LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 1

Jonathan Williams
May 13, 2015
jwillia1@linfield.edu
Final Paper

PROPOSED TOPIC: The new SAT and literacy in rural American schools

ORIGINAL QUESTION: Should the SAT be changed to bridge the literacy and

educational inequality gap for rural American students?

PREVIOUS QUESTION: Should the SAT be changed to bridge the literacy and

educational inequality gap for rural American students and should rural schools receive

additional funding from the federal government to improve students education?

CURRENT QUESTION: Should rural schools receive additional funding from the

federal government to bridge the literacy and educational inequality gap for rural

American students?
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 2

Table of Contents

Preface 3

Abstract . 7

Introduction 8

Sustained and Target Funding ....... 9

Rural Economies and Poverty .. 10

Funding and Public Policies . 10

Adopting Research-Based Strategies and Teaching . 11

Teaching Strategies .. 12

Common Core Standards and the Smarter Balance ..... 13

High-Stakes Testing . 14

Teacher Support and Development .. 14

Students Home Life 15

Strengths, Weaknesses and Opportunities ... 15

Rural Areas as Unique . 16

Race and Class . 17

The New SAT .. 18

Conclusion ... 19

References 20
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 3

Preface

I have learned a lot about myself from this class. Ive learned what it takes to

balance an extremely busy schedule while still performing well academically in my

classes. Through this class I have gained an increased appreciation and awareness of the

importance of being pragmatic and seeking assistance when needed. Allocating enough

time so that I feel like Ive given any assignment in this class the attention it needs has

been something Ive worked on all semester. Helping others as well as receiving help has

been a cornerstone to success for me in this class. This class has also helped me gain

experience using APA and AP style, which are two things that will greatly help me in

future academic endeavors. Ive also gain more depth in my experience writing in

different styles, as the way a paper is written for an English and social sciences class are

not the same, though they both remain committed to revealing intellectual truths.

There are many people Id like to thank who supported me in this class all

semester. First, Id like to thank my roommate who got me through quite a few rough

patches. My brothers in the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity also provided immense support

throughout the whole semester as the assignments and projects became increasingly time

consuming and my overall schedule become even more chaotic. Id also like to thank

professors Barbara Seidman, Lisa Weidman and Lex Runciman who were all

understanding and willing to work with my schedule. My parents would also always

listen to all that I had to say about the class, what Id learned, my research and writing.

Id also like to thank you two, Susan and Professor Thompson, for reading all of our

papers and keeping the ball rolling throughout the long, laboring semester.
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 4

I think the most notable improvement Ive made in my writing this semester is

what Ive been able to edit out in the spirit of omitting needless words. I have a firmer

understanding of which verbs and phrases I should choose that are short but full of

powerful language. I also have a list of editing/grammatical/structural things I can

continue to work in my writing as I continue to grow. I think I also grew as an

interviewer and synthesizer of information this semester. I learned to ask questions that

are not obvious and in turn expose the truths and answers I need to help make sense of

my public policy topic. This class has taught me the importance of having a diverse group

of sources, since each adds levels of understanding and ways to look at my topic that

make it clearer of what needs to change.

I learned that no matter what, you cant do it all. Finding some sort of balance is

essential to not spending the whole semester constantly bogged down by work. I learned

what it takes to make things work, which in some cases means consuming copious

amounts of coffee. I did learn a lot of research techniques and methods this semester that

will greatly help me as I continue on with the rest of my undergraduate career and on into

hopefully my graduate school career. I also learned the importance of persistence, as my

crucial subject interview with a teacher from Santiam High School proved to be all and

more than I hoped for.

I think one of the best things I do that makes my hard work by pay off is my work

ethic. I am someone who is not going to give up or not give my full attention and

dedication to a project. I have enjoyed learning about myself and growing as a researcher

and writer this semester as my topic has evolved and as my subject matter has grown

more interesting. Some of the things I know I could improve on include possessives,
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 5

sleeping and being less critical of my work and myself. Having high expectations for

myself is great but I know that often I am my biggest critic. This class, as well as many

others that I have taken, has taught me the continued power of revision and seeking out

peers to edit my work. Reading my work out loud is something that I always do and has

proven to be one successful way to edit.

Some of the trials of this class for me would be the workload and scheduling time

to work on my other classes. I have dedicated a lot of my time to this class, which has

proved to make me understand and appreciate my topic at a deeper level. Giving my

other classes the time they also deserve has remained a challenge, but with the help and

understanding from my professors it has worked itself out. The hardest times for me this

semester were when we did the first and last set of complete annotations. That took up a

lot of time and I had to be quite adaptive with my overall schedule in order to complete

everything.

To future students I would recommend being honest with yourself of what you are

capable of. Choose a topic that interests you and makes you remain committed to

learning more about it through the entire semester. I would also recommend making a list

of all the writing improvements you can make to better yourself even after the class is

over. It never hurts to have more than 20 sources even if you dont use all of them in your

final paper. Dont be afraid to seek out interviews from people who seem like theyd be

difficult to talk to. The moments of this class that make you work the hardest are the ones

that you will learn from the most even if you cant see it right at that moment. Id also

like to add that we are all readers who become better writers because of the writing that

we read. It never hurts to read as much as you can about your topic or anything else to
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 6

become a better writer. Finally, Id also add to not be overly critical of yourself or

compare yourself to other classmates and people who have already taken the class.

To Susan and Professor Thompson, I firstly want to thank you again for teaching

this class. I know it takes a lot of energy and time from everyone, including you two! I

appreciate the level of commitment you worked to instill in students minds, I can say

without a doubt I dedicated a lot of my time to researching and writing about my topic

this semester. I would suggest that you dont spend as much time praising past students

when current ones are struggling and looking for help. I understand why you might want

to show students what they could be like if they work hard, but I think for some it can be

discouraging. I would suggest focusing more on the successes of current students or

finding a balance so students who are struggling dont feel like they wont ever be as

good as previous students. I would also suggest to give students more time to work on

their final paper. A week may seem like a substantial amount of time, and it is, but I think

giving students one class to edit each other papers would be beneficial for all involved.

The final paper should have more importance placed on it since it has the potential to be a

great work sample for students to show as the synthetic conclusion to their extensive

research. I deeply appreciate both of your comments all semester on my papers and as

two professors who I know have impacted and made a difference in my life as well as my

classmates.
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 7

Abstract

This paper confronts the contributing factors that create and cause inequality in rural

education with a focus on literacy and reading. It examines research done that shows how

to improve rural schools and literacy and it also shows what federal funding and policies

are available for rural areas. This paper makes clear how poverty, economics, class and

quality of education all effect rural students overall life outlook and outcomes. It

provides many anecdotal examples from observations and interviews at rural schools in

Oregon. It concludes by recommending that rural schools and communities should be

understood as unique and should receive more funding from the state or federal

government that is unconstrained and strategic to bridge the literacy and overall

inequality gap that rural Americans face in their daily lives.

LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 8

Introduction

The quality of education students in rural areas receive is affected by many factors

outside of their control including geographic isolation, poverty and socioeconomic

inequality. Jean Stockard (2015) asserts that poverty is a large factor that contributes to

inequality in rural education. Additionally, Bill Brown (2015) notes that in Mill City,

Oregon, where he teaches at Santiam High School, the city cant afford to pass a bond

measure to give the school more funding because there is not enough economic stability

or people to fund the bond. Geographic isolation is also a contributing factor to the

challenges of rural education, as people who live there are not usually college educated

(Graves, 2011). The middle class has also abandoned some rural areas, which has caused

there to be mainly low paying jobs that dont attract people to go there (Stockard, 2015).

Defining what rural, rurality, literacy and quality of education are all subjective to

each rural area. Donehower, Hogg and Schell (2015), make clear that rural schools

should not have the same standards that urban schools have, since they often lack the

amount of resources and funding that urban schools have access to. Building on

Donehower, Hogg and Schells notion Eppley and Corbett (2012) assert that literacy and

rurality have many meanings since they are both subjective to their own geographic area.

Additionally, most federal policies are aimed at urban school districts instead or rural

ones. An example of rurality differences is illustrated in how Gaston High School, (2015)

and Santiam High School, where Bill Brown (2015) teaches, are both rural schools in

Oregon, but face different challenges and dont have the same resources as the other.

Rural America can also be seen as a place outside of time because of its economic

inequality differences to urban areas (Wilkins, 2015).

LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 9

The achievement gap is larger and harder to close in rural areas because of the

effect poverty has on rural youths education. Using research-based ways to confront and

improve literacy and rural education is essential, as the literacy gap is already present

before children start kindergarten since some may not have gone to preschool (Kennedy,

2014). Students in rural areas tend to not go to college because their parents didnt go and

they would have to pay for it on their own (Graves, 2011). Many rural schools dont offer

Advanced Placement courses, causing students to be not as prepared for college if they

decide to go (Mader, 2015). Students in rural areas and poverty fall even more behind in

the summer because they dont have access to or cannot afford summer enrichment

programs (Badger, 2014).

This paper will examine all of the contributing factors that create and cause

inequality in rural education. It will look at research done that shows how to improve

rural schools and literacy and it will also show what federal funding and policies are

available for rural areas. This paper will conclude with recommendations of what should

be done and adopted to bridge the educational and socioeconomic inequality gap in rural

America. Rural schools and communities should be understood as unique and should

receive more funding from the state or federal government to bridge the literacy and

overall inequality gap that rural Americans face in their daily lives.

Sustained and Targeted Funding

Rural schools need sustained, targeted and unconstrained funding to improve

students education. Some schools can receive additional funding from their state if they

offer AP courses for their students (Mader, 2015). Rural schools could all benefit from

receiving additional funds from the state or federal government, but are often forced to
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 10

use the money for certain things if they get it (Wilkins, 2015). Larger school districts

often receive more money (Hill, 2015).

Rural Economies and Poverty

Rural America is affected by a poor economy that provides few jobs for people

who are college educated. These areas have a harder time drawing good teachers to come

there because they are often in poor areas and have few economic advantages that urban

areas dont have (Hill, 2015). Most people who leave rural areas tend to not come back if

they go to college because there arent many jobs that draw recent college graduates back

(Graves, 2011). In an effort to draw more people to Kansas, the governor decided to offer

recent college graduates $15,000 over a five-year period if they move to his state,

showing how rural areas are getting creative with ways to address possible opportunities

for them (Iskander, 2014).

Funding and Public Policies

Rural America needs strategic funding and policy initiatives to bridge the

inequality gap in education and overall quality of life. Federal policy can change how

rural schools are designed and funded. Subtle efforts at the presidential level have been

made to improve rural life, as President Barack Obama created the White House Rural

Council to improve the economic prosperity and overall quality of life for people in rural

America (White House Rural Council, 2011). An additional effort of the White House

Rural Council is to ensure that rural America can be competitive in a global economy

(White House Rural Council, 2011). Oregons department of Education has outlined its

goals for the state to have 40 percent of Oregonians graduate from a four year college, 40

percent to graduate from a two year college and 20 percent to graduate from high school,
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 11

which the state wants to achieve by 2025 (State of Oregon, 2012). The U.S. as a whole

needs to develop a better educational system that ensures students will graduate high

school with proficient reading and writing skills (Haynes, 2012). In the state of Oregons

40-40-20 document, it mentions that people who are ages 25-34 are less educated than

their parents generation, which signals a large shift in education, learning and society

(State of Oregon, 2012). For some this means turning to tests like the Common Core

Standards that force teachers to all teach students the same curriculum. Hill (2015) asserts

that rural schools do need extra funding from either the state or federal government but it

needs to come with no restraints on how the school chooses to use it.

Adopting Research-Based Strategies and Teaching

Rural schools need to adopt smart, innovative and research-based ways to

increase literacy and the overall education for students. Kennedy (2014) asserts that

schools that adopt research-based strategies will have success closing the achievement

gap in high-poverty schools. Some schools have adopted more radical teaching strategies

to improve student literacy. Nancie Atwells students in rural Maine read more than 40

books per year and are allowed to write about any topic that interests that them about the

book (Gambino, 2015). Offering harder or AP classes to students will help create more

opportunities for students to increase their own knowledge (Mader, 2015). One of the

overarching points is that it takes systemic change and sustained support to help close the

literacy and educational gap in rural education (Kennedy, 2014). The United States could

be 3 million workers short of people who have the necessary analytical and technological

skills, signaling that rural areas are not the only areas in the U.S. to suffer from a lack of

resources that would help students get a better education (Haynes, 2012).
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 12

Teaching Strategies

Having teachers in rural schools who are able to work with students and the

resources they have can greatly help the overall outcomes of their students success.

Teachers that adopt place-based education and virtual field trip methods of teaching can

help students in rural areas have a more conceptual view of the world and of different

cultures (Lester, 2012). Place-based education helps students learn about the area they

live in, its culture and community. Virtual field trips provides students exposure to

experiences they may never have had through activities that help them better comprehend

what they are reading, increases their understanding of the world and also helps them

acquire a more sophisticated vocabulary (Lester, 2012). Providing students access to

books and creating a culture of reading and literacy will help students become more

drawn to reading early on (Wilkins, 2015). Making sure that students have access to

suitable books for their reading level is important because they will gain confidence in

themselves and will be more likely to build on what they know since they have had

previous successes with reading (Stockard, 2015). Additionally, creating a culture that

emphasizes the importance of reading and education will help create a better and more

just democratic society (Eppley & Corbett, 2012). Unfortunately, many students leave

high school without adequate reading and writing skills, causing students to be unable to

succeed in college and in other careers (Haynes, 2012).

Common Core Standards and the Smarter Balance

For teachers in in Oregon and across the U.S., teaching to the Common Core

Standards and Oregons Smarter Balance can be limiting and challenging for teachers.

Atwell, who teaches in rural Maine and was named the worlds best teacher by winning
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 13

the Global Teaching Prize, argues that the Common Core focuses too much on test scores,

takes away from student individuality and does not take into account that students learn at

different rates (Gambino, 2015). For students who are already suffering academically in

rural areas, testing can cause them to become invisible if they start falling behind and

do not get the help they need (Elish-Piper, Matthews, & Risko, 2013). Teachers at Gaston

High School say that all of their teaching is aligned with the Common Core and Oregons

Smarter Balance tests. They also said that they spend a lot of time getting students ready

to take the tests (Gaston High School, 2015). Brown (2015), who teaches at Santiam

High School, argues that the Smarter Balance forces teachers to teach to the test, instead

of their own curriculum.

High-Stakes Testing

High-stakes testing in rural America is good because it gives schools a gauge of

what students are learning and can be used to compare rural students to urban ones.

Atwell, who teaches in rural Maine, asserts that tests are limiting and take time away

from learning (Gambino, 2015). She also argues that testing is a business model and

has no place in teaching or learning. Teachers in public schools have become

technicians because of the standards and mandates placed on schools (Gambino, 2015).

As mentioned earlier, high-stakes testing can cause students who are already struggling to

do even worse and not get the help they need because they have fallen behind (Elish-

Piper, Matthews, & Risko, 2013). Additionally, the authors make clear that testing results

in students and teachers needs being pushed behind and testing goals taking the

forefront (Elish-Piper, Matthew, & Risko, 2013). Wilkins (2015) and Stockard (2015)

both argue that although high-stakes testing is controversial, they agree that it gives
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 14

educators a gauge of what students have learned and can also be used to compare and

show how rural students are doing in comparison to urban ones. Hill (2015) asserts that

schools need to have multiple ways to measure student success and learning. Student

success comes from motivation from teachers, which helps create the confidence cycle in

students if they have good initial experiences in their education (Stockard, 2015).

Teacher Support and Development

Rural teachers need support and continued professional development throughout

the academic year if they are going to successfully help their students learn and grow.

Eppley and Corbett (2012) assert that teachers need to have development days throughout

their teaching experience so they can continue to find ways to better help their students.

Additionally, teachers need more time out of the classroom and away from their students

so they can prepare and find better ways to be more effective in their teaching (Wilkins,

2015). Teachers in rural and urban areas are under more pressure now from schools and

the state and federal government to produce students who can score well on tests

(Stockard, 2015). At Gaston High School there is no paid librarian, so if students have a

research project or need extra help, it all comes from the teacher (Gaston High School,

2015). Notably, there isnt any specific training for teaching in a rural school for teachers,

as many have noted that the teaching methods are the same, its just the students and the

area that are different (Hill, 2015). Teacher collaboration and leadership in school

administration are also two things that can help create a successful school that can work

to close the achievement gap (Kennedy, 2014). Additionally, Brown (2015) said that he

likes working at Santiam High School because it has a high faculty retention rate, which

creates a strong, successful relationship between teachers and administrators.

LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 15

Students Home Life

Many students dont have a stable home life if their parents are involved in

drugs or live in poverty. Brown (2015) notes that students who do not have a good home

life often struggle more in school and are at more of a disadvantage because they dont

have the family support students from the middle class or wealthy families have. Badger

(2014) also mentions that students who grow up in a family where drugs, violence or

poverty are prevalent struggle more throughout life and have a shadow of their

upbringing that follows them as they grow up. Students who live in areas of high-poverty

are more likely to talk to their teachers about their future, making it clear how important

good teachers are for students in geographically isolated areas (National Research

Institute on Rural Education Support, 2011).

Strengths, Weaknesses and Opportunities

Rural areas are full of strengths, weaknesses and opportunities that all effect the

quality of education rural students receive. Students in rural areas often have good

relationships with their teachers and counselors because they can answer students

questions and help them figure out what they want to do after high school (National

Research Center on Rural Education Support, 2011). A weakness of rural areas is that for

some students, the baseline expectation is lower causing the achievement gap to widen

(Wilkins, 2015). Rural schools have also become creative with how they use their

funding, as Gaston High School received funds to purchase new textbooks and the faculty

and administration chose instead to adopt iPads and Kindles for students to use (Gaston

High School, 2015). Additionally, rural areas and schools are usually smaller than urban

ones, causing students to receive a more individualized education (Hill, 2015). Smaller
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 16

class sizes also creates a safety net for students who are struggling since there are fewer

students, and teacher are able to identify those who need additional help (Brown, 2015).

Rural students lack exposure to the rest of the world because of their geographic location

and possible isolation, forcing teachers to find creative ways to open students eyes and to

shape their view of the world and of other cultures (Lester, 2012). At Santiam High

School, students only go to school four days a week in order for the school to save

money. Students have the option to take classes on Friday if they want to get ahead or

need to catch up (Brown, 2015).

Rural Areas as Unique

Understanding that all rural schools are unique to their own geographic area will

help people and policy makers realize that they are all different and may need different

levels of support and funding. Gaston High School (2015) is a school that is

representative of a rural school that could be seen as an outlier since it offers AP classes

while others may not be able to due to that areas economic stability. Santiam High School

suffers greatly from its towns poverty and economic inequality. Mill City, Oregon, where

Santiam High School is located, used to have seven mills and now has two, creating a

shift in the economic stability of the area (Brown, 2015). For students who stay in the

area, there are now fewer jobs to come by and they often do not pay well, making

students likelihood of upward mobility (moving from one class to another) unlikely

unless they were to go to college or find work elsewhere. Graves (2011) notes that many

parents from rural areas in Oregon know their children may never come back because of

the few jobs those areas have for people who are college educated. Santiam High School

is only able to apply for grants from the state since it is difficult to ask and pass a bond
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 17

measure in that area because there are few residents to pay for it and not enough money

(Brown, 2015). It is worth mentioning that Mill City is just 40 miles away from Salem,

Oregon, where the states capital and governmental offices are. Even in that short of a

distance rurality and inequality become more apparent.

Race and Class

Besides economic inequality, rural America is also affected by large inequalities

in both race and class. Some students of color and minority groups have a harder time

adjusting to college if they come from the South, since the schools they choose to attend

tend to be primarily white (Wilkins, 2015). In a study conducted in Baltimore, white

people were able to get blue collar managerial jobs while black people had a harder time

acquiring those kinds of jobs (Badger, 2014). Students who lack in literacy understanding

and development have a higher chance of having less income, social mobility and overall

quality of life (Kennedy, 2014). Some students who come from low-income families and

are smart choose not to apply to elite, Ivy League schools because of the cost and also

because admission counselors only visit select rural areas, which contributes to the

opportunities rural students miss out on because of the educational inequality they

experience (Meraji, 2015). In contrast to these assertions, other researchers say that

students who live in high poverty areas still have high educational aspirations such as

going to college (Irvin, Meece, Byun, Farmer, & Hutchins, 2011). In some rural areas

there is not a lot of diversity, causing literature to be the only way that students are

exposed to different cultures and beliefs (Nelson, 2004). Additionally, students are more

likely to understand the challenges of those who are from different cultures if they have

read and learned about them (Nelson, 2004). Only 4 percent of the 790 children in the
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 18

study from Baltimore went on to college and got a degree, illustrating that it is not only

rural areas that are affected by educational inequality (Badger, 2014).

The New SAT

In an effort to make the test fairer for all students, The College Board is using the

SAT as a source to bridge the economic and educational inequality gap rural and minority

students face. David Coleman, who is the president of The College Board is planning to

have a revised test of the SAT come out in 2016 (Balf, 2014). Notable changes to the test

include making the essay section optional and getting rid of obscure vocabulary words

that student wont likely use in a college classroom or a job. Some educators are worried

about the effect changes to the SAT will have on students overall and they are also

concerned because Coleman is only one person and is not an educator by training (Balf,

2014). Critics argue that he should not be the only one deciding the design of the SAT

and what is and is not changed or taken off of it. Wilkins (2015) said that if the SAT is

going to be changed, educators should have some input into what should stay or be taken

of the test. Other critics of the test understand that Coleman and the College Board are

trying to make the test more accessible to minority students, but argue that the vocabulary

section should not be changed to easier, more practical words and they also say that

changing it sends a message that possibly devalues language (Murphy, 2013). Murphy

also asserts that critics argue that learning difficult vocabulary contributes to students

lexical richness and helps them learn how to be critical thinkers. Some colleges and

universities no longer require students to provide an SAT score to apply to their school.

Balf (2014) cites Wake Forest University as one of the many colleges that doesnt require

students to provide an SAT score. Some colleges and universities are now offering free
LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 19

AP courses for students to take who live in rural areas, as an effort to help students who

want to succeed academically (Mader, 2015).

Conclusion

Rural American life and education is complex and should be understood and

treated as unique by the government. As it is illustrated in this paper: no two rural areas

or schools are alike. They all have different strengths and weaknesses and require

different resources relevant to their geographic location and economy. Rural schools

should not have the same standards placed on them that urban areas have. The state and

federal government need to work together to create a budget that is more balanced and

sustainable for the whole state or county, not just certain areas that take precedence over

others. Rural America is also a larger part of the U.S. than people think and is often

forgotten since some people dont live near areas that are considered rural. Education in

rural America can be improved if teachers, schools, communities, states and the U.S. as a

whole work together to create policy solutions that will ensure a more equal educational

system for rural schools. Rural economics, jobs and the overall quality of rural life can be

improved if time and money that is unconstrained for schools, is strategically invested in

them from the state and federal government. Creating job opportunities for people who

come from a variety of educational backgrounds will also help increase the population

and level of economic stability for rural areas, which will in turn help create better

schools for students to learn in.

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LITERACY AND RURAL AMERICAN EDUCATION 20

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