Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Comparative study of HVAC and HVDC transmission systems

A. Kalair a, N. Abas b, N. Khan a,n
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Comsats Institute of Information Technology, H/Q Campus, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Haz Hayat, Punjab, Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Transport of energy over long distances from remote natural sources to consumers in big cities requires
Received 8 January 2015 technical, economic and environmental considerations. Uncertain wind ow, sunshine, faults and com-
Received in revised form munication failures can compromise system safety, reliability, power quality during small signal and
18 December 2015
large scale power system oscillations. HVAC systems tackle power swing issue by electrical islanding
Accepted 27 December 2015
protection schemes which would need to be revised for integrated AC/DC systems. Advent of DC
Available online 4 February 2016
transformers, CSC-HVDC, VSC-HVDC and MMC-HVDC technologies have enabled the enhancement of
Keywords: power delivery and integration of renewable energy sources under smart grid vision. HVDC transmission
HVAC lines are recognized as an efcient alternative to HVAC lines. HVAC system power transfer capability is
HVDC
limited by reactance, whereas HVDC lines can be loaded up to the conductor thermal limit. This paper
UHVAC
reviews power transfer capabilities of HVAC, HVDC and High Phase Order (HPO) HVAC lines to compare
HPO HVAC
Line losses their relative performance under diverse conditions. Techno-economic analysis of converting existing AC
Ozone lines into DC lines is presented. High voltage race has been analyzed in context of environmental con-
cerns and HVDC transmission systems are concluded to be the right path to energy transition.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
2. War of currents and voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
3. High voltage transmission lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
3.1. HVAC power transfer capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
3.2. HVDC power transfer capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
3.3. Comparison of AC and DC lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
3.4. Conversion of AC lines into DC lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659
3.5. HVDC conguration technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
3.6. High phase order HVAC lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661
4. Techno-economic analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1664
4.1. HVDC insulation coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
4.2. HVDC CASA 1000 project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1666
4.3. High voltage and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668
5. HVDC circuit breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669
6. Grid, step and touch voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
7. Climate change and energy transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1672
8. Conclusions and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1672
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1673
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1673

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 92 3006490048.
E-mail addresses: anamkalair@gmail.com (A. Kalair), naeemkalair@uog.edu.pk (N. Abas), nasrullahk@yahoo.com (N. Khan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.288
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1654 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
1. Introduction
Energy is essential for economic growth and modern civiliza-
tion without which poverty endures. Natural energy resources
often occur in remote places far away from big cities. Coal, oil, gas,
geothermal energy and hydropower sources usually occur in bar-
ren lands, deserts and mountains whereas users live in far off
populated cities. Chinese coal and hydropower resources occur in
the north and the south, but industry and population clusters
occur in east. Solid, liquid, gas and electric energies may be
transported from remote places to the big cities and industries by
trains, trucks, ships, pipelines and power transmission lines.
Comparative energy, transportation studies show that the vehicles
consume a signicant amount of energy, pipelines cause gas lea-
kages and power lines have resistive losses [1]. Pipelines have gas
leak losses and delayed delivery issues. It takes long time to ll the
pipeline to reach desired pressure and ow rates. When the dis-
tances between energy sources and consumers are in the range of
thousands of miles the high voltage transmission lines have been
found to be superior energy transport method [2]. Oil, liquid
natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas and hydrogen fuels
have different considerations due to long hauled international sea
routes. High voltage transmission lines (HVTL) are capable of fast
and efcient energy transfer over long distances [3]. HVTL have
the ability to integrate widespread renewable energy sources [4].
Electric power transmission systems come as high voltage alter-
nating current (HVAC), extra or ultra high voltage AC (EHVAC or
UHVAC), high phase order (HPO) HVAC, 50, 60 and fractional fre-
quency transmission systems, high voltage direct current (HVDC),
monopole HVDC, bipole HVDC, tripole HVDC and composite AC/DC
transmission lines [5,6].
National utilities, international manufacturers (ABB, Siemens,
GEC etc.), R&D institutes (i.e. EPRI etc) and universities have been
carrying out comparative studies of HVAC versus HVDC lines for
power transfer capabilities with minimum line losses and envir-
onmental impacts [7,8], voltage and rotor stability of generators
during power system faults, line (LCC) and capacitor commutated
converter (CCC) reliabilities [9], steady and transient stability
[10,11], state space (SPWM) and state vector pulse width mod-
ulation (SVPWM) techniques [12], power quality, reliability,
dynamic performance of current source converter (CSC), voltage
source converter (VSC) and modular multilevel converter (MMC)
VSC based HVDC in various congurations [13], gate ring
schemes [14,15], sequential and simultaneous AC/DC power ow
studies [16], HVAC and HVDC links enabling integration of offshore
wind farms and remote solar parks as without integrating dis-
tributed renewable energy sources the energy transition remains
incomplete [17,18]. Superconducting transmission lines have been
proposed subject to public acceptance [19]. Power electronics
causes 100 Hz to 5 kHz harmonics which interfere with environ-
ment to enhance ozone generation. Phase shifted inverters stabi-
lize output voltage under varying frequency conditions, yet these
produce ozone far more than simple PWM inverters [20]. Power
transmission losses decrease with an increase in the voltage level,
but continued racing with increasing AC/DC voltage levels might
create environmental concerns due to induced 14 kV voltages in
gas pipelines [21,22] and plumes of ozone generation [23,24]. If we
keep in mind externalities, then coal transport by train might
prove cheaper [25]. Ambient ozone concentration is 50 ppb
(0.05 ppm) though some industrial processes require 600 ppm
concentrations. Moderate high voltages allow high power transfer
[26,27] with low zone generation compared to UHVAC lines. High
ozone concentrations cause asthma and lung disease [28].
Utility deregulation, distributed power generation, wind farms,
solar parks and smart grid visions are constantly changing the
faade of modern power system. War of currents after several
decades has transformed into a newfangled war of voltages
between fast growing economies. After the advent of DC trans-
formers [29], possibility of DC circuit breakers, power line com-
munication abilities on HVDC links [30] and renewable energy
integration exibilities the utilities are racing on HVDC and
UHVAC lines to decrease transmission line losses to benet dis-
tributed energy sources [31,32]. HVDC systems are being modeled
to allow quick renewable energy integration despite low reactive
power capacities [33,34]. HVDC and UHVAC transmission lines are
being undertaken to increase power transfer capability and mini-
mize line losses reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Fossil fuel
based power plants emit carbon dioxide and HVAC lines generate
ozone. Ozone generation rate of HVDC lines is half of HVAC lines
[23]. Ozone nearby HVDC and HVAC lines is not any big environ-
mental concern [35], yet still high voltage race requires a techno-
economic debate.
The aim and objective of this study is to provide a compre-
hensive background to research students, utility managers and
climate change experts on the current state of the art technology
in the eld of high voltage transmission lines. To achieve the
objective, this paper introduces historical events related to tran-
sitions from DC to AC and again back to DC by comparing power
transfer capabilities, AC/DC power system congurations, techno-
economic constraints, technology and future directions. The scope
of this work is limited to description of HVAC, HVDC, UHVAC
and composite transmission systems topologies, comparative
power transfer capabilities of high voltage transmission lines and
high voltage limitations in the context of animal safety and
environmental concerns. This work compares the performance of
existing high voltage AC/DC power systems and points out future
opportunities.
2. War of currents and voltages
War of currents between Thomas Edison and Nicolas Tesla has
changed into a war of voltages today. Technical debates on high
voltage AC and DC systems have been reported in literature [36
38]. Thomas Edison (18471931) and Nicolas Tesla (18561943)
were pioneers of direct (DC) and alternating current (AC) power
systems. Edison (self educated at Cooper Union) architected the
century [39] by lighting the world and giving a bright future [40].
Tesla (a graduate of Graz University of Technology, Austria)
invented the twentieth century by creating the Electrical Age [41].
It is hard to compare both talents, yet public regard Tesla as a man
out of time [42]. Edison, under self-directed learning (SDL) system,
has demonstrated more throughput than teacher directed learning
(TDL) system graduate Tesla. Edison's 110 V DC lightened the Pearl
Street in New York on September 4, 1882 and Tesla's two-phase
240 V, 25 Hz AC lit the World Columbian exposition fair Chicago
on 16 November, 1893. Edison made DC motor and Tesla designed
AC motor. General Electric Company backed the Edison's DC sys-
tem and Westinghouse Company reared the Tesla's exible AC
system. AC/DC rotary converters were developed to interface the
AC/DC systems. AC won over the DC due to its high voltage, low
loss power transmission capabilities. American utilities continued
generating and distributing power at 110 V DC and 110 V AC
(25 Hz) and European utilities at 110 V DC and 110 V AC (16.7 Hz)
but after WW-II American utilities switched to three-phase 120/
230 V (60 Hz) and Europeans to 120/230 V 50 Hz standards. A high
leg delta transformer was developed to supply 120 V and 230 V AC
supplies. Scott connection was invented to interface old two-phase
and new three-phase power lines like rotary converters interfaced
AC/DC systems. Normally the line voltage is 1.732 times higher
than phase voltage, but the high leg delta connection can supply
line voltage twice the phase voltage. It is often argued the 60 Hz
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
power systems are 1020% more efcient than 50 Hz power sys-
tems; however, capacitive power losses decrease at high frequency
at the expense of high inductive power losses beyond surge
impedance loading and inductive losses decrease at 50 Hz at the
expense of high capacitive losses under normal loading of over-
head lines. In case of cables, AC voltage charges and discharges
cable capacitance during every cycle, but DC charges only once.
America, Canada and some other countries have 60 Hz power
systems whilst others use 50 Hz power systems. Japan uses the
50 Hz standard in eastern regions and 60 Hz in western regions.
Southeast Asian countries use three-phase 230 V phase or 400 V
line voltages but China uses 220 V phase or 380 V line voltages.
Ships use universal power supplies which can accept both 50 and
60 Hz sources. Three-phase 50/60 Hz systems continued for a few
decades, but after the invention of DC converters in 1930s utilities
resumed HVDC line constructions to harvest the benet of lower
line losses at longer distances. Earlier DC systems had no voltage
transformation facility like AC transformers. Swiss engineer Rene
Thury presented the idea of operating multiple DC generators in
series to increase the voltage level for transmission and using DC
batteries at the terminal station to distribute power at desired
voltage levels. First 714 kV (530 kW) 120 km long DC line was
built using series connected generators based upon Thury
Schemes [43]. DCDC converters (transformers) became available
in the form of mercury arc converters between 1920s and 1930s
[44], semiconductor Thyristors in 1970s and IGBTs in 1990s. DC
lines used series connected DC generators (Thury) from 1882 to
1925, mercury rectiers from 1925 to 1970, Thyristors from 1970s
and IGBTs from 1990s to date. Development of gate-turn off
Thyristors (GTO) and integrated gate commutated Thyristors
(IGCT) have made HVDC transmission more economic than HVAC.
Modern HVDC lines also use modular multi-level converters
(MMC) for their ability to eliminate harmonics [45]. Voltage source
converters (VSC) might replace thyristor based HVDC systems in
future. ABB calls IGBT based HVDC lines HVDC Light and Siemens
HVDC plus schemes.
First 7 500 kV HVDC line using Thyristors and rst 7200 kV
line using IGBTs was built in 1970s and in 2002 in USA. Thyristor
based HVDC systems have grown to 7800 kV and IGBTs based
HVDC systems to 7300 kV voltage levels today. High voltage AC
systems have grown to 1000 kV levels in Japan and China. Canada
built a 765 kV EHVAC line in 1965. USA, Russia, Brazil, South Africa
and Korea have 765 kV AC lines. China and India intend to build
800 kV AC lines. USA, Russia and Italy canceled 1000 kV UHV line
projects. USA started a 1333 kV AC line in 1970s but abandoned it
in 1980s. The USSR started an 1150 kV AC line in 1980s, but
abandoned in 1990s due to economic collapse. Japan was the rst
country which started and completed the rst 1000 kV AC line but
later used it at lower voltage levels due to lower power demand. A
few decades ago high phase order AC transmission systems were
evaluated by American utilities to explore the embedded niche
power transfer opportunities. The war of the currents between
Edison's bipolar DC and Tesla's two-phase AC systems, after a long
pause of several decades, reemerged as a war of voltages between
China and India in 1990s. Ultimate raisin d'tre behind UHVAC,
HVDC and HPO power systems is less capital investment and
lower power losses. The UHV AC lines, trend has gradually trans-
formed into 7800 kV HVDC lines. AC line loading may be
increased to 150200% of SIL, but DC line loading may be increased
to conductor thermal limitation. To transmit 8000 MW (12,000)
power it requires four (three) 800 kV (1000 kV) AC lines, but the
same is possible using 7 600 kV or 7 800 kV two or three DC
lines. Two 750 kV HVDC lines need one fourth ROW compared to
800 kV AC lines. Investment and operational cost comparison of a
750 kV AC line shows 7765 kV HVDC lines remain economical
beyond 600 km distance and 500 kV line becomes economic after
1655
800 km distances [46]. It is interesting to analyze power transfer
capabilities of both multiple HVDC and multiphase HVAC trans-
mission lines compared to standard 3 phase (EHVAC) power sys-
tems. It is interesting to compare the conversion of existing double
circuit three-phase EHV AC lines into monopole, bipole or tripole
HVDC and high phase order (HPO) HVAC systems in terms of
initial costs, operational line losses and ultimate power transfer
capabilities. America invented electricity and built HVAC, HVDC
and HPO HVAC systems. Siemens and ABB companies lead CSC-
HVDC, VSC-HVDC and MMC-HVDC systems.
3. High voltage transmission lines
Several researchers have reviewed HVAC and HVDC system's
potential benets, design complexities, conversion problems,
power transfer constraints, economic constraints in light of cli-
mate change challenges the world faces today [47,48]. Power
engineers converted the DC lines into AC lines in early twentieth
century and started converting the AC lines back into HVDC or
HPO HVAC lines by the end of the century. The earlier decision was
based on transformer's ability to raise the voltage level, enabling
low loss power transmission, to remote locations and the later
decision to switch back to HVDC is based on availability of DC
transformers (FACTS devices) enabling even lower loss in long
distance HVDC transmissions. The impedance of HVAC line Z
(R jX) reduces down to R in case of HVDC line. Voltage levels
are classied as LV (o1 kV), MV (169 kV), HV (100138 kV), EHV
(220800 kV) and UHV (4 800 kV). By 1980s, 600 km long sub-
marine cables, 4000 km long HVAC and 7000 km long HVDC lines
were built, but soon it was found that the HVAC cables remain
economical only up to 50 km and HVAC lines up to 600 km [49].
HVDC lines are expensive for shorter distance lines and cheaper
for longer lines. Due to economic growth and industrialization old
transmission lines started saturating to their critical ampacity
limits in 1990s. China, under a national decarbonization policy of
low footprint transmission lines, launched a widespread campaign
of constructing multiple 7500 to 7800 kV HVDC and 1000 to
1200 kV UHVAC transmission lines in the last decade. Chinese
HVDC transmission line drive may partly be attributed to the
natural location of its bulk hydropower resources in the south and
coal reserves in the north. It is cheaper to transport electricity
from remote regions to industrial sites in Shanghai by HVDC or
UHVAC lines. After China, India also started constructing 7800 kV
HVDC and 1200 kV UHV AC lines. Several countries started con-
verting the old EHV AC lines into HVDC lines to harvest the low
hanging fruits. China built 1000 kV UHV AC line insulator tech-
nologies for 1100 kV lines and India started planning of a 1200 kV
UHV AC line. Akin to the war of the currents between Edison and
Tesla in 1880s a war of voltages can be discerned between China
and India.
Overloaded AC line conductors in summer often sag down to
their lowest permissible clearance limits and shrink back to nor-
mal in winters. As a transmission engineer in Sialkot Circle it was
noted the same line at same time trips daily by ashover on
132 kV and 11 kV line crossings. On detection of ashover inci-
dence between MV lines, WAPDA notied a circular to remove the
mid span crossings on whole of T&D network. Before it WAPDA
was also advised to go for OPGW on new EHV lines. It is difcult to
construct new lines in industrialized countries due to legal and
nancial reasons, therefore, utilities prefer to convert existing AC
lines into DC lines to increase transmission capacity using the
same right of way (ROW). AC or DC line currents may be max-
imized using deterministic or probabilistic methods and real time
monitoring [50]. Natural surge loading (SIL) limit is often 50% of
normal and 33% of emergency loading practice. High surge
1656 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675

impedance loading (HSIL) can also be applied to transmission lines generation capacity is the highest worldwide since 2011. China has
by electric eld optimization and bundle expansion techniques built a super highway of HVDC and UHVAC lines which save mil-
[51]. Line ampacity may be raised by increasing rated voltage, lions of megawatts due to their 3.5%/1000 km line losses which are
conductor size as well as the type and number of conductors per less than half of the UHVAC lines. Chinese power demand growth
phase. High temperature, low sag (HTLS) and high temperature in the last decade is shown in Fig. 1
superconductors (HTSC) are the alternative options to reduce the China is increasing HVDC lines under her national dec-
line losses [52]. Leading a line to its thermal limits attracts utilities, arbonization policy to reduce the line losses. Chinese electricity
but this niche opportunity is hard to harvest due to stability, demand and hence generation capacity has increased from
voltage and reactive power losses in an AC power system and 400 GW to 1463 GW in the last decade. If China moves to 2 child
thermal limitations in DC power systems [53]. Expert opinions are policy, then population and energy demand rate in the next dec-
at odds on HPO, UHVAC or UHVDC lines due to security risks, ade would be higher than the previous decade.
corona losses, high rates of ozone generation and environmental
reasons. 3.1. HVAC power transfer capabilities
HPO power systems provide uniform magnetic elds in AC
machines and low ripple DC compared to three-phase six pulse AC line power transfer capability is limited by its characteristic
rectiers. Of course, HVDC transmission on existing lines can or surge impedance. AC line produces as well as consumes reactive
increase ampacity and reliability without major renovations. power. The load on which reactive power produced equals reactive
Flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) devices power consumed is called its natural loading. Natural load of an AC
such as Static VAR System (SVS), Controlled Series Capacitors (CSC) line may be given by
and Static Phase Shifters (SPS) improve power system stability by
damping out oscillations [54]. HVDC links have long history of SIL V 2 =Z C 1
improving power system stability, reducing transmission losses
AC lines produce and consume reactive power which is a ser-
and enhancing power quality. Double and triple circuit HVAC lines
ious problem. If an overhead AC line has series inductance of L
may be converted into six and nine phase HVAC lines without any
Henries per unit length and shunt capacitance of C Farads per unit
change of tower structures. Single and double circuit HVAC lines
length at operating voltage V bearing current I then the reac-
may also be converted into monopole, bipolar and tripolar HVDC
tive powers produced by the AC line and consumer load are given
lines. An HVAC line may be used for simultaneous AC and DC
powers, but the sum of AC and DC must not exceed the insulation by
level [55]. HVACpinsulation is usually higher than HVDC due to AC Q C wCV 2 2
voltage levels 2 times higher than its rated p RMS values. Theo-
retically an HVDC line may be loaded to 2 times higher than
Q L wLI 2 3
rated HVAC voltage.
T&D bottlenecks may be overcome by converting existing HVAC The characteristic or surge impedance at QC QL becomes
lines into HVDC lines by renovating towers to upgrade the clear-  1=2
ances according to HVDC standards. Simulation studies of parallel V L
ZC 4
HVAC and HVDC lines show better performance compared to I C
alone HVAC links [56]. Earlier HVDC transmission systems had line Natural power in line is limited to
commutation conversion (LCC) problem which have reasonably
been overcome with the voltage source converter (VSC) technol- V2
P n VI I 2 Z C 5
ogy. Static Var Compensators (SVCs) are based on V2 and STAT- ZC
COMs depend on I2. The SVCs use Thyristors and STATCOM use the Maximum power ow in HVAC line is limited by
VSC technology. A race to build EHV and UHV level transmission
lines became an economic power game in the 21st century. China V 1V 2
P sin 6
constructed multiple 1000 kV AC and 7800 kV DC transmission X
lines in last two decades. As of 2014 the 500 kV EHV AC lines are For 90, the maximum steady state power limit is,
common worldwide. World's rst 1000 kV UHVAC line and Pmax V1V2/X. Generally HVAC lines are operated below 30 due
8000 MW power transfer capability are likely to complete by 2016. to synchronism relays. Extensive use of series capacitors may
A few countries built UHV AC lines, while others preferred 600 km increase power transfer capacity up to 150250% of natural
long 500 kV lines. Power engineers adhered to UHVDC for its load limit.
potential minimal loss power transfer capabilities. Experimental
research has shown the UHVAC lines are economic over shorter
distances, but UHVDC lines over longer distances. Edison's DC has
won over Tesla's AC after one century experience. VSC-HVDC lines
are hailed yet due to unavailability of DC circuit breakers the
construction of high power HVDC lines is still CSC-HVDC types.
Latest 800 kV CSC-HVDC line with 8000 MW power transfer
capacity over 1680 km was built in China in 2014.
China has deployed long 7750 kV to 7800 kV HVDC links to
interconnect the 750 kV EHV and 1000 kV UHV AC networks.
Three phase EHV AC and bipolar HVDC transmission lines have
6.88.0 MW/kV and 910 MW/kV power transfer capabilities.
China nds it more economic to design HVDC and UHV AC lines to
transport remote hydel and coal energies from south and north to
industrial sites in east [57]. China produces 1463 GW power from
coal (928 MW), hydro (342 GW), wind (100 GW), nuclear (43 GW)
and gas (40 GW) sources. Chinese 1463 GW (  6600 TW h energy) Fig. 1. Chinese power demand growth.
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675 1657

It is to remember SIL criterion applies only to HVAC and not to

HVDC lines. Thermal limits of 1000 kV EHVAC and 800 kV HVDC
lines are 15 and 17.5 GW for 8  35 and 5  50 mm2 diameter
conductors. Substation thermal limits for 1000 kV EHVAC and
800 kV HVDC are 6.9 and 5.8 GW which are less than half of
thermal limits of transmission lines. HVAC lines become limited by
reactive power before reaching their thermal limits. Idea of oper-
ating DC lines up to thermal limits cannot be achieved due to
lower thermal limits of substations. Thermal limit of DC Grid is
lower than AC Grid. Natural loads of conventional 132, 230, 345,
500, 700, 765 and 1000 kV lines are 43, 130, 300, 830, 1600, 2364
and 4300 MW respectively [58]. Natural loading (SIL) of any line
may be estimated using following empirical relation:
2:2939
SILMW 0:0005 VkV 7
In case of a 220 kV line the SIL comes out to be 118 MW. AC
lines are normally loaded to twice of their natural loads which
may go as high as thrice of natural loading limit during emer-
gencey. The natural, normal and emergency loading capacities of a
436 km long 765 kV HVAC line using six zebra conductors per
bundle per phase are 2364, 5152 and 6837 MW respectively.
Natural loading capacity of the HVAC line varies exponentially
with rise of voltage. Increase of natural loading limit with an
increase in voltage level on HVAC lines is shown in Fig. 2.
SIL increases with voltage level and the number of conductors
per phase. Generally the transmission capacity should not exceed
2  SIL during normal operations and 2.8  SIL during emergency
situations.

3.2. HVDC power transfer capabilities

Conversion AC into DC lines is an efcient option to improve

the power transfer capability of existing lines. A PSCAD/EMTDC
based simulation study has proved the conversion of single-circuit
AC lines into tripole HVDC lines is better than bipole and mono-
pole HVDC lines [59]. A bipolar DC line power transfer capacity is
twice the current carrying capacity of each conductor which may
be expressed by
P BP IV PG IV PG
2  I  V PG two wire; 1  8

P BP IV PG IV PG IV PG Fig. 3. Current diagrams for bipolar and tripolar systems.

2  3  I  V PG three wire; 3  9
If all the conductors of three phase line are used to full thermal In the case of a VSC-HVDC bipolar digital system DC line for
capacity, then power transmission capacity can be 1.37 times the rated 1 PU current the following relations hold true
bipolar conguration. Current diagrams for converting single cir-
1 2
cuit into mono, bipolar and tripolar HVDC lines are shown in Fig. 3. I I2 1 10
2 max min

I max
I min 11
2
Solution of quadratic equation obtained by substitution of (11)
into (10) gives
I max 1:26; I min 0:63 12

In case of CSC HVDC system

1 2
I I2 1 13
2 max min

I max I min 1 14

Solution of quadratic equation obtained by substitution of (14)

into (13) gives
p
1 3
I max 1:37
Fig. 2. Variation of AC single circuit line SIL with voltage level. 2
1658 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675

I min 1:37  1 0:37 15 where L is length of line and tg is the target power factor
correction multiplier given by
In case of converting a three phase AC line into a bipolar DC line
the transmitted power (PDC) is given by Q MVAr P MW:tan 22
P DC 1:26 IV PG 0:63 IV PG 0:63 V PG
  tg Q MVAr=P MW 23
2:53 IV PG 2:53=2 P BP
tg values may vary from 0.14 to 3.18 depending upon the
1:265 P BP 16
desired power factor angle. Power transmission enhancement by
In case of converting a three phase AC line into a tripolar DC HVDC lines compared to HVAC lines is given by
line transmitted DC power (PDC) is given by P DC  P AC
P :100 24
P DC 1:37 IV PG 0:37 IV PG IV PG P AC
 
2:74 IV PG 2:74=2 P BP Reduction of joule losses in HVDC lines may be expressed by
1:37 P BP 17 P Joule
P :100 25
Power transmitted by a three bipolar HVDC line obtained by P DC
converting a double circuit HVAC is given by The power increase is not signicant in the case of a simple
P DC 6:V PG :I 32:V PG :I 3 P BP 18 circuit which is reasonable when a double circuit AC line is recy-
cled into three bipolar DC lines as shown in Table 1.
Tripolar and hybrid bipolar lines are not constructed due to
3.3. Comparison of AC and DC lines earth return paths and unbalanced loading of conductors. A simple
circuit may be best converted into a tripolar DC line. Transmitted
Most of commercial HVDC lines are bipolar types. Double cir- power, gain and loss of a recycled 66 kV AC into DC line are shown
cuit HVAC lines can easily be converted to three bipolar circuits. in Table 2.
Single circuit may be converted to bipolar HVDC by using two Comparison of tripolar and bipolar HVDC lines is shown in
conductors for positive pole and one for negative pole as noted in Table 3.
Cross-Skagerrak line in New Zealand. A single circuit three phase Table 3 Transmission gain and losses of a recycled double cir-
line may be converted into three pole DC line, but no-one has used cuit AC into DC line.
such a triple conguration which claims to have much higher A 5 km long 66 kV AC line may be operated on 90 kV DC which
power transfer capability than monopole and bipole systems.
p has 24% high power capacity with a reduction of 18.9% losses as
Power ow in a DC line, assuming Vs Vr VDC E 2Vrsm AC compared to the original DC line. Furthermore, the power trans-
may be given by mitted by an AC line is limited by impedance (R jX) and stability
P DC V s V s V r =R 19 against which DC line may be operated up to its thermal limits.
Comparison of AC and DC lines is shown in Table 4 [61].
Maximum power transmission by HVAC line is limited by the DC lines can be loaded with 1.4142 times of the rated rms
current voltage of the AC line. A double circuit 66 kV AC line may be used
p at 745 kV, although extendible up to 100 kV DC [61]. HVDC tri-
P AC 3:V L :I max : cos 20
polar conguration may be implemented using the current mod-
Maximum power per circuit is limited by voltage drop (V/L) ulation technique. Tripole power using current modulation is
given by
V 2 : V
P AC 21
R X:tg :L:100 P DC  TP V I max I min 1
11:37 0:37 1
Table 1 2:74 26
Transmission gain and losses of a recycled AC into DC line [60].

Line Voltage (kV) Type 5 km 15 km Table 3

Transmission gain and losses of a recycled double circuit AC into DC line.
Power Gain Losses Power Gain Losses
P, MW P % PJ % P, MW P % PJ % Line Voltage (kV) 5 km, Tripolar 5 km, Bipolar

AC line 66 2  3 87 2.9 74.6 3.7 Power Gain Losses Power Gain Losses
DC line 7 45 3 BP 114.2 31.2 2.2 114.2 53.2 3.3 P, MW P % PJ % P, MW P % PJ %
7 55 3 BP 139.6 60.4 1.8 139.6 87.2 2.7
7 66 3 BP 167.6 92.5 1.5 167.6 124.7 2.2 AC line 66 87 2.9 87 2.9
DC line 7 45 107.8 23.9 2.3 114.2 31.2 2.2
7 55 131.6 51.3 1.9 139.6 60.4 1.8
7 66 158.0 81.6 1.6 167.6 92.5 1.5
Table 2
Transmission gain and losses of a recycled AC into DC line [60].

Line Voltage (kV) Type 5 km 10 km Table 4

Transmitted power and losses for double circuit AC and DC lines.
Power Gain Losses Power Gain Losses
P, MW P % PJ % P, MW P % PJ % Overhead lines Voltage Conductors Power Line losses

AC line 66 1  3 43.5 2.9 37.3 3.7 (kV) n  s (mm2) MW Joule (%P) Station (%P)
DC line 745 Tripolar 53.9 23.7 2.3 53.9 44.4 3.5
755 Tripolar 65.8 51.2 1.9 65.8 76.5 2.8 AC double circuit 66 6  181.6 69.12 3.5 0.3
766 Tripolar 79 81.4 1.6 79 111.8 2.4 DC Bipolar line 7 45 6  181.6 112.6 3.2 1.6
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675 1659

In case of a bipolar line the power transmitted by two out of Rearranging power terms for PAC PDC
three conductors of single circuit three-phase AC line is
ADC =AAC cos2 =2 0:51 cos2=2 46
P DC  BP 2  P AC 27
In the case of unity power factor the size of DC conductor is half
The ratio of PDCTP/PDCBP 2.74/2 1.37. Three phase single and of AC conductor and in the case of 0.85 power factor it is 289/800
double circuit power transmission capacities may be generalized (0.34) nearly one third of AC conductor.
as follows Conductor clearances are higher for EHV AC lines than
P DC  TP 1:37  P DC  BP 28 equivalent HVDC lines. However, HVDC lines may be given more
clearance to reduce attraction of dust particles under electrostatic
P DC  BP 2  P AC Single circuit 29 forces. At 400 kV (600 kV) level the actual insulator lengths are
3 m (4.5 m) for HVAC and 3.6 m (5.8 m) for HVDC. Field experience
P DC  TP 2:74  P AC I modulation 30 of a 7 500 kV DC line shows the insulator failure rate of DC lines is
1020 times higher than AC lines [62]. Amazingly the insulation
It may be generalized as follows
requirements increase with altitude. Relative demand for insula-
P DC P ac P DC tion increases with increase of altitude due to high lightning risks.
 31
P AC P AC P ac Insulation levels of lightning are set higher than switching surges
where Pac is the AC thermal limit and PAC is the actual line which are higher than environmental pollution. Insulation differ-
loading limit in terms of line length, voltage and dynamic stability. ence becomes signicant beyond 2km altitudes. For 800 kV
The thermal limit of actual loading ratio (Pac/PAC) may be two or (50007000 MW) HVDC lines, Siemens uses 1020 kV AC (1 min),
more for long lines. This ratio may be reduced down to one by 1790 kV (SI), 2080/2320 kV (LI), 1175 kV DC (2 h) and 935 kV PR
integrating series and shunt compensation devices. The PDC/PAC (90/90/45 min) test voltages [63]. Towers hold bundled conductors
ratio depends on voltage level used. If the DC line voltage is in air warding themselves by insulator strings. HVAC lines are
restricted to the rms value of AC then for a bipolar line subjected to more wind and gravity forces due to the larger
number of bundled conductors. During eld operation the trans-
P DC =P AC 1:412 32
mission lines are subjected to lateral heavy winds and vertical ice
In case of using the DC voltage equivalent to AC peak voltage, gravity forces. The horizontal wind and vertical gravity forces
the ratio is increase with increase in number of conductors per phase. Gravity
and wind forces (kN/m) on 8001000 kV EHV AC lines are twice of
P DC =P AC 1:926bipolar 33
7600 and 7800 kV HVDC lines due to the higher number of
P DC =P AC 1:816VSC based tripolar 34 conductors [46]. High power capabilities, conductor weight and
environmental stresses on AC lines suggest converting AC lines
P DC =P AC 2:74CSC based tripolar 35 into DC lines.

P DC =P AC 1:0 36 3.4. Conversion of AC lines into DC lines

If HVDC line voltage is chosen equal to the HVAC peak value
By increasing distance between phases the inductance (L)
then power in AC and DC lines may be given by
increases and capacitance (C) decreases, therefore, overhead lines
P DC V DC  I DC  V rms  I DC 37 have higher inductance and cables have higher capacitances.
Inductive reactance is often more than ohmic resistance but less
P AC V rms  I AC  cos 38 than capacitive reactance. High voltage lines have lower capaci-
Ratio of DC/AC powers may be written as tance than low voltage lines. A 138 kV 100 mile AC line at 60 Hz
may use conductors which have, r 0.169 /mile, L 2.093 mH/
P DC =P AC V rsm  I DC =V rms  I AC  cos 39
mile and C 0.0142 F/mile. It means the line has R16.9 ,
Assuming same currents i.e. IDC IAC XL 78.93 and XC 18.67 M. Ampacity of short transmission
lines ultimately becomes restricted by thermal limit and those of
1
P DC =P AC 40 long transmission lines by stability limit. For l /2 and 12 /2
cos
the power is P12 PSIL sin12/sinl PSIL. Wind farms and solar
PDC/PAC ratio is 1.414 for power factor cos 1 and 1.664 for parks in the integrated HVDC system have little reactive power
cos0.85. capacity. Converters need reactive power during faults which
Current ow in AC line is given by poses a challenge. Reactive power demand during normal opera-
I AC P AC =V rms cos 41 tion is given by [57].

Power loss in AC line is given by  sin cos 2

Q conv P conv 47
sin sin 2
P AC  Loss P AC =V rms cos  R
2
p !
2P AC =V rms cos2 rL=AAC 42 2X conv I d
arccos cos  48
Edo
Current ow in DC line is given by (for VDC EVrms)
I DC P DC =V DC P DC =V rms 43 High voltage direct current (HVDC) generation, transmission
and distribution systems use manual, bipolar, hybrid bipolar and
Power loss in DC line is given by (for VDC Vrms) tripolar congurations [64]. Several researchers have proposed
 2  2 different strategies to convert AC lines into HVDC lines [65,66].
P DC  Loss P DC =V rms  R P DC =V rms rL=ADC 44
Earlier HVDC links were bipolar but later monopole and tripolar
Assuming similar line losses (PAC-Loss PDC-Loss) systems were also developed by converting existing HVAC lines
 2 into HVDC lines. Commercial HVDC systems consist of point to
2P AC =V rms cos f 2 rL=AAC P DC =V rms rL=ADC 45 point, back to back and multi-terminal topologies.
1660 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
A 3 AC circuit may be converted to a bipole using one and two
conductors per pole. The third conductor may relieve each pole
after 15 min intervals. A typical example of such system is
7500 kV, 560 MW, 1700 km long Inga-Shaba HVDC. Back to back
HVDC system has no transmission line as it is used to connect two
different frequency AC power systems. It has no earth return and
uses bipolar conguration. Converter and inverter are located in
same substation. A typical example of back to back HVDC system
is 7 85 kV, 4  355 MW Vyborg HVDC link between Russia and
Finland. A double circuit HVAC line may be converted into six
monopoles with ground return, three bipolar circuits, two hybrid
bipolar circuits with two sending and one return line or one
bipolar with three conductors per phase congurations as shown
in Fig. 4.
In a typical HVDC system, the AC power is taken from AC
network, converted into DC by a converter station and transmitted
to remote point by an overhead line on land or submarine cable in
sea. It is converted back to AC by a converter station and connected
again to AC network. The power ow can be controlled rapidly and
accurately in terms of both power level and direction by HVDC
system. ABB and Siemens offer HVDC and UHVDC classic, light and
plus technologies. Utilities and construction companies should
also look into conversion of existing 132500 kV AC lines into DC
lines which is limited by break even distance.
3.5. HVDC conguration technologies
VSC-HVDC transmission systems are used for 400500 MW
power transmission and CSC-HVDC system for higher power
transmissions. Both systems can be monopole, bipole and tripole
types. Bipole and monopole are being used and tripole is under
investigation. Monopole HVDC has poor availability due to rela-
tively higher outages. During shut down, monopole becomes
unavailable. During operation monopole sends full current
through the earth electrode that is not in harmony with the
environment. Bipole is used when power transfer capacity exceeds
monopole or higher reliability is needed during operation. For long
distance land power transmission bipole is good choice as it can
transmit 50% power during fault on other pole. Bipole ground
return topology is cheaper and more reliable than bipole with
metallic return. A bipolar scheme without ground or return con-
ductor is cheaper than all other options. Earth electrode is also
used in bipolar HVDC systems, but it has very low current in nearly
balanced pole voltages. An HVAC line may be converted into three-
monopoles with return ground path, one bipolar, with three
conductors for increasing reliability or using middle conductor as
Fig. 4. Retrotting/conversion of HVAC lines into HVDC lines.
neutral, and one hybrid bipolar line or tripolar congurations are
shown in Fig. 5 [67,68].
Single 12 pulse set per pole schemes are used for 3000
4500 MW 7 800 kV HVDC lines. Series connected 12 pulse sets
per pole are used for 45006400 MW 7 800 kV HVDC lines and
parallel connected 12 pulse sets per pole are used for 6000
9000 MW 7 800 kV HVDC lines. 1000 kV UHV AC and 800 kV
HVDC technology are fully matured and 11001200 kV UHV AC
and UHVDC lines are under research. A 1200 kV line was com-
mercially operated between Russia and Kazakhstan from 1989 to
1996 which was discontinued due to collapse of the Soviet Union.
It is possible to transmit 30009000 MW through HVDC bipole,
6000 to 18,000 MW through double bipole and 900027,000 MW
through triple bipole circuits. Normal 500 kV AC lines can easily be
converted into HVDC lines to increase power transfer capability. A
910 kV UHV AC line can withstand 1250 kV UHVDC [69].
HVDC classic uses thyristors, DC side series inductors and RLC
shunt lter, whereas HVDC light uses IGBTs, AC side series
inductors (also shunt capacitors) and DC side shunt capacitors. VSC
behaves as a motor or generator, so VSC is a merger of LCC and
SVC. VSC uses AC side breakers and CSC controls current using
thyristors. VSC has been used up to 7320 kV, 800 MW Dolwin1
line and being deployed for 7500 kV, 700 MW Skagerrak 4. Line
losses in HVDC light using VSC have come down from 3% to 1% like
HVDC classic using CSC. HVDC light is good for wind farms, solar
parks and submarine cables due to its lower magnetic eld and
smaller footprint. HVDC requires DC circuit breaker which is the
core problem of the HVDC system during fault [70]. ACDCAC or
ACAC conversion using single to three phase bridge rectier
technologies in rectangle, hexahedron and normal star-delta
design using PSCAD simulation studies are well documented in
the literature [68]. Conversion of AC line into tripole DC line using
start-delta ACDCAC simulation study on PSCAD/EMTDC proved
its higher power transfer capability [64]. A high voltage DC system
may consist of LCC-HVDC, VSC-HVDC and MMC-HVDC system. A
PSCAD/EMTDC based transient stability of a monopole HVDC and
EHVAC system has reported the AC system becomes unstable due
to 5701500 ms (compared to 40100 ms in AC systems) long
tripping time of half bridge type H-MMC HVDC system during a
fault. A diode based LCC-D-MMC HVDC system performs better
than clamp based C-MMC HVDC, but H-MMC HVDC exhibits worst
performance [71].
Simulation studies of monopole VSC-HVDC and CSC-HVDC
systems using rey, genetic and neuro-fuzzy algorithms have
exhibited good transient stability and power quality during faults
[72]. Fuzzy neural networks may consist of three and ve layers. In
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
case of three layers the 1st3rd layers are input variable, fuzzy
rules and output variables, but in the case of ve layers network
2nd and 3rd positions are taken up by two fuzzy sets. Bipole HVDC
simulation on PSCAD is reported to cause large energization and
load rejection voltage surges using LCC (instead of CCC) [73].
Simulation comparison of bipole LCC and VSC lines shows the
commutation failure occurs in LCC for faults on ac line that does
not happen in VSC systems [74]. A Matlab/Simulink based fuzzy
control of HVDC shows the proper control can help system
recovery after fault [75].
Fig. 5. Monopole, bipolar and tripolar HVDC transmission schemes.
1661
3.6. High phase order HVAC lines
Power engineers have a long history of converting single-phase
to two-phases, two-phase to three-phase, three-phase to multiple
phases or three-phase AC to multipole DC systems. Single-phase
AC lines consist of one phase conductor with earth return. Two
phase AC systems used to have 90 phase angle between them
instead of 120 in modern three-phase systems. Single phase
systems used capacitors to obtain two split phases to start AC
induction motors, but two phase systems were able to start motors
without a capacitor due to its own phase-angle of 90. Electrical
engineers converted two phase three wire AC systems into three
phase systems for transmission and two phase four wire systems
into three phase four wire systems. American ingenious power
engineers with the help of Indians started converting existing
three phase double circuits to six-phase AC systems in 1980s. High
phase order (HPO) high voltage generation, transmission and
distribution systems use six, nine and 12 phase systems. Phase
angles between standard three phase power systems are 120
which are 60 for 6-phase, 30 for 12-phase and 15 for 24-phase
systems [76].
High phase order system operation has already been demon-
strated in USA [77]. A three phase 345 kV system was reported to
be successfully replaced by twelve phase 132 kV systems [78].
Application of 6, 9 and 12-phase transmission lines is an eco-
nomical alternative to 3-phase transmission systems. HPO AC lines
increase power transfer capacity on smaller overhead line towers.
The conversion of existing 3-phase double circuits to 6-phase
transmission lines have also been shown to be a feasible and
viable alternative to the construction of new overhead lines. Such
conversion utilizes existing rights of ways and modied existing
tower congurations to increase power transfer capacity. Multi-
phase transmission lines increased the power system transmission
capabilities which are comparable to HVDC systems. A simple 138
kV, 12-phase transmission system is essentially capable to replace
existing 345 kV 3-phase line to enjoy fringe benets of ROW,
diversity and reserves. Phase-phase line voltages (VLine) may be
related to the phase to ground (VPhase) voltages in any N Phase
system by [79].
V Line
2 sin =N 49
V Phase
For N 3, p
6,9, 12 and 18 phases the ratio of the line and phase
voltages are 3, 1, 0.684, 0.52 and 0.347 respectively. For phases
43 it is more convenient to express adjacent phase voltages than
the phase to ground voltages as line voltages between different
phases such as VAC and VAD vary in HPO systems. Examples of 138
and 199 kV phase to ground or adjacent phase voltages are shown
in Table 5 [78].
HPO transmission systems have potential benet of offering
multiple voltage levels to domestic, commercial and industrial
consumers. Voltage levels between adjacent phases and any two
phases may be lesser or higher than the phase to neutral voltages.
Table 5
Phase to ground and adjacent phase voltages.
Voltage (kV) Phases # Phase-ground (VPG) Adjacent phases (VPP)
138 3 138 239
6 138 138
12 138 72
24 138 36
199 3 199 345
6 199 199
12 199 103
24 199 52
1662 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675

A standard three phase system supplies only one phase to neutral

and one phase to phase voltage, but 6, 12 and 24-phase HPO
systems supply multiple line voltages as shown in Table 6.
Inter phase voltages between any two phase may be obtained
by
V Phase  Phase V Phase  Ground 2 sin =2 50
The phase angle between phase A and D is 180 in six-phase
system so
 
V Phase  Phase V Phase  Ground 2 sin =2 93  2  sin 180=2
186 kV 51

6, 12 and 24-phase systems allow multiple voltage levels

between 93 and 186 kV. The voltage between phase A and neutral
in 3-phase, phase A and B in 6-phase, phase A and C in 12-phase
and phase A and E in 24-phase system is 93 kV. Any existing
500 kV system after conversion into HPO may allow interconnec-
tion of 220, 132 and 66 kV lines wherever necessary. Designs of six
phase generators [80], induction motors [81] and transposition
methods [82] have been reported in literature. HPO lines have
been proposed for converting existing systems or upgrading lines
by using the same right of way (ROW). Mathematical and simu-
lation modeling to experimental studies of high phase order
transmission lines were conducted in 1980s [83,84]. Laboratory
scale studies show the occurrence of surges and phase shifts
during energizing six phase transformers and disconnecting six
phase lines [85].
Six and 12 phase power systems need six and 12 phase PTs,
circuit breakers and protective relays. To convert any existing three
phase double circuits into six phase transmission system, double
sets of circuit breakers and protective relays may be used. Due to
involvement of multiple phase protection system needs to be
reviewed. Multiphase lines have 120 possible fault combinations
as compared to only 11 in three phase systems. Recommended
protective relays may include distance relay (21), differential relay
(87), AC directional over current relay (67), out of step relay (78),
instantaneous over current relay (50), AC time over current relay Fig. 6. Phase voltages in multiphase power systems.
(51) and differential pilot protection (62). If few phases trip, then
the rest of the system continues to work. It also improves the
A three-phase system provides 115 kV phase to phase and
electrical power quality that is another issue of todays industry
93 kV phase-neutral voltages whereas a twelve phase system
[46]. However, six-phase systems require 45 times number of
provides 93186 kV seven voltage levels. In 12 and 24 phase
relays than three-phase systems and 12-phase systems require
transmission systems the adjacent phase voltage is less than phase
even more. Simulation studies show that when a faulted phase is
to neutral voltage due to smaller values of sine angles. HPO power
isolated by operation of a single pole breaker, the phase conductor
systems have different voltages relative to each other as shown in
still stays coupled with other phases through induction and
Fig. 6.
capacitance. The secondary arc current depends upon line con-
Earlier HPO studies focused on 4-phase systems, but sub-
struction, pre-fault load current and atmospheric conditions. Two
sequent studies proved the 6 or 12-phase systems are more eco-
experimental six and 12 phase lines were constructed in USA [86]
nomical than the simple four-phase systems. The concept of line
no more reported elsewhere.
voltage was translated into adjacent phase and opposite phase
voltages. Even the voltage between rst and second or third
Table 6
Voltage levels in HPO transmission systems. adjacent phases is different from opposite phases and phase to
neutral voltages. The power capability in relation to the HPO
3-Phase 6-Phase 12-Phase 24-Phase transmission system may be given by
VAN 93 kV 93 kV 93 kV 93 kV NV 1 V 2
VAB 161 kV 93 kV 48 kV 24 kV
P sin 52
3X
VAC _ 161 kV 93 kV 46 kV
VAD 186 kV 131 kV 71 kV where V1 and V2 are phase to ground voltages. For N 6, 12 and
VAE 161 kV 93 kV 24 phase transmission lines the transmission capability increases
VAF 179 kV 113 kV by 2, 4 and 8 times the standard 3-phase system [87]. In multi-
VAG 186 kV 131 kV
VAH 147 kV
phase transmission systems adjacent phase voltage may be greater
VAI 161 kV or equal or even less than the phase to neutral voltages. It depends
VAJ 165 kV upon the number of phases. In typical 3-phase system line voltage
VAK 179 kV is greater than phase to neutral voltage, but in 6-phase systems
VAL 184 kV
both are equal. Power transfer capabilities of six and 12 phase AC
VAM 186 kV
transmission lines are reported in the literature [88]. In case
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
of a double circuit line converted to six phase lines, the power
handling capacity is given by
 
P 2 3 I Phase V Phase  ground 53
The power capacity of a six-phase line with phase voltage equal
to three phase double circuit line is given by
p 1050
P 23 I Phase 3V Phase  ground 54
If we compare six-phase line power carrying
p capacity with
standard three phase line it comes to be 6 3/(3  2) 173% of
three phase double circuit line. The power capacity of a 12-phase
line with phase voltage equal to three phase double circuit line is
given by
p the phases from lightning. The tower must be appropriately
P 43 I Phase 3V Phase  ground 55
If we compare twelve-phase line power carrying
p capacity with
standard three phase line it comes to be 12 3/3  2 346% of
three phase double circuit line. A 462 kV line in 8, 4 and 1 con-
ductor per phase designs of 3, 6 and 12-phase versions has 3275,
4494 and 5485 MW SIL loads. In a typical three phase system the
power may be transmitted at HPO and then interfaced with
existing three phase systems at remote end by using connections
shown in Fig. 7.
Conversion of three phase double or four circuits line into six or
12 phase lines provide additional power transfer capability of 83%
and 230% at same line voltages [89]. HPO line loadability with 5%
voltage drop, 30% stability margin and 50 kA system strength is
shown in Fig. 8.
Multiphase zig zag autotransformers are good choices for
connections between 3, 6 and 12 phase systems. The technology of
multi-phase autotransformers is still not mature and requires
further research. On transition from 3 to multiphase systems the
power transfer capability can be maintained even at low voltage
levels and can be increased at higher voltage levels. The clearance
between HPO line conductors, conductors and tower structure
Fig. 7. Three to six and six to three phase line connections.
Fig. 8. Quantitative benets of HPO lines.
1663
Table 7
Phase to ground clearances for switching and lightning voltages.
Switching voltage Air clearance Lightning voltage Air clearance (m)
(kV) (m) (kV)
750 1.45 750 1.35
850 1.79 850 1.55
2.55 1050 1.92
1425 4.24 1425 2.60
1550 4.87 1550 2.83
primarily depends upon the rated switching and lightning with-
stand voltages as shown in Table 7.
The towers carry heavy conductors and earth wires to protect
designed to withstand environmental forces due to wind, ice and
insulator sets. The towers come in different forms and designs for
3-phase, 6-phase, double 3-phase circuits, and 12 phase cong-
urations. There are several lines that carry four or more parallel
circuits in which case the existing designs may be used for 12-
phase lines too. The towers may built on steel lattice structures,
single or H type tubular. Normally tubular design is very compact
and more suitable for urban areas and congested locations in big
cities. Steal lattice structure designs for 6 and 12-phase lines. The
tower heights may vary from 25 to 40 m. The tower shape may be
horizontal, triangular, compact circular or H-type rectangular.
Various factors that need consideration may include ground
clearances, the sags of conductors, insulator set length, vertical
and horizontal spacing between conductors, height of earth wire
and its minimum ground wire shielding angle. The tower design
technology is already mature. The towers may be of suspension
type of straight lines and of dead end types of sharp turns. The
turn in line requires special design and other considerations
depending upon the line conductor orientation. Different possible
congurations of conductors of multiphase transmission lines are
shown in Fig. 9.
Multiphase transmission systems may be represented by nor-
mal single line diagrams if the entire network is consisting of 6 or
12-phase lines. However, if the network is inhomogeneous then
we can use two lines for 6-phase circuits and one line for 3-phase
circuits. High phase order synchronous generator technology is
simple and cheaper than converters. Multiphase substations are
similar to three-phase substations except the number of con-
ductors per busbar, number of circuit breakers per line and phase
markings. One may use numbers from 1 to 6 or 1 to 12 to indicate
the phases or IEEE may use six signicant colors from the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum to indicate the six phases like red, yellow
and blue standard. A suitable standard, although not recom-
mended so far, may be designed for white (1), red (2), yellow (3),
green (40), blue (5) and black (6) phases. This concept may be
further extended to various types of white (hydro), red (nuclear),
yellow (solar), green (bio-energy), blue (wind) and black (coal)
energy sources. This concept may be used by utilities and the IPCC
for carbon credits.
For 12-phase system the letter system is more appropriate
because the standard colors are only seven. Normally it is
recommended to rst conduct phase transposition before con-
necting to substation transformer. Other things that need to be
considered are voltage and current transformers for energy
metering, monitoring and protection system applications. The six-
phase voltage transformers (PT or VT) have to be connected in six-
phase manner if six-phase metering and protection devices exist
in substation, else it may be connected in a three-phase manner.
The current transformers (CT) may be connected accordingly. May
be open delta type connections suitable in three-phase system
need to be altered. The concept of six-phase substations is not
1664 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
Fig. 9. Multiphase line conductor orientation congurations.
new. It has been in practice for synchronous converters, valves and
HVDC transmission links, but the topic is again in the limelight
due to the advent of multiphase transmission ideas. High phase
order networks have protection and control issues which need
time to overcome [90,91]. Although it is often stated that multi-
phase transmission system is more environmental friendly, yet
still it needs to be assessed on engineering basis. Abundant data
are available on radio noise, corona effects, audible noise, electric
and magnetic elds under the 3-phase lines [92]. Measurements
under multiphase lines show that values of radio and audible
noise and electric and magnetic elds are lower than the existing
three phase systems in the fair as well as rough weathers. UHVDC
and UHVAC lines are vulnerable to terrorist activities. Loss of a line
may cause a widespread blackout compromising reliability. UHV
lines facilitate building coal red power plants far away from cities
in deserts to reduce pollution and radioactivity risks in case of
meltdown. China has built UHV lines under decarbonization policy
to harvest benets of low transmission losses in UHVDC lines.
UHVDC transmission lines have lesser corona losses than UHVAC
lines. HVDC lines have lesser corona losses than the  HVDC
lines. HVAC causes oscillating particle and HVDC constant wind
corona losses which are half of the HVAC. Negative corona gen-
erates more ozone than positive corona. HVDC monopole design
can help in controlling corona losses.
4. Techno-economic analysis
Beyond break-even-distance HVDC is more economic than
HVAC. Break-even distances for the submarine or underground
cables and overhead transmission lines are 50 and 600 km. HVAC
cables are common, but HVDC cables are rare. New Zealand, Spain,
Switzerland and Canada, have laid down 220, 380, 400 and
500 kV, 837 km long, DC cables. UHVDC outweighs UHVAC lines,
despite extra expenses on expensive DC circuit breakers and
converter electronics, when power is to be delivered over 1000
3000 km distances [49]. The HVAC system can supply reactive VAR
support which is not possible in HVDC lines. Converter electronics
itself need 0.5 MVAr/MW reactive power which is supplied by
local capacities. It is easy to control the active power line. The
HVDC link does not contribute to faults in AC systems in the
network. HVDC line losses are lower than EHV AC lines. Converter
losses vary from 0.6% (LCC) to 5% (VSC). HVAC lines provide ex-
ibility to build multi-terminal power systems which are difcult in
the case of HVDC lines. China completed a three terminal
7160 kV, 100MW, 200 km (o/h line), 50 km (land cable) and
32 km (sea cable) long DC line using VSC technology in 2013. India
has started a three terminal 7 800 kV, 8000 MW and 1728 km
long bipolar line around Agra using Thyristors which is expected
to be completed in 2016. Siemens uses half bridge multi module
converters (MMC), ABB HVDC Light employs two level cascade
converters using 1 cell of 17 kV with 2  8 IGBTs and Alstom
deploys full bridge modular multi-level converters (MMC) [93].
Multiterminal lines are easier in HVAC technology than HVDC if
the line length is less than breakeven distance or does not incor-
porate cables. The cables are charged and discharged at every cycle
in HVAC and only once in HVDC. HVAC lines are world widely
common. HVDC lines are relatively fewer than HVAC lines for
shorter break-even distances. DC advantages include greater
power per conductor, simpler line construction, ground return
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675 1665

availability, no charging current or skin effect, higher voltage Normal AC insulation level is 2.53 times higher than the rated AC
gradient cables, unity power factor, lines require no reactive voltage. The permissible line voltage may be obtained by the
compensation, less corona loss so no radio interference, no need of product of insulator margin and basic insulation level. Maximum
synchronous operation, distance not limited by stability, inter- permissible voltages may be given by
connects 50/60 Hz AC systems, low short-circuit current on D.C Maximum permissible voltage (Vmpv)BIL  Insulation Mar-
line, no contribution to short-circuit fault currents on AC systems. gin1050  15% 892.5 kV.
Typical disadvantages include expensive converters, reactive Maximum permissible incident surge (kV)Vmpv/1.6892.5/
power demand, generate harmonics and require expensive lters. 1.6 557.8 kV.
AC systems have multi-terminal (T-off) operation capability which The ratio of AC insulation level and rated voltage is may be
DC systems do not have. It is difcult to compare power carrying given by
capacity of HVDC and EHV AC lines as it depends on the thermal
limit on HVDC and stability limits in EHV AC lines. AC Insulation Level
k1 2:5 57
Rated AC VoltageV PG
4.1. HVDC insulation coordination Likewise HVDC ratio is given by
DC Insulation Level
The insulation ratio (k) for an AC line converted into equivalent k2 1:7 58
Rated DC VoltageV DC
DC line is given by
The insulation ratio (IR) for AC and DC lines may be the ratio of
DC withstand Voltage AC phase to ground (VPG) and DC pole to ground (VDC) voltages.
k 56
AC withstand Voltage  
k1 V P  G
Due to pollution precipitation on DC p insulators the values of k IR k 59
k2 V DC
are assumed to be 1 for polluted case, 2 for average and 2 for
clean lines and cables [94]. The number of 37.5 kV disc insulators If the insulation length is same for both AC and DC lines, then
require for 500 and 750 kV lines are 13 and 20 at rated voltages above relation becomes
 
and 14 and 30 for 1.5 pu voltages. AC lines are normally insulated k1
V DC k VP G 60
four times higher than the rated rms voltage due to routine over k2
voltages caused by faults, switching surges and ashovers. If any
Ratio of power carrying capacities of double circuit 3  AC and
insulator has voids in it, then leakage current pulses continue to
three bipolar DC line may be given by
waste power. The insulation requirement increases exponentially
as system voltage increases from 220 kV to 750 kV. The insulators P DC  3BP 6  V P  G  I AC
61
for applying voltages are set to 10% higher voltages. The insulators P AC  3 6  V DC  I DC
must withstand switching (100/2500 ms), lightning (1.2/50 ms) and
If IAC IDC then
chopped impulse (0.1 ms) voltages. Insulation of power system  
increases from distribution to transmission systems. Minimum P DC  3BP V DC k1
k 1:47 62
insulation levels for 1, 11, 132, 220, 400, 500, 765 kV voltage sys- P AC  3 V P  G k2
tems are 1.1, 12, 145, 245,440, 550 and 841 kV but their basic DC line has 147% power transfer capability and 68% lower line
insulation levels are 10, 75, 650, 1050, 1130, 1425 and 1800 kV losses as compare to an equivalent AC line. In case of replacing an
respectively. Insulation coordination for a 345 kV system voltage is AC cable with DC cable the power transfer capacity increases to
shown in Fig. 10. 294% of AC with a 34% reduction in line losses.
Besides basic insulation testing, the equipment is also tested for If c is the cost per kW rating of an HVDC converter station and C
1.7 times the rated maximum continuous operating voltage is the cost per incremental kW benet achieved by AC to DC
(MCOV). Normally 132, 220 and 400 kV equipment are tested for conversion then [67].
one minute at 230, 395 and 680 kV. Ratio of DC withstands voltage
is usually greater than AC voltage for its pulsating nature. DC C P DC
63
voltage attracts more dust particles than AC where it becomes c P DC P AC
polluted earlier. If there is no pollution in the air, then the DC line The incremental costs for tripolar and bipolar schemes are
insulator can withstand 1.4 times more than the peak value of rms  
C TP cTP P TP P BP  P AC
AC voltage. Cables can withstand twice of AC rms voltage. It is 64
C BP cBP P BP P TP  P AC
advisable to replace the AC insulators with composite insulators
exhibiting superior performance in high pollution areas. Cap and Barthold and Huang proved [67] if cTP/cBP 1.15, PTP/PBP 1.37
pin insulators also need to be replaced for corrosion reasons. and PBP/PAC 2 then CTP/CBP 0.90 which is a 10% cost advantage
Certain insulation strength may require 16 discs, 11 fog or 14 aero using the current modulation tripolar HVDC conguration.
type insulators measuring 2336, 1606 or 2044 mm lengths. DC components are more expensive than AC but if we evaluate
in terms of line losses, then long DC lines are cheaper than AC
lines. A 7 300 kV 1250 MW bipolar line costs $2.18 million/km,
whereas as 220 kV double circuit line carrying 8001300 MW
power costs $1.1 million/km. A 500/220 kV 1000 MVA power
transformer costs $18 million. A 220/132 kV 150 MVA transformer
costs $5 million. A 220 kV circuit breaker costs $3 million and
220 kV cable costs $2.1 million/km which is twice expensive than
overhead line option. 400 to 700 kV DC transmission system costs
$320370/kV-mile which is $43.9 million lower than AC systems.
AC circuit breakers, transformers, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors,
SVS cost 1.5, 1.53, 3.57, 1.7 and 8.25 million dollars. DC converters
transformers and vales (control and cooling) cost 4055% of the
Fig. 10. Insulation coordination of high voltage systems. whole project. HVDC and EHVAC line costs vary from $500 to 600
1666 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
million for 600 km long lines. AC line is cheaper than DC below the
break-even-distance (600 km) and which HVDC becomes cheaper
than EHVAC as shown in Fig. 11 [58,94].
HVDC Light increases the reliability of power grids, and the
technology extends the economical power range of HVDC trans-
mission from 100MW to 1800 MW at 7500 kV.
Growing interest in transporting renewable energy from
remote hydro generation plants has also increased the interest in
higher HVDC which led to the development of ultra high voltage
direct current (UHVDC) at 800 kV and more recently even up to
1100 kV UHVDC. The 800 kV UHVDC transmission systems are
economically attractive for bulk power transmission of 5000
8000 MW over 10001500 km, and 1100 kV for transmission
capacities up to 10,000 MW over distances more than 3000 km.
Siemens and ABB have already completed UHVDC projects [53,95].
Siemens HVDC Classic solution, based on thyristor technology,
offers a power rating up to 6000 MW at a voltage level of
7600 kV and up to 10,000 MW at 7800 kV [96]. The role of
HVDC rather UHVDC and FACTS devices is increasing in future
power systems for enhanced power quality and reliability [97].
Many developing countries are planning even today to aug-
ment 500 and 765 kV HVAC lines (see Fig. 12) instead of con-
verting existing AC into DC or at least constructing future HVDC
lines. World Bank must condition loans subject to solar thermal
integration with coal and construction of future HVDC lines using
VSC, MMC and CSC technologies. Leaders of developing countries
are using word Privatization to sell the public sector utilities to
their own peoples at cheaper rates who increase prices that pro-
vokes people talk against privatization. IPPs install 50300 MW oil
red units to make hay while the sun shines. Oil, coal red power
plants without carbon capture and storage facilities choke people
and the environment.
4.2. HVDC CASA 1000 project
Load forecasting and generation planning is the task of execu-
tives and rulers in both private and public sector utilities. WAPDA
was an excellent public sector utility, but its privatization led it to
stop brainstorming assuming someone else responsibility. As a
result of a half-done process no large dam was built from 1976 to
2015. The rampant rise of the supply, demand decit led to a
shortfall of 5000 MW in 2010 which has increased in last ve
years. Pakistan, India and Bangladesh face 40005000, 12001300
and 14001500 MW power shortages. To overcome power crisis,
the government took various measures such as import of LNG
from Qatar, 1000 MW solar park, 1000 MW wind farm and
Fig. 11. HVAC versus HVDC break-even costs.
construction of the 500 kV HVDC line to import power from cen-
tral Asian states. National transmission and dispatch company
(NTDC) take care of national grid at 220 and 500 kV levels. Power
carrying capacity of current T&D infrastructure has already peaked
at 15,500 MW. Existing and proposed construction of high voltage
lines is shown in Fig. 12.
PEPCO, WAPDA and NTDC augmentation plans are based on
220 and 500 kV HVAC extensions to 665 kV HVAC despite know-
ing its loss is twice of HVDC line losses. NESPAK and SNC Lavalin
have carried out a feasibility study of 7 500 kVbipole HVDC link to
import 500 MW power from Iran and a 7500 kV bipole HVDC
link to import 1000 MW power from CAS. WAPDA has planned
many dams, but evacuation is planned by 220 kV/500 kV HVAC
lines instead of HVDC lines. A large scale AC to DC line conversion
has to be undertaken to overcome losses. Pakistan needs
17,000 MW additional power by 2020 to overcome power crisis.
Using a thumb rule of $1.2 billion/MW power Pakistan needs a
sum of $20.40 billion and a similar gure to replace HVAC lines
[99]. Pakistan's energy policy to use HVAC lines, oil based IPPs and
coal power plants without carbon capture and storage are not
climate friendly policies.
China has offered to invest $45 billion in highway, nuclear, coal
and solar power sectors. No investor is willing to invest in T&D all
opt thermal power generation due to lower investment. The Asian
Development Bank is supporting construction of HVDC lines to
reduce transmission losses and increase power transfer capability.
The World Bank agreed to nance the 1000 MW CASA Project to
import power from central Asian States [100]. Under this project
Kyrgyz and Tajik utilities will supply 2.15 and 3.75 TW h to sell
1300 MW to Afghanistan and Pakistan. Electricity will be trans-
mitted by a 592 km long 500 kV EHV line from Datka to Sangtuda
substation after which a 750 km long 7500 kV bipolar multi-
terminal HVDC line will transport power from Central Asia to
Southeast Asia. Pakistan and Afghanistan will construct their
30 km long electrode lines near Kabul and Peshawar. This project
costs $1.17 billion, which will be shared among Pakistan ($197
million), Afghanistan ($309 million), Tajikistan ($251 million) and
Kirgizstan ($196 million) [101]. Worldwide 130,000 MW power is
being transmitted through 140 HVDC projects out of which
60,000 MW is transmitted by 75 projects installed by ABB. The
HVDC transmission system provides interconnection among three
or more AC networks. Single line diagram of CASA 1000 Bipole
HVDC circuit connecting Central Asian States to Afghanistan and
Pakistan is shown in Fig. 13 [100102].
CASA 1000 bipole CSC-HVDC transmission line may be oper-
ated as monopole with earth or metallic return. Operation of this
CSC-HVDC in bipole and monopole modes with earth and metallic
return paths (red) is shown in Fig. 14 [102].
Tajikistan has hundreds of rivers with collective hydropower
capacity of 5,294,870 MW, which is 4% of world's hydropower
potential. China is interested in building hydropower plants to sell
electricity to Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Southeast Asia Nepal has
lots of hydropower potential to feed Southeastern hydropower
market. Pakistan has good relations with Nepal but India falls in
between as India has good relations with Afghanistan, but Pakistan
is between both of them. If the relationship between India and
Pakistan normalizes then it can open a big electricity market
among SAARC countries. Pakistan also plans to purchase 500 MW
from India through 7400 kV HVDC bipolar AmritsarLahore line.
This line would cost $1.281 billion, with the benet of $1.724 bil-
lion [103]. There are good sites allowing construction of nine
cascade dams. Tajik and Kyrgyz utilities have enough surplus
power today, especially in summer, but it might not be available
after 2035 due to population and demand growth as shown in
Fig. 15.
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675 1667

Fig. 12. PEPCO transmission lines augmentation plan [98].

Fig. 13. Single line diagram of a bipole HVDC system.

Brazil has built a 7600 kV, 7100 MW, a 2375 km long HVDC Chinese 7800 kV, 6400 MW 2071 km long Xiangjiaba-Shanghai
line from the Madeira River in Amazon to southern load centers. HVDC link connecting the Xianjiaba dam to Shanghai stands sec-
The Rio Madeira HVDC system is the largest HVDC project to date. ond [104]. Most of HVDC projects are being carried out in China,
1668 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675

Fig. 14. Operation of a CSC-HVDC in bipole and monopole modes [100]. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

India and Brazil for their surging power demands. DC lines have
3050% lower line losses than AC power lines. HVDC links are ideal
options to connect remote offshore wind farms and solar parks to
national grid.
4.3. High voltage and environment
HVAC, EHVAC and UHVAC systems have built in 5001000 kV
levels. HVDC and UHVDC systems are being built at 7500 kV to
7800 kV levels. A few experimental lines of HPO HV lines were
built in the USA. The current trend is toward higher voltage HVDC
systems which produces lesser ozone than equivalent HVAC.
HVDC current ow through ground might cause environmental
concerns. Monopole HVDC uses one set of conductor for power
transmission to earth current return current. It is a single wire
earth return system, but may use metallic return conductors
without insulating it like the other pole. The earth electrode has
Fig. 15. Average surplus power availability from 2016 to 2035 [101].
located tens of km away and brought to the substation via the
electrode line. It is possible to grind cathode or anode but cathode
electrode is easy to design. As full current ows through monopole
electrode therefore it may cause electrochemical corrosion of oil,
gas and water pipes. Pipelines must be protected using a thick
organic coating supplemented by cathode's protection. Despite all
efforts pipelines in the vicinity of high voltage AC lines have been
found to affect by inducing current [105]. In case of monopole sea
cables the return current produces chlorine in sea water affecting
marine and navigation compasses. High ground currents in
monopole HVDC lines heat up the ground near electrodes causing
dehydration leading to higher soil resistivity. Monopole sea links
emit chlorine and ground currents produce hydrogen.
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
Soil near the electrode exhibits high resistivity over long term
operation. Current densities of 460 A/m2 triple the resistivity
and double the losses in monopole HVDC lines [106]. Capacitive
currents in EHV AC lines also ow through the neutral and nearby
pipelines. These neutral current are higher in pipelines near the
towers and also depend on its diameter. A 750 kV EHV AC line may
cause high voltages and currents in pipelines [107]. Study of
ITAIPU HVDC line ground currents has shown the possibility of
touch voltages in underground water pipelines [108]. Line losses of
EHV transmission lines may also increase by leakage currents
through nearby trees and tall objects. Monopole and homopole
HVDC lines require ground electrodes for point to point trans-
missions which interact with oil, gas and water pipelines. Voltages
and currents after positive pole to ground fault are more severe in
solidly grounded systems than reactance or resistance grounded
systems [109]. Return conductor without insulators remains still
cheaper than bipole HVDC. Overhead monopolies can transmit
1500 MW over long distances, but submarine cables are limited to
600 MW. A monopole system requires two electrodes near term-
inal substations. A 110 km long, 300 kV, 2  300 MW EGAT-TNB
monopole CSC-HVDC link is between Thailand and Malaysia.
Monopole systems are designed to be upgraded to bipole later.
A monopole may also consist of two 7 monopoles with converter
earthed through heavy impedance ensuring negligible current.
Back to back HVDC systems are limited to 600 MW and point to
point bipole HVDC lines to 3000 MW. Back to back HVDC links act
as rewall to prevent fault between AC power networks.
Homopole HVDC lines may use positive or negative lines. Usually
homopole HVDC lines use negative polarity for lower corona losses
and positive earth electrode. Cathode is normally easier to design
compared anode which in terms of line losses is planned accord-
ingly. The bipolar HVDC system uses two sets of conductors for
power transmission the midpoint is earthed through the electrode
line and earth electrode. Power ows through the lines and neg-
ligible power through earth electrode (o10 A). In case of faults on
one pole other may be operated as monopolies for 50% power
transmission through earth return. Largest HVDC systems are
bipolar types. Typical examples include 7 800 kV, 6400 MW,
2000 km long Xiangjiaba-Shanghai HVDC link, connecting the
Xiangjiaba hydropower dam to Shanghai load center, and
7600 kV, 6300 MW, 2375 km long Rio Madeira link in Brazil.
According to ABB the resistive losses determine the conductor
cross section for AC lines. AC corona losses are important to the
design of the conductor bundle. With only a few kW/km of loss in
fair weather, the level may increase 10100 times during condi-
tions of rain or hoarfrost and may reach several hundred kW/km.
AC corona loss is several times higher than DC corona loss. The
effect of altitude on corona loss is quite dramatic: at 1800 m above
sea level, the losses at any given weather condition are four times
higher than at sea level. The effect of altitude on the DC corona
loss is similar to AC but much lower than EHV AC. Corona also
depends on weather conditions in addition to altitude. At the same
altitude of 5001000 m the corona loss (kW/km) becomes twice
during rain and thrice during frost when compared the fair
weather both in HVDC and EHV AC lines. DC lines have lower line
losses than AC at high voltage levels. Comparing HVDC and EHVAC
line with regard to power losses, the main difference is that corona
losses of HVDC lines are much less sensitive to variations in
weather conditions as compared to AC corona losses.
AC produces a particle oscillating corona and DC causes corona
wind. Negative HVDC negative pole exhibits lower corona loss
than positive pole. When the electric eld strength in the vicinity
of the bare conductor in air reaches an ionization threshold by
electron collision, a primary avalanche starts developing away
from the conductor. Over time more electrons are created on its
head, leaving positive ions behind in the wake. The ionization
1669
process produces photons all around; Ionization process termi-
nates itself when the electron collision coefcient becomes
lesser than the electron attachment coefcient . The electrons
get attached to air molecules to form negative ions. Field emission
is possible when the electric eld exceeds 5  107 Vm  1. Electron
collision and attachment coefcients are functions of the electric
eld E, air pressure P and temperature T. Empirical relations
among ionization coefcient (), attachment coefcient () and air
density () are given by [110].
4:7786e  0:221 =E 65
9:682e  0:2642 =E 66
   2
E E
0:01298  0:51 8:7 67
The parameter is given by
P 293
68
101:3  10  3 273 T
Inuence of altitude (h) on atmospheric pressure (P) may be
estimated by
 
h
P P0 1  69
k
Corona onset electric eld Ec ( kV/cm) may be given by Peeks
formula
!
0:3
Ec 30 1 p 70
R
where R is conductor radius (cm) and is relative air density.
HVDC and HPO lines exhibit lower corona losses due to their lower
voltage levels.
5. HVDC circuit breakers
HVDC lines have the higher power transfer capability as com-
pared to equivalent HVAC lines, but they suffer serious limitations
of HVDC circuit breakers. LCC HVDC tripping times are several
times higher than HVAC circuit breakers. ABB, Siemens and others
are trying to develop HVDC circuit breakers, yet all of them are
miles away. As of 2011, ABB and Siemens had invested $200
and 110 millions of R&D activities [111]. HVDC circuit breakers
market potential is estimated to be $10 billion in next ve years.
Researchers focus on hybrid circuit breakers using mechanical,
semiconductor and superconductor contacts which increase con-
tact resistance and tripping time. DC currents do not have any zero
crossing like AC which distinguishes the arc between interrupters.
Hybrid circuit breakers use power electronics to force current to
become zero. A surge arrester is used to absorb energy stored in
the system to maintain zero. ABB claims to have solved 100 years
5 ms, DC circuit breaker puzzle by using fast mechanics and
electronics [112,113]. HVDC networks connect two different fre-
quency networks and transmit power over thousand miles dis-
tance with minimal power losses. HVAC overhead lines, beyond
600800 km lengths, and HVAC cables longer than 4050 km
break-even-distances cost more than HVDC.
HVDC lines are usually current source converter (CSC) type as a
voltage source converter (VSC) technology is limited to 7 300 kV.
Major problem with VSC is that in case of a DC side fault the diodes
connected parallel to IGBT become short-circuited despite the
shutdown of the IGBT. DC capacitors become short circuited due to
high rate of rise of current in an inductor contributing to fault
1670 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
current. VSC is preferably used with cables rather than overhead
lines. Thyristor enabled CSC converters have high, low order har-
monics as compared to low, high order harmonics in IGBT based
VSC converters. CSC Stations consume large amount of reactive
power, whereas VSC stations can control it. CSC Stations have 0.7%
losses as compared to 1.6% losses in VSC stations. CSCs are avail-
able at 800 kV, 4 kA and 6400 MW ratings as compared to 300 kV
and 800MW VSC ratings. A CSC needs a converter transformer and
VSC needs a series reactor and transformer. For power reversal the
CSC allows change of poles, which is hard on VSC technology.
During DC fault CSC can adjust by phase control which is not
possible in VSC. CSC has large DC inductor and small capacitors as
compared to small inductor and large capacitors in case of VSC.
Rate of rise of DC short circuit current is larger in CSC a com-
pared to VSC. CSC based HVDC systems have high voltage and
power ratings with risk of commutation failure and collapse of the
line. VSC have relatively lower voltages and lower power ratings.
CSC has a low rate of rise of short circuit current but is vulnerable
to AC side faults. VSC is more suitable for cables than overhead
lines [114]. DC circuit breakers are difcult to design because of
continuous arc discharge without any zero crossing. Available low
rating circuit breakers and most of the ideas consist of series and
parallel combinations of AC interrupters, resonance circuits with
inductors and capacitors, semiconductors, charging units, varistors
or resistors. Typical out of box solutions consist of super con-
ducting fault current limiters (SCFCL) and fuses. The current lot of
HVDC circuit breakers is limited to 250 kV 8 kA or 500 kV 4 kA
ranges which are hardly 1.6 times higher than rated HVDC cur-
rents. The fastest trip times of HVDC circuit breakers (30 ms) are
similar to EHV AC circuit breaker times (40 ms). The current in
HVDC circuit may be brought down to zero by generating a
counter voltage of similar magnitude which can be done by
inserting additional resistances or inductances at the expense of
energy dissipation. This technology works well in LV and MV cir-
cuits, but proves inefcient in HVDC circuits. This problem may be
overcome by adding commutation and energy absorption paths
parallel to the nominal current path as shown in Fig. 16.
The commutation path consists of a series resonant LC notch
lter. If the amplitude of oscillating current in an LC circuit is more
than rated DC current (Io) then a zero crossing occurs in the
nominal path allowing interrupter Sn to do its intended job. The
Fig. 16. Basic arrangement of a HVDC circuit breaker [115].
excessive energy is dissipated by varistor path. In case of pre-
charged commutation capacitor current may be injected by closing
Sc to create counter current. The interrupters in nominal path may
be vacuum and SF6 type. The negative voltage UCB may be can-
celed by VC to cause zero crossing. Solid state DC breakers have
been developed for both AC and DC circuits. The resistance of SSCB
is in m which is hundreds time higher than AC interrupters. SSCB
losses are 0.0.4% of transmitting power which is higher than EHV
CB. Wide gap semiconductor material have 3.3 (GaN) to 5.6 (Dia-
mond) MV/cm electric eld strengths. Hybrid pre-insertion AC, CB
and SSCB may be used in HVDC circuits [116]. Trip time of fast
hybrid solid state CB is as low as 300 ms [117]. Other options
include air or DF6 and vacuum circuit breaker as well as fault
current limiters [118], solid state current limiters [119] or super
conducting DC fault current limiters [120]. HVDC transmission
does point to point as additional problems arise in the HVDC
multi-terminal meshed networks.
A DC/DC VSC based circuit breaker may be used for medium
voltage multi-terminal DC lines. DC/DC coppers can be used to
control HVDC lines by Vo DVi (0 rD r1) [121]. Researchers pro-
pose to use two AC interrupters in series for HVDC and UHV AC
lines. A combination of SF6 and VCB in series hybrid circuit
breaker (HCB) has extensively been researched worldwide. Post-
arc resistance of SF6 and VCB recovers as high as 510 k within
57 ms [122]. Medium voltage circuit breakers can be placed in
series for HVDC applications. A nonlinear resistor (MOV) in series
with a freewheeling diode may be connected across the line to
suppress the surge voltage. Ninety 2.5 kV devices connected in
series can block 250 kV DC without any surge problem. An IGBT
(1.24 V) at rated current of 1.2 kA suffers loss of 134 kW which is
0.045% of rated 300 MVA power at 250 kV [123]. Transient
recovery voltage (TRV) in UHV AC circuits can affect breaker
operation as well as either side systems. TRV during interrupting
the short circuit fault on 1100 kV system may vary from 1635 to
2245 kV with a rate of voltage rise (dV/dt) varying from 2 to 7 kV/
ms [124].
HVDC circuit breakers face energy absorption issues due to
interruption process. HVDC circuit breakers have to decrease the
energy stored in the line inductance (0.5Li2) in order to interrupt
the current ow. Energy absorption is generally done by surge
arresters. Energy absorption considerations in HVDC circuit
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675 1671

Fig. 17. Superconductor and Solid State Fault Current Limiters (FCL).

breakers are described in the literature [125]. ABB claims a hybrid

HVDC circuit breaker yet it is not available in the market. Siemens
has developed 1200 kV HVAC circuit breakers but there is no news
of HVDC circuit breakers [126]. Metallic return transfer, complex
solid state, fast and simple solid state switches have low (o1 m),
medium (o 1 m) and high ( o1 ) resistances, 410 kA current
breaking capacities, but high (27 ms), medium (2 ms) and low
(0.1 ms) trip times [127]. A combination of a superconducting or
solid state FCL and mechanical circuit breakers is viewed as a good
option for VSC-HVDC systems. There are 13 types of fault current
limiters but superconductor, solid state and high temperature
coefcient are the most researched technologies [128]. Saturated
iron core HTSC FCL and SS FCL limiters are shown in Fig. 17.
Monopole HVDC lines cause human safety and environmental
problems. Electrodes become hot due to a huge ow of current
through the ground circuit.

Fig. 18. Ground resistivity dependence on voltage.

6. Grid, step and touch voltages
It is a voltage between an energized object, a person in contact
Grid potential rise (GPR) occurs when large currents ow with the object. Maximum touch voltage is 653 V inside substation
through earth grid impedance. The term GPR refers to the voltage and 207 V out in a fenced area. The tower structure is usually
difference between local and remote earth. Grid potential rise may connected to ground conductor 18 in. below the surface i.e. 3 feet
be given by from the structure. The buried cable may be connected to
grounding conductor and 58 in. copper clad rods driven 10 feet
V GPR I G  RG 71
into the ground. It reduces voltage drop on structure as well as
where along soil resistivity to protect anybody touching the structure.
Mesh voltage is the potential difference between the metallic
RG R1 R2  R2m =R1 R2  2Rm 72
object, connected to the grid and the potential of the soil in the
where R1 is the earth resistance of grid conductor, R2 is grid grid. Grid voltage may be higher around the point where fault
resistance of earthing electrode and Rm is the mutual earth resis- current enters the ground. Grid voltage may be given by
tance of grid and electrodes. V Grid I f  Z Grid 76
Step voltage is the potential gradient between the feet of a
walking person on soil near a live downed conductor. Step voltage The voltage rise around a high potential point and a radial
may be given by distance away is given by
0:116  V r r  I f =2pr 77
EStep  50 kg p 1000 6C S S 73
t A person straddling across high potential circle may suffer
0:157  electric shock. Touch voltage around a tower base may be given by
EStep  70 kg p 1000 6C S S 74
t 0:116 
EStep  50 kg p 1000 1:5  C S S 78
The de- rating factor CS for surface resistivity in his thickness of t
the surface layer is given by
0:157 
  EStep  70 kg p 1000 1:5  C S S 79
0:091  =S t
CS 1  75
2hS 0:09
The step and touch voltages increase by increase in surface soil
Step voltage for a hard-dry surface is higher than wet soil resistivity. The step and touch voltages as a function of soil resis-
during rain. tivity are shown in Fig. 18.
Touch voltage is the maximum voltage allowed on a structure Step voltage on normal ground may vary from 316 to 547 V
from any point within the reach from the ground whilst standing but touch voltage varies from 187 to 1481 V. Touch voltage risks
3 feet off the structure during fault current through the structure. dominate step voltage hazards during rainy weathers. Soil
1672 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
resistivity varies linearly on the surface, but exponentially from
surface to depth. Step voltage risk increases many times during the
digging. Military engineers use early warning instruments during
digging. A green LED glows up to 100 V but a yellow LED blinks for
101499 V. When step voltage during digging increases beyond
500 V a red LED glows which means stop digging. Dangerous
voltages may appear due to metallic conductor oil, gas and water
pipelines [108].
General public step voltage exposure limit is 201 mA for 0.33 s
(50 kg) and utility worker's limit is 272 mA for 0.33 s (70 kg).
General public and worker's shock exposure limit is
p energy comes from within the earth. Modern living and business
I max  public 0:116= t i:e:201 mA=0:33 s 80
p fuel crops is supplanted elsewhere by deforestation to stabilize the
I max  public 0:157= t i:e:272 mA=0:33 s 81
The touch voltage may vary from 653 to 2010 V in substation
and 207 to 225 V in the fence area around. A person standing on
the surface near a 6350 V downed conductor some 20 feet away
may face step voltage of 952 V. The current ow through legs of
victim assuming 1000 body resistance is VStep/Rbody 952/
1000 0.952 A. The 11 kV breaker operates usually within 400 ms
after inception of phase to ground fault, therefore, the effective
exposure is 0.952  0.33/0.33 s which means 314 mA for 0.33 s.
This is a fatal step voltage which exceeds 201272 mA for 0.33 s
limit. Utility infrastructure grounding resistance increases from
substation to service poles.
7. Climate change and energy transition
Global greenhouse gas emissions were 53 billion tonnes of CO2 in
2014 out of which 39.50 billion tonnes were CO2 emissions. The
average concentration of greenhouse gases is 430 ppm out of which
402 ppm is CO2 concentration which is a level never seen in last
800,000 years. The average temperature rise has been recorded to be
1 C from 1880 to 2015 which is halfway down the IPCC target of 2 C
by 2100. Energy sector contributes 35% of total GHG emissions, which
more than agriculture and deforestation (24%), heavy industry (21%),
transport (14%) and building (6%) sectors. We must not emit more
than 1 trillion tonnes of CO2 on top of previously emitted 1.9 trillion
tonnes to stay under 2 C ceiling which is not possible to without
cutting 4070% emission over 2010 level by 2050. This task needs
hundreds of billions of dollars per year from 2015 to 2030 [129].
Consumption of fossil fuels in any sector contributes to climate change
yet the power sector contributes the most. We need clean energy, but
not at the cost of atmospheric pollution. We need electricity for
comfort and business, but need air for survival. Dodo, golden toad,
whales and many other species are already racing extinction. When
sleeping in air conditioned homes and driving luxury cars we must not
forget the dense clouds of greenhouse gases and acidic waters dis-
solving shell organisms. Climate change appears as local warming on
one place and local cooling on another, yet global temperature is on
constant rise. After the industrial and agricultural revolutions the cli-
mate change is the most signicant event.
Power demand is increasing over time due to expanding
economies and growing populations worldwide. Renewable
energy sources have increased the overall generating capacity, but
short duration weather peaks due to climate change have also
increased the heating and the cooling demands. To avoid climate
change thermal runaway energy transition is deemed inevitable,
which depends on wind, solar, geothermal, ocean waves, biofuels,
energy efciency and waste energy conversion technologies. The
global community is producing 1310 GW hydro, 336 GW wind,
160 GW solar and 20 GW geothermal power in 2014. Over
1850 GW of renewable energy reect a good initiative. Accumu-
lative renewable energy capacity is expected to increase to
7500 GW (5000 GW wind and 2500 GW others) by 2020 [130].
A renewable power generation capacity of 500 GW can eliminate
ve hundred 1000 nuclear or coal power plants. Worldwide green
gasoline (ethanol) and green diesel (bio-diesel) are being pro-
duced at the rates of 90 and 7 million tons annually. Pakistan's
annual milk consumption is 5 million barrels and oil consumption
is 31 million barrels. Planet can meet food and energy demands,
but cannot fulll the desires of few persons determined to own the
whole lot. Sun, moon and earth are the ultimate energy sources.
Solar power drives wind, water and vegetable cycles. Lunar gravity
stirs up ocean waters to create tides and waves. Geothermal heat
bank on money (energy) as life thrives on life. Land that is used for
food chain. Wind power is becoming popular worldwide for its
low footprint. A farmer can grow fuel crops worth %1000 in an
acre, but he can earn $ 3000$10,000 from wind power out of the
same land. After installing wind turbines, the farmers can also get
7080% of the fuel crops as wind farms occupy hardly 1% of land
area. Developed countries spent $214 billion in renewable energy
sector in 2013.
Major investment in the power sector was done by China to
escalate her power generation capacity from 420 to 1463 GW
during the last decade. Since 2011, China has become the largest
power producer in the world. America is shutting down coal
power plants to cope with climate change and reduce carbon
pollution, but China and India are increasing coal power plants in
Asia. Fossil fuels provide 80% of global energy demands. Coal
power generation accounts for 44% CO2 emissions and the
remaining 36% comes from oil and gas consumptions. The USA
dropped 14% coal power generation from 2007 to 2011 during
which China increased coal power generation. Despite global
efforts global CO2 emissions are 40 GtCO2/y due to the rampant
rise of coal power generation in Asia [131]. Coal based economic
growth affects both producers and neighbors. Mongolia, Botswana
and Pakistan do not burn coal to produce electricity, but being
neighbors of China, South Africa and India are ranked as the most
polluted countries. Global walker circulations spread the carbon
pollution, smog and soot into neighboring countries. United
Nations Organization (UNO) may consider polluter pays principle
on cross border air pollutions akin to trans-boundary water laws.
The IPCC has advised global leadership to develop strategies to
transfer power sector to renewable energy resources and stop the
use of fossil fuels by 2100. During the energy transition period the
utilities can use carbon capture and storage technology with coal
power plants.
8. Conclusions and future trends
Utility deregulation, distributed power generation, wind farms,
solar parks and smart grid visions are constantly changing the
faade of modern power system. War of currents after several
decades has transformed into a newfangled war of voltages. China,
Brazil and India are constructing UHV and HVDC lines to decrease
transmission line losses. Power transfer capability of HVAC lines is
limited by reactance but HVDC lines can be loaded up to the
conductor thermal limit. A bipolar HVDC line can transmit 1.92
times more power than equivalent voltage double circuit AC line. A
Tripoli HVDC line can transmit 1.8 (VSC) to 2.24 (LCC) time more
power than equivalent voltage single circuit AC line. Three phase
double and quadruple circuit lines after conversion into six and
12-phase lines can transmit 1.73 and 3.46 times more power than
three phase lines using the same right of way (ROW). This paper
reviews power transfer capabilities of HVDC and HPO-HVAC lines
in contrast to existing EHV having lower line losses.
 A. Kalair et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 16531675
A 66 kV 5 km long 3-phase AC line has the 87 MW power
transfer capability, whereas a 66 kV 5 km DC line can handle up to
167.6 MW which is 1.925 times more than an equivalent AC line.
Similarly a 462 kV three-phase line can transfer maximum
9843 MW which at 10% voltage drop increases to 17,637 MW for
six-phase line with 17,900 MW (thermal limit) for 12-phase line at
the same voltage. At 50% compensation HPO line load may be
increased to three times the SIL as the effective line length
decreases. HVDC and HPO HVAC systems are the future competing
options [132,133]. A double circuit three phase line can transfer
more power than six-phase line, but less than three HVDC
monopoles, bipoles or tripoles. A 1000 kV UHV AC line does not
compete with an HVDC line beyond 600km break-even-distance
and suffers adverse power transmission capacity loss beyond
1200 km. Over 1000 km long several 500 kV AC lines in WAPDA
seem to be the core problem of PEPCO 25 to 30% line losses. NTDC
has started constructing new 600 kV HVDC lines parallel to
existing 500 kV EHV lines to reduce line losses. This study con-
cludes HVDC bipolar and tripoles as the best option. Positive poles
have lower corona losses compared to negative (and positive)
bipole lines.
Monopoles have the disadvantage of ground currents which
cause environmental problems. Climate change, energy con-
servation, lower line losses and vision of smart grid drive the
conversion of AC lines into DC or HPO HVAC lines. HVDC lines can
reduce 3050% line losses of AC lines. DC lines have been found to
be more efcient than AC lines yet are limited by the unavailability
of HVDC circuit breakers. To transmit power from remote coal red
power plants, offshore wind farms and solar parks to load centers
the HVDC lines are better than AC lines. HVAC transformer edge
has already been overcome with the advent of HVDC lines. The
CSC-HVDC lines are controlled by thyristors, VSC-HVDC lines by AC
circuit breakers. HVDC circuit breakers are under development
and likely to be available with the rise of VSC-HVDC and MMC-
HVDC lines. A race on HVDC circuit breakers is visible between
ABB and Siemens on the development of HVDC circuit breakers. In
view of surging power demands HVDC is regarded as envir-
onmentally friendly due to its higher power transfer capability,
lower corona losses and ozone generation rates. Ozone is a short
lived gas, but carbon diode has long life.
Despite distinct advantages of HVDC over HVAC and proposi-
tions for composite systems the AC and DC smart grids face pro-
tection and reactive power management issues in integrating
renewable energy sources [134136]. Integration of PQFC and
FACTS devices modies line impedance. Concerted efforts are
underway to overcome large solar and wind power integration
challenges in the context of smart grid vision [137,138]. Protection
techniques for multi-terminal HVDC systems are available which
are under development to improve the reliability of multi-terminal
HVDC lines [139].
Acknowledgments
This research study was carried out by partial funding of Higher
Education Commission Pakistan (Project ID No. 299). Authors are
thankful to PEPCO for discussing future transmission lines
augmentation plans.
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