IEC Std.
61000-3-2 Harmonic Current Emission
Limits in Practical Systems: Need of Considering
I.oading Level and Attenuation Effects
A. Prudenzi, member IEEE
ElectricalEngineeringDept.
Universityof LAquila
(j7{~41)
Montelucodi Roio,1,Aquila,Italy
Abstract: The pa~perdeals with the harmonic emission limits
provided by International Electroteelmical Commission (IEC)
Std. 61000-3-2 fawappliances with current absorption less than
or equal to 16 Amps. To this aim :mttentionis focussed on
personal computers (PC) as a samplfe of the wide non-linear
appliance class D as regulated by the Standard. Results of some
laboratory tests on a PC supplied from the low voltage (LV) grid
show that: 1) IEC limits expressed in mA/W are exceeded by
actual PCs operating in practical systems; 2) the IEC limits are
stated for nomirnialload even though lower Ioading conditions
produce h~her specific (mA/W) harmonic contents. The
problems are assessed by means of a testing activity performed
in laboratory. To tlds aim, an experimental layout providing
harmonic monitming of a PC supplied from a system with
variable impedance has been implemented in laboratory.
Keywords: Harmonic distortion, IEC Standard, Single-phase
harmouics.
I, INTRODUCTION
The ever increasing penetration of single-phase power
electronic-based appliances into the different segments of end-
use demands the establishment of adequate harmonic current
limits.
Recently, IEC Sub Conunitte A of tlhe Committee 77 (EMG
Electromagnetic Compatibility) has produced a new
Publication, IEC Std. 61000-3-2, that settles the harmonic
current emission limits for non-linear (NL) appliances rated 16
Amps and below. Most of NL appliances in such absorption
range take part of the class identified by the Std. as class D [1].
The IEC Std. substantially differs ilom the analogous IEEE Std.
519-92 [2] which does not stipulate a limit on the harmonic
current emission from the individual NL equipment loads,
irrespective of their characteristics cr topology. The former
Std. thus attributes the principal burden of complying with
emission limits to the individual appliance manufacturer.
IEC proposes emission limits be tested for appliances in ideal
conditions of supply that are not duplicated in practice:
voltage source nearly perfectly sinusoidal with a small internal
impedance; nominal absorption from NL appliance.
It is well known that the NL appliance harmonic impact on
distribution networks is highly influenced by the
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U. Grasselli, member IEEE, R. Latnedica, member IEEE
ElectricalEngineeringDept.
Universityof RomeLaSapienza
00184Roma,Italy
characteristics of both the upstream system (in terms of short-
circuit impedance or current at the point of common coupling
(PCC)) and the non-linear loading conditions (non-linear load
amount at the PCC).
The IEEE Std. 519-92 and the current revision drafts account
for such variables by introducing the ratio Isc/11between short
circuit current value at the PCC (Isc) and the fundamental load
current (11)drawn from PCC, At Isc/11variation the effect of NL
appliances on the grid can significantly vary, since such a ratio
acts as an indicator of the stiffness of the supply system at
Pcc [3,4].
In the paper, the effects on PCs current and voltage harmonic
spectra of both load levels different fi-om nominal and
attenuation due to system impedance have been assessed
through testing conducted on a PC supplied from a generic
PCC, The experimental activity has employed a custom
monitoring equipment that allows continuous harmonic
quantities recording.
The obtained results provide a usefnl experimental support for
a correct application of the emission limits set by IEC Std.
II, EMISSION
LIMITSFROMIEC STD.610003-2
The IEC 610003is the part of the IEC 61000concerning emission
and immunity limits. The section of the IEC 61000-3 involving
limits on harmonic current injected into public distribution
networks by non-linear appliances with input current less than
or equal 16 Amps is classified as IEC 61000-3-2.
This latter Std. classifies such appliances in four classes: A-D.
For each class harmonic current emission limits are reported for
harmonic orders up to the 39*. The different classes include
the following types:
class A: three-phase appliances
m class B: portable appliances
class C: lighting appliances, including dirrnnered systems
class D: appliances with input current with an assigned
special waveshape and an active input power of PS600 W
measured according to the method illustrated in the Std.
The special waveshape of class D is given in Fig. 1 and
refers to the input current wave shape typically drawn by
single-phase power electronic -based loads employing diode
bridge rectifiers with bulk capacitances. Personal computers
are among the most widespread equipment taking part of class
277
D. In particular, the harmonic current limits provided for this Furthermore, the voltage waveshape available at the outlet in
class are listed in Table I. practical systems is not perfectly sinusoidal but it is affected
The IEC 61000..3-2 provides also, in Annexes, the main by a background (no-load) voltage total harmonic distortion
requirements fc}r testing individual appliance harmonic (VTHDO)typically in the range 1-3%. Fig. 2 shows the VTHDO
emissions in the regulated frequency range. To this aim, the average daily profile for a working day, as recorded at an outlet
followingprovisions are adopted for vwi~ing compliance with used for the current tests.
the stated limits: The resultrng voltage distortion affects the PC!s harmonic

The equivalent circuit for single-phase tests must provide current absorption by causing not neglectable attenuation
a nearly perfect sinusoidal voltage source (with a maximum effects, as discussed further,
harmonic content adequately limited) with a small internal
impedance !3,5

The operating conditions of each class of appliances 3
during the test stage are adequately fixed. 2,5
g
According to the last point, PCs are classified as Information 2
2
Technology Equipment (ITE). For such a class the testing ~ 1,5

procedure providlesmeasurements at nominal load. The current 1

value drawn at nominal load will be assumed as I~Omm~F 0,5

0 ~11rrn
18.s4 2234 2.54 6.54 10,54 14.54

time
Fig.2. Dailyprofileofno-loadVTHDas recordedat a PCC used for
testing.

B. Loading Levels
The Fig. 3 illustrates the simplified schematic of a typical PCs
n WI) mm power supply.
Fig. 1. Envelopedefininginput current specialwaveshapeof class D.
Input switching
TABLEI
HarmonicemissionlimitsprovidedforclassD.
Harmonicorder n maximumadmissible maximumadmissible
I I harmonic current harmonic current (A)
VA.C.
DC
outputs

7 1.0 0.77
9 0.5 0.4
11 0.35 0.33
133<39 3.85/n 0.15*15/n
III. PC OPERATIONIN PRACTICALSYSTEMS
During typical operation PCs power supply characteristics are
different from those provided by the IEC testing procedures for
the following main considerations.
A. System impedance and Background Voltage Distortion
PC is typically supplied from an ordinary outlet connected to
the LV grid tbrcmgh a system impedance that is higher than
that provided by IEC. The impedance value depends upon the
distribution system layout that is highly specific for each
Country. The European system is typically characterized by
higher impedance values than American one.
The harmonic currents produced by PC interact with the
upstream system impedance thus determining harmonic
voltage drops giving origin to voltage distortion.
Fig. 3. Simplifiedschematicof a typicalPCspowersupply.
It is well known that PCs power supplies are typically under-
utilised with respect to their nominal rating since they are
manufactured to supply even the more complex configuration
of internal devices, Therefore, PC operates with a current
absorption (I1auJ typically less than the nominal one (lnOmtiJ
The bulk capacitance (C in Fig. 3) is designed for nornnal load
and when the PCs demand is lower the conduction angle of
the diodes is shorter, thus giving origin to narrower current
pulses. This fact determines that loading conditions different
from nominal ones cause a higher harmonic current content for
the PC.
Some laboratory tests whose results are shown in Table 11
evidence how significantly loading conditions affect harmonic
current production from PCs power supply,
Table II reports the harmonic current values both in Amps and
in mA/W as monitored for a PCs power supply in two different
loading conditions: operation at rated nominal active power
(200 W), and operation at actual demand relevant to a typical
configuration absorption (75 W). The power demand relevant

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to the above mentioned loading conditions was, respectively,
161
of 264 and 107 W. The harmonic current values expressed in
tnA/W in Table H have been calculated with reference to these
latter values. In the Table both the short-circuit current value
(Isc) and the system impedance angle (phi=arctg(X/R)) as
recorded at the LV outlet in no-load conditions are reported.
The results in Table II show that the specific harmonic current
absorption in mA/W increases with load decreasing with
respect to the nominal value. 357911 f3iS 171921246 6101214161E20

In the Table it is also evident that the harmonic current harmonicorder

emission limits e~pressed in mA/W in Table I for nominal load
Fig.4.No-load voltsge harmonicspectrummonitored at UPSsterminals.
are largely exceeded by the PC monitored during practical Comparisonwith limits stated by standard(VTHD=2.7YO).
operation.

TABLE II
Hmmoniccurrents monitored for a PCspower supplyconnectedto a
LV outlet (Isc=163A, phi=lOO).
Harmonic Current (A) Current (A) CurrentiW CurrentiW
order (P=200 w) (P=75 w) (mA/w) (mA/w)
(P=200 w) (P=75 w)
3 Cl,981 0.418 3.806 3.891
5 [1,655 0.322 2.539 3,002
7 CI,425 0,206 1.648 1,922 35791113 t3171921246 6101314161020

9 C1.367 0.089 1.423 0.830 h8fMOrtlC OWN

11 CI.305 0.005 1.184 0.046
13 CI.178 0.051 0.691 0.474 Fig, 5. No-1oadvoltage harmonic spectrum monitored at motor-
generatorsetsterminals.Comparisonwith limits stated by standard
15 C1.083 0.059 0.321 0.553
(VTHD=l.4%).
17 0.062 0.044 0.239 0.408
19 CI.037 0.018 0.145 0.171
TABLE III
Harmoniccurrents monitoredfor a PC supplied from a static UPS.
Harmonic Current (A) Current (A) Current/w CurrentlW
IV. PC SUPPLIEDBY AUXILIARY VOLTAGESOuRCES order (P=200w) (P-75 w) (mA/W) (mA/W)
In order to approach ideal conditions requked by IEC Std. for
(P=200w) (P=75w)
3 1.135 0.444 4.299 4.154
the voltage source used for testing class D appliances, tests
5 0.888 0.351 3.364 3.281
have been also performed with two auxiliary voltage sources
7 0.625 0.239 2.368 2.236
whose ratings have been selected for being adequately higher 9 0.407 0.139 1.543 1.296
than PCs demamk 11 0.245 0.069 0.929 0,648
a 10 kVA rated static UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply),

an auxiliary motor-generator (M-G) set with nominal

I 13 I 0.132 I 0.022 I 0.498 ] 0.205 j
15 0.051 0.015 0.193 0.139
voltage of 380 Vand nominal rating c}f80 kVA. 17 0.014 0.021 0.054 0.198
For the either alternative supply sources, the no-load harmonic 19 0.042 0!001 0.158 ++ 0.013
voltage distortion at the source terminals was higher than that
provided by IEC 61000-3-2 for testing procedures. However, TABLE IV
the test has been considered meaningfld for reproducing in Harmoniccurrents monitored for a PC supplied ftom a M-G set,
laboratory supply conditions different ilom those relevant to Harmonic Current (A) Current (A) CurrentiW CurrentiW
the ordinsry LV grid. order (P=200 w) (P=75 w) (mA/w) (ttww)
(P=200 w) (P=75 w)
The no-load voltage harmonic spectra as recorded for both
3 1!122 0.441 4.251 4.124
even and odd hamnonic orders are reported in Figs. 4 and 5 3<450
5 0.939 0.369 3.557
jointly with the individual harmonic limits provided by the 7 0.723 0.282 2.737 2.637
standard. 9 0.515 0.193 1.953 1.804
The PC, in analogy with the previous tests, has been ,,
11
11.
V.>*Y
Afi A,l
V.11O
L
1.UO*
1 -1~-!
1.04>
i n0,4

H
monitored while operating respectively at nominal load (200 W) 13 0.238 0.069 0.900 0.648
and at an actual load of 75 W. 15 0.163 0.059 0.619 0.549
The harmonic currents recorded during tests are reported in 17 0.103 0.043 0.388 0.403
Table HI and IV for the two operating conditions both in 19 0.050 0.053 0.190 0.496
absolute (A) and specific terms (mA/W).
The results of Tables HI and IV show that the IEC harmonic
current emission limits expressed in mA/W are again exceeded

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for nominal loading. However, the values relevant to the 75 W
loading condition ;re no longer higher than those relevant to
nominal load.
Therefo~, the hi~~onic current emission patterns monitored
for a PC supplied.from an artificial voltage source (ideal or not)
are expected to substantially change in practical conditions
providing the PC connected to the grid.
V, kL4JtMONICMONITORINGACTrVITY
A. Experimental Layout
In order to investigate more in depth how loading levels and
attenuation phenomena affect harmonic current spectrum in
practical systems, some PCs have been tested in laboratory
with the experimental layout reported in Fig, 6.
The testing activity provided harmonic monitoring of a PC
supplied from a PCC whose impedance was gradually changed
in order to perform a parametrical analysis of PCs harmonic
content versus Isc/11ratio [5,6].
The variable R and L components of Fig. 6 have been
introduced in order to produce the above mentioned changes
of the system impedance.
The measurements were taken at the labs premises and have
provided a continuous monitoring activity of harmonic
quantities for every session. To this aim a custom monitoring
equipment has been used with the main characteristics
reported below.
Current and voltage harmonics (magnitude and phase angle) of
order up to 40* have been continuously monitored at the PCC.
harmonic current magnitudes reduction with the voltage
harmonic distortion increase at the PCC [3,4]. Therefore, as the
PCC voltage becomes more distorted either current individual
harmonic distortion (IHD) for each harmonic order or, thus,
current total harmonic distortion index (lTHD) demease.
Even this effect can be attributed to the power supplier diodes
(see Fig, 3) conduction angle variation. With distortion the
tendency of the supply voltage waveshape is to become more
flattened thus giving origin to larger conduction angles of the
diodes with the consequence of more flattened current pulses,
The attenuation effects have been artificially reproduced in
some monitoring sessions conducted respectively on a
Pentium PC and a 486 PC with the measurement layout of Fig.
6,
Every session provided PCC harmonic voltage and current
continuous monitoring.
The Figs. 7 $-d) report average values of the scatter plots
obtained by monitoring harmonic currents at the PCC for
various Isc/11 values. The figures report only the main
harmonic orders (3rd,5* and 7*)jointly with ITHD.
The numerical values in Figs. 7 are expressed in percent of the
fundamental current. The figures show clearly how large can
be attenuation of the PCs harmonic current at system
impedance increase (Isc decrease).
The tests giving results reported in Table H have been
repeated for the same PC but connected to a PCC with a
system impedance significantly higher (Isc=48 A, phi= 600).
The results are reported in Table V. The results evidence how
attenuation effects can amplifJ the loading level effects
mentioned in $ III.

TABLE V
Harmoniccurrents monitored for a PCspower supply connectedto a
LV outlet (Isc=48A, phi=600).
Harmonic Current (A) Current (A) Current/l? Current/w
Fig. 6. Measurementslayout order (P=200 w) (P=75 w) (mA/W) (roAnv)
(P=200 w) (P=75 w
3 0.829 0.347 3.227 3.246
B. Monitoring Equipment Characteristics
5 0.437 0.231 .= 1.700 2.159
The custom monitoring equipment used for measurements had 7 0.134 0.116 0.523 1.082
the characteristics illustrated in [5], The equipment permits the 9 0.105 0.071 0.407 0.668
simultaneous and synchronous sampling of multiple single 11 0.086 0,065 0.335 0.610
phase voltage and current signals by using two different 13 0.042 0.048 0.164 0.448
acquisition boards dedicated respectively to voltage and 15 0.048 0.054 0.188 0.504
current channels. The equipment is based on a Pentium PC 17 0.034 0.052 0.131 0.489
(120 Mhz). 19 0.029 0.053 0.114 0.499
Traditional CTS,(Current Transformers) and PTs (Potential
Transformers) are adopted with an accuracy of 0.570 in the As above mentioned, the IEC Std. testing procedure is applied
range 50 Hz -5 kHz. The global accuracy achieved by the to NL appliance at nominal load.
equipment on RMS voltage and current values measurement is The results of Figs. 7 show that in practical systems, where the
higher than 0.7340. supply voltage is affected by a certain level of VTHD,
attenuation effects must be expected. In presence of such
VI. ATTENUATION EFFECTS effects the nominal loading conditions of appliance is less
conservative in terms of harmonic current content.
It is well known that at a PCC supplying a NL load there exists
As a matter of fact, with reference to Figs. 7, since Isc/11
an interaction of voltage and current distortion primarily due to
increases with 11decreasing, it is evident that the nominal load
the system impedance, This effect has been defined
condition gives origin to the minimum harmonic content for the
attenuation since it produces, as main consequence, the
absorbed current.

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 ITHD,c,.~> ITHDno.tiai (2)
a)
The compliance with emission limits set for nominal conditions,
therefore, seems a less conservative action which brings
underestimate posside negative effects of harmonic current
flows within distribution networks.
D
Pentium
a
A PCs power supplier manufactured with characteristics
complying with IEC emission limits, in typical practical
65

ill L-
0 .53 100 1s 200 250 300
conditions produces specific harmonic currents (mA/W) well
exceeding limits.

lad
VII. EMISSIONJJMITS AND VOLTAGEDISTORTION AT PCC
Emission limits set for nominal loading result conservative
b) whereas they are used for evaluating possible impact of NL
appliances directly on voltage total harmonic distortion index
(VTHD) at a PCC. This consideration can be adequately
circumstanced through reference to the Isc/11parameter.
The lab tests performed have provided even voltage distortion
monitoring at the PCC. In particular, every monitoring session
provided several subsequent tests, each lasting few minutes
aL.., . . ..q . . ..e......q...< (l-3 reins), Each test provided harmonic voltage and current
o 50 100 150 200 250 300
recording at the equipment terminals (coincident with PCC) for
Isdll
constant loading conditions and different additional
impe&nce values. No-load measurement of VTHDOhas been
even performed either at beginning or at end of each test for
c) veri@ing VTHDO constance and calculating the harmonic
50 distortion due to the PC in incremental terms with respect to

L.........
L
40
the no-load values @VTHD=VTHD-VTHDO). Every test has
e
provided 2000-3000 measurement values for each harmonic
~so
c1
=!20
~.
.:

D
- Pentiu
a
quantity.
The results thus obtained have given origin to scatter plots
10 0
whose average values are shown in Fig. 8. The plots in Fig, 8
are in particular relevant to the various system impedance
0
mot
phase angle values reported in legends,
0 50 100 150 250 3m
The plots thus obtained can predict the VTHD increase due to
kdll
a PC supplied from an upstream system with variable
impedance. The impedance variation is used for parametrically
d) reproducing the various possible conditions that can be
130
a verified in a LV distribution network.

. # rtt
120

110

&
x
530
103
v
m
e=

La
e Pentium
.

0
60 * 60
70 30
4
60
a 100 150 200 250 300

I.scnl 0
0 w -2x0 300 400 5W

Isdll
Fig. 7. Attenuationeffects for harmoniccurrents drawn by a PC vs.
l[sc/11:a) 3@,b) 5*;c) 7h;d) ITHD. Fig. 8. VTHDimpactof a PCfordifferentIsc/11ratiosanddifferent
systemimpedanceangles@hi=arctg(X/R)
in degrees).
Thus, due to the attenuation effects the following inequalities
hold valid for a general loading condition with Iacttil<Ino~M: Fig. 8 shows that the VTHD contributed by PC is maximum for
nominal loading conditions (lower values of Isc/11) and
IHD,Ct#HD.O.ti., (for every harmonic order) (1) decreases with I,c~.~tending to I*o~ti.1.
and thus,

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Furthermore, Fig, 8 shows that the effect highly depends upon
phase angle of the upstream system impedance (phi=arctg
X/R) calculated at PCC.
However, IEC 61000-3-2 does not explicitly mention X/R
values, but suggests only that the internal impedance
magnitude of the voltage source should be adequately low.
In other terms, emission limits set on harmonic currents seem
correctly addressed to verifi that a NL appliance produces
minimum impact on voltage distortion, However, since such an
impact strictly dl:pends upon the distribution level to which an
appliance is comtected (Isc and phi variations throughout the
LV grid can be even very large), it can be possible that an
appliance complying the limits gives origin to completely
different distortion when connected to different PCCS on the
same LV grid,
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The paper deals with the harmonic emission limits provided by
the IEC Std. 61000-3-2 for appliances with input current not
greater than 16 Amps. In particular, attention is focussed on a
specific class of such appliances (class D) including PCs.
The IEC Std. sets limits for NL appliances operating at nominal
load and provides testing circuits supplied from a voltage
source not affected by distortion and characterized by a small
internal impedance.
The limits are thus set up in ideal conditions that are not
duplicated in practical systems: NL appliances (like PCs) can
operate at loading levels lower than nominal; the voltage
waveshape is affected by background voltage distortion; the
system impedance is not as small as required by IEC.
The conditions required by IEC are neither reproduced with
auxiliary voltage sources (M-G set, UPS) of adequate capacity.
Some lab tests performed on a PC operating in practical
conditions show that:
the harmonic currents produced at a load lower than
nominal are highcq
m the attenuation effects due to a distorted voltage source
supplying the PC are maximum for nominal load.
From the above mentioned results it descends that the IEC
limits are not conservative for limiting harmonic current flows
from NL appliances in practical systems. In other terms, a PCs
power supplier complying with IEC emission limits can produce
specific harmonic currents (mA/W) well exceeding limits while
it operates in practical systems,
In the paper it is also demonstrated that current emission limits
set up for nominal load results conservative when considering
impact on PCC in terms of VTHD, In such terms, in fact, the
nominal loading conditions of appliances are the most
impacting,
Finally, the results reported in the paper evidence that in a
revision activity of the IEC Std. loading levels and attenuation
effects occurring in practical systems should be considered for
assessing testing procedures.
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REFERENCES
[1] IEC Std. 61000-3-2 (1995). Electromagnetic Compatibility. Part 3:
Limits. Section 2: Limits for harmoniccurrent emissions (equipment
input current < 16A per phase. Gen~ve 1995.
[2] IEEE Std. 519 (1992). IEEE recommended practices and
requirements for harmonic control of electrical power systems.
IEEE, New York 1993.
[3] A. Martsoor, W.M. Grady, AH. Chowdhury, MI. Samotyj, An
investigation of harmonics attenuation and diversity among
distributed single-phase power electronics loads, IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, Vol. 10,no. 1, Jan. 1995.
[4] A. Mansoor, W.M. Grady, P.T, Staats, R.S. Thallam, M.T. Doyle,
M.J. Samotyj, Predictingthe net harmonic currents produced by
large nomber of distributed single-phase computer loads, IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 10,no. 4, Oct. 1995.
[5] A.Capasso,R.Lanwdica,A.Pnrdenzi,Experimentalcharacterization
of personal computers harmonic impact on power quality,
Computer Standards& Interfaces 21 (1999) pp. 321-333.
[6] A. Capasso, R. Lamedica, A. Pntdenzi, Cellular phone battery
chargers impact on voltage quality, Proc. of IEEE PES Smurner
GeneralMeeting,paper 2000 SM-308, Seattle, July 1.6-20,2000.
BIOGRAPHIES
Alberto Prudenzi received the degree and the Ph.D, degree in
Electrical Engineering from the University of Rome La Sapienza.
From 1992 to 1998 he was Assistant Professor in Electrical Power
Systems at the Dept. of Electrical Engineering of the University of
Rome. Since 1998 he has been Associate Professor at the Dept. of
Electrical Engineeringof the University of LAquila.His main interests
include Power Systemsanalysis,Load Researchand Power Quslity. Since
1999 he has been member of the Italian CIRED Committe.He is IEEE-
PES and AEI (Italian ElectricalAssociation)member.
E-mail address: prudenzi@. ing. univaq. it
Umberto Grasselli receivedhis degreein Electrotechnical Engineering
fromthe Universityof Romein 1978. Since 1982he has been Assistant
Professor at the University of Rome. Jo 1998, he was appointed
Associated Professor of Electrical Power Systems at the University of
Rome.
His research activities are in the fields of power systems, commercial
and industrial power systems planning and design, amospace power
systems, system reliability analysis. I+ is IEEE-IAS, AEI (Italian
Electrical Association) and AIDAA (Italian Aeronautical and
AstronauticalAssociation)member. Since 1993 he has been member of
IEEE-L4SPower SystemsReliabilitySubcommittee.
E-mail address: grass@eIettrica. ing.uniromal. it
Regina Lamedica has joined the Universityof Rome La Sapienza
where she has been Assistant Professor in Electric Power Systems since
1978, Associate Professor since 1987 and Professor in Electric Power
Systems for Transportation since 2000. Her main interests are in
computer applications to Electrified Transportation Systems and to
Power Systems analysis. She is a member of IEE-PES, CIFI (Italian
RailwayEngineersAssociation)and AEI (Italian ElectricalAssociation).
E-mail address: lamedica@elettrica. ing.uniromal.it