback control is as shown below. The diode used has a PIV of 400V,

12
 Fig 2.7 Optocoupler feedback control circuit

2.7 SOFT-START
The compensation pin 9 was used for the soft start circuit. This helps to prevent overshoot of the output
at start. It uses a resistor and a capacitor charging circuit to introduce the delay.
The time delay can be obtained thus,
T = RC
For time delay of 20mS and for C to be 4.7f
T 20 x 103
R= C = 4.7 x 106 = 255

A 4.7K is used instead. This will give a delay of

T = 4700 x 4.7x10-6 = 22mS.

Fig 2.8 Soft start circuit for the PWM I.C

2.8 UNDER VOLTAGE AND OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION

The Inverter is also aimed as having the capability to switchover to inversion stage whenever the mains
voltage falls below a certain value and when it goes above the high limit in case of surges. The under
13
voltage trip voltage is set for 170V and the value for the over voltage trip point is 240V a.c. The circuit
for the under voltage and over-voltage protection is shown in figure 2.9.

Fig 2.9 Under-voltage and over-voltage protection circuit

Whenever mains power is restored, capacitor C1 is charge through R1 and the time it takes to charge to
the reference voltage set by R2 determines the start up delay for the switch-over.
Switch-over time delay TD = 0.7 R1 C1
Choosing TD = 3 seconds and C1 = 100 F
Td 3
R1 = 0.7C 1 = 0.7 x 10 x 10
6 = 42,857

A value of 39k was used as the closest standard.

Resistors R2 and R5 are variable resistor for setting reference voltages of the op-amps and their chosen
values are 50k.
D2 and D3 are for forward conduction of the output current from each of the comparator outputs and
blocks any reverse current flow.
Zener diode ZD1 function is to block offset voltage from causing false trigger by choosing Z D1 to have a
breakdown voltage greater than the offset but not up to the positive saturation voltage in order for it to
conduct when saturation voltage appears. A Zener voltage of 3.9V was chosen as this is greater than the
offset voltage of 1.2V but not up to saturation voltage of 10.5V.
Thus base resistor R3 value is;

14
 V compV ZD 1V be
R3 = Ib

Where, Vcomp = comparator positive saturation voltage of 10.5V

VZD1 = Zener diode break down voltage of 3.9V
Vbe = transistor base emitter voltage of 0.7V
Ib = base current
The collector load of TR1 is the switch over relay RLY1 and
Its ratings are;
Operating voltage = 12V d.c
Coil Resistance = 400
V 12
Current IR = R = 400 = 30mA

IC IR
Collector current = = 30mA

Ic
Ib
Transistor base current =

For a beta of 100;

Ib 30 x 103 5
= 100 = 30x 10 A

The base current was increased by a factor of 10 for effective drive.

10.53.90.7
Rb
= 30 x 105 x 10 = 1.966k

A value of 2 k was chosen as the standard value.

Diode D1 is a freewheeling diode to protect TR1 from the inductive surge current at switch-off.

2.9 MOSFET DRIVE BUFFERS

The complementary transistor buffer was used to amplify the output of the pulse-width modulator to
the mosfets. The NPN, PNP complementary inverter circuit was used as the buffer stage and the
diagram is shown in figure 2.10

15
 Fig 2.10 Complementary transistor
Below are the specification for TR1 and TR2
TR1, C945; TR2, A733 specification
2.10 PROTECTION/SNUBBER CIRCUIT
The circuit needs to provide some protection to it components from adverse operational conditions that
could prove damaging and cause failure. The protection scheme put in place are;
Overload protection
Under voltage and over-voltage protection
Snubber for Mosfets.

The overload protection was realized with the use of a miniature circuit breaker (MCB). Based on the
design, the maximum load current is;
power 2000
Load current IL = voltage = 220 = 9.09A for the secondary,

2000
Primary IL = 24 = 83.3A

For reasons of fast switching, a MCB rating of 90% was chosen and this will be;
MCB rating = IL x 0.9 = 83.3x0.9 = 75A

CHAPTER THREE: OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE, TEST AND RESULT

16
3.0 OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE OF THE 2.0KVA INVERTER WITH UNDERVOLTAGE
AND OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION.
IC4 is the pulse-width modulator and its function is to generate the 50H Z alternate pulses needed to
drive the mosfets. R29 and C8 are for compensation while R30 and C9 determine the frequency of
oscillation. R31 and R32 set the Reference voltage of 2.5V for pulse-width modulation control through
pin 2 of IC4. This reference is constantly compared with the voltage at pin 1 from the opto-coupler to
determine the trend of the pulse-width variation but it works in inverse relation as to balance the
change in output voltage such that when the output voltage tend to increase, the pulse-width reduces
and vice-versa to keep the output voltage constant within a tolerance range.
Transistor TR6 TR9 and Mosfet M1 and M2 make up the transistor drivers. The output from IC4 is
boosted by TR6 - TR9 and fed to mosfets M1 and M2. M1 and M2 switch the d.c voltage at the primary of
transformer T2, which is serving as the step-up transformer, to create the alternating voltage (a.c) effect
and flux change needed for transformation by the transformer. The transformer then would step-up the
now converted 24 dc to 24 A.C. to 220V A.C. R23, C5 and R24, C4 are snubbers and they help protect
the mosfet transistor from the surge current effect of the transformer switch action particularly during
switch off by creating an alternate path for discharge instead of current forcing their way through the
mosfets.
Opto-coupler, bridge rectifier D1-D4, R34 and R35 make up the feedback network. The output voltage is
rectified to d.c after limited by resistor R 34. This d.c controls the conduction of the LED of the opto-
coupler and this in turn controls the conduction of the photo transistor. When the output voltage
increases, the light intensity of LED increases and this causes increase in phototransistor conduction
and increase emitter voltage across R35. This change is detected by IC4 through pin1 and the
consequence is that the pulse-width of the pulses generated is gradually reduced in proportion to the
change. This is such so that the output voltage that was initially high would begin to drop to the
nominal value and vice-versa.
The other stages are the supervisory stage. They consist of the under-voltage and over voltage
detection, low battery charge detection and switch/changeover stage.
The changeover switch is the Relay but controlled by the converter circuit of step-down transformer T1
and bridge rectifier D5 D8 and capacitor C3. T1 steps mains voltage of 220V when mains supply is
restored after power outage, capacitor C2 is charged up through R15. IC7 compares this capacitor C2
charge with a reference voltage from R 16 and when it goes above the reference, the comparator output
goes positive and transistor TR5 conducts and switches on the Relay to control the load (output) to mains
supply. This charging effect creates a start-up delay. IC4 is instantly shutdown through pin 10 by the
17
voltage fed to it by voltage divider R 13 and R14 and diodes D10. LED 5 comes on to indicate mains
supply.
The shutdown of IC4 stops inversion process. This inversion stoppage enables the transformer to now
function as a step-down transformer (T2), stepping down 220V from mains to 24a.c which is then
rectified to D.c by diodes D12 and D13 to charge-up the battery. D11 help in bypassing the MCB switch
during charging when the switch is off.
When there is mains supply, comparator IC6 that is serving as the over-voltage detector with IC5
serving as under-voltage detector, monitors the mains supply change through the unregulated DC from
D5 D8 and C3. They both would detect and give outputs when they detect their respective voltage
limits. This will in turn cause TR4 to conduct and cut-off TR3 which controls the Relay (switch-over) and
the relay automatically cuts off mains and goes to inversion mode.
The next supervisory circuit is the low battery charge detector. IC1 is a comparator that detects the low
battery charge by comparing a sampled d.c charge voltage from the battery through R 2 and a zener
diode reference set by ZD1. When the low charge limit is reached, the comparator output goes positive
and LED1 comes on to indicate low battery charge and IC2 which is a 555 timer astablemultivibrator is
triggered to start oscillating at a frequency of 0.33H Z. This is counted by a divide by 100 counter IC3 to
create a delay of about 5 minutes and at the end it gives an output to shut down the inversion process
via D9 to IC4. The oscillating pulse is also routed to the buzzer and driver T R1. TR3 controls inversion
LED indicator.
R5, R6 and C1 determine oscillatory frequency of IC2.
R4 is a pull-down resistor and R7 too, to keep the inputs at ground potential and discharge any residual
charge.
D14 protects TR5 from relay switching current during switch off. TR2 controls the resetting action of the
divide by 100 counters. Diodes D12 and D13 function is to prevent overloading of both comparators
outputs to themselves since they dont give positive output at the same time by serving as a blockage to
current that is supposed to flow to TR4 to the other comparator whose output may be a low (0V)
potential.
C6, C7 and L serves as a low pass pi-fitter to help filter off harmonics from the output and also smooth
the wave-form to sinusoidal wave-form
R33 is a limiting resistor to IC8 which is a 12V, IC voltage regulator.
Miniature circuit partaker (MCB) doubles as the power switch and overload protection device.
R1 = limiting resistance to Zener diode (ZD1)

18
R3 R19, R2 = limiting resistances to LEDS.
M1 and M2 represents bank of Mosfets connected in parallel to handle the load current.

Fig 3.1 Complete Circuit Diagram of A 2KVA Inverter

3.1 CONSTRUCTION
A step-by-step construction approach was employed in the course of this project. The order of
construction started with the transformer followed by the rectification stage, sensing and monitoring
circuit, comparator and transistor switching.
Bread boarding was done first as it was essential to confirm that the design will work when tested and
if not what necessary corrections and adjustment must be done before transferring the components to
the Vero board for permanent soldering.
The component layout was planned first before the components were laid out on the breadboard and
Vero board respectively. After the breed boarding and test carried with necessary adjustment done, the
circuit components were transferred to the Vero board for permanent soldering.

19
I.C. socket stand was used for the SG3524 and the components were neatly soldered and the copper
strips along the Vero board were neatly scrapped off at points where it is not needed to avoid short-
circuits.
After complete soldering has been done, continuity test was carried out to check for any likely shorts.
Each of the steps was carefully soldered on the Vero board with leads for indicators and voltmeters
connected out and the LEDs.
The looping of the power cord to the transformer and also connecting wires from the transformer stage
to the MOSFETs and to the relay and finally to the battery terminals via the relay was carefully and
neatly done.
The MOSFETs were screwed down to heat sinks for effective heat dissipation. The fan was connected
for cooling purpose.

3.2 CASING
The complete unit was housed in a metallic casing with the battery terminals for positive and negative,
power switch, handle, output voltmeter, were neatly connected and placed in their allotted space and
slots.
The casing was earthed and the components were also carefully laid out inside it. The diagram of the
casing is shown in figure 3.2

Fig 3.2 Casing

3.3 TESTING
Testing of the circuit was done to ensure the unit would work to expectation. The following tests were
carried out.

20
3.3.1 LOAD TEST
Table 3.1 Plot of output voltage against output current

Output Voltage (v) Output Current (A)

220 5
220 10
218 15
217 20
216 25

Fig 3.3 Plot of output voltage against output current

3.3.2 CHARGING CAPACITY TEST

The following test was carried out to determine the charging rate of the inverter.

Table 3.2 Plot of battery voltage against time

Time, t (Min) Battery voltage (V)

20 21.80
40 22.54
60 23.10
80 23.84
100 24.52
120 24.85

21
 Fig 3.4 Plot of battery voltage against time

3.3.3 TRANSFORMER OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

This test is necessary to ascertain if the output voltage and power loss are within specification.

Fig 3.5 Transformer open circuit test.

Table 3.3 Transformer Open Circuit Test Result
V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) I(A)
0.00 0.00 0.0
50.00 5.45 0.03
100.00 10.95 0.11
150.00 16.34 0.35
200.00 21.41 0.52
220.00 24.20 0.71

3.3.4 TRANSFORMER SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

The test diagram for the transformer short circuit is as shown below. In this case, the variac was
adjusted and the necessary voltages at input and current at the output were measured accordingly.
The output from the variac was 10% of output voltage and an ammeter was connected at the secondary
to measure the short-circuit current.

22
 Fig 3.6 Transformer short circuit test
Table 3.4 Transformer Short Circuit Test Result
Vin(volts) Isc1 (A) Isc2(A)
0.00 0.00 0.00
5.00 0.68 6.50
10.00 1.35 12.80
15.00 2.30 21.90
20.00 3.10 28.50
22.00 3.80 -------

3.3.5 INVERTER OPEN CIRCUIT AND LOAD TEST

The test was done to ensure that the UPS is working as expected. The test would help to ascertain its
behavior under load with respect to the output voltage stability. This was achieved by connecting
voltmeter to the output of the UPS (Inverter) output, under no load and load test. A 60W incandescent
light bulb was used as the load. The test result is in table 2.5. The open circuit voltage of the UPS on no
load was set to 230V and this was also the no load voltage.

Table 3.5 Inverter Load Test Result

Voltage output (V) Output Current (A)

230 0.26
228 0.27
225 0.29
222 0.31
220 0.32

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION, BILL AND EVALUATION

4.0 CONCLUSION
The central objective of designing, constructing and analyzing the output waveform of a 2.0KVA,
220V alternating current, 50Hz uninterruptible power supply (UPS), was successful. The design and
23
construction was based on discrete components such as Pulse Width Modulator IC, MOSFET, and
Opto-coupler etc.
The project involved designing and eventually construction the unit. The principles of operation have
been highlighted and discussed. The circuit worked satisfactorily as shown by the test results.

4.1 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION,

Table 4.1 gives the price list of components used in the construction as at September 2010

Below is the table for bill of quantities. It gives the relative cost per unit of components and the total
amount of the work.
Table 4.1: BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION, SEPTEMBER 2010

S/N ITEMS UNITPRICE(N) QUANTITY AMOUNT(N)

1 RESISTORS 5 34 170
2 CAPACITORS 40 9 360
3 BRIDGE RECTIFIERS 80 2 80
4 UA741 60 1 60
5 7812 40 2 80
6 VARIABLE RESISTOR 20 4 80
7 DIODE 10 14 140
8 LED 10 4 40
9 POWER SWITCH 50 1 50
10 24V TRANSFORMER 20 1 20
11 68OHMS-5W 20 2 40
12 VEROBOARD 50 2 100
13 WIRES AND CABLES 700 - 700
14 SOLDERIND LEAD 400 - 400
15 CASING 1500 - 1500
16 FUSE AND SOCKETS 70 1 70
17 24V/220V TRANSFORMER 2500 1 2500
18 IRFP150N MOSFET 350 10 3500
19 SCREWS 300 - 300
20 BATTERY TERMINAL 100 2 200
21 SG3524N 150 150
22 OUTPUT SOCKET 100 1 100
23 4N35 OPTOCOUPLER 300 1 300
24 IC SOCKET 20 6 120
25 COOLING FANS 250 1 250
26 12V RELAY 150 1 150
27 POWER PLUG 40 1 40
28 OUTPUT METER 90 1 90
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 29 TAPE 150 1 15
TOTAL 11,740

25 | P a g e

REFERENCES
(1) Attribute t Wikipedia contributors available under the creative commons attribution share alike
lincence.
(2) ABS Alaskan(2006) DC to AC power inverters. http://www.absak.com/basic/inverter.html
(3) Walmart.com. power inverter listings (2006).
(4) D. Krotz. Microgrids: reliable power in a small package. Berkley lab.science beat May 7, 2012

25
REFEREES

Engr (Dr.) A.J. Gana

Department of Civil Engineering, Landmark University P.M.B 1001, Omu-Aran Kwara State.

(08059968656)

M.Sc, PGD Eng, M.Sc, PhD (U.S.A)MNSE, MNICE,MNIEM,MNIM, I Struct E London (u.k), ICE

London (u.k)

COREN Reg. (R16, 2012)

Engr. (Dr.) O.C. Osueke

Mechanical Engineering, Landmark University P.M.B 1001, Omu-Aran Kwara State. (08033245942)

MNIMech E, MNSE, COREN Reg. (R15, 047)

Engr. Oghogho

Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Landmark University P.M.B 1001, Omu-Aran

Kwara State. (08060676748)

COREN Reg. (R19, 708)

26