Curriculum Change and Innovation

Curriculum Change:

Hoyle (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 58) defines change as embracing the concepts of
innovation, development, renewal and improvement of a curriculum. Curriculum change is
dictated by the changes in the economic, social and technological aspects of a society. Change
has magnitude and direction and occurs within a definite time frame.

Curriculum Innovation:

Harris et al. (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 60) describes innovation as an intentional and
deliberate process to bring out desired effects and change. Curriculum innovation refers to
ideas or practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed
curriculum. Westerly (1969) and Richard (1965) (cited in University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 61),
state that curriculum innovation, is any improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable
and unlikely to occur frequently. It is the creation, selection, organization and utilization of
human and material resources in ways that result in higher achievement of curriculum goals and
objectives. The difference between innovation and change lies in the fact that innovation is
always planned while change may occur in response to external events. For any curriculum
innovation to be meaningful and effective, it must be planned and organized. It is possible that
other types of changes may occur when they are not planned.
According to Adaorah (2012) curriculum innovation connote as a modification of what was
existing before the development of ideals, practices, belief that are fundamentally new.
Sources of Curriculum Change and Innovation:

At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy
decisions. In most Southern African countries, nothing happens within the education system
until the central authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually initiated through a
circular or statutory instrument.
Another impetus for change and innovation is the desire of authorities at various
levels to deliberately change established practices in order to address existing
problems or identify new problems and ways of dealing with these problems. The
introduction of new technology can also lead to curriculum change and innovation.
For example, computers are being used in almost every endeavor of our society.
The education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new reality. It must not only use

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 computers for administrative purposes, but also make the computer and related technological
advancements part of the curriculum.
Types of Change:

Change can be categorized into two types.

Hardware Types:
These changes are introduced by additions to facilities such as new classrooms, equipment,
books and play grounds.
Software Types:
These affect the content and range of the curriculum itself. They may be related to the
methods of delivery recommended by curriculum initiators, designers and developers.
Forms of Change:

Change can occur in the following forms (University of Zimbabwe, 1985: 69):
Substitution:
In this change, one element replaces another previously in use. Examples are new textbooks,
new equipment or the replacement of teachers and administrators.
Alteration:
This involves change in existing structures rather than a complete replacement of the whole
curriculum, syllabus or course of study.
Addition:
This is the introduction of a new component without changing old elements or patterns. New
elements are added to the existing program without seriously disturbing the main structure and
content of the prescribed curriculum. These could be support inputs such as audio-visual aids,
workshops and equipment.
Restructuring:
This involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in order to implement desired changes. It
may also involve the sharing of resources among a group of schools or institutions.
Strategies and Models for Curriculum Change and Innovation

In order for change and innovation to succeed, the strategies for implementing the curriculum
must be considered carefully. A strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures and
techniques employed in the quest for change. Harris et al. (1978), as cited in Curriculum
Implementation, developed some models to explain how this takes place.
Strategies:-

Participative Problem-Solving:
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 This strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy these needs. The system
identifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution
and implements the solution if it is satisfactory. The emphasis is on local initiative.
Planned Linkage:
In this model, the intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the users of the
innovation.
Coercive Strategies:
These strategies operate on the basis of power and coercion by those in authority, using laws,
directories, circulars and so forth. Ministries of Education usually use these strategies
Open Input Strategies:
These are open, flexible, pragmatic approaches that make use of external ideas and resources.
Models:

Tanner and Tanner (1980: 262), as cited in Curriculum Implementation, emphasize three
principal models which illustrate how change takes place. These are outlined below.
1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Process Approach/model:

The R, D and D model forms the basis for much of the research activity in Federal
government departments and research laboratories. According to this approach, research is
justified because it creates new knowledge. This view of technology transfer is based on the
idea that "if the knowledge is there, a use will be found for it. This approach is unique because
of its reliance on a decentralized network of county agents to diffuse information on new
technology and facilitate adoption. The R D and D approach has not always produced effective
results in other agencies. Without a network for diffusion and feedback from users, it is difficult
to understand the needs of potential users or perform relevant R, D and D. Normally, little is
known about needs of users, since few systematic efforts are conducted to match user needs with
available technology.
In this model, an innovation is conceived at the head or center and then fed into the system.
This views the processes of change as a rational sequence of phases in which an innovation is:
i. Invented or Discovered,
ii. Developed,
iii. Produced,
iv. Disseminated To The User.
The RD&D model looks at the whole process of change from the perspective of the
originator or developer who formulates a solution in response to an identified user need (Blenkin
et al, 1975 and Mkpa and Izuagba, 2004). The model according to Anaele (2008) is patterned in
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 line with empirical-rational strategy with sub stages as: basic research; applied research;
development and testing of prototypes; mass production and packaging; planned mass
dissemination and receipt by the user. This model has progressive development of activities and
represents the center-periphery model of change.
Ivowi (2008) explains that the idea or innovation is conceived at the center. This center
according to him may represent curriculum development centers like Educational Research and
Development Council (ERDC) where it is researched, developed and then diffused into the
education system. Substantiating this view of Ivowi, Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) hypothesize that
innovations follow this pattern. Those agencies like ERDC, CESAC, among others develop new
curricula based on the national educational needs, available theories and research findings. In the
whole process, the schools are located at the periphery and the teachers are more of passive
agents. In line with what other authors perceive about the model, Nduanya (1986; 1991)
observes that RD & D model is a sequential order of solving an educational problem thus:
Research; Development; Diffusion and Adoption. This he fully represents in a table. This model
was used in the Carnegie Project to develop a new Social Studies curriculum in USA.

RD&D obvious advantages make it popular:

It is solely based on established research findings.
Materials are adequately tested before use
It provides an easy opportunity to train and re-train curriculum implementers.
It uses proven curriculum development processes.
It has appropriate method of selecting specialists and experts in the trial testing of curriculum
materials before installation in schools.
2. Problem-Solving Model:

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 This model was earlier originated by Lippit, later Havelock worked on it. The problem solving
change model also called Need Reduction Model is regarded as a user friendly model by
Havelock (1971), who further worked on it. The first two models of his earlier discussed
assume that an innovation exists that have been fully developed and disseminated to a passive
user.
The P.S. model according to Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) rests on the assumption that an
innovation is part of a problem solving process, which begins with a need that is translated into a
problem. The problem they said, need to be diagnosed and solutions proffered. Havelock
associated this model with the normal problem solving process that encompasses all the main
stages in the need elimination process, unlike the social interaction model. This implies that once
a need is felt, it is instantly perceived as a problem that needs to be solved. In the process of
searching for the solution, alternative choices are provided and the best is selected to solve the
problem. This last stage according to Havelock is the adoption of solution. This model is built
around the user of the innovation, who follows the steps below.
i. Determine the problem.
ii. Search for an innovation.
iii. Evaluate the trials.
iv. Implement the innovation.
Blenkin et al (1975) echoed that the model is user friendly because, the user is the initiator
rather than the recipient of the change. They posit that an external person or group coming in the
process will serve in consultative or collaborative capacity. Havelock claims that the P.S. model
favors educational practitioners.
Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) identify three major advantages of the P.S. Model:

a. Since teachers who will implement the said changes or innovations are active
participants, they are likely to be more committed in their implementation;
b. The model is so flexible that it can apply to various aspects of the curriculum like
teaching methods and materials.

c. As the innovation is school based, it is designed in such a way that it will be able to meet
the need of the school in question
3. The Social Interaction Approach:

The second model of Havelock examined is the Social Interaction Model which lays
emphasis on the diffusion of an innovation through a social system. Rogers and Lion berger in
Nduanya (1991) originated this model that was further developed by Havelock. Anaele (2008)
states that this model involves the transmission of knowledge by individuals, along informal
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 networks of professional colleagues and friends. He reiterates that the S.I. model is subjected to
the influence, judgments and opinions of people around. He emphasizes that the model relates to
the processes of diffusion of new ideas, practices or products. Nduanya (1991) makes it clear
that the first stage of this model tries to create awareness of a need which will motivate the
interest of the social group involved. He now explains that the group involved will move to
study the proposed change closely (evaluation) and then try it out and if it works, the innovation
will be adopted.
From their own point of view, Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) posit that the S.I. model depicts a
process of planned or unplanned social interaction to spread new ideas or practices.
They described the unplanned process as the spread of new ideas or practices through contacts
between and among teachers within a school, among schools, between teachers and supervisors,
among others. As a planned social interaction, the authors state that the diffusion process can be
kicked off through courses, conferences or workshops organized by agencies. These activities
according to them provide the initial supports and in-service training required. At the stage of
dissemination, the agencies will plan/implement their transmission strategies; and this can be
done through organizing courses, demonstration and consultancy services. It concentrates on the
diffusion of innovations throughout social systems in which personal communication plays an
important role. Concepts such as opinion leader, early adopters, etc. are associated with this
approach. This approach to diffusion and utilization has received considerable attention over the
past 45 years. As its name implies, this approach emphasizes analyzing the interaction between
people in order to better describe information flow. Resource and user organizations constitute
the formal structure, and groups of individuals make up the informal structure. The interplay
between formal and informal structure depends on the intensity of interpersonal exchange of
information. The greater the exchange, the more effective the network will be. This approach
describes how individuals exchange information rather than how organizations can increase the
adoption of innovations. The model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks
of information, opinion, leadership and personal contact. It is based on the following:
i. Awareness Of Innovation
ii. Interest In The Innovation
iii. Trial
iv. Adoption for Permanent Use.
The Advantages of the Social Interaction Model as enlisted by Mkpa and Izuagba are:
That teachers are directly involved in some social network, so they can run with the
innovation vision;

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 The S.I. model is flexible because social interaction occurs in diverse forms, formally or
informally; so it gives room for more diverse ways of disseminating and adopting an
innovation.
The process is natural as it deals with the formal communication pattern of mankind.
4. The Linkage Model (L):

This is the fourth innovative model of Havelock in the change process which tends to
integrate the three models so far discussed. Anaele (2008) reiterates that the linkage model
attempts to unify and integrate the three preceding models by emphasizing the need to link
procedures and agencies in a harmonious way. This, he said, could be done by connecting
agencies that can offer resources to users, and link them up with more remote resource agents.
He explains further that these resources could consist of curriculum materials from a central
agency, consultancy or information about other users with related experiences or interests.
Agreeing with Anaele, Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) add that the linkage model draws upon the
strengths of the first three models above, and tries to overcome their weakness. The authors
analyzing the work of Hoyle (1993) concerning this model, state that the linkage process is
based on the link between the school and the various specialized/centralized agencies. That the
agencies work is to help locate useful human and material resources that will be needed to solve
any problem in the school setting. According to Mkpa and Izuagba, the linkage centers just like
Anaele has suggested, may be in form of Professional Centers, Resource Centers, ICT centers,
Exam Centers, among others. The authors now see these agencies as linkage points between the
national agencies of curriculum development, change and innovating schools, to provide
consultancy services, and to offer in-service training for teachers as end users.
Planning and Executing Change:
For the change to be implemented in the curriculum, a process has to take place. This process
involves four major factors. According to Bishop (1986), cited in Curriculum Implementation,
these factors include:
The change agent:
The change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the Ministry of
Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum change in general.
The innovation
This involves executing the change itself; that is, putting it into use or operation.
The user system:
This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is directed, such as
students and teachers.

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 Time:
Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time.
These factors interact with change and are changed by each other during the process of
innovation. It is also important to note that the curriculum change agent is involved with the
process, the planning and the strategies, and is frequently the user of the innovation.
The Innovation Process:
Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:
a. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
b. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need
c. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the most appropriate.
d. Conduct a trial.
e. Evaluate the proposed solution.
f. Review the evaluation.
g. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide scale.
h. Adopt and institutionalize the innovation or search for another solution.
Innovation Planning:

Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements are
considered in the process (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 83):
a. the personnel to be employed
b. the specification of the actual task
c. the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
d. the equipment needed
e. time involved
f. sequencing of activities
g. rationale for undertaking the innovation
Conditions for Successful Implementation of Innovations:

What conditions are necessary for users to implement the curriculum change or innovation
successfully? Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditions below
are met (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 104).
i. The innovation must be relevant to them.
ii. It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
iii. It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of their system.

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iv. It must be seen as posing little or no threat to the user groups identity, integrity and territory.
The innovation must be shown to be tolerable and non-threatening.
v. The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in social status or recognition
could be some of the non-material benefits.
Need to Change the Curriculum:
To restructure the curriculum according to the needs, interests or abilities of the learner.
To eliminate unnecessary units, teaching methods and contents.
To introduce latest and update methods of teaching and content, new knowledge and
practices.
To add or delete number of instructional hours.
To correlate between the students theory courses and clinical learning practices.
To select learning experiences base on the objectives rather than on the service needs of
the instructional.
The students themselves receive little or no experience in assuming responsibilities or in
making choices; everything is decided for them by the teacher or the administrator.
Limitations of curriculum change

There are many constraints on revision of the curriculum. Some of these are:

Limitations of resources such as time, finance and energy.

Lack of motivate to change the curriculum.

Conclusion:

Changes in the curriculum will provide a new position or direction to our profession in the
modern world. It is unlikely that the rate of change will ever slow down to give the stable
periods that were common in the past, so the implication is that we have got to get used to living
with rapid change and adjust accordingly.

Reference:

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 https://www.academia.edu/23348169/Curriculum_change_models

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