LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

#01 - DETERMINATION OF pH IN WATER AND WASTE WATER SAMPLE.

#02 - DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY IN WATER SAMPLE.

#03 - DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS IN WATER SAMPLE.

#04 - DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY IN WATER SAMPLE.

#05 - DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTIVITY IN WATER SAMPLE.

#06 - DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE IN WATER SAMPLE.

#07 - DETERMINATION OF SODIUM ION IN WATER.

#08 - DEERMINATION OF POTASSIUM ION IN WATER.

#09 - DETERMINATION OF SALINITY IN WATER SAMPLE.

#10 - DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY IN WATER SAMPLE.

Page | 1
EXPERIMENT # 01
DETERMINATION OF pH IN WATER AND
WASTE WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE:
This test method is the procedure for determining the pH of drinking water and waste water.

RELATED THEORY:
pH
The term pH refers to the measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and defined as the
negative log of H+ ions concentration in water and wastewater. The values of pH 0 to a little less
than 7 are termed as acidic and the values of pH, a little above 7 to 14 are termed as basic. When
the concentration of H+ and OH- ions are equal then it is termed as
neutral pH

pH METER
PH meter, electric device used to measure hydrogen-ion activity
(acidity or alkalinity) in solution. Fundamentally, a pH meter
consists of a voltmeter attached to a pH-responsive electrode and a
reference (unvarying) electrode.

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFANCE:
WATER QUALITY Figure - pH Meter
Per WHO & NEQS (Pakistan), drinking water standard for pH is
6.5 8.5

WASTE WATER QUALITY

Per NEQS, waste water pH is 6 -9

WATER SUPPLY
In the field of water supply pH is a factor that must be considered in coagulation, disinfection,
water softening and corrosion control.
When water has a low pH, it is often referred to as "soft water." Soft water is more acidic;
therefore, it can be corrosive and harmful to any metals it meets. When the water corrodes the
metal, this corrosion can then seep into the water. Another problem with soft water; it can cause
stains in any clothing that is washed in it.

Page | 2
When water has high levels of pH, it is "hard water." Hard water isn't necessarily harmful to us.
However, it is known to make water have a bad taste and it causes lime scale to build up on
plumbing fixtures and pipes. Hard water can also create a scum like appearance on clothing and
dishware. If you wash your hair in hard water, it can make your hair look dull. Having hard water
can become quite costly, because of potential repair bills. While pH levels may not adversely
affect your health, it can certainly cause some problems.
To balance the pH, in drinking water, a neutralizer can be used. A neutralizer puts a chemical
solution into the water. The solution helps to prevent the water from reacting with any metals it
meets. This will prevent the metal from being corroded and contaminating the water.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER

In biological treatment of waste water, we use micro-organisms to clean water. pH is an
important parameter, since organisms involved in treatment plants are operative within a
certain pH range (10 12). When treatment finished, micro-organisms are killed and become
sludge.

CHEMICAL PROCESS
Chemical processes used to coagulate sewage or industrial wastes, dewater sludge or oxidized
certain substances such as cyanide ion, requires that the pH be controlled within rather narrow
limits.

APPARATUS
Self-contained pH-meter consisting of potentiometer, a glass electrode reference
electrode (combined), and a temperature compensating device.
Beakers.

PROCEDURE
1. Calibrate the instrument.
2. After using of apparatus for various liquid standard solutions pH changes so to perform
next experiment we must make standard solution pH within neutral range. So, for this
purpose Buffer Solutions are used to neutralize the standard solution used for testing
because buffer solutions resist against change in pH of the solution.
3. Wash Probe (electrode rod) and beaker with distilled water.
4. Switch on the instrument.
5. Fill the beaker with sample to be tested.
6. Insert glass electrode probe of the pH meter in the sample and wait for 5-10 minutes
when blinking quotation of stabilizing on the screen of pH meter stops, note that reading.
7. Difference between OH- and buffer solution indicate ph.
8. For next experiment repeat the previous procedure.

Page | 3
PRECAUTIONS
The pH meter should be calibrated against standard buffer solutions of known pH prior to
measurement of a sample.
Fresh samples should be used to determine pH.
The temperature at which measurements are made should always be reported, since pH
measurement is influenced by temperature.
Errors may be caused by presence of sodium at pH values greater than 10.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

SAMPLE NO. pH
01 8.36
02 8.78

Page | 4
EXPERIMENT # 02
DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY IN
WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the turbidity of water sample.

RELATED THEORY
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the technical term referring to the cloudiness of a solution and it is a qualitative
characteristic which is imparted by solid particles obstructing the transmittance of light through a
water sample. Turbidity often indicated the presence of dispersed and suspended solids like clay,
organic matter, silt, algae and other micro-organisms.

UNITS OF TURBIDITY
There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:

Standard turbidity unit [mg/lit or ppm]

Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]

TURBIDIMETER
Nowadays, the scattered light is generally measured at an
angle of 90. This measurement principle is known as
nephelometry. A nephelometer is therefore a turbidity
meter that measures scattered light at an angle of 90. The
results are shown in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit).

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFANCE
WATER QUALITY
Figure - Turbidimeter
Per WHO/NEQS, turbidity should be less than 5 NTU

AQUATIC LIFE
The significance of excessive turbidity in water on fish and other aquatic life begins by
modifying the temperature structure of lakes.
Bottom temperatures are generally lower in turbid lakes or ponds than in clear ones. In many
lakes, lower temperatures mean lower productivity. Turbidity also interferes with the penetration

Page | 5
of light. This reduces photosynthesis and thereby decreases the primary productivity upon which
the fish food organisms depend. Therefore, fish production is reduced.

DISINFECTION
Disinfection of public water supplies is usually accomplished by means of chlorine, ozone,
chlorine dioxide or ultraviolet radiation. To be effective, there must be contact between the agent
and the organisms that the disinfection is to kill.
In turbid waters, most of the harmful organisms are exposed to the action of the disinfectant.
However, in case in which turbidity is caused by municipal waste water suspended solids or run-
off from animal feed lots, many of the pathogenic organisms may be encased in the particles and
protected from the disinfectant.

ASTHETICS
Consumer of public water supplies expert and have a right to demand turbidity free water. Most
of people are aware to demand waste water is highly turbid. Any turbidity in the drinking water
is automatically associated with possible waste water pollution and the health hazards associated
by it.
If the turbidity increases beyond 5 NTU, it will not affect health but harming aesthetically.

FILTERABILITY
Filtration of water is rendered more difficult costly when turbidity increases. The use of slow
sand filter has become impractical in most areas because high turbidity shortens filter runs and
increases cleaning costs. Satisfactory operation of rapid sand filter generally depends upon
effective removal of turbidity by chemical coagulation before the water is admitted to the filters.
Filters to do so can result in short filter runs and production of inferior quality water, unless
filters with special construction and operations are used.

APPARATUS
Turbidimeter
Test tubes and water samples.

PROCEDURE
1. Select a suitable scale.
2. Calibrate the Instrument.
3. Wipe outside of the tube to remove finger prints, dust dirt and water droplets.
4. Add the water sample in turbidity-meter cell and placed it in turbidly-meter.
5. Read turbidity directly from instruments display.

PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:

Page | 6
 The presence of colored solutes causes measured turbidity values to be low. Precipitation
of dissolved constituents (For example, Fe) causes measured turbidity values to be high.
Light absorbing materials such as activated carbon in significant concentrations can cause
low readings.
The presence of floating debris and coarse sediments which settle out rapidly will give
low readings. Finely divided air bubbles can cause high readings.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

NO. OF SAMPLE TURBIDITY (NTU)
01 0.419
02 0.812
03 0.590

REMARKS
Drinking water has turbidity less than 1 NTU. As our sample is drinking water, thats why our all three
readings are less than 1 NTU.

Page | 7
EXPERIMENT # 03
DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS IN
WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the Hardness of water sample.

RELATED THEORY
HARDNESS
Hardness is the ability of water,

That produces scales in boiler.

Dose not produce leather with soap.

Major contributors are,

Cations: Ca++, Mg+2, Sr+2, Mn+2

Anions: SO-2, CO3-2, HCO3-, SiO3-

There are two types of hardness,

TEMPORARY HARDNESS
It is due to the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium and can be removed by
boiling. It is also called the carbonate hardness. It is sensitive to heat and precipitate readily at
high temperature.

PERMANENT HARDNESS
It is attributed to other salts such as sulfate and chloride salts, which cannot be removed by
boiling. It is also called the non-carbonate hardness and is not sensitive to temperature.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARDNESS
The following table shows a classification of water hardness:
DESCRIPTION OF HARDNESS RANGE (mg/L as CaCO3)
Soft 0-75
Moderately hard 75-100
Hard 100-300
Very hard >300

Page | 8
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFANCE
Scales are formed as inner coating of the pipelines prevents corrosion.
Soft waters are corrosive and dissolve the metals.
More cases of cardio vascular diseases are reported in soft water areas.
Hard water is useful to growth of children due to the presence of calcium.
Hard waters cause excessive consumption of soap used for cleaning purpose. Sodium
soaps react with multivalent metallic cations to form a
precipitate, thereby lose their surfactant properties. Lathering doesnt take place until all
hardness ions precipitate out.
This precipitate adheres to surfaces of tubes, sinks, dish washer and may stain clothing.
Scales formed mainly due to carbonate hardness act as insulations and cause enormous
loss of fuel in boiler.
Scales deposited mainly due to increase in pH to 9 at which bicarbonates are converted as
carbonates are formed in distribution mains reducing their carrying capacity.
Calcium and magnesium ions are protective against heart attacks.

APPARATUS
Automatic burette (or conventional one)
Titration glassware

CHEMICALS
Ammonia buffer solution.
Erichrome Black T.
Standard EDTA titrant, 0.01N.

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 ml of water sample in titration flask.
2. Add 25 ml Distilled water in it to dilute the water solution (to avoid formation of
CaCO3). Distilled water does not participate in ion exchange in reaction.
3. Add 2-3 ml of Buffer solution (Ammonia Buffer NH4Cl + NH4OH) to maintain pH in
solution 7-9.
4. Add 1-2 drops of EBT (Erichrome Black T), has blue color, as indicator. Because of
addition of EBT, solution of color changes to wine red.
EBT + M+2 -------------> MEBT (Complex compound, Wine red in color)
5. Titrate it against 0.01N EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid). Add EDTA from
burette until color changes to blue.
EDTA + MEBT -------------> MEDTA + EBT (Blue Color)
6. Total Hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 is calculated from the following formula:

Page | 9
 ( AB ) 0. 01 N 50 1000
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) = mLof Sample
Where,
A = Done with water sample & Distilled water.
B= All done with Distilled water.
Equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 50

PRECAUTIONS
Here we are handling ammonia solution so necessary precaution should be taken for
preventing the inhalation.
It causes irritation if inhaled.
Do not pipette out the buffer solution using either measuring cylinder, automatic pipette
(or) pipette with a sucker.
Always store EDTA solution and buffer solution in a plastic or resistant glass container.
Discard the buffer solution if it is turbid or if it is stored for a very long period.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

A=
B=
Volume of sample = 50 mL
( ) 0.02 N 50 1000
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) = 50
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =

REMARKS

Page | 10
EXPERIMENT # 04
DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY
IN WATER SAMPLE
SCOPE
To determine the alkalinity of given water sample.

RELATED THEORY
ALKALINITY
Alkalinity is the capacity of water to neutralize acids.
In other words, its ability to maintain a relatively constant pH. The possibility to maintain
constant pH is due to the hydroxyl, carbonate and bicarbonate ions present in water. Carbonate
ions and calcium ion both come from calcium carbonate or limestone. So, water that meets
limestone will contain high levels of both Ca ++ and CO3-2 ions and have elevated hardness and
alkalinity.
Major contributors are,

Strong bases.
Weak bases.
Weak acids.
Salts of weak acids (Propionic acid, acetic acid).
Carbonates, bicarbonates and OH-.

UNIT
Mg/L as CaCO3.

TOTAL ALKALINITY
Total alkalinity is the total concentration of bases and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water
expressed as parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L) of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). These bases are usually bicarbonates (HCO3) and carbonates (CO3), and they act as a
buffer system that prevents drastic changes in pH. The desired range is 80ppm to 160ppm
depending on the pool surface.
OR
Amount of acid that will react with CO3-2, HCO3- and OH-.
Total alkalinity = Methyl orange alkalinity + Phenolphthalein alkalinity.

Page | 11
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life because it protects or buffers against rapid
pH changes. Higher alkalinity levels in surface waters will buffer acid rain and other acid
wastes and prevent pH changes that are harmful to aquatic life.
Large amount of alkalinity imparts bitter taste in water.
The principal objection of alkaline water is the reactions that can occur between
alkalinity and certain cations in waters. The resultant precipitate can corrode pipes and
other accessories of water distribution systems.
Wastewaters containing excess caustic (hydroxide) alkalinity are not to be discharged into
natural water bodies or sewers.
Alkalinity as carbonate and bicarbonate of saline water is very important in tertiary
recovery processes for recovering petroleum. Alkaline water offers better wetting to the
formation rock and improve oil release. As an additional benefit, ions that provide
alkalinity absorb on rock surfaces occupying adsorption sites and decrease the loss of
recovery chemical by adsorption. The alkalinity value is necessary in the calculation of
carbonate scaling tendencies of saline waters.
The alkalinity acts as a pH buffer in coagulation and lime-soda softening of water.
In wastewater treatment, alkalinity is an important parameter in determining the
amenability of wastes to the treatment process and control of processes such as anaerobic
digestion, where bicarbonate alkalinity, total alkalinity, and any fraction contributed by
volatile acid salts become considerations.

APPARATUS
Automatic burette (or conventional one)
Titration glassware
Beakers
Pipettes with elongated tips
Distilled water

PROCEDURE
Phenolphthalein alkalinity
1. Take 25 ml of water sample in flask.
2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. It turns to pink color.1
3. Titrate water sample with 0.02 N H2SO4 till colorless solution.
A 0.02 N 50 1000
4. Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = mL of Sample

1 pH is greater than 8.3

Page | 12
Methyl orange alkalinity
1. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator.
2. Titrate it with 0.02N H2SO4 till appearance of peach color.
A 0.02 N 50 1000
3. Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3) = mL of Sample

PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:

Do not keep the indicator solution open since it contains the alcohol which tends to
evaporate.
The mixed indicator solution is containing dye in it; care should be taken so that it is not
spilled to your skin.
If it spills on your skin, the scar will remain at least for two to three days.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Page | 13
EXPERIMENT # 05
DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTIVITY
IN WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the conductivity of water sample.

RELATED THEORY
CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is the ability of a solution, a metal or a gas - in brief all materials - to pass an
electric current. In solutions, the current is carried by cations and anions whereas in metals it is
carried by electrons. How well a solution conducts electricity depends on several factors:

Concentration of ions
Mobility of ions
Valence of ions
Temperature

All substances possess some degree of conductivity. In aqueous solutions, the level of ionic
strength varies from the low conductivity of ultrapure water to the high conductivity of
concentrated chemical samples. Organic matter not converted into ions cant conduct electricity.
All organic salts ions are involved in conductivity i.e., Ca, Mg
etc.

UNIT
The unit of conductivity is Siemens (S).

CONDUCTIVITY METER
An electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the
electrical conductivity in a solution. It is commonly used in
hydroponics, aquaculture and freshwater systems to monitor the
number of nutrients, salts or impurities in the water.
Figure - Conductivity meter
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Electrical conductivity measurements are often employed to monitor desalination plants.
It is useful to assess the source of pollution.
In coastal regions, conductivity data can be used to decide the extent of intrusion of sea
water into ground water.

Page | 14
 Conductivity data is useful in determining the suitability of water and wastewater for
disposal on land. Irrigation waters up to 2 millisiemens / cm conductance have been
found to be suitable for irrigation depending on soils and climatic characteristics.
It is also used indirectly to fine out inorganic dissolved solids.
Surface water body 50s-500s. If >500s, it effects aquatic life.
Range of conductivity in irrigation land is up to 2s.

APPARATUS
Conductivity meter
Beaker 250 ml
Distilled water

PROCEDURE
1. Switch on Conductivity meter at least 30 min before test.
2. Take the water sample whose conductivity is to be measured.
3. Place the electrode in the sample.
4. Note the reading of the given sample from screen.

PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:

Switch on the conductivity meter for at least 30 minutes before starting the experiment so
that the instrument gets stabilizes.
As it involves instruments for analyzing do not forget to calibrate the instrument.
As conductance is influenced by temperature, always use a conductivity meter with
temperature control.
Always dip the electrode in distilled water and do not expose it to air.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

SAMPLE NO. CONDUCTIVITY
01 557 S/cm
02 30.6 mS/cm

Page | 15
EXPERIMENT # 06
DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE IN WATER
SAMPLE (THROUGH MERCURIC NITRATE METHOD [Hg(NO ) ]). 3 2

SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the chloride content in water sample by using
mercuric nitrate method.

RELATED THEORY
CHLORIDE IONS
The chloride ion is the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl. It is formed when the element
chlorine (a halogen) gains an electron or when a compound such as hydrogen chloride is
dissolved in water or other polar solvents. Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are often very
soluble in water.

HOW DOES CHLORIDE IONS GAIN ACCESS TO NATURAL WATER?

Through rivers.
Underground water pumping.
Through evaporation.
From top soil.
Through human excreta (6g of CL-1/day).

METHODS FOR DETERMINING CHLORIDE CONTENT

There are 2 major criteria for the concentration of chloride ions.
1. SILVER NITRATE METHOD [AgNO3]
2. MERCURY NITRATE METHOD [Hg(NO3)2]

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
DRINKING WATER: Chlorides associated with sodium (Sodium Chloride) exert salty
taste when its concentration is more than 250 mg/L. These impact a salty taste to water.
Chlorides are generally limited to 250 mg/L in water supplies intended for public
water supply (WHO/NEQS). If more than 250 mg/L, then it will cause High blood
pressure issues. In many areas of the world where water supplies are scarce, sources
containing as much as 2000 mg/L are used for domestic purposes without the
development of adverse effect, once the human system becomes adapted to the water.
WASTE WATER: Per NEQS, chloride ions < 1000 mg/L

Page | 16
 CONSTRUCTION PUPOSES: It can corrode concrete. Magnesium chloride in water
generates hydrochloric acid after heating which is also highly corrosive and creates
problem in boilers.
Chloride determinations in natural waters are useful in the selection of water supplies for
human use.
Chloride determination is used to determine the type of desalting apparatus to be used.
Chloride determination is used to control pumping of ground water from locations where
intrusion of seawater is a problem.
Chlorides interfere in the determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Chlorides cause blockage of roots of plants and they cant able to uptake water.

APPARATUS
Burette with Burette stand and porcelain tile.
Pipettes with elongated tips.
Conical flask.
Standard flask.
Beaker.
Wash bottle.

CHEMICALS
Hg(NO)30.0141g (N)
Diphenyl carbazone
Xylene Cyanol
Ethanol
HNO3

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 mL water sample in flask.
2. Add 1-2 mL of mixed indicator (Diphenyl carbazone 2 + Xylene Cyanol3). The solution
has a blue color.
3. Add drop wise nitric acid HNO34 about 1 mL till appearance of yellow color5.
4. Add Hg(NO)3 so that its color becomes blue6.
Hg(NO)3 + CL- ---------------> HgCl2

2 Diphenyl carbazone is End Point Enhancer.

3 Xylene Cyanol is pH indicator.

4 HNO3 added to maintain pH 2.3 3.8 to use Mercuric Nitrate method.

5 Yellow color is due to Xylene Cyanol

Page | 17
 5. Titrate the sample with mercuric nitrate till appearance of purple color.
( AB ) 0.0141 N 35.45 1000
6. Cl- (mg/L) = mLof Sample

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Volume of Mercuric nitrate for sample (A)= 0.3 mL
Volume of Mercuric nitrate for blank (B) = 0.1 mL
Normality of EDTA = 0.0141 N
Volume of sample = 25 mL
Equivalent weight of chlorine = 35.45
( 0.30.1 ) 0.0141 N 35.45 1000
Chloride (mg/L) = 25

= 3.998 mg/L

6 Blue Color is due to Diphenyl carbazone.

Page | 18
EXPERIMENT # 07
DETERMINATION OF SODIUM ION IN
WATER.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the Sodium ions in water sample.

RELATED THEORY
SODIUM IONS
A sodium7 atom that has lost an electron becomes the monatomic charged sodium ion and is
denoted by the symbol Na+.
They,

Are Alkali metal elements

Are Highly soluble in water
Have Strong tendency to exist in ionic form

ENVRIONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
In drinking water amount of sodium must be less than 20 mg/l.
Per EPA if it is greater than 200 mg/L, it has a salty taste.
It is used in water treatment. Its compounds like Na 2CO3 and NaF are used in water
softening. NaOH is used to avoid clogging of pipes. Na2CO3 is used to neutralize acids.
It has effects on human health. High amount of sodium causes blood pressure. Less
amount of sodium causes nausea, vomiting, numbness.

METHODS FOR REMOVAL OF SODIUM IONS

Sodium ions can be removed by

Reverse osmosis
Ion exchange method

7 Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11 and atomic
mass 23. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal.

Page | 19
 Electro dialysis

PROCEDURE
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Page | 20
EXPERIMENT # 08
DEERMINATION OF POTASSIUM ION IN WATER.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the Potassium ions in water sample.

RELEATED THEORY
POTASSIUM
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (derived from Neo-Latin, kalium) and atomic
number 19 and atomic mass 39. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which
its name derives.
They are,

Alkali metal elements

8th most abundant element in sea.

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Potassium is the major cation found intracellularly. The average cell has 140 mM K+
inside but only about 10 mM Na+. K+ slowly diffuses out of cells so a membrane pump
(the Na+ /K+ - ATPase) continually transports K+ into cells against a concentration
gradient. The human body requires about 50-150 mmol/day.
ASTHETICS: Its presence in water has no color and no odor. It gives a salty taste to
water.
WATER TREATMENNT: Its compound KCl is used in water softening
HEALTH EFFECTS: High amount of potassium can cause hyperkalemia resulting in
irregular heartbeat. Less amount of potassium causes hypokalemia resulting in kidney
failure, vomiting, nausea etc.

METHODS FOR REMOVAL OF POTASSIUM IONS

Potassium ions can be removed by,

Reverse osmosis.
Ion exchange method.
Electro dialysis.

PROCEDURE

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Page | 21
EXPERIMENT # 09

DETERMINATION OF SALINITY IN
WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the Salinity in water sample.

RELATED THEORY
SALINITY
Salinity is the measure of all the salts dissolved in water.
Salinity is usually measured in parts per thousand (ppt) or mg/L. The average ocean salinity is
35ppt and the average river water salinity is 0.5ppt or less. This means that in every kilogram
(1000 grams) of seawater, 35 grams are salt.

CAUSES
Salinity is produced by natural processes such as weathering of rocks and wind and rain
depositing salt over thousands of years.

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Water moves into plant roots by a process known as osmosis, which is controlled by the
level of salts in the soil water and in the water contained in the plant. If the level of salts
in the soil water is too high, water may flow from the plant roots back into the soil. This
results in dehydration of the plant, causing yield decline or even death of the plant.
Salinity affects production in crops, pastures and trees by interfering with nitrogen
uptake, reducing growth and stopping plant reproduction.

SOIL EROSION
Dryland salinity is closely linked to other soil degradation issues, including soil erosion. Salinity
is often associated with prolonged wetness and lack of surface cover and therefore increases the
vulnerability of soils to erosion.

HEALTH EFFECTS
High levels of salts may affect the taste of drinking water. Chloride has a low taste threshold.
Sodium and magnesium sulfate levels in drinking water may produce a laxative effect and reduce
the suitability of a water supply for grazing animals.

Page | 22
INFRASTRUTURE AND FIXTURES
Salt also corrodes and destroys the properties of bitumen, concrete and brick structures.
Damage to infrastructure including houses, roads and playing fields, has been particularly
high in several cities and towns.
Salinity damage has also occurred to country roads and farm tracks and buildings.

METHODS FOR MEASURING SALINITY

There are two main methods of determining the salt content of water:
1. Total Dissolved Salts (or Solids)
2. Electrical Conductivity.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) is measured by evaporating a known volume of water to dryness,
then weighing the solid residue remaining.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical conductivity (EC) is measured by passing an electric current between two metal plates
(electrodes) in the water sample and measuring how readily current flows (ie conducted)
between the plates. The more dissolved salt in the water, the stronger the current flow and
the higher the EC.

APPARATUS
Conductivity meter
Beakers
Water samples

PROCEDURE
1. Take the water sample whose salinity is to be measured.
2. Switch on the instrument.
3. Place the electrode in the sample.
4. For measuring the salinity, press and hold the middle button.
5. Note the reading.
6. Now take the next sample and repeat the procedure.

PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:

Switch on the conductivity meter for at least 30 minutes before starting the experiment so
that the instrument gets stabilizes.
As it involves instruments for analyzing do not forget to calibrate the instrument.
Always dip the electrode in distilled water and do not expose it to air.

Page | 23
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
SAMPLE NO. SALINITY (mg/L)
01 221
02 298

Page | 24
EXPERIMENT # 10

DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY IN
WATER SAMPLE.
SCOPE
This test method is the procedure for determining the Acidity in water sample.

RELATED THEORY
ACIDITY
Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a designated pH.
Strong mineral acids, weak acids such as carbonic acid, acetic acid present in the water sample
contributes to acidity of the water. Usually dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2) is the major acidic
component present in the unpolluted surface waters.

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Acidity interferes in the treatment of water. Carbon dioxide is of important
considerations in determining whether removal by aeration or simple neutralization with
lime /lime soda ash or NaOH will be chosen as the water treatment method.
Aquatic life is affected by high water acidity. The organisms present are prone to death
with low pH of water.
High acidity water is not used for construction purposes. Especially in reinforced
concrete construction due to the corrosive nature of high acidity water.
Water containing mineral acidity is not fit for drinking purposes.
Industrial wastewaters containing high mineral acidity is must be neutralized before
they are subjected to biological treatment or direct discharge to water sources.

APPARATUS
Burette with Burette stand
porcelain tile
conical flask
Pipette with elongated tips
Measuring cylinders
Wash Bottle and Beakers

Page | 25
CHEMICALS REQUIRED
Sodium Hydroxide
Phenolphthalein
Methyl Orange
Ethyl alcohol
Distilled Water

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 mL of water sample in flask.
2. Add 1-2 drops of methyl orange indicator.
3. Titrate the sample with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) till the appearance of yellow color.8
4. Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator.
5. Titrate the sample with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) till the appearance of pink color.9
6. Total acidity will be Methyl orange indicator plus Phenolphthalein indicator.
7. Mineral acidity is only till methyl orange indicator.
A 0.02 N 50 1000
8. Acidity (mg/L as CaCO3) = mL of Sample

PRECAUTIONS
Colored and turbid samples may interfere in end. Those samples may be analyzed
electrometrically, using pH meter.
Do not keep the indicator solution open since it contains the alcohol which tense to
evaporate. The mixed indicator solution is containing die in it. Care should be taken so
that it is not spill to your skin. If it spills on your skin the scare will remain for at least 2
to 3 days.
Presence of residual chlorine may interfere in the color response, which can be nullified
by addition of small amount of sodium thiosulphate or destroy it with ultraviolet
radiation.
Presence of iron and aluminum sulphate may interfere in the color response while
titrating in room temperature, which can be nullified by titrating the sample at boiling
temperature.
Dissolved gases contributing to acidity such as CO2, H2S may interfere in the titration,
hence avoid vigorous shaking.
Samples suspected to have hydrolysable metal ions or reduced forms of polyvalent
cations need hydrogen per oxide treatment.

8 pH increases to 3.7

9 Pink color appeared because it is titrated with base (NaOH)Colorless solution appeared if titrated with acid.

Page | 26
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Page | 27