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1.IndianArchitecture
IndusCivilization
BuddhistArchitecture
TempleArchitecture
IndoIslamicArchitecture India is a land of veritable treasures, at once interesting to the tourist as well as to an
enquiring student of Indian architecture. India has been the birth place of three major
ModernArchitecture religionsoftheworldHinduism,BuddhismandJainismthesehaveinspiredmostofherart.

India'sartistictraditionsareancientanddeeplyrootedinreligion.Whileatvarioustimesin
2.IndianSculpture herlonghistory,foreignracesandculturesexercisedsomeinfluenceonIndianartforms,
IndusCivilization themainaestheticcurrentsremainedpredominantlyIndian.
BuddhistSculpture
GuptaSculpture LioncapitalfromAshoka
Stambha,Stone,
MedievalSchoolofSculpture
Sarnath,UttarPradesh
ModernIndianSculpture

3.IndianPainting ThecharacterofIndianartisbestdescribedasplastic,organicandsculptural.Thisiswellsymbolizedbythenatureof
WallPainting Indianarchitectureprimarilyasculpturalmassratherthanaspaceenclosure.ThoughsculptureistheIndianartpar
excellence,itisinarchitecturethatthenationalgeniushasshownitsmostunquestionableoriginalityandmuchof
MiniaturePainting
the greatest Indian sculpture was produced in connection with, indeed as an art of, architecture. Broadly speaking,
ModernPainting architecturehasbeendescribedasanartoforganizingspace,functionallyandbeautifully.

Agreatarchitectclotheshiswellspatialstructurewithaformofbeauty,notanextraneoussuperimposedbeautybut
inherentinallthestructure,ineverypart,makingthewhole.ThedominanceofthesculpturalmodeinIndiaisdue
totheIndianpropensity,strongerthanthatofanyotherculture,forcarvingsculpturalcavesandtemplesoutofthe
living rock, of mountain escarpment or outcropping. Also in ancient India, the arts were not separated as they
unfortunatelyaretodaythearchitectthesculptorandthepainterwereoftenoneman.Sculptureswereinvariably
paintedincolourandthesculpturegenerallywasnotfreestanding,butformedpartofthetemplestructure.Inthis
way architecture, sculpture and painting were in fact, much more intimately connected than they are today and
muchofthiswasahappycombination.
SculpturedPanels:Femalefiguresand
mythicalAnimals,AdhinathaTemple,
Khajuraho,
MadhyaPradesh
India occupies an exalted position in the realm of art of the ancient world. If the Greeks excelled in the
portrayalofthephysicalcharmofthehumanbody,theEgyptiansinthegrandeuroftheirpyramidsandthe
Chineseinthebeautyoftheirlandscapes,theIndianswereunsurpassedintransmittingthespiritualcontents
intotheirplasticformsembodyingthehighidealsandthecommonbeliefsofthepeople.TheIndianartists
visualized the qualities of various gods and goddesses as mentioned in their scriptures and infused these
qualitiesintotheirimageswhoseproportionstheybasedontheidealisedfiguresofmanandwoman.Indian
artisdeeplyrootedinreligionanditconducestofulfillingtheultimateaimoflife,mokshaorreleasefromthe
cycle of birth and death. There were two qualities about which the Indian artists cared more than about
anythingelse,namely,afeelingforvolumeandvividrepresentation,evenattheriskofsacrificing,attimes,
anatomical truth or perspective. A sense of narrative a taste for decoration, keenness of observations are
clearly brought out in each sculpture. Indian art is a wholesome, youthful and delicate art, a blend of
symbolism and reality, spirituality and sensuality. Indian art may well be said to bear in itself the greatest
lesson an exemplary continuity from prehistoric times to the present age, together with an exceptional
coherence.WesaidearlierthatIndianartwasinspiredbyreligion,forIndiaisthebirthplaceofthreeofthe
world's great religions Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and these three faiths have inspired most of our Surya,VaitalDeulTemple,
Indian art. We use the word 'most' purposely for the simple reason that not all Indian art is religious. The Bhubaneswar,Orissa
Indianartistwasamanofthisuniverse,helivedhere,lookedaroundhimself,sawthejoysandsorrowsof
thelifeandreproducedtheminwhatevermediumhehappenedtobeworkinginatagiventimeclay,wood,
paper,metalorstone.ThecreationofartbytheIndianartistsarenot"realistic"representationsinthesense
weunderstandthetermonGreekorRomanArt(buttheyareimaginedandareidealised).
NonehadactuallyseenthemajorgodslikeRama,Krishna,VishnuandShiva,etc.,butaccordingtotheirdescriptioninthe
scriptures the Indian artists visualised them as shown generally standing erect, signifying mental, physical and spiritual
equilibrium. In form, the males are virile beings broad shouldered, deep chested and narrow hipped. The females are
precisely contrary to the males narrow shouldered, having full and fir breasts, and attenuated waist and' broad hips. The
femalesaccordingtotheIndianartistsrepresentMatriorthemother.Inthecourseofthisguidebookweproposedtokeep
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the hum form as the peg on which to hang our story and will venture to see the hum body treated by different periods
according to the changing styles the like and dislike of a particular age. Indian art is a treasure house of ancient
contemporarylife,itsfaithsandbeliefs,customsandmanners.Itisconsideredbysometobethefunctionorpurposeofart
ofanyagetomirrorcontemporarysociety,itscustoms,manners,habits,modesofdressandornamentationetc.
Paintingisoneofthemostdelicateformsofartgivingexpressiontohumanthoughtsandfeelingsthroughthemediaofline
andcolour.Manythousandsofyearsbeforethedawnofhistory,whenmanwasonlyacavedweller,hepaintedhisrock
shelterstosatisfyhisaestheticsensitivityandcreativeurge.
AmongIndians,theloveofcolouranddesignissodeeplyingrainedthatfromtheearliesttimestheycreatedpaintingsand
drawingsevenduringtheperiodsofhistoryforwhichwehavenodirectevidence.
CaveNo.1,Badami,Karnataka
The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed
underthePalasoftheeasternIndiaandtheJaintextsexecutedinwesternIndiaduringthe11th12thcenturiesA.D.
Duringthe15thcenturythePersianstyleofpaintingstartedinfluencingtheWesternIndianstyleofpaintingasisevidentfromthe
Persianfacialtypesandhuntingscenesappearingontheborder'sofsomeoftheillustratedmanuscriptsoftheKalpasutra.
TheoriginoftheMughalSchoolofPaintingisconsideredtobealandmarkinthehistoryofpaintinginIndia.Withtheestablishment
oftheMughalempire,theMughalSchoolofpaintingoriginatedinthereignofAkbarin1560A.D.
HamzaNama,Miniature
MughalSchoolofPainting
ThoughnopreMughalpaintingfromtheDeccanaresofarknowntoexist,yetitcansafelybepresumedthatsophisticated
schoolsofpaintingflourishedthere,makingasignificantcontributiontothedevelopmentoftheMughalstyleinNorthIndia.
EarlycentresofpaintingintheDeccan,duringthe16thand17thcenturieswereAhmednagar,BijapurandGolconda.Inthe
Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the beginning. However, later in the 17th and
18thcenturiesitwasincreasinglyinfluencedbytheMughalstyle.
UnlikeMughalpaintingwhichisprimarilysecular,theartofpaintinginCentralIndia,RajasthaniandthePahariregionetc.is
deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, religious texts like the Puranas, love poems in
SanskritandotherIndianlanguages,Indianfolkloreandworksonmusicalthemes.ThecultsofVaishnavism,Saivismand
Saktiexercisedtremendousinfluenceonthepictorialartoftheseplaces.
ThePahariregioncomprisesthepresentStateofHimachalPradesh,someadjoiningareasofthePunjab,theareaofJammu
intheJammuandKashmirStateandGarhwalinUttarPradesh.ThewholeofthisareawasdividedintosmallStatesruledby
Basohli,MiniaturePainting,Pahari theRajputprincesandwereoftenengagedinwarfare.TheseStateswerecentresofgreatartisticactivityfromthelatterhalf
SchoolofPainting ofthe17thtonearlythemiddleofthe19thcentury.
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IndusCivilization
Resources VisualArt IndusCivilization

The earliest remains of Indian architecture are to be found in Harappa,
IndusCivilization Mohenjodaro,Ropar,Kalibangan,LothalandRangpur,belongingtoacivilization
BuddhistArchitecture knownastheIndusvalleycultureortheHarappanculture.About5000years
TempleArchitecture ago, in the third millennium B.C. a lot of building activity went on in these
areas. Town planning was excellent. Burnt brick was widely used, roads were
IndoIslamicArchitecture
wideandatrightanglestooneanother,citydrainswerelaidoutwithgreatskill
ModernArchitecture and forethought, the corbelled arch and baths were constructed with
knowledge and skill. But with the fragmentary remains of the buildings
2.IndianSculpture constructed by these people it is not yet possible to know enough about the
architectural skill and tastes of the people. However, one thing is clear, the
IndusCivilization
extant buildings do not give us any clue as to aesthetic considerations and
BuddhistSculpture there is a certain dull plainness about the architecture which may be due to
GuptaSculpture their fragmentary and ruined condition. There does not appear to be any
MedievalSchoolofSculpture connection between the cities built in the 3rd millennium B.C., with an
astonishing civic sense, of first rate wellfired brick structures, and the
ModernIndianSculpture architectureofsubsequentthousandyearsorso,ofIndianarthistory,afterthe
GeneralviewofHouse,Lothal
declineanddecayoftheHarappancivilizationandthebeginningofthehistoric Gujarat
3.IndianPainting period of Indian history, mainly the time of the great Mauryas of Magadha.
WallPainting These thousands years or so were a period of tremendous, intellectual and
sociologicalactivityandcouldnotbebarrenofanyartisticcreations.However,
MiniaturePainting due to the fact that during this time sculpture and architecture was utilising
ModernPainting organic and perishable materials such as mud, mud brick, bamboo, timber,
leaves,strawandthatch,thesehavenotsurvivedtheravagesoftime.
Two important remains of the oldest times are fortifications of the old Rajagriha town, in Bihar and the fortified capital of Sisupalgarh, perhaps the ancient
Kalinganagar,nearBhubaneswar.TheRajagrihafortificationwallismadeintheroughestpossiblemanner,unhewnstonesbeingpiledoneontopoftheother.
Thisbelongstothe6th5thcentury,B.C.HoweveratSisupalgarhinthe2nd1stcenturyB.C.stonemasonswereatworkusinglargeblocksofstonestomakea
verywellmadefortentrancethatcouldbeclosedwithhugedoorsturningonhinges.
WeknowitforafactthatstonemasonryandstonecarvingwereimportedinAshoka'stimesfromPersia.Thereisabundantevidenceofstonemasonsmarks
similartothoseatPersepolis.However,woodwasstillthedominantmaterialandinarchitecturalremainsofAshokantimes,thegradualtransitionfromwoodto
stone is apparent. At Pataliputra, remains have been found of a great timber wall that once surrounded the imperial capital, a fact clearly mentioned by
MegasthaneswhostatesthateverythinginhisdaywasbuiltoftimberinIndia.

However, there is one important exception to this and that is the rockcut architecture of India. We are
includingastudyofcavearchitectureforthesimplereasonthattheearlyIndiancavetemplesandmonasteries
aremasterpiecesof"organisingspace"withbeautyandutilityinview.
Atypicalexampleofearlycavearchitectureisthemostdatablecaveofall,thesocalledLomasRishicaveinthe
BarabarHillsofBihar.AninscriptionprovesthatthiswasexcavatedfortheAjivikasectinthetimeofAshoka
himself.Thecavecarvedoutofthelivingrock,measures55'x22'x20'.Theentranceisarepresentationinstone
ofahutentrance,withtheendoftheroofconstructedofbenttimbersupportedbycrossbeams,theendsof
whichareshownprotruding.Acarvedfriezeofelephantsisastoneimitationofsimilarworkinwoodalongwith
a stone imitation of trellis work made of small stick of bamboo. This is an excellent example showing the
developmentfromearliershapesintimbertranslatedintostone.Theperiodisthe3rdcenturyB.C.
LomasRishicave,Bihar
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Resources VisualArts BuddhistArchitecture
IndusCivilization
TempleArchitecture
Another excavated cave about a hundred years later is the
IndoIslamicArchitecture magnificent prayer hall or Chaitya, at Karle in the Poona district.
ModernArchitecture Thistoohasbeenexcavatedfromthelivingrockandisunparalleled
for its lofty and elevated impression. The size is truly stupendous,
124'x461/2'x45'. With well proportioned great and bulky pillars,
2.IndianSculpture
carrying capitals of great originality holding up a vaulted roof that
IndusCivilization has real rafters of timber inserted into it, a ribbing inherited and
BuddhistSculpture copied from wooden structure. The columns are strong and bulky,
GuptaSculpture surmounted by sculptured capitals. In the far distance there is a
stupawithawoodenumbrellaontopandastonishinglytheoriginal
woodhassurvivedunharmedtothisdate. ChaityaHall,Bhaja,Maharashtra

3.IndianPainting
WallPainting
MiniaturePainting
ModernPainting

TheBuddhistStupaisanotherformofarchitecture,comprisingahemisphericaldome,asolidstructureintowhichone
cannotenter.Thestupaisaglorified,beautified,enlargedfunerarymound:whatwasoncetherestingplaceofthe
bonesandashesofaholyman.TraditionhasitthatafterthegreatdemiseofLordBuddha,EmperorAshokadecided
toconstructalargenumberofstupasthroughouthisdominioninmemoryoftheMasterandenshrineinthemrelics
suchaspiecesofbones,teeth,hairetc.,overwhichtheStupaswereconstructed.Originallythestupawasmadeof
bricks and surrounded by a wooden railing. The existing stupa at Sanchi encloses the original stupa and has been
enlargedandenclosedwithinthestonerailingorbalustrade,whenstonewasadoptedintheplaceofwood.Tothe
stupa which consisted of a domical structure, a base, sometimes circular, sometimes square, was added in the 1st
century B.C., a circumambulatory path as well as the stone railing with four elegantly carved gateways in the four
cardinaldirections.Inplaceoftheoriginalwoodenumbrella,whichwasputuptosignifythestuparepresentedand
wasbuiltovertheashesoftheLordorhisimmediatedisciples,asignofroyaltyanddignity,developedinthecourseof
SanchiStupaNo.1,FullView, timeaninterestingcompositionontopofthedome,theHarmikaasquareBuddhistrailingfromwhichrisestheshaft
MadhyaPradesh thatholdstheimperialumbrella,sometimessingleandlateronmultipliedtothreeorevenmore,diminishinginsize
astheygoupwards.
The railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous in the north and at Amravati and
NagarjunakondaintheSouth.Uprightpillarsandcrossbars,basedonwoodenconstruction,weremadeandprovidedthe
occasionfordomeofthefinestlowreliefcarvingstobefoundanywhereinIndianart.Onthesesurfacesarecarvedthe
favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus, elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous

birthsofBuddha,depictedinlowreliefwithsuchexuberantdetailsthattheyareconsideredalandmarkinthestoryof
Indian art. The Sanchi Stupa has a diameter of 120' and a height of 54'. About these gateways one thing stands that
most of early Indian architecture was of wood and timber and that these are true imitations in stone of early wooden
construction.
SanchiStupaNo.1,Detailof
SculptureonTorana,Madhya
Pradesh
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TempleArchitecture
Resources VisualArt TempleArchitecture

IndusCivilization TheMauryaswerefamousfortheirartandarchitectureEvidenceoftheearliestknownstructuraltempleshasbeen
BuddhistArchitecture recovered through excavations. A circular brick and timber shrine of the Mauryan period of 3rd century B.C., was
excavatedatBairatDistrictofJaipur,Rajasthan.Theshrinemeasures23metersindiameterandwasmadeoflime
TempleArchitecture
plastered brick work, alternating with 26 octagonal pillars, of wood. It was entered from the east through a small
IndoIslamicArchitecture portico,supportedbytwowoodenpillarsandwassurroundedbyasevenfeetwideambulatory.Asecondexampleof
ModernArchitecture aMauryatempleuncoveredbyexcavations,Temple40'atSanchi,hasasimilarplan,itwasastonetempleonan
apsidalplanenclosedbyanambulatory,andraisedonahigh,rectangularscale,approachedbytwoflightsofsteps
fromdiagonallyoppositesides.Thesuperstructurewaspossiblybuiltofwood,andhasdisappeared.Inthefollowing
2.IndianSculpture
centuriesthetempleunderwentaseriesofchangesmakingitdifficulttorecognisefromtheoriginalplan.
IndusCivilization
BuddhistSculpture
GuptaSculpture
Temple18atSanchialsowasanapsidalstonetempleprobablywithatimbersuperstructure,originallydatingfrom
the2ndcenturyB.C.Thepresentremainsoftheapsidaltemplewithitsstatelypillarsandpilasterdatesfromabout
ModernIndianSculpture the7thcenturyA.D.thoughthetempleremainedinusetillthemedievalperiod.

Perhaps the earliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one constructed at Aihole in
3.IndianPainting
Karnataka.Thisisalittlestructurebuiltofhugealmostboulderlikeblocksofstones.Thetempleconsistsofasimple
WallPainting squarecellthegarbhagrihaorsanctumsanctorum,infrontofwhichthereisacoveredverandah,a portico, which
MiniaturePainting consistsoffourheavypillarssupportingastoneroof.Thepillarsaswellastheentirestructureisassimpleascanbe,
ModernPainting exceptforasmallfriezelikemotifonthesmallparapetthatrunsontwosidesofthegroundlengthoftheportico.

Itisinterestingtoobservethatthearchitectwhobuiltthisedificehadnotyetdiscoveredthatthetwopillars
nearest the cell need not have been built standing clear away from the wall but that they could easily have
beenpilasters,halfpillars,halfjuttingoutofthebackwalloftheverandah.Norhadhetakentheclimateinto
considerationanddidnotprovidegargoylestoallowtherainwatertorunofftheroof.Theentirestructureis
heavy,bulkyandclumsy.Probably,thiswasconstructednearabout300to350A.D.
Temple18atSanchi,MadhyaPradesh
TempleNo.17,atSanchiisasmalltemplebuiltabout400A.D.andeverythingattemptedearlier,isdonemuchbetter
here.Thestonesaresmallerandlaidoutinregularneatrowstheroofhasbeenseparatedsothattheporticohasa
slightly less prominent height the SanctumSanctorum being the main house of the God. Gargoyles have been
thoughtfully provided to drain off rain water and the four back pillars are more slender and beautifully carved. This
temple truly belongs to the Classical Period and is marked by elegance, harmony, balance and dignity. Decoration is
minimalandisonlyusedwhereonestructuralformjoinsanother.
An inverted lotus is placed where the top of the shaft joins. The capital and little lions, seated back to back, act as
supportwheretheroofrestsontopofthepillar.Theentirestructureissimple,withnocomplication.However,inthe
course of time the extremely plain and simple temple architecture becomes increasingly complicated, from a simple
quadrangle it evolves into salient and reentering angles, protrusions are added, making the outline more and more Temple17atSanchi,Madhya
involved,tilleventuallyitbecomesalmostlikeastarwithmorethanahundredlittlecornersonthegroundlevel. Pradesh
TheLadkhantempleofAiholebelongstoabout5thcenturyA.D.Herethearchitecthastriedtogiveattentiontothe
circumambulationpathwhichisenclosedbymeansofawallallowingdevoteestohavepradakshanaorcirumambulatory
oftheholyofholies.Obviouslywhenalargenumberofpeoplewouldbegoingroundinadarkgallerytheconsideration
of light and ventilation would naturally arise and for that purpose the architect has provided perforated jallies. The
entranceporticoisinthisparticularcasekeptrelativelysmallandnottoomuchstressislaidonit.Afterall,itisonly
theentrancegateway.Thestructurestillremindsusofawoodenprototypewithstonewalls,supportingaslantingroof
madeoflargebouldersofstoneslabs.Cleverlyenoughtheroofhasbeengivenaslantandprovidedwithgargoylesto
allowrainwatertorunoffandonthesanctumsanctorumpropertheroofisalittlehigher,andveryrightlyso,forthat
isthe,abodeoftheGod.Onthetopofthestructureistheveryfirstattempttoraiseaturret,aprecursortothefuture
loftierspire,theShikhara.Theideabehinditmusthavebeenthat,atemplebeingthehomeoftheGodmustbeseen
from far and near, from different parts of the village or town so it must be tall and higher than the surrounding
LadKhanTemple,Aihole,Karnataka buildings.
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The Durga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the architect has made immense
improvements upon his previous attempts. This temple is provided with a high pedestal, an open
pillaredverandahserving as pradakshanapatha, in place of a dark, ambulatory passage as in the case of the Ladkhan
temple. Instead of perforated jalliesis a pillared verandahrunning round the shrine, open, well ventilated and well lit.
Thereisahighentrancewithstepsleadinguptoatallbasetheroofisalmostdoubleinheightandinthisparticularcase
theturretisbeginningtotaketheshapeofalittlespire,which,duringthecourseofthenextcenturiesevolvedintoa
toweringShikhara.Thepillarswouldhavelookedverydullhadtheynotprovidedanopportunitytothesculptorstocarve
with beautiful figures. Carving is also done under the row of pillars and for the first time we come across brackets
supportingthebeamoftheroofacrossthewideopeningofthetemple.Thisagainremindsusofthepracticefollowedby
thearchitectworkinginwood,whowantedtomakeeitherahouseorashrinebyputtinguppillarsorpostsofbambooor
wood on top of which he put horizontal beams so as to hold the roof. To make this construction doubly strong, he hit
upon the 'idea of making brackets, an essential element in Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and used much
earlierinChinaaslantingpieceofstoneemergingasitwerefromthepillarsorposts,reachingoutlikeanarmtohold
the lintel or beam steadily. This kind of construction is known by the architectural term, trabeate, as distinct from
accuratewhichwaslatermadeuseofbytheMuslims.

Apartfromstructuraltemplestheothervarietyoftemplesarerockcut,foundatMahabalipuram,about38milesdown
southofMadrasontheseashore,databletothe5thcenturyA.D.InlocalparlancetheyareknownasRathaorchariots
and are named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi but they neither have anything to do with chariots nor
probably with the Pandavas and these associations are purely of a local character. The great Pallava rulers of
Kanchipuram,weregreatbuildersandthePallavacraftsmen,seizeduponthelongoutcroporrocksandbouldersavailable DurgaTemple,Aihole,Karnataka
ontheseashore,carvedthemandgavetothemtheshapeoftemples(monolithic)aswellascolossalstatuesoflions,
elephantsandbulls,etc.carvedoutofsmallerboulders.
Oneoftheserockcuttemplesisknownasthe DraupadiRatha. It is a rock cut imitation of a mud hut, supported by

woodenposts,crownedbyanimitationofathatchedroof.TheDraupadiRathaconsistsofasquarecell,withnotevena
portico,surmountedbya.hangingroofsuggestiveinitsshapeofaBengalihut.Thereiseveryreasontobelievethatthis,
like so many other forms of structural Indian architecture is an imitation of a prototype construction of bamboo and
thatch.Twolovelygirlsadorntheentrance,eachcarvedinasmallnicheprovidedforthepurposeoneithersideofthe
entrance. A floral decoration runs along the edge of the roof which, according to some, is nothing but a rock cut
representationoftheoriginalbrassorcopperedgingoverthethatchingtokeepitinposition.
In shape and appearance the rest of the rathasseems to have evolved out of a building composed of cells arranged
roundasquarecourtyard.Asthecommunityofmonksoccupyingthemonasteryincreasedanotherstoreywasadded,
andthenanotherandstillanother,thewholestructureeventuallybeingtoppedwithadomicalroof.Thesearesquarein
planandaresurmountedbyapyramidaltowersuchasArjuna'srathaandtheDharmarajaratha.
ThereisanothertypeoftheRathawhichhasalongitudinalandbarrelvaultedroof,i.e.,theyhavearoofofthesocalled
elephantbacktype(Gajapristhakara).The Durga temple at Aihole, and the Vaital deul at Bhubaneswar are examples.
Theroof,inthecaseofthesquareshrinesconsistsofasimplemultiplicationofhutroofs,verymuchthewaywecansee
them in Buddhist monuments and other little huts. Though these are carved in rock they show a socalled Buddhist
chaitya window with a little Buddha head. In the case of Arjuna's ratha and Dharmaraja ratha, their wonderful
proportions, magnificent disposition of mass of light and shade reveal their classic character. The simple upright posts
DraupadiandArjunaRatha,Stone, imitations,ofwoodenpillarssupportbracketsandthepilastershavesmallanimalbases.WhereasearlieratSanchithe
Mahabalipuram,TamilNadu animalswereusedforthecapital,heretheyareusedasabase.
Atemple,namedafterthetwinheroes,NakulaandSahadeva,isanapsidalone,withornamentalfeaturesasintheDharmaraja,
Arjunaandotherrathas.Thereisaslightforwardextensionoftherooftoformaporchsupportedbytwolionpillars.Thereareno
figurecarvingsonthistemple.ClosetothisisamonolithicelephantsuggestingtheGajapristhakara(elephant back) shape of the
apsidaltemple.
TheGaneshrathisoneofthefinestmonolithictemplesatMahabalipuram.Thoughthree storeyedandofbetterworkmanship,it

resembles the Bhimaratha in roof form. The gableends of the wagonroof have a finial showing a human head decorated by a
tridentshapedheadgear,theslideprongssuggestingtheusualhornsinthedvarpalafiguresandthecentralonelongandnarrow
crown.Thismotifisrepeatedinthefinialsofthedecorativegablesalongthewagonroof.Thereis,asusual,thepavilionandKudu
ornamentation. The elaborately worked roof has nine vaseshaped finials and is the precursor of the later gopuram. A row of
pilastersdecoratesthesidesandtheback,whilethemainopeningistothewest.Betweenthedvarapalasateitherendaretwolion
pillarsinthecentreandtwopilasters.
NakulaandSahadev
Temple,Mahabalipuram,
TamilNadu
TheShoretempleatMahabalipuramdatabletolate7thcenturyisspeciallyknownbecauseofitslocationontheseashore.This
templethoughverysimilarstylisticallytotheDharmarajaratha,differsfromitinanimportantrespectthatitisastructural
temple and not a rockcut one. It is about 3 to 4 times the size of the Dharmaraja ratha and is made a triple structure by
adding a shrine at the back and slightly jutting out in the front. There are two spires, much loftier than in the case of the
previoustemples,thehigherspirehasmorestoreysthantheDharmarajarathaandthepinnacleishigherandpointed.Itis
muchmorecomplicated,enlargedandenriched.Theshrineisenclosedbyamassivewall,havingthetypicalPallavarampart
lionpilastersatregularintervals.Onitsouterside,thewallissurmountedbyseatedbullfigures.
TheKailasanathtempleatKanchipuramwasbuiltbyRajaSimhashortlyaftertheShoretempleinthe8thcenturyA.D.,and
compared to the latter, is larger in dimensions and more majestic in appearance. The Kailashnath temple is situated in a
rectangular courtyard surrounded by a peristyle composed of a continuous series of cells resembling rathas. But there the
IRTS lpog
Pallavastyleisfurtherevolvedandmoreelaborate.Itconsistsofthesanctum (garbhagriha), a pillared hall (mandapa), the
ICSETS
ambulatory,thevestibuleintheshapeofahall.Theflatroofedpillaredmandapa,whichwasaseparatebuildingoriginally,was
ShoreTemple,Mahabalipuram, connectedwiththesanctumbyavestibule.
TamilNadu
Aninterestingfeatureofthistempleisthatonthethreesidesofthegarbhagriha,therearenineshrines.Thepyramidaltower,havinggracefulcontours,isastoreyedelevation,eachhavingheavy

cornicesandstupikas.Theshikharaiswellproportioned,substantial,yetatthesametimerhythmicinitsmassandelegantinitsoutlines.
TheDhamekhstupaatSarnathisanimposingcylindricalstructure(ht.43.5m.,diaatbase28.3m.)oftheGuptaage,
partlybuiltofstoneandpartlyofbrick.Itsstonebasementhaseightprojectingfaceswithlargenichesforstatuaryandis
further adorned with delicatelycarved floral and geometrical patterns. Making the holy spot of the enlightenment of the
Master, this site is looked upon with, greatest sanctity and became a flourishing Buddhist establishment with numerous
temples,stupasandmonasteries.Accordingtotraditionalargenumberofshrinesandmemorialswerecreatedatthesite
tocommemoratetheincidentsbeforeandafterenlightenment.
The main brick built shrine known as the Mahabodhi temple which appears to have been originally erected in circa 2nd
centuryA.D.isencumberedwithheavyrenovation,thefourcornertowersbeinganarbitraryadditionofcirca14thcentury
A.D.Itscentraltower,standingonahighplinth,isabout55m.highandisastraightedgedpyramidofsevenstoreys,by
pilastersandchaityaniches.
DhamekhStupaatSarnath,
UtterPradesh
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the ancient city, was visited by Buddha and
Mahavira.AshokaissaidtohaveworshippedatthechaityanichesofSariputra,Buddha'sdisciple,anderectedatemple.Bythetime
ofHarshaA.D.606648,NalandahadbecometheprincipalcentreofMahayanalearningandafamedUniversitytownwithnumerous
shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fahien studied at
Nalandaandhaveleftaccountofthesettlementanditslife.
Temple3wasmorethan31m.highandconsistedofsevensuccessiveaccumulationsofwhichthetwolatestbelongedtothe11th
and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were
imposingrectangularbuildings,eachwithanopencourtyard,enclosedbyacoveredverandahwhichleadsintocells,arrangedonthe
foursides.Thecellfacingtheentranceservedasashrine.NalandawasanimportantcentreofPalasculpturesandbronzesandhas
alsoyieldedsealsandsealingsofgreathistoricalsignificance.
MahabodhiTemple,Bodh
Gaya,Bihar
LetusnowturntoaregionwherethenorthIndianstyleoftemplearchitecturedevelopedinaninterestingdirection.
Tillaboutthe6thcenturyA.D.,thestyleoftemplearchitecturewassimilarbothinthenorthaswellasinthesouth.It
isonlyafterthisdatethateachbegantoevolveinitsowndifferentdirection.Forthepresentletitbeunderstoodclearly
thatthetwoareaswheretemplearchitecturedevelopedmostmarkedlyweretheDeccanandOrissaandinboththese
areasthenorthernandsouthernstyletemplescanbefoundsidebyside.TheVimana,thetempletoweroverthemain
shrineinOrissaisoneofthemostgloriousinventionsofarchitectureinIndiaandisfunctionallyamuchfinerconception
thanthesouthIndianGopuram,wherethebarrelshapedtowerdoesnotcrownthesanctumsanctorumorthegarbha
grihabutisaglorifiedentrancegate.Wehadsuggestedinourintroductionthatthearchitectwantedtoimparttothe
temple more importance, prominence than the other buildings in the neighbourhood, because here lived his God in

thegarbhagrihaorthewombhouse.TheOrissanspiredoespreciselythis,proclaimingthepresenceofGodfarandwide,
fromitsloftyandimposingstructureasattheJagannathtempleatPuriortheLingarajaatBhubaneswardrivingawe
andrespectintotheheartsofthefaithfulandimpressingallwhoapproachit.Thetempletowerorthevimana,asitis
called in Orissa, is thus, a mighty expression of the religious faith of people. It is interesting to study the temple
projected here which is the Vaitala Deul at Bhubaneswar, a barrel roofed shrine of the Sakti cult, datable to the 8th
centuryA.D.Thefacadeoroutersideofthetempleisdividedbyribbonlikeelementsthatrundownthebasefromunder JagannathaTemple,Puri,Orissa
thebarrelroof.Theseribbonsprojectslightlyandcontainnicheswithsculptures,whiletheactualbarrelshapedroofis
restingonanumberofregularlydiminishinghighlydecoratedmouldings,oneontopoftheother.Thebarrelroofitselfis
an imitation in stone of a thatched roof of an ancient hut, going back to very early times and still found over bullock
cartsinBengalandotherregionsoftheeast.
It is interesting here to remember that there is a definite pattern in the elaboration, complication and ornamental decoration
evolvingoutofthedignifiedsimplicityandharmonyoftheclassicperiodsuchasseenintheSanchitemple,graduallygivingplace
toeveryincreasingornamentationanddecoration.
We have already seen that in India the sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person and it would be highly
misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separately. As a matter of fact, sculpture was introduced as a decorative element
overthefacadeonouterwallsofatemple.TorecapitulateletuslookbackatthegreatSanchitempleofaboutthe5thcenturyand
.see how very simple the structure is and how bare and undecorated the walls are. Then you might have observed that on the
walls of the Ladkhan temple, by providing a variety of perforated screen windows, some variation was introduced by about the
middleofthe5thcenturyandabouta100yearslaterintheDurgatempleatAihole,sculpturewereaddedatthebaseofthepillar
roundtheverandahandgraduallyintheVaitalaDeul,databletoaboutthebeginningofthe7thcentury,thesculptorhasmaderich
useofthenichesintheribbonlikeprojectionstoembellishanddecoratethetemple.
IRTS Byabouttheyear1000A.D.thetemplewastreatedwithdecorativeelements.TheRajaRanitempleofBhubaneswar,issuperbly
lpog
Shikhara,VaitalDeul ICSETS
decorated,showingsensuousandgracefulfiguresofYakshisandVrikshikasstandingamidstluxuriousnaturalsurroundings.
Temple,Bhubaneswar,
Orissa
TheearlyIndiantemplewasprovidedwithaflatroofandtherewasaproblemoflettingoutaccumulatedrainwater.IntheAihole
templesofLadkhanandDurga,theroofslabshavebeengivenaslantandtheseslabsoflargestoneswhichwereusedintheearly
Orissantemplesdatabletoaboutthemid7thcentury,namelytheParasurameshvaratempleatBhubaneswar.Inthiscasethereare
tworoofsofslantingslabs,oneabovetheother,providinginbetween,smallskylightsallowinglighttopenetrateinsidetheshrine.
Graduallytheseslantingslabroofsbegintoincreasefromonetotwoandfromtwotothreeandgraduallybymultiplyingtheseroofs,
apyramidalroofresultsovertheshrine,calledJagamohanainOrissa,whichprecedesthemainshrine.
A masterpiece of Indian architecture is the Rajarani temple of Bhubaneswar, a work of exquisite grace in which the masses of
theJagamohanaandtheVimanaareadmirablycombinedtoexpressperfection.Thereisaverylovelybeehiveshapedtowerrising
fromthegroundwithagentlecurvatureoverthesanctumsanctorum.ShikharaonShikhara,miniaturetempletowers,oneontopof
theother,mounthigherandhighertoeverloftierheightslikethegreatMountEverestsurroundedbysmallercrags.Itispossible
that the architect conceived the idea of the ever rising succession of these miniature Shikharas and was inspired by the great
mountainrangeandthehighestpeakintheHimalayaswhichissurroundedbylesserpeaksandmightwellsymbolisetheaspirations
ofthehumansoultoreachuptillitmergesandmixeswiththeEternalandtheAlmightySpirit.TheOrissantemplestandsasagreat
monument to the infinite patience and loving care and perseverance that moves these architects and the kings who carved
ornaments and distinct from the severely simple pyramidal roof of modest height over Jagamohana or themandapa. The
multiplicationoftheslantingslabshasbeencarriedto13horizontalelements,diminishingastheyreachtowardsthepinnacleonthe Parasurameswara
topofthepyramid.Buteventhispinnacleisdwarfedbytheimportanceofthelovelyroundstone,theamlaka,thechhatraorthe Temple,Bhubaneswar,
crownontopofthespireortower.TheJagamohanaandtheVimanaareconnectedbymeansofminiaturespiresemergingfromthe Orissa
pyramidalroofoftheJagmohanatowardstheShikharaofthesanctumsanctorum,makingatransitionakindofstepthatleadsthe
eyetowardstheheightofthetower.
We have seen that the evolution of temple architecture in Orissa is towards the greater elaboration of the plan and
pronouncedornamentationovertheoutsideofthewalls,withdecorativeelements,includinghumanfigures,godsand
goddesses,floraandfauna.EarlytemplesofmodestsizeandsomewhatsmallershikharassuchastheParasurameswara
temple at Bhubaneswar datable to the middle of the 7th century, with a squat and heavy shikharaover the sanctum
sanctorumandalowflatroofedmandapa,embellishedwithareliefofdancersandmusiciansofgreatcharm,gradually
maturesintoanelaboratestructureoftoweringheight,embellishedwithsculpturaldecorations.
Then comes the Vaitala Deul which is known for its sculpture grace and exuberance of decoration, with a rectangular
sanctum with wagonvault roof similar to that of the Parasurameswara temple, and is datable on the basis of its
decorativemotifsanddesigns,whicharemature,expressiveanddynamic,tothecloseofthe8thcentury.
ThencomestheMukateswaratempleregardedasagemofOrissanarchitecture.
Surya,VitalDeulTemple, TheBrahmesvaratempleisapanchyatanatemplesecurelydatedbyaninscription,toabout1060A.D.Thisisatemplein
Bhubaneswar,Orissa whichthecentralshrineissurroundedbyfoursmallshrinesinthefourcornersofthecompound.Thoughaverybeautiful
shrine, the spire or shikharaappears to be curving rather abruptly under the amlaka,unlike the spire of the Rajarani
whichisperfectandadmirableforitsstyleanddecoration.TheJagamohanahasarathertopheavypyramidalroof,unlike
theRajaraniwhichisofmodestheightandmuchsimpler.
The Lingaraja temple, datable to about 1000 A.D., is perhaps the most marvellous temple ever erected in this century, the
grandest and the loftiest (above 36.50 m. high) marking the culmination of the architectural activities at Bhubaneswar. This
templeconsistsofthesanctumsanctorum,aclosedhall,adancinghallandahallofofferings,thelasttwobeinglateradditions.
TheLingarajaissurroundedbyalargenumberofadditionalshrineswhichcluttersuptheentirecompound.Theenormousheight
ofthespire,5timestheheightoftheRajarani,dominatestheentiresurroundingsbyitssoaringloftinessandvolume,emphasised
bythedeeplyincisedverticallinesoftherathas,apairofwhichflankingthecentralratha,carryfourdiminishingreplicasofthe
spireitselfasadecorativepattern.TheJagamohanaandthespirematcheachothersplendidlyandbothexpressthegreatnessof
the Lord. The nine lower roof and seven upper roofs of the Jagamohana are exquisitely adorned with friezes representing a
procession of infantry, cavalry, elephants and miscellaneous other scenes that break the monotony of the rising pyramid and a
greatshikharasurfacetooiselegantlyvariedbytheintroductionofcornerminiatureshikharasand flying lions. The elegant and
lovelyfemalefigures,lovingcouplesinembrace,andothergodsandgoddessesdecoratingthesurfaceareallcarvedwithsensuous
charm,beautyanddelightinfineform.Thematureplanningofthewholestructure,theproportionatedistributionofitspart,the
gracefulcurveofitsshikharaanditselegantarchitecturalandplasticdecoration,togetherwithitsimpressivedimensionsmakethe
Lingaraja, at Bhubaneswar, one of the greatest creations of Indian architecture. Technically speaking it is a marvellous
architecturalfeattobuildatowerandashrineofsuchenormoussize,ofthefashionedstone.
Itmaybementionedatthisjuncture,thatinthelatertemplesofOrissa,includingtheLingaraja,therearetwoadditionalshrines
attachedalongoneaxisinfrontoftheJagamohana,anatamandapa,orahallofdanceandmusic,andabhogmandapa,ahallof LingarajaTemple,
offerings.Asamatteroffact,thetemplewasatotalworkofartinwhichwehavenotonlysculpturesandpainting,butmusic, Bhubaneswar,Orissa
dancing and theatrical performance, making it a true civic centre for artistic and cultural activities, somewhat like the modern
communityhalls,whichareplacesforsocialandculturalgatherings.Intheoldendaysthetempleperformedthistaskandwas
trulythehubaroundwhichallcivicandreligiouslifeofthecommunityrevolved.
AmongthelatershrinesofBhubaneswartheAnantaVasudevatemple,foundedin1278,isremarkableinmoreways
thenone.ItistheonlytemplededicatedtoVaishnavaworshipatthispredominantlyShivasiteandstandsonanornate
platformterrace.ItcontinueswiththedevelopedplananddecorativeschemeofLingaraja,butthegroupingoftheroofs
over the four compartments in a gradual ascent is more spectacular here. Further, the walls of the sanctum and
theJagamohanadisplayimagesoftheRegentsaswellasthoseoftheirconsorts.
Thelastgreattemple,thegrandestachievementoftheartisticandarchitecturalgeniusofOrissaistheSuntempleat
IRTS lpog
Konark which was constructed byICSETS
the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Varmana, about 1250 A.D. It is a vast and
wonderfulstructure,magnificentlyconceivedasagiganticchariotwith12pairsofornamentalwheels,pulledbyseven
rearing horses. The colossal temple originally consisted of a sanctum sanctorum, with a lofty
curvilinearshikhara,aJagamohanaand a dancing hall, built on the same axis, and an extensive compound wall with
three entrance gateways. The sanctum sanctorum and the dancing hall have lost their roofs and it is only
theJagamohanawhichhasremainedintactwithitsroof.ThesanctumsanctorumandtheJagamohanatogetherstand
on a lofty platform, richly ornamented by friezes of elephants, decorative ornaments interspersed with figures
sculptures,oftenofahighlysensuouscharacter.OverthestupendousroofoftheJagamohanaconsistingofhorizontal
tiers, grouped in three stages, stand life size female sculptures of great charm, dancers, cymbal players and others
adorningeachstage.ThewholestructureoftheJagamohanaunparalleledforitsgrandeurandstructuralpropriety,is
surmountedbyaneffectivecontrastoflightandshade.
SuryaMandir,Konarak,Orissa
Udaipur,about40milesfromBhilsainMadhyaPradesh,isyetanotherancientandremarkablesite.Thefinestandbest
preservedtempleistheNilakanthaorUdayesvaraatUdaipur,builtbyUdayadityaParamarabetween1059and1080.It
hasacoveredporch,apyramidalroofandatowerorShikharaornamentedbyfournarrowflatbandsrunningfrombase
tosummit,theinterveningspacesbeingoccupiedwithrepeatedornamentsconsistingofreduplicationinminiatureofthe
main tower. The whole is carved with particular precision and delicacy, and both tower and mandapa are in perfect
preservation,theformersurmountedbyanamalasilaoravase.
The most important of the temples at Pattadakal date from the first half of the 8th century and show the strongest
possibleevidencesofPallavainfluence.ThegreatVirupakshatemple,dedicatedtoSivaasLokesavara,bythequeenof
VikramadityaIIdatableto740A.D.,wasmostlikelybuiltbyworkmenbroughtfromKanchipuram,andindirectimitation
oftheKailasanathatKanchipuram.
ThemainshrineisdistinctfromtheMandapam,buthasapradakshanapassage,thepillaredmandapamhassolidwalls,
with pierced stone windows. The square shikhara consists of clearly defined storeys each of considerable elevation. VirupakshaTemple,Pattadakal,
Chaitya window motifs are much used and there are many sculptured lintels, slabs and monolithic pillars. It is built of Karnataka
verylarge,closelyjointedblocksofstonewithoutmortar,inkeepingwithearlyDravidiantemplebuildingpractices.One
ofthenobleststructuresinIndia,thisistheonlyancienttempleatPattadakalstillinuse.
Let us turn our attention once again towards the South of India, where the Dravidian style of temple architecture
flourishedroughlyfromthe8thcenturytoaboutthe1314centuryA.D.UnliketheNorth,theSouthisliterallydottedwith
thousandsoftemples,havingbeenrelativelyfreefromrepeatedforeigninvasionstowhichtheNorthwassubject.Behind
the architectural achievements of the country, lay the urge of the Hindu mind to give vent to its religious and spiritual
hopesandaspirations,andtheconstructionandmaintenanceofatemplebecameanactofmeritorDharmabothhereand
in the hereafter for all Kings, nobles and laymen alike. It was the centre of all cultural and social life, the hub around
whichallactivitiesrevolved.Itsinfluenceextendedbeyondthepurelyreligiousandspiritualrealmsandmadethetemplean
important centre. The temple was a leading landowner, thanks to the frequent donations from kings, nobles and lay
devotees. The construction of a temple usually took many years and it gave employment to hundreds of artists and
engineers. The finest craftsmen from neighbouring provinces found employment and a whole generation of talented
sculptorsweretrainedbythemduringitsconstruction.Thedailyroutinegaveassuredemploymenttoalargenumberof
people,priests,musicians,dancinggirls,teachers,florist,tailors,etc.Incourseoftimethesimpleunostentatioustemple
BrihadeshvaraTemple,Thanjavur, became a vast conglomeration of structures, consisting of subsidiary shrines, Natamandaps and Bhogamandapas, or a
TamilNadu dancehallandhallofofferings.Poetpavillions,confectionersandotherswereallowedtobecomepartoftemplecomplex.In
otherwordsthetemplealmostembracedandenvelopedthetownorthetownembracedandenvelopedthetemple.With
theincreaseinalltheseadditionalstructures,morecompoundswereaddedtotheoriginaltemplecompound,oneinside
theother,likeChineseboxes.
ThepresentSouthIndiantemple,therefore,consistsofwalls,quadrangles,onewithintheother.Theinnermostwall
intheareacontainsthetempleproper,amuchsmallerandunpretentiousstructurethantheotherlargergateways
which now began to attract the attention of architects, sculptors and carvers. The Brihadesvara temple which was
erectedabout1000A.D.isacontemporaryoftheRajaranitempleofBhubaneswar.Thetempleisamagnificentand
dignifiededificeconsistingofapyramidalspire,madeupofeverdiminishingtiers,regularlytaperingtowardsthetop
surmountedbyadomica1pinnacle.InmanyrespectsthisshrineresemblestheShoreTempleatMahabalipuram.The
domica1 pinnacle, however, is different in conception and execution from the amlaka of the Orissan Shrine. The
highestshikhara rises straight over the garbha griha from the sanctum sanctorum. The structure is adorned with
beautifulsculptureandpaintingsinsideaswellasoutside.TheBrihadesvaraTemple,dedicatedtoShiva,standsina
courtyard 500 ft. by 200 ft. and consists of the sanctum sanctorum, large hall a pillared hall and a Nandimandapa

arrangedonthesameaxis.Thepyramidalvimanaisabout190ft.highconsistingof13zonesindiminishingorderand
hasbeensoconceivedthatatnotimeduringthedaydoestheshadowofitspinnaclefallanywhereoutsidethetemple
base.
The famous Kailasa temple at Ellora is in a class by itself because it is a rockcut temple complex, which in many
respects resembles the various rathas at Mahabalipuram. This temple was constructed during the reign of the
RashtrakutaKingKrishnaandbelongstothemiddleofthe8thcenturyA.D.ThecarversatElloracutthreetrenches KailashTemple,Ellora,Maharashtra
downintotherockandthenbegantocarvetherockfromthetopdownwards.Eventhoughitiscarvedonthemodel
ofastructuraltemple,theKailashnathtempleisarockcutshrinewithinarectangularcourt.Thedifferentpartsof
thetemplearetheentranceportico,thevimanaandthemandapaaswellasapillaredshrineforShiva'sbull,Nandi.
Both inside as well as outside the temple, there are beautiful, graceful and dignified sculptural decorations, largely
pertainingtothethemeofShivaandParvati,Sita'sabductionandRavanashakingthemountain.
Thegopuram,isthetower,anoblongquadrangle,sometimesasquare,withapassagethroughthecentreandissituated
on the entrance gateway unlike in the north, or even at the Brihadesvara temple in Tanjore, where the towerlike
structurewasonthetopofthesanctumsanctorumorgarbhagriha.Inmanywaysthegopuramcould have descended
fromtheBuddhistgatewaysuchaswehavealreadyseenatSanchiandBharhut,etc.Itiscrownedbyabarrelvaultroof
IRTS lpog
ICSETS
overwhichalargenumberofpinnaclesrisewhichremindusonceagainofabarrelroofonalongitudinalhutwhichused
tobemadeoftimber.Asstatedearlierthesegopuramsaretoweringstructures,somehaving9storeys,otherseven11.
The gopuramprovided an excellent opportunity to the sculptor to practice his craft and contain some of the finest
sculptures produced in the country. The gopuram at Chidambaram has a series of sculptures showing dance poses of
Bharatanatyam.Atnighttime,lightsusedtobelitineachstoreyofthegopuramtowerandtheseactedasasureguideto
the nocturnal traveller, acting like a light house or beacon. As a rule the highest gopuram tower was the latest, the
earliest being the least high size as in the gopuramof the Meenakshi temple at Madurai. Visitors can climb into these
towerstoappreciatethecarvingsatclosequartersandincidentallygetamarvellousviewofthetemplecomplex.South
Indiantemplesofthisperiodareremarkableforthegreatsizeoftheirstructures,mandapasandgopurams. In addition
elaboratemandapasofhundredpillaredtypearealsoconstructedduringtheperiodoflateVijaynagarandtheperiodofthe
Nayakas in the 16th century A.D. This is an interesting departure from the evolution of the temple from early times.
These pillared halls now become more and more elaborate with pillars showing donor couples, kings, queen, mythical
animalswithfantasticshapesandsize.Thepaintingsovertheseaswellasoverthepillarsandceilingareverycolourful.
TempleComplex,Madurai,
TamilNadu Insometemplestherearetankssurroundedbyelegantpillaredhallswhicharefunctionallyandarchitecturallyadmirable
structures.Thetemplesbuiltinthe1213thcenturiesunderthepatronageoftheHoysalasofMysore,areatSomnathpur,
Belur and Halebid. The wellknown Kesava temple at Somnathpur, and the Hoysala temple at Halebid and Belur are
veritable treasure houses of ornamental and decorative elements, carved in niches, and intricate vegetal and floral
carvings.Thevimanaisofastarshapedplanwithsalientsandreenteringangleswithmouldings,multiplicationandover
decoration. Not an inch of space is left uncarved and there are animals and other denizens of the forest shown on the
lower most three or four mouldings, interspersed with floral and creeper designs and, above them all, in more than life
size,areshownhugesculpturalrepresentationsofgodsandgoddesses,completelycoveredwithbylavishdecorationsand
richornaments.
Khajuraho, twenty five miles North of Panna and twenty seven miles of Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh is an
importantplacebecauseoftheexquisitetemplesbuilttherebytheChandellas.
TheKhajurahotemplesarecruciforminplanwiththelongaxisfromEasttoWest.Builtofbuffsandstonefromthe
quarries of Panna, these temples have a soft texture and a most pleasing colour. The temples have usually been
madeonhighterraces.Almostallthetempleshaveaninnershrineanassemblyhallormandapa,andanentrance
portico.ThetemplesatKhajurahohaveacircumambulatorypassagealso.SomeofthetemplesatKhajurahoarea
clusteroffiveshrinesthemaintemplesurroundedbyfourothersateachcorner.Inarchitecture,thesetypesof
templesareknownasPanchayatanaatemplethathasacentralshrinesurroundedbyfourothershrines.

The Kandariya Temple, the Mahadeva Temple, the Devi Jagadamba Temple, the Chitragupta Temple, the
Vishwanatha Temple, the Parvati Temple, the Lakshamana or Chaturbhuja Temple the Varaha Temple the
ChaunsatYoginiTemple(theonlytemplemadeentirelyofgraniteanddedicatedtosixtyfouryoginis)aresomeofthe
veryfamousandworthstudyingfromtheartandarchitecturalpointofview.
Thesetempleswerebuiltbetweententhtolatetwelfthcenturies.TheSouthEastofKhajurahoisfamousforJain Vishwanathtemple,Khajuraho,
Temples.TheParsvanathaTempleismostimportantonewhereastheGhantaiTempleisnamedbecauseofthebell MadhyaPradesh
andchainornamentsatitspillars.
PALAANDSENAKINGS
From the eighth to twelfth centuries, the eastern portion of India was host to a florescence of artistic activity. Under the Pala dynasty, which ruled large
portionsofEasternSouthAsiafornearlyfourhundredyearsspan,manycentresofBuddhismandHinduismflourished.
ThePaladynastycametopoweraround750A.D.ThePalaschoolofartfirstflourishedintheMagadharegionofSouthernBihar,thehomelandofBuddhist
religion. Not surprisingly, the majority of early Palaperiod remains are Buddhist. Due to intense religious activity during Pala
Sena period, many religious
structures were built or renovated. Most of these buildings have vanished leaving no extant architecture from this period and making it very difficult to
reconstructasystematicoverviewofthearchitecturaldevelopment.Inspiteofnonavailabilityofanybuilding,ahugecorpusofsculptureandafewpaintings
survivefromthisperiod.

DuringthePalaperiod,anumberofmonasteriesandreligioussitesthathadbeenfoundedinearlierperiodsgrewintoprominence.Thelargecruciformstupaat
Paharpur(ancientSomapura)inBengal(nowBangladesh),forexample,measuresmorethanonehundredmetersfromNorthtoSouth.Itwasbuiltaround
thelateeighthorearlyninthcentury.Thewallsofthecourtyardcontain177individualcellsthatservedasshrines.
AlthoughthefirsttwohundredorsoyearsofPalaperiodartweredominatedbyBuddhistart,theHinduremainsalsoexistinsomequantitiesinthatphase
andclearlydominateinthelasttwohundredyearsofthePalaperiod.
The remains, though damaged, suggest that Bengali architecture styles in particular shared many features with other northern schools especially that of
Orissa.ThesurvivingexamplesfromBengallaterthanPalaSenaperiodespeciallyfromthesixteenthcenturyandlatershowgreaterIslamicinfluence.Thus,
foranunderstandingoftheHinduartisticdevelopmentfromtheeighthtotwelfthcenturies,thegreaterattentionmustbeplacedonthesurvivingsculptures.
IRTS lpog
ICSETS

Resources VisualArt IndoIslamicArchitecture
IndoIslamic architecture begins with the Ghurid occupation of India at the

1.IndianArchitecture closeofthe12centuryA.D.TheMuslimshavinginheritedawealthofvaried
IndusCivilization designs from Sassanian and Byzantine empires and being naturally endowed
withgoodtasteforbuildings,neverfailedtoadapttotheirownrequirements
BuddhistArchitecture the indigenous architecture of almost every foreign country that they
TempleArchitecture conquered.
Themostimportantfactorscommontobothformsofarchitecture,especially
ModernArchitecture in respect of mosques and temples, were that to both styles, ornamental
decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases was
2.IndianSculpture surrounded by colonnades. But the contrast was equally striking: the prayer
IndusCivilization chamberofthemosquewasspacious,whereastheshrineofthetemplewas
comparativelysmall.Themosquewaslightandopen,whereasthetemplewas
BuddhistSculpture darkandclosed.Thedifferencebetweenthelayoutofatempleandamosque
GuptaSculpture isexplainedbytheessentialdifferencebetweentheHinduandMuslimforms
MedievalSchoolofSculpture of worship and prayer. A cell to house the image of the deity, garbhagriha,
andoftensmallhallsinfrontfortheworshipperswasregardedadequatefora
simple Hindu temple. But the Islamic form of worship, with its emphasis on
LioncapitalfromAshokaStambha,
congregationalprayer,requiresaspaciouscourtyardwithalargeprayerhall,
3.IndianPainting pointedtowardsMecca,asitswesternendthatis,totheWestofIndia.Inthe Stone,Sarnath,UttarPradesh
WallPainting rear wall of the prayerhall, the centre is occupied by a recess or alcove,
calledmihrabandindicatesthedirectionofprayer(quibla).Apulpit(mimber)
MiniaturePainting
atitsrightismeantfortheimamwholeadstheprayer.Atowerorminaret,
ModernPainting originally intended for the muazzin to call the faithful to the prayer, later
assumed a mere architectural character. A gallery or compartment of the
prayer hall or some other part was screened off to accommodate the ladies
whoobservedpurdah.Themainentrancetoamosqueisontheeast,andthe
sidesareenclosedbycloisters(liwans).Atankisprovidedforablutionsusually
inthecourtyardofamosque.
You would have observed that this style of construction incorporated not only certain new modes and principles but
reflectedalsothereligiousandsocialneedsoftheMuslims.TheMuslimstyleofconstructionwasbasedonarches,vaults
anddomes,oncolumnsandpyramidaltowersorslenderspires,calledtrabeate.
IntheHindustyleofconstructionspaceswerespannedcorbels,heldtogetherbymakingcoursesproject,eachfurther
thantheonebelow,sothattheopenspanwasgraduallyreducedtoasizewhichcouldbecoveredwithasingleslabor
brick.AlthoughthereexistssomeevidencetosuggestthatthetruearchmayhavebeenknowninIndiaearlier,itisthe
Muslimswhoarebelievedtohavebroughttheprincipleofbuildingatruearchsoastoholduptherooforceilingoratop
partofastructure,thebricksorstoneslaidtoreproduceacurve,heldtogetherbythekeystoneonthetopoftherise.In
many cases even if the true arch was familiar to indigenous architects in ancient times, it was reintroduced by the
Muslims.Theresultwasthatflatlintelsorcorbelledceilingswerereplacedbyarchesorvaults,andthepyramidalroofor
spirebythedome.Thenecessityofraisingarounddomeoverasquareconstructionintroducedmultiplicationofsidesand
anglesbyprovidingsquinchessothatabasewithmanysidesusually16,couldbeobtainedtoraiseacirculardrumfor
the dome. A sunshade or balcony was laid on canti lever brackets fixed into the projection from the walls, which
introducedthechajja(cavesorsunshade).Thepracticeoftheburialofthedead,asdistinctfromthecremationpractised
bytheHindus,chamber,amihrabinthewesternwallandtherealgrave(qabr)inanundergroundchamber.Inlarger
andmorecomplextombs,thereisalsoamosque,andwellplannedgarden.Themode,themeormotifsorornamentation
employedinIslamicbuildingsalsomadeadeparturefromtheearliervogues.TheHindustyleorornamentationislargely
naturalisticshowinghumanandanimalformsandtheluxuriantvegetationlife.AsamongtheMuslimstherepresentation
Arches,QutubComplex,Delhi oflivingbeingswastaboobywayofdecorationorornamentation,theyintroducedgeometricalandarabesquepatterns,
ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and floral life. In short the contribution of the Muslims to Indo
Muslimarchitectureisprofoundandnolessinteresting.Amongthearchitecturalfeaturesintroducedbythemmention
may be made of arches, domes, minars and minarets, the pendentive, squinch arch, half domed double portals,
kiosks(chhatris)andtheuseofconcreteasafactorofconstruction.Theyalsointroducedgildingandpaintinginvaried
coloursanddesigns.Muslimdecorativeelementsareusuallyofthenatureofembroidery.Eventhoughlimewasknown
and to certain extent used in construction work in India fairly early, mud was generally used for brick work and large
blocksofstoneswerelaidoneontopoftheotherandheldbymeansofironclamps.TheMuslims,liketheRomans,were
also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an important factor of construction and
incidentallyusedlimeasplasterandabasefordecorationwhichwasincisedintoitandheldenamelworkontiles.
AsthefirstMusliminvadersofIndiaweremerelyarmedhorsemenwhohadcomeintothecountrytoloot
andplunderandnotthinkintermsoffoundingtowns,citiesorempires.Consequentlytheydidnotbringwith
themarchitectsormasons.Thebuildingmaterialobtainedfromthedestructionofotherbuildingswasusedfor
new improvised buildings such as Quwwat
u lIslam Mosque in Delhi and the Adhai dinkaJhonpra at Ajmer.
TheadventoftheMuslimsinIndiathereforedidnotimmediatelymakeagreatimpactonIndianarchitecture
andasthephysicalconquestofIndiaactuallytookmorethanathousandyearsitwasonlywiththeconquest
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ofIndiabyEmperorBabarin1526thattheMuslimsbegantothinkintermsofsettlingdowninthecountry
and in course of time had the satisfaction that they now belonged to the country and that the country
belongedtothem.Assuchfromthe7thcenturytothe16thcenturyMuslimarchitectureinIndiareflectsthe
unsettledconditionoftheconquererswhofeltthattheywerelivingamidsttheconqueredinhabitants,many
ofwhowerehostiletothem.Assuchtheaccentthusfarwasonsecuritywhichcouldbehadonlyinwalled
fortifIcations. It is, therefore, that early Muslim towns and cities, even when they are tombs were made as
fortifiedplaceswhichtheycouldeasilydefendagainsthostileforces.
TheQuwwatulIslamMosquewasconstructedbyQutubuddinAibakaround1197A.D.andasisveryclear
frominscriptionshedemolished27HinduandJaintempleswithintheRajputcitadelofLalkotaswellasthe
QuilaRaiPithoraandthattheircarvedcolumns,lintels,ceilingslabs,allshowingHindugodsandgoddesses,
Purnaghatasandtemplebellshandingbychains,wereutilisedtoconstructthemosqueknownastheMightof
Islam".Themassivestonescreenwithfivegracefularches,thecentralonebeingthehighest,notbuiltonthe
truearchprinciplewithvoussoirsandkeystone,butbycorbellingthesuccessivecourses(asystemknownto Adhaidinkajhonpra,Ajmer,Rajasthan
Indianmasonsforover2,000years)itisatrabeateconstruction,withlintelsholdingupthetopandthearch
only an ornamental false element. As the entire work was carried out by native Indian craftsmen, the
ornamentationofthescreensshowtypicalHindudecorativefloralelements,serpentinetendrilsandundulating
leaves.TheonlynewelementthatwasintroducedbytheMuslimsistheArabicinscription.Infrontmayalso
beseentheIronpillar,7.20metreshighand32cm.to42cm.incircumference.Aninscriptiononit,engraved
incharactersofthe4thcenturyA.D.proclaimsittobeGarudarwaja,theloftynamedChandrabelievedtobe
noneelsethanChandraguptaIIVikramaditya.Eventhoughthispillarhasbeenstandingthereforover1600
years it has not been corroded by rust and is a standing testimony of the metallurgical skill of its
manufacturers.
The Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around 1199 by Qutubuddin and finally completed by his soninlaw and
successorIItutmish(121035).Inonesensethistowerwasraisedinadjuncttothemosquetoallowthemulahtocall
thefaithfultoprayer:itcouldalsobeatowerofvictory,notunlikesomeerectedbyHindurulers.Originallytheminar
hadfourstoreys,theuppermostofwhichwasdamagedbylightningin1373.FerozShahTughlaq(135188)rebuiltits
twostoreys.Withitsprojectingbalconies,carvedwithdecoratedelementsontheunderside,inscriptionalsurfacecarving
andvariegatedfluting,this72.5m.highminarwith399steps,isthehigheststonetowerinIndia.
Anotherearlymosque,isthewellknownAdhaidinkaJhonpraatAjmerwhichwasalsoconstructedfromthematerial
obtained after demolishing Hindu temples. This one is also laid on the same plan as the Delhi mosque constructed by
Qutubuddin,withcarvedpillarsusedincolonnades.
TheSultanGharitombissituated4mileswestoftheQutubandistheftrstexampleofamonumentalMuslimtombin
India.Itstandslikeafortresswithinawalledenclosurewithbastionsonthecomers,withitsoctagonalgravechamber
underground.Thisalsohasanumberofstonepillars,carvedlintelsandotherpiecesoriginallyusedintemples,reutilised
herebychippingofftheHindudecorativeelements.
QutubMinar,Delhi
TheAlaiDarwazawas,builtbyAllaudinKhiljibyenlargingtheQuwwatul IslamMosque'senclosuresofcolonnadesand
providing them two gateways. In this and other buildings constructed by the Khiljis, the true arch in the form of a
pointedhorseshoe,broaddome,recessedarchesunderthesquinch,perforatedwindows,inscriptionalbandsanduseof
redsandstonerelievedbymarblearefeaturescharacteristicofKhiljiarchitecture.
The buildings constructed in Delhi by the Tughlaqs such as the fortified town of Tughlaqabad look solid,
surrounded, as they are, with bastions, thick and sloping walls, even in the case of tomb of Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq,makingthemintofortifiedstrongholdssetinthemiddleofamoat,tomakethemunassailable.The
buildingshaveplainandausteresurfacesofgreystone,crossvaultsoverlargehalls,batteredwallofenormous
thickness,secretpassageandhiddenexits,everythingbuiltwithaneyeondefence.Toacertainextentthe
Hindutrabeatedconstructionisstillusedtherearefalsearchesandthedomeisatypicalimportationfrom
SyriaandByzantine.
FromtheKhiljiandTughlaqstylesdiscussedearlierultimatelymanyoftheIslamictombsevolvedthroughthe
nextcenturyorso,characterisedbyelegantverandahsconsistingofmultiplicationofarchesandahightomb,

derived and imported from western countries. In the course of these centuries the battlement motifs
(Kangura) became a mere decorative element motif having outlined its utility as a defensive architectural
member.TherewasgraduallyaharmoniousblendingbetweentheHinduandMuslimarchitecturalstylesand
this new style of architecture is known as IndoIslamic. It is entirely different in character from Muslim
architecture in other countries, incorporating the best of both Hindu and ,Muslim styles, freely using Hindu FortofGhiyasuddinTughlaq,Tughlaqabad,
bracketsinanarcuateconstructionwithadome,withthedifferencethattheMuslimdomenowacquireda Delhi
lotusdesignunderitsftnial.
ItwasinthisdirectionthattheIndoIslamicArchitecturenowbegantoevolve,addingtoitthelocalflavourof
theprovisionalkingdomofBengal,Gujarat,Jaunpur,Golconda,MalwaandtheDeccan.
TheIslamicmonumentsofBengalarenotmuchdifferentfromsuchbuildingselsewhereinplanandindesign,butthe
useofadifferentbuildingmaterialandtheexecutionofdetailsinspiredbylocaltraditionshavemadethemquitedistinct.
Thesocalled"Bengal"roofwithslopingcornices,whichoriginatedfromthebambooconstruction,wasadoptedbythe
Muslimsandlateritspreadwidely,eveninotherregions.Brickwasthechiefbuildingmaterialinthealluvialplainsof
Bengalfromearlytimesandremainssoevennow,theuseofstonebeinglimitedlargelytopillarswhichweremainly
obtained from demolished temples. The pillars in Bengal, even when constructed with brick, are generally short and
squareandtheopeningisusuallyaccurate,fortrabeateconstructionnormallycalledfortheuseofstone.Coveredbrick
andglazedtileswereusuallypressedintoservicefordecoration.
AtGaurtheearliestbuildingrepresentingtheconstructionalandornamentalmethodsofthisstyle,istheDakhilDarwaja
builtbyBarbakShah(195974)asaceremonialgatewayinfrontofthecitadel.Withatallarchedentrancebetween
verticalpylonsoneithersideandtaperingtowersonthecorners,itisanimposingstructure.
JaliWork,SidiSayyidMosque,
Ahmedabad,Gujarat ThewallsofSidiSaidMosque,Ahmedabad,builtin1572consistsubstantiallyofperforatedscreens.Ithasbecomeworld
famousonaccountofperforatedscreens,someofthemrepresentingthe"palmandparasite"motif,whichoccursalsoin
theDarsbariMasjidinBengal.Ithasthedelicatequalityoffiligreework.
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The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627 57). It is the largest dome
cubicle in the world covering a total interior surface of over 1600 sq. metres. Architecturally it is a simple
construction,itsundergroundvaultsconsistingofasquaregravechamberandalargesinglesquarechamber
aboveground.Thelargehemisphericaldomesurmountingitandthensevenstoreyedoctagonaltowersonits
cornerslenditauniqueappearance.Eachofitswallsontheoutsideisdividedintothreerecessedarches,the
centralonepanelled,witharunningbracketsupportedChhajjaatthecornice.A3.4m.widegalleryrestson
itsinterioratthelevelofthedrum.Itisknownasthewhisperinggallery,asevenawhisperherereverberates
asanechounderthedome.Thelargedomeishemisphericalbutiscoveredwitharowofpetalsatthebase.
WithadventoftheMughals,IndoMuslimarchitecturegotabloodtransfusionasitwere,architecturalactivity
havingdeclinedsignificantlyduringtheroleoftheLodis.TheMughalswerequicktorealisethattheycouldnot
hopetoestablishalastingempireinIndiaunlesstheytookwithintheirfold,mixedandmingledwiththelocal
population, especially the Rajput princess of Rajasthan. From being merely satisfied with establishing and

somehow safeguarding their Sultanates as in the case of the Delhi Sultans, thinking themselves to be the
conquerors, keeping aloof from their subjects and thus creating a wide gulf between themselves and the
people of the country that they had the good fortune to rule, the Mughals turned deliberately towards
conciliationandpacificationoftheHindus.Akbar,dideverythingpossibletoliveinpeaceandamitywithhis
Hindusubjects.Hispolicyofconciliation,hisopenadmirationofHinducultureandhisunorthodoxwaysasthe
creator of a new eclectic religion, the Diniillahi, are reflected in architecture. Jahangir was half Hindu by Golgombaz,Bijapur,Karnataka
blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess. Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and
respectfortheHindus.TheMughalempire,aswellasMughalarchitecture,flourishedandrosetogreatheights
undertheirbenignrule,butallthisendedabruptlyunderthelastofthegreatMughals,Aurangzeb,apuritanic
Muslim, who tried to put the clock back and in this process stopped it and broke it by trying to reverse the
entireconciliatorypolicyofhisancestors.Helookeduponart,music,dance,paintingandevenarchitectureas
an evil born of worldly desire and therefore there was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic
appreciationandarchitecturalenterprise.
Babar,thefounderoftheMughalempire,wasamanofcultureandexceptionalaesthetictaste.For4yearshe
ruled in India most of his time was spent in war. However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of
gardens are ascribed to him. No architecture worthy of note was made during his times except perhaps a
coupleofmosques.
AfterBabar'sdeath,hisson,Humayun,succeededhimbuthewasdrivenoutofIndiabySherShahSuriand
aftertakingasyluminIran,heeventuallyreturnedandoverthrewSikanderShahSur,andregainedhisthrone.
TotheSursisascribed,thetombsatSasaram,inBiharincludingSherShah'sowntomb,whichwasmadeby
moderating the Lodi octagonal pattern with a verandah around it, each side pierced by arches and the halls
surmounted by a large and wide dome. The Surs made use of red and dark grey stone latticed screens,
decorativeturrets,paintedceilingsandcolouredtiles.
HumayunDarwaza,
PuranaQila,Delhi ThePuranaQilaandtheQuilaKohnaMasjidinside,arealsoascribedtoSherShahSuri.ThewallsofthePurana
Quilaaremadeofenormoushalffashionedstones,withstrongandthickwalls,ornamentationanddecoration
areminimal.
The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture, is the tomb of
Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum. This tomb is important for a proper study of the
development of later Mughal architecture and has provided the prototype, followed by architects who
designed the Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore, as well as the celebrated Taj Mahal, at Agra.
AlthoughSikanderLodi'stombasthefirstgardentombbuiltinIndia,itisHumayun'stombwhichstrikesa
newnote.Itisamemorialerectedbyadevotedwifeforherimperialhusbandandismagnificent,grandand
impressive.Raisedonavastplatform,thetombproperstandsinthecentreofasquaregarden,dividedinto
4mainpartsbycauseways(Charbagh)inthecentreofwhichranshallowwaterchannels.Thesquare,red,
sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a high square terrace, raised over a
seriesofcellswhicharelikeamusicalcomposition.Theoctagonalformofthecentralchambercontaining
thecenotaph,isinspiredbySyrianandearlierIslamicmodels.Itisforthefirsttimethatpinksandstoneand
whiteareusedwithadmirableeffect,thewhiteisusedcleverlytoemphasise,surroundandunderlinedoors
andwindows,strengtheningthedesign.
Thereisacertainrhythmicqualityinthewholestructureinitssymmetricaldesignandtherepetitionofthe
largedomeinthesimilarpavillionswithsmallbutsimilardomes.ThemausoleumisasynthesisofPersian Humayun'sTomb,Delhi
architectureandIndiantraditions,inthearchedalcoves,corridorsandahighdoubledomeaswellasthe
kiosks(chhatris)whichgiveitapyramidalshapefromadistance.Thetombstandsasalovingcreationofa
devoted wife for a great emperor, an intrepid warrior and a strong man and is in character, solid and
massive.
AkbarwaskeenlyinterestedinartandarchitectureandhisarchitectureisahappyblendoftheHinduandIslamicmodes
ofconstructionornamentation.Akbar'sseatofGovernmentwasAgra,itisthereonthebanksoftheriverYamuna,that
he started the construction of his famous Fort, made of red sandstone, which was begun in 1565 and completed in
1574.Thiswasthefirsttimethatdepressedstonewasused,alsointheramparts.Withitshighwallsofneatsandstone
facingthegateways,flankedbybastions,largehalls,palaces,mosques,bazars,baths,gardensandhousesforcourtiers
andnoblemen,thefortatAgralaidapatternintheconstructionofroyalcitadelsthatbecameamodelforlaterones.The
AkbariMahalandthebuildings,alongwiththegreatandoriginalcityofFatehpurSikri,aremadeofredsandstonewith
trabeated construction and restricted ornamentation. The jambs, brackets, corbels and lintels of the doorways of the
JahangiriMahaltogetherwithaChajjaabovethedoorwaysareprofuselysculptured.
FatehpurSikriwasatownplannedasanadministrativeunitconsistingofpublicbuildingsaswellasprivateresidencein
closeproximity.ThecityofFatehpurSikriwasfoundedasatokenofgratitudetoSheikhSalimChistiwhohadforetold
thatAkbarwouldhavethreesonswhowouldsurviveafterthesaddemiseofmanychildrenininfancy.
AmarSinghGate,AgraFort, Thecitywasbegunin1569andcompletedin1574,thesameyearinwhichthefortatAgrawascompleted.Thecityisa
UttarPradesh modestandcompacttownship,consistingofhalls,palaces,offices,gardens,pleasureresorts,baths,mosques,tombs,all
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of them little gems of architecture, making a town of great nobility. Almost all the structures are based on trabeate
construction.
ThemosttypicalandthemostwellknownbuildingisPanchMahal,thehighestandthemostimpressive
structure, called the palace of five storeys. It is based on the Hindu system of trabeate structure,
consisting of pillar, architrave, and brackets, with the only exception of the topmost domed pavilion,
purposefully thrown out of the centre that crowns the entire building. The tower was perhaps used for
recreationbytheemperorandmembersoftheroyalhousehold.Theideabehindthisimpressivestructure
ofdiminishingstoreys,oneontopoftheother,consistingofopen,terracesinfrontofthecoveredareas,
wascomfort,shadeandairyopenpillaredverandahsprovidedbyperforatedrailings,constructedwithan
eyetoprovidingshadeandfreshair,totheinhabitantsseatedonthecoolfloors.
The DiwaniKhas or Hall of Private Audience, is of a unique design. It is a square chamber with three

openings on each side and a richly carved column in the centre supporting a magnificent flower shaped
capital.Thoroughventilationisprovidedbyplacingonallsidesperforatedwindowsoppositeeachotheron
everywall.Thecharmingbalconysupportedbyacirculartopcapital,runsroundthehallswholelengthof
the4sidesonthefirstfloorlevel,supportedbybrackets.Itisbelievedthatthecentralplacewasoccupied
bytheEmperor'sthronewhilehisMinisterssatatthecornersorontheperipheralpassage. PanchMahal,FatehpurSikri,
Agra,UttarPradesh
TheTurkishSultana'shouseconsistsofasmallchambersurroundedbyaverandah.Itisbeautifullycarved
bothontheoutsideandinsideparticularlyremarkablebeingthewidedadocarvedwithpanels,portraying
junglesceneswithanimals,birdsandtrees.Itisthemostornamentedbuildingina"giganticjewelcasket"
saysFergusson.
TheJamaMasjidatFatehpurSikri,besidesbeingverylargeandimposing,hasalsoahighgatewayonthe
south side called Buland Darwaja, which was added after Akbar's victory over the Deccan. It is a semi
octagonalprojection,containingahigharchedalcove,andisperhapsthehighestandthemostimposing
gatewayinIndia.
Only one building at Fatehpur Sikri is built of white marble, the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti, Akbar's
spiritual preceptor. It is a square chamber, having a screened verandah, containing latticed panels of
exquisite design, and is an elegant structure. Besides completing Akbar's tomb at Sikandara, and also
constructing the Musamman Burj, a double storeyed pavilion on the Agra fort, with beautiful inlay,
Jahangir'squeen,NurJahan,builtthemostimportantbuildinginAgrathetombofItmadudDaula,her
father and the Prime Minister of Jahangir, by name Mirza Ghiyas Baig. It stands within a garden and
consistsofasquarebuildingwithagravechambersurroundedbyverandahs.Ontheupperstoreythereis
apavilionwithrectangulardomeandscreensenclosingthefalsegraveofItmadudDaulaandhiswife.The
structureisbuiltofwhitemarbleandisrichlydecoratedwithdelicateinlayworkandpaintingcontaining
the characteristic Persian motifs such as cypress trees, vases fruits, wine
cups, etc. The minarets on the
four corners, and the fine lattice work, traceries and inlay are in many ways, precursors of similar
decorationslateronperfectedandemployedintheTajMahal.
BulandDarwaza,FatehpurSikri, ShahjahanwasthegreatestbuilderoftheMughaldynastyandwithhimarchitecturewasapassion.He
UttarPradesh lookeduponwhitemarble,expensiveandsplendid,astherightandproperbuildingmaterialforanemperor
ofHindustan.BythistimetheMughalartistictraditionhadmaturedandrefinedtoagreatextent.Itwas
during Shahjahan's time that there was the highest efflorescence of Mughal architecture in India. As
against the sturdy, robust and plain construction of Akbar, Shahjahan's buildings are highly sensuous,
delicateandfeminine.InsteadoftheearliersimplereliefworkinredsandstoneusedbyAkbar,Shahjahan's
buildingsarefullofdelicatecarvingsinmarble,almostlikefiligreeandinlaywithpietradurawork.Thearch
becamefoliated,thedomebecamebulbouswithaconstrictedneckandpillarsraisedwithshaftscapitals.
HeevendemolishedsomeofAkbar'ssimplepinksandstonestructuresintheAgraFortandreplacedthem
withmoreluxuriouslooking,magnificentmarblebuilding.
Besides constructing a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings, such as Khas Mahal, DiwaniKhas,
MotiMasjid,aswellastheJamaMasjidinDelhi,Shahjahanerectedthemostromanticandfabulousbuilding,
theTajMahal,thetombofhisbelovedwife,AIjumandBanoBegumentitledMumtazMahal.Itisadreamin
marbleandisthelogicalculminationoftheconceptionofagardentomb,startingwithHumayun'stombat
Delhi.TheTajisasquaretombbuiltonaraisedterrace,withgracefultallminaretsatitsfourcomers.Asin
Humayun'stomb,thetombchamberisoctagonal,withsubsidiarychambersattheanglesandthetombis
surmountedbyagracefuldoubledome.Thedoorwayisnarrowerandloftier,thedomeismuchmoresoaring.
Thedomehasacquiredalotuspatternbelowwiththefinial.TheTajisnotedforitsetherealanddreamlike
lightness,gracefulproportionsandaharmoniousbalancebetweenarchitectureandornamentation.Thereis
profusecarvingandbeautifulinlayworkwithpreciousmulticolourstonesinitsfloralandarabesquepattern,
fmeborders,inscriptionsinblackmarble,delicatetraceriesandtrellisworkexecutedagainstthebackground
ofwhitemarble.Initsdreamlikeairylightnessaswellasinitspreciousinlaywork,thefemininecharacteris
apparent,likethelovelyladyinwhosememoryitwasbuilt,gentle,sweetandyielding.LikeHumayun'stomb
itwaslaidinacharbagh,orgardenswithwaterchannelsandfullofflowers.
In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of Shahjanabad, the
SeventhCityofDelhi,containinghisfamouscitadel,theRedFort,whichwasbegunin1639andcompleted TajMahal,Agra,UttarPradesh
after 9 years. The Red Fort is an irregular octagon, well planned, with its walls, gates, and a few other
structures constructed in red sandstone, and marble used for the palaces. It consists of a DiwaniAm,
containingthemarblecanopyornamentedwithbeautifulpanelsofpietraduraworkshowingafewpaintings.
Diwan iKhasisahighornamentedpillaredhall,withaflatceilingsupportedonengravedarches.Itspillars
containpietraduraornamentationandtheupperportionwasoriginallygildedandpainted.Itisalsosaidthat
itsmarbledaisoncesupportedthefamousPeacockThrone.
TheexquisitemarblescreencontainingarepresentationofthescalesofjusticeandonthewallsofthismarblepalacearePersian
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couplets,detailingthedatesoftheconstructionofthefort,thecostofconstructionandalsothefamouscoupletclaimingthat"If
therebeaparadiseonearthitisthis,itisthis,itisthis".
Theluxuryandloveofconstructingmagnificentbuildings,patronisedbyJahangirandShahjahancametoanendratherabruptly
withthelastofthegreatMughals,EmperorAurangzeb.
NotmanypalacesofearlyHindurulersofmedievaltimehavesurvived.CertainfeaturewhichcharacterisetheIslamicconstruction
werenotcoromedmerelytoMuslimforts,palaces,mosquesandtombs,butwerealsoincorporatedbytheHindus,whomadeuseof
someoftheindigenousfeatures,andplannedtheirbuildingtosuittheircustomsandwaysofliving.
Rajasthanisrichinsuchpalaces.ThepalacesbuiltduringtheMughaltimemaybedifferentfromeachotherinplan,buttheyhave
certaincommonarchitecturalfeatures,suchasbalconiessupportedoncarvedbrackets,pillaredkioskscrownedbydomes,arcadesof
sunkarches,foliatedarches,latticedscreens,curvedBengalroofsandflatdomesrisingfromarectangularbase.Situatedasthese
palacesoftenareonrockyheights,theylookveryimpressivesuchasthoseatAmber:Jaipur,Bikaner,Jodhpur,Udaipur,Jaisalmer,
etc.
Jaliwork,KhasMahal,
RedFort,Delhi
TheKirtistambha,orTowerofFame,wasconstructedbytheSolankirulerofGujaratandonesuchisthatoftheChittor
Fort,thecapitalofMewarbeforeUdaipur.Thetower,wasconstructedintheeightyearsfollowing1440andrestoredin
1906tocommemoratethebuildingoftheKumbhaswamiVaishnavatemple,consecratedin1440.
Ofmany"experimental"works,inwhichtheHinduandtheIslamictraditionshadcombinedtocreatesomethingnovelis
theinterestingexampleofthe'HavaMahal'(thePalaceoftheWind)atJaipur.Hereanextraordinaryexperimenthasbeen
madetocreateabuildingsuitedtothehot,dryclimateofRajasthan,bymakingtheentirefacadeaperforatedscreenby
creatingoverfiftyslightlyraisedpavillions,eachahalforielwindow,asitwere,toallowlittlebreezetowaftthroughthose
hundredsofperforatedjaliwindows.Thesehalfraisedpavilionsarecoveredbylittledomesandcurvilinearroofs,whilstthe
openings are archshaped. These are probably inspired by the tiers of small shikharas rising one above the other, of
BhubaneswarorTanjore.
VictoryTower,ChittorgarghFort,
Chittorgarh,Rajasthan
HawaMahal,Jaipur,Rajasthan
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ModernArchitecture
Resources VisualArt ModernArchitecture
1.IndianArchitecture Nodoubt we have a great architectural heritage of temples, mosques,

palacesandforts.Somuchsothatwheneverarchitectureisthought of
IndusCivilization
in conjunction with India, images of the Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri and
BuddhistArchitecture SouthIndiantemplesareconjuredupinourminds.
TempleArchitecture
IndoIslamicArchitecture Thequestionthatcomestoourmindis:
ModernArchitecture Do we have anything today as representative of Modern Architecture
which could be compared with our old buildings? Or in even simpler
2.IndianSculpture terms'whatrepresentsModernArchitectureinIndia'?
IndusCivilization
The question which is difficult to answer demands more than skin
BuddhistSculpture deepanalysisofmodernarchitectureinthecontextofIndia.
GuptaSculpture
MedievalSchoolofSculpture Theanswertothisquestionalsodependsonthespiritbehindit.If the
curiosity behind the question concerns the quantum of construction
done in postindependence years, the answer can be one impressive
list of statistical figures, a fine achievement for building science and
3.IndianPainting technology.
WallPainting
MiniaturePainting But,ifontheotherhandthequestioningmindisconcernedaboutnew
architectural and planning thought generated in the same post
ModernPainting
independence years, which have resulted in buildings and cities suited

to our socioeconomic, cultural and climatical circumstances, our ChhatrapatiShivajiTerminus,
achievements are not very impressive so far. But considering the fact Mumbai,Maharashtra
thatformationofthoughtsandideas,inthisrelativelyyoungfield,has
been going for only the last quarter of century and with the limited
resources that we have, it is evident that we are on the verge of
makingabreakthrough.
It is not out of context here to go into details how things have been
happeninginthefieldofarchitectureinyearspreceedingthe following
independence.
Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of British on the Indian soil, was from the social point of view, a
creationofspectacularsculpturalformshewnoutofstone.Architecturalmaterialwasstonetools,chiselandhammer,
andtheaimwasglorification.Incontrast,theeverydayneedsofacommonmanwereruthlesslyneglected.Thenthe
British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first introduction to elementary modern building
constructionandplanningwasintroducedintoIndia.Theiraim,however,wastohousetheirorganisations,andtheir
peopleandwhateverwasnecessarytocontrolanempireasbigasIndia.Apartfromselfservingmilitarycantonments
andcivillines,theyalsoleftthebasicproblemswellalone.ItwasnointentionoftheBritishtoeducateIndiansinthe
artandscienceofarchitecture.ConsequentlyIndianminds,duringtheBritishreign,werecompletelyoutoftouchwith
theprogressivethinkingtakingplaceintherestoftheworld.Themostsignificantarchitecturalphenomenonthattook
placeduringthefirsthalfofthiscenturyinthiscountrywasbuildingofImperialDelhi.Thiswasananachronismofthe
highest order, because, while at that time contemporary Europeans were engaged in most progressive thinking in
architecture,SirEdwardLutyen'swasamasterpieceinhighrenaissancearchitecture,theresultofawayofthinking
typicaloftheearlynineteenthcenturyinEurope.Itisinterestingtonotethatatthesametimeastheconstructionof
Delhi,Europewashaving"Heroicperiodofmodernarchitecture"insuchschoolsofthoughtas"Bauhaus".
NorthandSouthBlock,Delhi
Independence woke us to a changed situation. "Time had moved on. In place of religion or royal concern with
architectural immortality, this situation demanded attention to those problems that had so far been ruthlessly
neglected.Theordinaryman,hisenvironmentandneedsbecamethecentreofattention.Demandforlowcosthousing
becameurgent.
Industrialism that was to follow in India, spawned its own problems of townships and civic amenities for
workers.Freshmigrationfromruralareastoexistingcitiesalsostrainedalready,meagrehousingcapacities
ofexistingcities.Theveryscaleoftheproblemwasandstillisunnerving.8,37,00,000dwellingunitsneeded
throughoutthecountryandthedemandrisesannuallyattherateof17,000dwellingunits,nottomention
ruralhousing.Tofacestaggeringproblemsofsuchmagnitude,twentyfiveyearsago,therewerefewIndian
architectsinthecountryandpracticallynoplanners.TherewasonlyoneschoolofarchitectureinBombay.
Buttherewasthewilltobuild,withthelimitedresourcesandtechnologicalknowhowatourdisposal.
We marched ahead and built an impressive number of houses and other buildings of utilisation nature. In
the process we made mistakes and learnt from them. Each fresh attempt was a step closer to building of
forms more suitable for the Indian climate and socioeconomic conditions. In this process, architects also
becameawareoftheneedforacertainamountofresearchworkinnewwaysofbuildingandplanningifwe
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weretofacetheproblemsquarelyastheysay.Sincegovernmentwastheagencywiththelargestresource,
it had to carry the heaviest responsibility for construction. Need for various kinds of organisation on the
nationalandregionallevelwasfelt.Followingisthelistofgovernmentalbodiesthatwehavetoday,whichin
somewayortheotherareresponsibleforbuildingindustryinIndia.
(1)CENTRALPUBLICWORKSDEPARTMENT(C.P.W.D.)

ThisisanationalorganisationwithaffiliatedbodiesatstatelevelcalledPublicWorksDepartment(P.W.D.).It
looks after all the construction of government office buildings, residential accommodation for government
employees, institutional buildings like the I.I.T., hospitals, public auditoriums, conference halls like Vigyan
Bhavan, and hotels such as "The Janpath" and "The Ranjeet". etc. A number of other buildings, like
Libraries, research institutes, airports, radio and T.V. Centres, Telecommunication building, factories and RashtrapatiBhawan,Delhi
workshopsarealsolookedafterbytheC.P.W.D.
ActivitiesoftheC.P.W.D.arenotrestrictedtobuildingconstructionalone.Thedepartmentalsolooksafter
engineering,constructionofgranaries,warehouses,bridgesandcanalsthathavehelpedthecountryinits
fightagainstfoodshortage.
TheHorticulturalwingofthedepartmenthasinvolveditselfwiththecreationofenvironmentalcomforts,like
ParkssuchasBuddhaJayantiParkandMughalGardens.
Activitiesofthedepartmentatpresenthaveextendedbeyondthebordersofthecountry.TheSonaliPokhra
roadprojectinNepalhasbeencompletedandahospitalforchildreninKabulhadjustbeencompletedand
the department had been appointed as consultant for work of the Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Institute at
Mauritius.
(2)TOWNCOUNTRYPLANNINGORGANISATION
Aplanningorganisationisresponsibleforphysicalandlanduseplanningonanationalscaleandthendetailedland
useplanningonregionalscale.InotherwordsthisorganisationisresponsibleforearmarkingNationallandforvarious
uses, such as Towns, cities, industry etc., considering factors like economy, ecology, communication etc. thereby
ensuringbalancedandplannedphysicalgrowthofthewholenation.Apartfromthistheorganisationisengagedin
preparingdevelopmentplansforexistingcitiessuchasDelhitoensurecontrolledgrowthofthesecities.
(3)HOUSINGANDURBANDEVELOPMENTCORPORATION:
HUDCOwassetasafInanceoperatingbodytodealwitharevolvingfundof200crores.
Itsmainobjectivesare:
(a)TofinanceUrbanHousing.
(b)Toundertakesettingupofneworsatellitetowns.
(4)CENTRALBUILDINGRESEARCHINSTITUTE
C.B.R.I.conductsresearchintovariousmethodsofeconomicalconstructionandvariousotheraspectsofthebuilding
industry.Itisaresearchorientedorganisation.
(5)NATIONALBUILDINGORGANISATION:
N.B.O. is an organisation which acts as interface between all incoming technological information and practising
architectsandbuilders.
(6)HINDUSTANHOUSINGFACTORY:
H.H.F.concernsitselfinencouragingthetechnologyofprefabricationthroughoutthecountry.
(7)STATEHOUSINGBOARDSTODEVELOPMENTAUTHORITIES:
Apart from all these, are state housing boards in all the mentioned above bodies which are responsible for
implementationanddesigningofthehousingneeds,andgeneralcontrolledgrowthoftheexistingcitiesaccordingto
drawnupmasterplansfordevelopment.ForfinancialhelptheydependonagencieslikeHUDCO.
ConnaughtPlace,Delhi Togetherwiththehelpofalltheorganisation,bynomeansanexhaustivelist,governmentperformsvariousroles,
frompublicworkstodeploymentoffinancialresources,fromresearchtodistributionoffundingstobuildingindustry.
Muchhasbeendone,muchremainstobedone.
Onthearchitecturalhorizontodayfinduswithanewgenerationofarchitectsandplanners.Todaywehavenearby
fifteen architectural schools throughout the country and certain equipment and knowhow of naturalized building
scienceandtechnologyandagrowingexperiencewithnewmaterialandmethodsandlargescaleplanning.Allthis
hadnotbeeneasy.
However, it was not huge, building institutions, but individuals that have been responsible for evolving a new
aestheticsbridgingthehiatusbetweentraditionalismandmodernism.Painstakinglytheseindividualshaveworked,
overtheyears,learningbothfromabroadandourexperienceswithtraditionalarchitecture,tobringaboutvarious
schoolsofthoughtresponsibleforthespiritofmodernIndianarchitecture.Theemphasisnowliesnotonawesome
monumentality,butfactionalismwithaccompanyingvirtuesofeconomy,simplicityandutility.
Itisrelevantheretogointothedevelopmentoftheseideas.Asamatteroffactsomeideasofmodernarchitecture
were not to come to us until 1950, when Le Corbusier at that time was a leading figure in architectural circles
createdChandigarh,oneofhismostambitiousprojects.
ThishadatremendousimpactonthemindofIndianarchitects,whohadsofaronlyseeneitherglorioustemplesor
fortsofthepastortheImperialBritishcapitalofNewDelhiinthenameofmodernarchitecture.Overwhelmed,they
foundthisexpressionofmodernarchitecturequiteacceptable.Itwasgrandandsensationalandatthesametime
wasbasedonrationalbasisofclimaticanalysisandplanningfreedom.Intheyearstofollow,buildingsspringupall
over India which had similar expression and the same materials. But ideas of Le Corbusier had to be crystallized
beforetheycouldbeadoptedinIndia.Somerealizedthatconcreteandplasticformswereafterallnotthesolutionfor
allIndianarchitecturalproblems,howsoeversensationaltheymightbe.
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There was another parallel phenomenon going on at the same time which was to influence the course of modern
architectureinIndiatocome.IndianarchitectsweregoingtoEuropeandAmericatoseekhighereducationandcultural
inspiration.TheIndianarchitecturalcommunitytookitsinspirationfromideasdevelopedinthewesternworld.During
the sixties these architects who received their education in the western countries commanded high positions as
professionals as well as teachers. They taught, practiced and experimented with what they had learnt in the west
againsttheharshrealitiesofIndia.Theprocessoffermentationofideaswasturnedon.Thereweremanyrealizations
thatweretoformtherationalbasisforarchitecturetocome.
First of these realizations was that if we have to do anything worthwhile in India for Indians under Indian socio
economicandclimaticconditions,thewestwasnoplacetolookforinspirationsorsolutions.Wewillhavetoevolveour
own patterns of development and physical growth, our own methods and materials of construction and our own
expression of foregoing. This realisation created a sense of vaccum and because of the poignancy of the feeling of
vaccum, the search began, and architects started looking in different directions for various answers. In each direction
partial perception of truth was declared as the total truth. The fact however, remains that in each direction we have
moved closer to rational basis of modern architecture. One of the first places where Indian architects looked for
inspirationforexpressionoftotalarchitectureofIndia,isourownvillageandfolkarchitecture.Architectsstudiedwith
keeninterestthewaypeoplesolvedproblemslongbeforewesterninfluencewasfeltinIndia.Fromdesertsettlementsof
Jaisalmer,tovillagedevelopmentsofhills,plainsandseacoasts,allbecamethefocusofstudy.Complexplanningwere
analysedandlookedintoforinspirations.Therearesomedaringarchitectswhohavegoneasfarastostudythehuman
settlementsintheheavilypopulatedareasofexistingmetropolitancities,builtwithoutthehelpofarchitects,lookingfor
solutions of high density, low rise economical housing a challenging problem for India. It is the contention of these SupremeCourt,Delhi
farsighted architects, with a hard nosed realism, that in such kinds of dense developments, with simple methods of
constructionandconventionallowcostmaterials,whenlaidoutinaplannedmanner,thatwewillfindtheanswerurban
housingforourreallypoormasses.Whilesomeofthesearchitectswerebusylookingforanswersinwhatwealready
have in our traditional settlements, others were exploring how industry can be made use of in solving the aspect of
building problems. Prefabrication has potential in large scale housing, large span structures and industrial buildings on
anywherewererepetitiveunitscanbeemployed.ButsofarinIndia,industrializationofthebuildingindustryhasnot
made great headway for lack of technological infrastructures to support it, therefore its influence is only limited to
fascinationofimagery.However,oneaspectoftechnologythatcanbesuccessfullyappliedinarchitectureisinvention
andmanufactureofnewbuildingmaterialsfromindustrialwastetoreplacethetraditionalbuildingmaterialslikesteel
andcementofwhichtherearetremendousshortages.
Thereisthegrowingrealizationamongarchitectsthatjusttobuildvisuallybeautifulbuildingswillbeuseless,unlessitisbackedbyinfrastructureofservices,
suchaswatersupply,electricalsupplyandcommunicationsystemofrapidmasstransit,etc.Inotherwordsitisnotanindividualbuildingbutthetotal

environmentthatmatters.Allthiscallsforseriousattentiononpatternsofphysicalgrowththatwilltakecareoflayoutsofalltheseservicesinanorganised
manner.
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IndusCivilization
Resources VisualArt IndusCivilization
1.IndianArchitecture ThebeginningofstonesculptureinIndiagoesbacktoaveryremoteage.The
excavations carried out in 1924, at the ruins of Mohenjodaro on the Indus
IndusCivilization
river and Harappa in the Punjab, brought to light a highly developed urban
BuddhistArchitecture civilization,archaeologicallyknownastheIndusValleyorHarappanCulture.It
TempleArchitecture flourished from C.2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C. These ancient cities had a
IndoIslamicArchitecture systematic layout, wide roads, spacious houses made of bricks, and an
undergrounddrainagesystem,somewhatlikeourown.Peopleworshippedthe
ModernArchitecture
Mother Goddess or Goddess of fertility. Trade and cultural contacts existed

between these cities and those of Mesopotamia of which the evidence is the
2.IndianSculpture occurrence of the seals, as well as similar carnelian beads, knobbed pottery,
IndusCivilization etc., at both places. Clay was the earliest medium in which man began to
mould and we have discovered a large number of terracotta figurines from
BuddhistSculpture
theseIndusValleysites.
GuptaSculpture
ModernIndianSculpture ChaityaHall,Bhaja,
Maharashtra
3.IndianPainting
WallPainting
Amongthefewstonefigurines,amaletorsoofpolishedredlimestonefrom
MiniaturePainting Harappa, chiselled in the round, is remarkable for its naturalistic pose and
ModernPainting sophisticated modelling, highlighting its physical beauty. This lovely figure
makesonewonderhowatthatremoteage,itwaspossibleforthesculptorto
carveasbeautifullyaswasdoneverymuchlaterinGreeceinthe5thcentury
B.C. The head and arms of this figure were carved separately and socketed
intothedrilledholesofthetorso.
Anothernoteworthyexamplefromthisurbancultureisthebustportraitofabeardednoblemanor
highpriest,fromMohenjodaro,weavingashawlwithtrefoilpattern.Itbearsacloseresemblancetoa
similarfigurediscoveredintheSumeriansitesofUrandSusa.
ThefigureofamaledancerbelongingtothesameperiodanddiscoveredatHarappaisanimportant

carving showing how music and dance had a great place in life almost 5000 years ago. It amply
proves the dexterity with which the sculptor 5000 years ago, could catch beautiful movements of
dance poses and express them in stone by the graceful twist of the body from the waist upward.
Unfortunately,itisinadamagedcondition,butitstillreflectsthegreatmasterywithallitsvitality
andgrace.
Priest,Clay,Harappa,Pakistan
ThebronzedancinggirlofthesameperioddiscoveredatMohenjodaroisperhapsthegreatestsurvivingachievementofthe
metal work of the Harappan age. This worldfamous figure shows a female dancing figure standing as if relaxing after a
dancenumber,withherrighthandonherhipandtheleftdanglingfree.Shewearsalargenumberofbangles,probably
madeofboneorivoryonherleftarmtogetherwithacoupleofpairsonherrightarm.
Thestatuetteisagreatmasterpieceoftheartofthemetalcraftsmanoftheperiodwhoknewtheartofbronzecastingin
thecireperdueorlostwaxprocess.
This terracotta figure representing the large sized mother goddess is one of the best preserved and comes from
Mohenjodaro. The significance of the broad panlike appendage on either side of the coiffure of the goddess is not easily
understood. Since she is the bestower of fertility and prosperity, she was worshipped for this very purpose. India is
traditionallyacountrywheremorethan80percentofitsinhabitantsareagriculturistswhonaturallyworshipgodsand
goddesses of fertility and prosperity. The pinched nose and ornamentation flatly laid on the body and pressed on to the
figureandthegeneralfolkeffectinartaremostinteresting.ThesculptoratMohenjodarowasadeptinhisartandcould
fashionbothrealisticallyaswellasstylistically.
Dancinggirl,Bronze,Mohenjo
daro,Pakistan
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Theterracottafigurerepresentingabullisaforcefulrepresentation,eloquentlyproclaimingthespecialstudyofthe
anatomyoftheanimalbythemodellerwhofashionedthefigure.Theanimalisshownstandingwithhisheadturned
totherightandthereisacordaroundtheneck.
Thepairofsquirrelsisinterestinginaverynaturalandcharacteristicfashionseatedontheirhaunchesandnibbling
atsomefruit.
Bull,bronze,Mohenjodaro,Pakistan
Thetoyanimal,withamoveableheadfromMohenjodaro,belongingtothesameperiodi.e.2500B.C.,is
oneofthemostinterestingobjectsfoundduringtheexcavationswhichshowshowthechildrenwerekept
amusedandhappywithtoysthattheycouldmanipulatebymovingtheirheadswiththehelpofastring.

Alargenumberofsealshavebeendiscoveredintheexcavations.Theyaremadeofsteatite.terracottaand
copperandareofvariousshapesandsizes.Generallytheyarerectangular,somearecircularandfeware
cylindrical. Almost invariably they bear on them the representation of a human or an animal figure and
haveontopaninscriptioninpictographicscriptwhichhasnotbeendecipheredsofar.
Toyanimalwithmovablehead,Terracotta,
MohenjodaroPakistan
This seal shows a seated figure of a Yogi, probably Shiva Pashupati, surrounded by four animals a rhino, a buffalo, an
elephant and a tiger. There are two deer shown under the throne. Pashupati means the lord of animals. This seal may
throwlightonthereligionoftheHarappanage.Mostofthesesealshaveaknobatthebackthroughwhichrunsaholeand
itisbelievedthattheywereusedbydifferentguildsormerchantsandtradersforstampingpurposes.Whennotinusethey
couldbewornroundtheneckorthearmlikeanamulet.
A fine example of an animal study shows a humped Brahmini bull of great strength and vigour. It is a great artistic
achievementofthatearlydate.Themodellingofthefleshypartofthebull'sbodyisveryrealisticallydepicted.
Therearesmallsealsofintricateworkmanshipandofgreatartisticmerit,astonishingexamplesoftheartisticskillofthe
sculptors.Suchexquisiteworksofartcouldnothavecomeaboutovernightandclearlysuggestalongprevioustradition.
Seal:Pasupati,Stone,Mohenjo
daro,Pakistan
HarappaandMohenjodaroarenowinWestPakistan.Aboutahundredsitesofthisculture,havebeenfoundin
India,andafewofthemexcavatedsofar,havedisclosedthattheIndusculturewasspreadoveranextensive
area.
TheInduscivilizationcametoanendinaboutC.1500B.C.probablyduetotheAryaninvasionofIndia.Except
forsomeantiquitiesofthecopperhoardcultureandceramics,notraceofanyplasticartisfoundduringthe
next1000years.Thismayperhapsbeduetoperishablematerialslikewoodwhichwereusedinfashioningart
formswhichcouldnotwithstandtherigorsoftime.Thecarvingsofflatsurface,asmetwithatBharhutand
Sanchi,areanechoofanearliertraditioninwoodorivory.Butthisinterveningperiodofabout1000yearsis
important, because it was during this time that a synthesis took place between the fertility cults of the

Dravidians,whoweretheoriginalinhabitantsofIndia,andtheAryanelementsofritesandrituals.TheIndian
way of life and thought as embodied in the earliest scriptures, the Vedas and the Epic literature, were
developedandtheblendingoftheAryangodswiththemoreancientBuddhismanditscontemporaryreligion
Jainism,alsomadetheirappearanceinIndiainthe6thCenturyB.C.Thesefaithshavemuchincommonwith
each other and represent the ascetic trend in Hindu philosophy. The teachings of these reformed faiths by Jewellery,Mohenjodaro,Pakistan
GautamaBuddhaandMahavira,hadadeepimpactonthemasses.Itistheconceptofthesethreereligions,
whichlaterfoundexpressioninplasticartforms.
Anthesesculptureswereoriginallypartsoftemplesorotherreligiousmonumentstowhichtheybelongedboth
aestheticallyandfunctionally.
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BuddhistSculpture
Resources VisualArt BuddhistSculpture
IndusCivilization
TheearliesthistoricalsculptureinIndiaisoftheMauryanageinthe4th3rdcenturiesB.C.
TempleArchitecture
Itisaboldandmassivestylemarkedbyacertainrealismfreelyemployingforeignelements
IndoIslamicArchitecture from Achaemenid Persia. The great Buddhist Emperor Ashoka caused the erection of
ModernArchitecture monolithicpillarsofsandstone,30to40feethigh,crownedbyanimalfigureslikethebull,
lion and elephant, and had them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of morality,
humanityandpiety,whichhewishedhispeopletofollow.FamousAshokanpillarsarefrom
2.IndianSculpture LauriyaNandangarhinBihar,SanchiandSarnath.
IndusCivilization
BuddhistSculpture The most remarkable of them all is the highly polished monolithic lioncapital found at
Sarnath,whichisnowtheEmblemoftheGovernmentofIndia.Itrepresentsfourroaring
GuptaSculpture
lions back to back facing the four cardinal directions. The round abacus is decorated with
MedievalSchoolofSculpture fourdharmachakrasor wheels of law, alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a
ModernIndianSculpture lion,allcarvedwithmasterlyskill.Theabacusissupportedbyabellshapedbaseconsisting
ofalotuswithdharmachakra,whichperhapssymbolizedthevictoryofrighteousnessover
physical force. The superb modelling of the figures executed in a realistic manner with a Lioncapitalfrom
3.IndianPainting
certainstylization,isinvestedwithagreatpoweranddignity,andrevealsthearistocratic AshokaStambha,
WallPainting andinternationalnatureofMauryanart. Stone,Sarnath,Uttar
MiniaturePainting Pradesh
ModernPainting

To a distinguished student of art, a close look at the capital will be highly rewarding. The four lions on top are
highlyformalisticandstylised.Thiswillbeevidentfromlookingatthemaneofthelionswhichisrepresentedas
littleflameshapedbunchesofhair,notatallnaturallydone,butinastylisedmanner.Again,theupperlipofthe
lionshasbeenshownbythreeincisedlineswhichisformalisedandstylized.Wemustrememberthatitwasonly
Ashokawhostartedmakingextensiveuseofstoneforsculpturesandgreatmonumentswhereastheprevious
traditionconsistedofworkinginwoodandclay.
Acloselookattheanimalsontheabacuswillrevealthattheseanimalsarenotstaticorrigid.Theyhavebeen
verykeenlyandlovinglyobservedinnatureandareverynaturalisticallyrepresented,fulloflife.

ThebullcapitalofAshokafromRampurva,Bihar,alsobelongingtothethirdcenturyB.C.isaninterestingstudy
as it is a mixture of Persian and Indian elements. The lotus capital is entirely formalistic. The motifs on the
abacusarebeautifuldecorativeelementsliketherosette,palmetteandtheacanthusornaments,noneofthem
Indian.
However, the crowning element of the bull capital, that is the bull proper, is a masterpiece of Indian
BullCapital, craftsmanship,showingahumpedbull,wellmodelled,withitssoftfleshbeautifullyrepresented,withitsstrong
fromRampurva,Bihar legs,sensitivenostrilsandtheearscockedasifitwerelistening.
AtDhauli,inOrissa,thereisamasterlyrepresentationofanelephantdepictedasifemergingfromarockwhichhasbeenso
cut that it resembles the front part of an elephant including the head and trunk etc. Unfortunately, it is in a sad state of
preservation, nevertheless, it is interesting as almost the first attempt at carving a colossal animal figure out of a rock or a
boulder.Thisrepresentationofananimalisintheindigenoustraditionofthecountry.
Excellent specimens of the Mauryan craftsmanship in fashioning the human figure are provided by the colossal statues
ofYakshasandYakshis,thedeitiesoffertilityandabundance.TheYakshi.
fromPatnaMuseumisastrikingexampleof3rd2ndcenturyB.C.,fashionedbyagiftedsculptor.Thefigurewearingelaborate

jewelleryandaheavyundergarment,thoughmassiveandboldinitsexecution,portraysinagrandmanner,theIndianidealof
femininebeautyinherfullbreasts,slenderwaistandbroadhips.ThesculptorinIndiatookdelightinfashioninghisbeautiful
creations in poetic or visual metaphors in preference to direct observation. The surface of this lovely figure bears the typical
lustrouspolishoftheperiod.
AnotherstrikingexampleofMauryanartinthe3rdcenturyB.C.isthehandsometorsoofamalefigurefromLohanipur.The
modelling of the figure executed in a realistic manner, is invested with a wonderful vitality. It probably represents a Jain Chauribearer(Yakshi),Lime
TirthankaraoraSaviouroftheDigambarasect. Stone,Didarganj,Bihar
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AfterthedeclineoftheMauryanempire,theSungassucceededtopowerincirca185B.C.Theyruledthecentraland
easternpartsofNorthernIndia.Theirnativestyle,distinguishedbyitssimplicityandfolkappealisbestrepresentedin
monolithicfreestandingsculpturesofYakshasandYakshis,discoveredfromGwaliorandMathuraandthefragments
of the beautifully carved gate and railings of the Buddhist stupa at Bharhut, now preserved in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta.ThenarrativeartofBharhut,depictingJatakasofBuddha'spreviousbirthinsculptures,thedecorativeartof
SanchiandtheJainStupaofMathurabelongtothesametradition.Theyallhaveanechoofwoodconstructionand
thestyleofthesculpturesseemsrelatedtocarvinginwoodorivory,basicallytheexploitationandelaborationofaflat
surface,governedbythelawoffrontalityasdistinctfrom'perspective'presentation.Whetheritistherepresentationof
Buddhabyhislotusfeet,anemptythrone,apairofflywhisksorthetriratnasymbol,orthenativityofMayaDeviby
thetwoelephantselegantlygivinganAbhishekaorbathtothenewborn,pouringwaterfromthekalashaorjars,the
languageemployedbytheartististhatofsymbols.
WorshipoftheBodhiTree,Bharhut,
MadhyaPradesh
WhentheartistvisualisesaYakshi,thenaturespirit,orthefertilitysymbolSuraSundari,theCelestialbeauty,hereyebrowsarelikethearchofthebow,her
eyesacurvedfish,herlipsalotuspetal,herarmsanelegantcreeper,herlegstaperinglikethetrunkofanelephantoraplantaintree.Theallegianceofthe
artists is to what he considers reality in a dream or a poetic metaphor. And it is this visualised, idealised image that he hopes and strives to present most
faithfully, among the several deities of fertility and other scenes sculptured on the railing pillars of Bharhut. The figure of Chulakoka Devta is a notable
specimenofSungaartrepresentingitsindigenouscharacterandfolkquality.Shestandsgracefullyonanelephantwithherarmsandonelegentwinedaround
afloweringtree,assheisatreegoddess.Theprofusejewelleryandthemodeofwearingtheundergarmentandtheheaddressdemonstratethefeminine
fashionoftheperiod.ThefiguresuggestsacertainelegancewhichwefindwithgreaterexuberanceinthelaterKushansculpture.Theinscribedlabelather
rightside,givesusthenamesoftheYakshiandalsostatesthatthispillarwasthegiftofAryaPanthka.
ThereareseveralinterestingJatakastories,andBharhutformsatreasurehouseoffables,visuallyrepresented.InthismedallionthegiftoftheJetavanapark
byAnanthaPindika,bycoveringthegroundwithgoldencoinsbeforeitwaspresentedbythemerchantprince,ismostgraphicallyrepresented.
AnothergoodexampleofSungaartofthesecondcenturyB.C.isthejovialfigures,thedwarfishYakshafromthePithalkhoracavesinCentralIndia,carryinga
bowlofabundanceonhishead.Thecarefreebroadsmileonhisfaceandhisrotundbellyindicatethatheisfullysatisfiedinallrespects.Thetwoamulets
strungonhisnecklacewardoffevilspiritsfromhisdevotees.ThebackofhisrighthandbearsaninscriptiongivingthenameofthesculptorasKrishnadasa
whowasagoldsmithbyprofession.GenerallyspeakingIndianartisananonymousart,asthesculptorortheartistneversoughttoglorifyhimself.Healways
gaveofhisbestasahumbleofferingtoGodortohispatron,theking,whowasanimageofGod.

Though it may seem strange, Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too
abstractforthepurpose.TheadherentsoftheBuddhistfaithfollowedtheHinayanapathasameansofattainingsalvation.Buddha'spresenceinearlyIndian
artis,therefore,suggestedbysymbolsliketheBodhitreeunderwhichheattainedenlightenment,thewheeloflaw,hisfootprints,theroyalumbrella,the
stupaandanemptythrone,etc.
ThereliefmedallionfromthefragmentofarailingpillarofthestupaatBharhutdatabletothe2ndCenturyB.C.,showstheworshipoftheBodhitreebyfour
figures.BuddhahadattainedenlightenmentundertheBodhitreeatBodhGaya.HerethetreesymbolizesthepresenceofBuddha.
In the fragment of an architrave from the gateway of the stupa at Bharhut we can observe the great love,
understandingandaffectionthattheearlyIndianartisthadforanimalsandplantswhichhetookpainstostudyin
greatdetail.Oneithersideofthisarchitrave,aremenandelephantsinaction,skillfullyshown,payinghomageto
theBuddha,representedbytheBodhitreeshowninthecentre.
TheKishvakuscontinuedthegreatarttraditionsoftheSatavahanas.Theywereresponsibleforbuildingthestupas
atNagarjunikondaandtheirequallybeautifulcarvings.
ThepowerfulSatavahanaKingsofSouthIndiaweregreatbuildersandfromthe2ndcenturyB.C.to2ndcentury
A.D. they studded their empire with several splendid monuments which were richly embellished. They excavated
cave temples and monasteries along the Western Coast of India and erected several Buddhist stupas. The lavish
carvings on the Sanchi stupa gateway which were also executed during their reign, proclaim the high skill and
technicalproficiencyoftheSatavahanasculptors.Stupaworshipwasanancientformofhonouringthegreatdead.
StupaswerebuiltnotonlytoenshrinerelicsofBuddhaandBuddhistsaints,butalsotocommemorateeventsof
religioussignificance.TheoutstandingexampleofanearlyBuddhiststupabuiltduringthe3rdand1stcenturyB.C.
ispreservedatSanchiinCentralIndia.Itisasolidstructuraldomeraisedonaterraceandsurmountedbyarailed SanchiStupaNo.1,detailofTorana,
pavilion from which rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella. The stupa was originally a mud funerary mound AnimalsWorshippingBodhiTree,Madhya
enshrininginitscorethesacredrelicsoftheBuddhaorhisdisciples,suchashair,bitsofbones,etc.Thepresent Pradesh
stupa at Sanchi was originally constructed during Ashoka's reign but was considerably enlarged and the circum
ambulatoryenclosureaswellastheouterenclosureswasaddedinthe1stcenturyB.C.Thepassageisenclosedby
arailinghavingfourgatewaysfacingthefourdirections.TheBuddhistcarvingsonbothfacesofthearchitravesand
on all sides of the uprights of these gateways are remarkable for their crowded scenes, perspective and pictorial
effectinstone.
InapartoftheEasternGateoftheSanchistupathereisascenedepictingabracketfigureofaVrikshikaorwood
nymph.Inthiswecanseethatthesculptorhasadvancedagreatdealsincehehadcarvedthefrontal,thoughto
acertainextentrigid,humanfigures,inthe3rd2ndcenturyB.C.Thesculptorhassucceededintrulyportraying
herasatreegoddesshangingasitwerefromthebranchesofhertree,withnudityclearlyshownsuggestingthat
sheisafertilitygoddess.Hehasalsosucceededingivingitathreedimensionaleffect,i.e.length,breadth,and
depth by ridding himself of the backslab and by evolving a tribhanga posture (thriceflexed) to bring out the
contoursandthebeautyofthefemalefigure.

The Vessantara Jataka from Goli, belongs to the 1st century A.D., in his previous birth Buddha was Prince
Vessantara,whowasnevertiredofgivingawayeverythinghehadincharity.Anelephantthatassuredprosperity
tohisrealm,andwasconsidereditsmostpreciousobject,waspresentedbythePrincetothepeopleofKalinga
IRTS whosoughttomakeprosperoustheirlandwhichhadsufferedfromadrought.Theinfuriatedpeopleofhisownlpog
SanchiStupaNo.1,Yakshi, ICSETS
kingdominsistedontheKing,hisfather,banishingVessantaratotheforestwithhiswifeandchildren.Thestoryis
MadhyaPradesh atouchingonerecountingthePrincebeingputtoseveretestsbuthasahappyending.
Of a later date, circa first century A.D. and more mature in skill, are the carvings from Karle. Noteworthy are the
Dampati and the Mithuna figures as also the pairs riding the magnificent elephant crowning the pillars forming
imposingcolonnades.Thefiguresaremorethanlifesizeandarerepresentedwithpowerfulandmuscularphysique.
AfamouscarvingdepictstheadorationofthefeetoftheBuddhabyfourwomenandbelongstothesecondcentury
A.D.fromAmravati.Herethecompositionandthedispositionofthelimbsdelineatingthebeautyofthecurvaturesin
form,themoodofintensedevotioncombinedwithbashfulnessandhumilitysonaturalinwomen,markitoutasa

greatmasterpiece.
A relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the second century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene
showingthesubjugationortamingofNalagiri,amadelephantletlooseontheBuddhainthestreetsofRajagrihaby
his wicked cousin, Devadatta. The great commotion and anxiety caused by the rush of the mad elephant at the
Buddha is forcefully brought out and thereafter the furious animal is shown calm and kneeling at the feet of the
Master. TamingofNalagiriElephant,Amaravati,
StateMuseum,Chennai,TamilNadu
ThereisarichlysculpturedslabfromtheBuddhiststupawhichonceexistedatAmravati.AnotherremarkableexampleoftheelegantstyleofAmravatiinthe
2ndcenturyA.D.isseeninthebeautifulrailingcrossbar.Thesubject,treatedhereisthepresentationofPrinceRahultohisfather,theBuddha,whenthe
latterpaidavisittohisfamilyinhisformerpalace.ThepresenceofBuddhaisheresymbolisedbytheemptythrone,hisfootprints,thewheelofthelawand
thetriratnasymbol.Ontherightarehisfollowerscladinrobesandontheleft,theinmatesofthepalace.Inthedistance,behindthecurtain,areseenan
elephant,ahorse,andattendants.ThecoynessoftheyoungPrincetryingtohidehisfacebehindthesideofthethroneandextendinghisfoldedhandsin
salutation,thedelicatedelineationofthedifficultposesofthekneelingfiguresworshippingtheBuddha,themagnificentexecutionofthecrowdedcomposition
inthreedimension,allspeakvolumesforthesculptorwhofashionedthismasterpiecewithawonderfulpictorialeffect.
he Ayaka or cornice beam with a sequence of subjects is a typical example of the art from Nagarjunikonda. The qualities already seen at Amravati, as for
examplementionedinthepreviouspara,aretobefoundinabundanceinthis.ThebeamhasbeendividedintorectanglesdisplayingscenesfromtheJataka
talesinterspersedwithlovingcoupleswithinsmallcompartmentsmadebythespacingpillars.Thereisamultitudeofhumanityrepresented,palacewarand
lovingscenesrepresentingbothmaleandfemalefiguresinavarietyofanimatedpostures.Theartistnowdisplayscompletemasteryoverthehumanformthat
hehasachievedgraduallyoverthecenturies.Thefiguresarefulloflifeandmovementexecutedwithconsummateskillbasedonobservinglifeinreality.
AfterAlexander'sinvasionofIndiain326B.C.,theIndoGreek,IndoScythianandKushankingsruledoveritsnorthwestern
territoriesandundertheirpatronageemergedadistinctstyleofsculpture,popularlyknownastheGrecoRoman,Buddhistor
Gandhara art. It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Greek and Roman
techniques, modified according to Indian requirements, were employed in fashioning the Gandhara sculpture which truly
representsIndiancultureinaWesterngarb.ThesubjectmattertreatedispredominantlyBuddhist.Itsareaextendedfrom
TakshilainIndiatotheSwatValleyinPakistanandnorth wardstoareasinAfghanistan.
ThefirstcenturyoftheChristianera'srevolutionarychange,hadfarreachingeffects,notonlyontheartofIndia,butalsoon
theartisticdevelopmentofBuddhistcountriesofAsia.Buddhawhowashithertodesignatedonlybyasymbol,wasconceived
inhumanform.Hispersonwasgivensomeofthe32suspiciousbodilysignsassociatedwiththeMahapurushalakshana,such
astheprotuberanceoftheskull,thehairknot,bindibetweentheeyebrowsandelongatedears.Thischangecameaboutasa
resultofthenewchangesthathadcreptintothereligiousoutlookofBuddhismduetotheinfluenceoftheDevotionalSchool
of Hindu Philosophy, requiring the worship of personal gods. It must have exercised profound influence on the religious
approach of the masses towards Buddhism. The image becomes henceforth the main element of sculpture and worship.
Possibly,theemergenceoftheimageofBuddhainGandharaandinMathurawasaparalleldevelopment.Ineachcase,itwas
producedbythelocalartistcraftsmenworkinginthelocaltradition.AtMathuraitclearlyemergesfromtheYakshatradition.
TheGandharaimagemightseemtoresembleApolloinsomeextraneousformsanddoeslookcharacteristicallyGrecoRoman HeadofBuddha,Gandhara
in drapery, but even there most of the images represent Buddha as seated in the typically Indian Yogic posture, a feature period,2ndcenturyA.D.,Uttar
completelyunknowntotheHellenistictraditionofart. Pradesh
ThereliefpanelshowingBuddha'sGreatDepartureisafineexampleofGandharaartofthe2ndcenturyA.D.Forsakinghiswife,childandfuturekingdomin
thequestofeternalbliss,princeSiddharthaisshownridingawayonhighfavouritehorse,Kanthaka,whosehoofsareliftedbytwo Yakshasto prevent the
soundbeingheardbyhisfamily.HisgroomChhandala,holdstheroyalumbrellaoverhishead.Mara,theEvilone,alongwithacoupleofhissoldiersandthe
city
goddessareurgingthePrincetoabandonhispiousintention.Thisincident,whichwasaturningpointinthelifeofGautama,iseffectivelyportrayed.
AnothertypicalexampleofGandharaartof3rdcenturyA.D.isthefigureofastandingBodhisattava.Hisrighthandisshowninthegestureofprotection.Heis
wearingarichturban,astringofamuletsacrosshisbody,andstrappedsandalsonhisfeet.ThepedestalcontainsapairofCorinthianpillars.Theathleticfigure
wearingamoustache,theheavydraperyfoldsofthegarmentsandthestrappedsandalallrevealtheGrecoRomaninfluence.
TheKushans,whocamefromCentralAsia,ruledovervastterritoriesofthenorthfromthe1sttothe3rdcenturyA.D.
Duringtheirregime,Mathura,just80milesawayfromDelhi,wasthrobbingwithgreatartisticactivity,anditsworkshops
evencateredtotheoutsidedemandsforsculpture.NowiconsofBrahmanicalgodsandgoddessesandBuddhistandJain
divinities, which characterized the subsequent evolution of Indian art were produced experimentally. Some magnificent
portraitstudiesoftheKushanemperors,togetherwithseveralnoblemenandwomenwereexecutedduringtheperiodin
thecharacteristicredandredspeckledsandstoneofMathura.
TheBuddhistreligiongreatlyflourishedunderthepatronageofKushanemperors,andseveralimagesoftheBuddhaand
BodhisattavaswereproducedaftertheearlierYakshatypes.Here,wemaypointoutthedifferencebetweenaBuddhaand
Bodhisattava.Buddhaisonewhohasattainedtheenlightenmentofsupremeknowledge,whiletheBodhisattavaisstilla
candidateforit.AtypicalexampleoftheimageofBuddha,asitwasevolvedbytheKushansculptorinthe2ndcentury
A.D.showshimseatedcrossleggedonalionthrone,undertheBodhitree,withhisrighthandinthegestureofassuring
protection,whiletheleftisplacedonthethigh.Theeyesarewideopenandtheprotuberanceontheskullisindicatedbya
single curl coiled to the left. The hands and feet are marked with auspicious symbols. Two flywhisk bearing celestials,
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standing on either side, are shown above. This type of image of the Buddha reached perfection in the Gupta age, three
centurieslater. SeatedBuddha,Stone,Mathura,
UttarPradesh
Fairmaidens,ingracefullyflexedposturesengagedinmakingtheirtoiletorindanceandmusic,oringardensportsandotherpastimes,createdbythemaster
craftsmenofMathura,areaglowingtributetotheirhighartisticskillandingenuityintheportrayaloffemininebeautyinallitssensuouscharm.Amongthe
severalbeautifullycarvedrailingpillars,whichonceadornedastupaatMathura,thesethreearethemostfamousones.Theoneontherightshowsalovely
damselholdingabirdcageinherrighthand,fromwhichshehasletlooseaparrotwhohasperchedonhershoulder.Theparrotisnarratingtoherthesweet
andlovingwords,whichherloverspokethenightbefore,andlisteningtothem,sheisfeelingamused.Inthecenterisacharminglady,standinggracefully

withherleftlegcrossedinfront,settlingherheavynecklacewithherrighthand.Theladyontheleftholdsabunchofgrapesinherlefthand.Shehasplucked
agrapeandisholdingitinherrighthand,luringtheparrot,perchesonherrightshouldertorepeattoherthewordsofherlover.Inthebalconiesabove,from
theleftitcanbeseen,aloverofferingacupofwinetohisladylove,thesecondisofferingaflowerandtheoneontherightholdingthetoilettrayisassisting
his beloved in her makeup. These figures, though appearing nude, are draped in diaphanous lower garments. They stand on crouching dwarfs, probably
symbolisingthemiseriesoftheworld,whicharestampedoutbythecharmofafairmaiden.
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GuptaSculpture
Resources VisualArt GuptaSculpture

IndusCivilization
TempleArchitecture
ModernArchitecture ThefoundationoftheGuptaempireinthe4thcenturyA.D.marksthebeginningofanotherera.TheGupta
monarchs were powerful upto the 6th cenutry in North India. Art, science and literature flourished greatly
2.IndianSculpture during their time. The iconographic canons of Brahmanical, Jain and Buddhist divinities were perfected and
standardised,whichservedasidealmodelsofartisticexpressionforlatercenturies,notonlyinIndiabutalso
IndusCivilization
beyonditsborder.Itwasanageofallroundperfectionindomesticlife,administration,literature,asseenin
BuddhistSculpture the works of Kalidasa, in art creations and in religion and philosophy, as exemplified in the widespread
GuptaSculpture Bhagavatacult,whichidentifieditselfwithanintensivecultofbeauty.
MedievalSchoolofSculpture With the Gupta period India entered upon the classical phase of sculpture. By the efforts of the centuries,
ModernIndianSculpture techniques of art were perfected, definite types were evolved, and ideals of beauty were formulated with
precision.Therewasnomoregropinginthedark,nomoreexperimentation.Athoroughintelligentgraspof
3.IndianPainting the true aims and essential principles of art, a highly developed aesthetic sense and masterly execution by
skilledhandsproducedthoseremarkableimageswhichweretobetheidealanddespairoftheIndianartistsof
WallPainting subsequentages.TheGuptasculpturesnotonlyremainedmodelsofIndianartforalltimetocomebutthey
MiniaturePainting alsoservedasidealsfortheIndiancoloniesintheFarEast.
ModernPainting

In the Gupta period all the trends and tendencies of the artistic pursuits of the proceeding phases reached their
culminationinaunifiedplastictraditionofsupremeimportanceinIndianHistory.Guptasculpturethusisthelogical
outcomeoftheearlyclassicalsculptureofAmravatiandMathura.ItsplasticityisderivedfromthatofMathuraand
itselegancefromthatofAmravati.YetaGuptasculptureseemstobelongtoaspherethatisentirelydifferent.The
Guptaartistseemstohavebeenworkingforahigherideal.Aneworientationintheattitudetowardsartisnoticed
in the attempt to establish a closer harmony between art and thought, between the outer forms and the inner
intellectualandspiritualconceptionofthepeople.
TheartofBharhut,Amravati,SanchiandMathuracamecloserandclosermeltingintoone.Inthecomposition,itis
thefemalefigurethatnowbecomesthefocusofattractionandnaturerecedesintothebackground,butindoingso
itleavesbehinditsunendingandundulatingrhythminthehumanform.Thehumanfigure,takenastheimage,is
thepivotofGuptasculpture.Anewcanonofbeautyisevolvedleadingtotheemergenceofanewaestheticideal.
Thisidealisbaseduponanexplicitunderstandingofthehumanbodyinitsinherentsoftnessandsuppleness.The
softandpliantbodyoftheGuptasculpturewithitssmoothandshiningtexture,facilitatesfreeandeasymovement,
andthoughseeminglyatrestthefigureseemstobeinfusedwithanenergythatproceedsfromwithin.Thisistrue
notonlyoftheimagesofdivinebeings,Buddhist,BrahmanicalandJainbutalsoofordinarymenandwomen.Itis
the sensitiveness of the plastic surface that the artist seeks to emphasise and for this all superfluities, such as
elaborate draperies, jewellery, etc., that tend to conceal the body, are reduced to the minimum. The wet or
VishnuAnantasheshashayee, transparent clinging drapery hence became the fashion of this age. But the sensuous effect of these draperies
VishnuTemple,Deogarh,Uttar especially in the case of female figures, was restrained by a conscious moral sense, and nudity as a rule was
Pradesh eliminated from Gupta sculpture. The great artistic creations of the period were invested with sweet and soft
contours,restrainedornamentationanddignifiedrepose.UnderthepatronageoftheGuptas,thestudiesofMathura
andSarnathproducedseveralworksofgreatmerit.ThoughHindubyfaith,theyweretolerantrulers.
ThemagnificentredsandstoneimageoftheBuddhafromMathuraisamostremarkableexampleofGuptaworkmanshipdatableto
the5thcenturyA.D.ThegreatMaster,inallhissublimity,ishereshownstandingwithhisrighthandinabhayamudra,assuring
protection,andtheleftholdingthehemofthegarment.Thesmilingcountenancewithdowncasteyesisrobedinspiritualecstasy.
Therobecoveringbothshouldersisskilfullyrepresentedwithdelicatelycoveredschematicfoldsandclingstothebody.Theheadis
coveredwithschematicspiralcurlswithacentralprotuberanceandtheelaboratehalodecoratedwithconcentricbandsofgraceful
ornamentation.

ThefinishedmasteryinexecutionandthemajesticserenityofexpressionoftheimageofBuddhacametobeadoptedandlocally
modifiedbySiam,Cambodia,Burma,Java,CentralAsia,ChinaandJapan,etc.,whenthesecountriesadoptedtheBuddhistreligion.
TheimageofthestandingBuddhaisanexcellentexampleofGuptaartinitsmaturityfromSarnath.Thesoftlymouldedfigurehas
its right hand in the attitude of assuring protection. Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the
fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated. The perfect execution of the figure matched by its serene spiritual expression is
trulyworthyofthesublimebeing.
StandingBuddha,
Sarnath,UttarPradesh
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Sarnathintroducesnotonlyadelicacyandrefinementofformbutalsoarelaxedattitudebybendingthebodyinthecaseofthestandingfigure,slightlyonits
ownaxis,thusimpartingtoitacertainlithenessandmovementincontrasttothecolumnarrigidityofsimilarMathuraworks.Eveninthecaseoftheseated
figure, the slender physiognomy conveys a feeling of movement, the body, closely following the modelling in all its subtle nuances. The folds have been
discardedaltogetheranindicationofthedraperyonlysurvivesinthethinlinesonthebodysuggestingtheedgesofthegarment.Thefoldsthatfallapartare
given,again,afirmlymuslinliketexture.ThebodyinitssmoothandshiningplasticityconstitutestheprincipalthemeoftheSarnathartists.
TheculminationofthesecharacteristicsseeninthissublimeimageoftheMasterrepresentedintheactofturningtheWheelofLawisoneofthemasterly
creations of Gupta classical sculpture. The image is carved in Chunar sandstone and has a surface texture of shining smoothness. The Master is shown as
seatedinVijraparyankawiththehandsheldnearthebreastinDharmachakrapravartanaMudra(thegestureofPreaching).Asubtledisciplinepermeatesthe
entire figure, physically as well as mentally. This is evident as much in the smooth and rhythmic treatment of the body as in the ethereal countenance
suggestiveofamindabsorbedandinsereneenjoymentofspiritualbliss.Apurelydecorativebackgroundissuppliedbythethrone,lintelwithmakaraends,and
a circular nimbus (Prabha) exquisitely carved with a broad foliated ornament within beaded borders. The decorative prabhas, it should be noted here, are
characteristicalsoofMathuraimages.
DuringtheGuptaperiodthecharacteristicelementsoftheIndiantempleemergedandtheplasticformsbegan
to be used admirably as an integral part of the general architectural scheme. The stone carving from the
temples at Deogarh and those from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are excellent specimens of figure
sculpture in their decorative setting. The large panel of Sheshashayi Vishnu from
theDeogarhtemple,representingtheSupremebeingslumberingwakefullyontheserpentAnanta,thesymbol
of eternity, in the interval between the dissolution of the universe and its new creation, is a magnificent

example.
ThefourarmedVishnuisreclininggracefullyonthecoilsoftheAdisesha,whose seven hoods form a canopy

overhiscrownedhead.HisconsortLakshmiismassaginghisrightlegandtwoattendantfiguresstandbehind
her. Various gods and celestials are hovering above. In the lower panel, the two
demons Madhu and Kaitabha, in an attacking attitude, are challenged by the four personified weapons of DetailVishnuAnantasheshashayee,Vishnu
Vishnu.Thewholecompositionfashionedwithamasterlyskill,breathesanatmosphereofserenecalmandan Temple,deogarh,UttarPradesh
agitatedtension,makingitasuperbpieceofart.
A magnificent representation of Vishnu belongs to the Gupta period, 5th century A.D., and comes from Mathura. The typical gown, thevanamala the
charmingstringofpearlstwirledroundtheneck,thelongandelegantyagnopavitaareallcharacteristicofearlyGuptawork.
GangaandYamuna,twolifesizedterracottaimages,originallyinstalledinnichesflankingthemainstepsleadingtotheupperterraceoftheShivatempleat
Ahichhatra.belongtotheGuptaperiod4thcenturyA.D.Gangastandsonhervehicle,themakara.andYamunaonthecacchap.Kalidasmentionsthetworiver
goddessesasattendantsofShivaandthisoccursasaregularfeatureoftemplearchitecturefromtheGuptaperiodonwards,themostnotableexamplebeing
thedoorjambsoftheBrahmanicaltempleofDeogarh.Clayfigurines(Terracottas)havegreatvalueassourcesofsocialandreligioushistory.InIndia,theart
of making figurines of baked clay is of great antiquity as we have already seen at Harappa and Mohenjodaro where terracottas have been found in large
numbers.

TheHeadofShivaisanelegantexampleofGuptaterracottas,depictedwithmattedlocks,tiedinaprominentandgracefultopknot.Theexpressiononthe
faceisnoteworthyandboththefigures,ofShivaaswellasParvati,aretwoofthemostcharmingspecimensfromAhichhatra.
The Head of Parvati with the third eye and crescent mark on the forehead. Her hair is beautifully arranged in spiral alakalocks, with braid fastened by a
garlandandadornedbyafloralboss.SheiswearingaroundearringwiththeSwastikamarkonit.
TheVakatakaswereparamountintheDeccan,contemporarywiththeGuptasintheNorth.Thehighwatermarkofperfectioninartachievedintheirregion
canbebestseeninthelatercavesatAjanta,theearlyonesatElloraandthoseatAurangabad.
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Resources VisualArt MedievalSchoolofSculpture

IndusCivilization
BuddhistArchitecture AnotherexcavatedcaveaboutahundredyearslateristhemagnificentprayerhallorChaitya,atKarleinthePoona
TempleArchitecture district.Thistoohasbeenexcavatedfromthelivingrockandisunparalleledforitsloftyandelevatedimpression.The
sizeistrulystupendous,124'x461/2'x45'.Withwellproportionedgreatandbulkypillars,carryingcapitalsofgreat
IndoIslamicArchitecture originalityholdingupavaultedroofthathasrealraftersoftimberinsertedintoit,aribbinginheritedandcopiedfrom
ModernArchitecture woodenstructure.Thecolumnsarestrongandbulky,surmountedbysculpturedcapitals.Inthefardistancethereis
astupawithawoodenumbrellaontopandastonishinglytheoriginalwoodhassurvivedunharmedtothisdate.
2.IndianSculpture Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more tending towards
IndusCivilization ornamentation, creating highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such as half
BuddhistSculpture human,halfmonsters,etc.
GuptaSculpture The characteristic of this new form of style of art is the difference with classical art in attitude, if not in skill and
MedievalSchoolofSculpture aptitude.Lovelinessandidealisationarestilltheartist'spassionastheywereforartistsintheearlyclassicalperiod,
ModernIndianSculpture but love of the ornate, decorative details is now dominant over classic simplicity. There is more complication,
ornamentationandenrichment.ThereisanerroneousviewthattheIndianartistwasastrictconformistwiththe
ruleslaiddownintheshilpasastrasspecifyinghowthegodsoftheIndianpantheonaretobeshowninimages.One
3.IndianPainting lookatthevarietyandindividualityofIndiansculpturewillclearlydemonstratethatasstyleswentondevelopingthe
WallPainting sculptorsfrequentlydepartedfromthetextsandruleslaiddown,anddelightedinthosedeparturesandtheliberties
MiniaturePainting theytookwiththebodiesofhumansandevenofgodsandgoddesses.
ModernPainting

Thiswillbeabundantlyclearifwecompareanytwoimagesofagivendeity,suchastheBuddhaimage.Thesculptorhadattainedsufficientdexterity,maturity
andskilltobeabletoinfuseacertainindividualityinhisworkofart,astampofhisownlikesanddislikestastesoftheperiod,hisownpredilections.Thisisa
signofmaturity,oflife,ofdynamism.Strictuniformity,ingenuityandconformitywiththeruleslaiddownintheshilpasastratextsduringtheageswouldbea
suresignofthedecadenceofthisgreatartinthecountry.Ifarthastogrow,ithastoreacttothechangingcircumstancesofdifferenttimes,inclinations,
tastesandasitisthebusinessofart,goodarttoreflectcontemporarysocietywithitsdifferenttaste,stylealsohastochange.Onelookatthemagnificentart

ofIndiansculpture,andsculpturethroughtheagesinanyMuseumwouldsatisfytheinquisitivemindofthisattitudefromagetoage.Themostremarkable
achievementofthenewartistofthisagewastocontributeadreamy,floatingqualitytothefiguresoftheflyinggodsandfreermovementthanintheclassical
period on the other hand there is a tendency towards increasing elegance and slenderness of form. There is a new beauty in women. The hips are more
slender,thewaistmoresupple,thelegslonger.Thefacestillcontinuedtobestylizedandthebreastsfullandfirm.Thewomanisnolongerthemothergoddess
butadivinecharmer.
Onesuchsuperbexampleofthesculptor'sartisalovelyfigureofVrikshika,oracelestialdamsel,fromGyraspur,inGwalior,
standinginagracefullyflexedpose,againstatree.Sheisdeckedinornamentsandattiredinafinelypatterneddraperywhich
producesaneffectofrightlydecoratedsilk.Hercoiffureisartisticallyarranged.Theringletesonherforeheadandthegentle
smile playing on her lips add to the charm of the lovely lady. The delicate delineation of the graceful contours have been
chiselledwithsuchmasterlyskillbythegiftedsculptorthatwhatwearelookingatisnotrough,hardandcoldstone,butsoft,
living,pulsatingform.

TheGurjaraPratiharashadavastkingdomthatembracedtheterritoryofGujarat,Rajasthan,UttarPradesh.Theirruleinthe
8th,9thand10thcenturiessawagreatculturalrenaissance.Anartisticmovementofgreatimportanceflourishedunderthe
aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi and they are credited with having built the seven monolithic pagodas, the rathas, in
Mahabalipuram.SomeoftheoutstandingsculpturesthatarecreditedtotheirpatronagearetheMahishasuramardiniinrelief,
Girigovardhanapanel,Arjuna'spenanceortheDescentoftheGanga,TrivikramaVishnu,GajalakshmiandAnatasayanam.In
theannalsofIndianartthereisperhapsnobetterexampleoftherepresentationoftheElephantthanthatintheArjuna's
DescentofGanga,Detail,
penancescene.Thecelestialworld,thetemporalworldaswellastheanimalworldhasbeenshownwithmasterlyskill.
Mahabalipuram,
TamilNadu
Apartfromthecelestialstherearehunters,sages,disciples,wildanimalslikethelion,tiger,elephantandbear.Therepresentationoftheseanimalsisvery
naturalisticandshowsdelightfuldelineationofline.Theradiationofpeaceandcalmbythesagesisreflectedinameditatingcataroundwhichanumberofrats
arefrolicking.
ClosebytotheSouthWestoftheGaneshaRathaandbehindArjuna'spenanceisthecaveknownasVarahamandapa,afinespecimenofitstype.Thehallat
thefronthastwolionpillarsandtwopilastersandbeyondthis,inthecenter,isthecellguardedbytwoDwarpalas.OneofthepanelsrepresentsVaraharaising
theEarthfromtheocean,whereinshewassubmerged.Aremarkablefeatureisthatthesnoutoftheboarhasbeenmodelledwithgreatcareandtheheadof
theanimalhasbeenhandledwithsuchdexteritythatitblendsinanaturalwaywiththehumancontouroftherestofthefigureinthepanel.Surya,Brahma,
RishisandthegoddessPrithviareshownsurroundingandadoringVaraha.TherightfootofVaraharestsonthehoodsoftheNagakingSesha.Thedelineation
oflotusleavesandflowersandripplessuggestswater.
In all these examples the vigour of the composition is unique. The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form. The thin and
elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure. The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and
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shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude. The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and
modelling.Thefrontofthetorsoisalmostflat,andtheornamentationssimpleinhighrelief.Yetitisinfusedwithacertainamountofvigourandfluidgrace.
AgreatmasterpieceisthecarvingfromMahabalipuramshowingthegreatgoddessDurgaengagedinafiercebattlewiththebuffaloheadeddemonaidedby
theirrespectivearmies.Ridingonherlionsheisrushingatthepowerfuldemonwithgreatcourage.Heismovingaway,yetwatchingforamomenttoattack.
Itrepresentstheeternalstrugglebetweentheforcesofgoodandevil,inwhichthegoodultimatelytriumphs.Thedramaticmovement,emotionalintensityand
visualrealismnoticedinthissculptureareworthyofamastercraftsman.LaterPallavasculptureshowsgreaterdetailsofworkmanship,lighteranatomyand
moredevelopedartisticfinishing.ThehighandcylindricalcrownofVishnu,heavydrapery,thickcordatthewaistwithprominentloopsandtassels,andthe
modeofwearingtheundergarmentareallPallavacharacteristicsworthyofnote.

Inthemiddleofthe8thcenturytheRashtrakutaswrestedpowerfromtheChalukyas.TheycreatedthegreatestwonderofmedievalIndianartintheirKailasa
templeatEllora.Quarriedoutofahillandsolidrocks,itissculpturedonagrandscale.TheboldandmagnificentcarvinginthistempleshowstheRashtrakuta
styleoftallandpowerfullybuiltfigures,reflectingwithspiritualandphysicalpoise.ThebeautifularchitecturalrocksculpturefromCaveNo.29atEllorashows
the marriage of Siva and Parvati. Siva holding the hand of the bashful Parvati occupies the centre of the composition. To the right Brahma, the creator, is
activelyengagedinstirringuptheflamesofthesacredfire.TheparentsofParvatistandbehindhertooffertheirdaughtertothegreatgod.Anumberofgods
assembled to witness the function are shown hovering above the principal figures. The dignified grace of the divine couple and the gentle solemnity of the
occasionhavebeenportrayedbythesculptorwithamasterlyskill.
AnothermagnificentsculptureatElloraisapaneldepictingRavanashakingmountKailasa.Inthisremarkablescenethequiveringof
themountaincanbefelt,andParvatiisshowngreatlyagitated,turningtoSiva,graspinghishandinfearwhilehermaidtakesto
flightbuttheGreatGodisunmovedandholdsonfast,pressingdownthemountainwithhisfoot.Thelowerhalfofthecomposition
exhibitsRavanaexertingalltheforceofhistwentyarmsagainstthemountain.
AclassicpanelshowingthekingoftheNagaandhisqueen,belongingtoAjanta,5thcenturyA.D.showsthemseatedonathrone
attendedbyahandmaiden.ThesculpturalworkatAjantameritsasgreatattentionastheworldfamouswallpaintings.
TheVakatakatraditionsarederivedfromtheearlierSatavahanawhichcanbeclearlyseeninthemanycarvingsofAjantaandinthe
paintedandcarvedfiguresatAjanta.Itisonlythedecorativeelements,chieflycomposedofpearlsandribbons,socharacteristicof
theGuptaVakatakaage,thatdistinguishesthemfromthesimpler,butnotablesculptureofAmravati.
Sculpture,Ravanashaking
MountKailash,Kailash
Temple,Ellora,
Maharashtra
ThecaveshrineatElephantaisanothergreatmonumentoftheRashtrakutas,whichcontainsthefamousMahishamurti.
ThethreeheadsemanatingfromoneandthesamebodyrepresentthreedifferentaspectsofLordShiva.Thecentralface
withacalmanddignifiedappearanceshowshimasthecreator,theoneontheleft,withaseverelook,portrayshimasthe
destroyerandthethird,totheright,withacalmandpacificexpression.
TheMightyCholaswhosucceededthePallavasandruledoverSouthIndiafromthe9thto13thcenturiesA.D.createdthe
greattemplesatTanjavur,GangaiKondoCholapuram,Darasurama,whichareaveritabletreasurehouseoftheirart.

AttheBrihadesvaratempleatTanjavurwhichisthemostmatureandmajesticoftheCholatemples,sculpturetherehas
attained a new maturity which is evident in the gracefully modelled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, delicate
ornamentation,pleasingfacesandacertainfreshness,allofwhichaddcharmtothework.Cholaartnotonlyinfluenced
theartofCeylon,butittravelledasfarawayasJavaandSumatra.

Trimurti,ElephantaCaves,
Maharashtra
AgoodexampleofCholacraftsmanshipinthe11thcenturyisthereliefcarvingofSivaasGajsurasamaharamurti.Theirategodis
engaged in a vigorous dance of fierce ecstasy after having killed the elephantdemon, who has given so much trouble to
therishisandhisdevotees.Thehideofthedemonisspreadaloftbythegod,usingitasasortofcover.Devistandsatthelower
rightcornerastheonlyawestruckspectatorofthedivineactofretribution.
The later phase of Chola art, in the 13th century, is illustrated by the sculpture showing Bhudevi or the earth goddess as the
youngerconsortofVishnu.Shestandsinagracefullyflexedattitudeonalotusbaseholdingalilyinherrighthand,whiletheleft
armhangsalonghersideinlolahasta.
The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D. constructed towering temples in central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev
templeatKhajuraho.Theseweresculptedwithhumanrepresentationsofendlessvariety.Thesculptorherepreferredtheslender
tallerfigureswithaconsiderableaccentuationoflineardetails.
A charming specimen of the Chandella art of the 11th century is this figure of a woman writing a love letter. Behind her right
shoulderarethefingernailsmarksinflictedbyherlover,whileembracingher.Recallingthepleasuresofwhichshehadexperienced
Nataraja,Brihadeshvara
inunionwithherloverandlongingforanothermeetingwithhimsheispromptedtowritealoveletter.Oneithersideofherstands
Temple,Thanjavur,
anattendant.
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Equallyfascinatingisthegracefulcelestialbeautyshownstandingunderastylisedmangotree.Holdingamirrorinherhand,sheisapplyinghermakeupand
gettingreadytomeetherlover.Twodiminutivefiguresstandinattendance,carryingthetoiletrequisitesinabagandasatchel.Thissculptureisdatabletothe
11thcenturyA.D.Themagnificence,perfectionofdesignandsculpturalprofusionatKhajurahoisoutstandinginIndianArt.Gods,goddesses,apsaras, men
andwomenstandingorseemingtobeinaction,withtheirwelldevelopedandvoluptuousbodies,standliberatedfromtheirframes,toemergeinalivingworld
oftheirown.TheartofKhajurahoisaworldofbeauty.Theloverslockedinanembracewhichisapproximatelycarved,displayathrobbingpassion.Varying
moods are brought into relief by a slight change in the smile, a little difference in expression and in the pose. The sculptures of Khajuraho are such great
masterpiecesofIndiansculpturalartthattheycanbeadmiredbothindividuallyaswellascumulatively.
GreatimpetuswasgiventoartunderthereignofPalarulersinBiharandBengalduringtheperiod730to1110A.D.TheywereBuddhistbyfaith.Theygreatly
encouragedcentresoflearninglikeNalandaandVikramasila,wherethestupasandmonasteriesgaveamplescopeforthesculptor'sexpressionofanartwhich
foundstimulusinreligion.Duringthisperiodartreachedtechnicalperfection.ThePalaStyleismarkedbyslimandgracefulfigures,elaboratejewelleryand
conventionaldecoration.TheirsculpturesfromBihararesomewhatthicksetandheavierintheirgeneralproportionsoflimbsthanthosefromBengal.ThePala
rulershadintimaterelationswithJavawhichareevidentinHinduJavanesesculpture,andpaintingofNepal,Kashmir,BurmaandThailand.
SomeamountofstylisationisnoticedinthelaterphaseofPalaart,butthetraditioniscontinuedundertheSenarulersinthe12th
centuryuntiltheIslamicrulersoverranthecountry.AnexcellentspecimenfromMahanadinWestBengalisthislovelyfigureofthe
personified river goddess Ganga. She stands gracefully under a tree, Kalpataru, on a lotus, holding a watervessel in her hand,
symbolisingprosperityandplenty.Theendsofherscarfdrapedaroundthearms,trailoneitherside.Sheisadornedwithprofuse
jewelleryandwearsalowergarmentreachingtotheankles.Thefigureisexpressiveandtheworkmanshipisofahighorder.
ThekingsoftheEasternGangadynastywhoheldswayinOrissafromthe7thtothe13thcenturieshaveleftmonumentaltemples
atBhubaneswar,Puri,andKonarakwhicharerichlyembellishedwithwealthofsculptures.
Bythemiddleofthe9thcenturyA.D.especiallyinOrissa,theredevelopedaschoolofsculpturewhich,amongotherthings,took
sensuousdelightinthelovelyformsofwomen.Therearenumeroussculpturesofbeautifulfemalefiguresonthefaceofwalls.
TheOrissantemplehasmanysuchrepresentationsofyoungandcharmingcreatureswithaseductivesmile,luxurioushairfullof
jewellery,theyare,calledNayikas.Thereareothersequallybeautiful,lightlycladbuthavingamultitudeofbelts,bracelets,armlets,
necklaces, earrings and hair ornaments. Similar lovely women are seen to appear everywhere as if growing out of trees and
creepers,themselveslikebeautifulflowersandvines,oftenholdingontobranchesoftreesandstandingonfloralornaments.They
Nayika,Lingaraja arenymphs,andspiritsthatliveintreesandshrubsandanimatethem.Whatdistinguishesthemfromearlierspecimensisthatin
Temple,Bhubaneswar, this period they have become exquisitely beautiful girls, mostly underdressed and sometimes absolutely nude. They are shown
Orissa decoratingthewallsandtemplesinOrissa,whichbecomevastforestsofornamentation,crowdedwithflowers,scrollsandelegant
geometricdesign.Mostoftheselovelyladiesstandinvariousdanceposes.
ThefamoustempleatKonarak,wasbuiltbyNarasimhavarmaninthemiddleofthe18thcenturyanddedicatedtoSurya
orthesungod.Ithasbeenconceivedasahugestonechariotonimmensewheels,draggedbysevenrearinghorses.The
temple is now partly preserved. Its presiding deity, the sungod as seen here, is depicted in the typical north Indian
manner,wearingboots,chainmailarmour,holdingalotusineachhand.Heisridingachariotdrivenbysevenhorses.On
eachsidearehistwowives,ChhayaandSuvarchasa,andtheattendantsDandaandPingla.Thefiguresaboveareshooting
arrowstodispeldarkness.

OntheplinthoftheJagmohanaofthetemple,ataheightofabout50feetfromtheground,areinstalledcolossalcelestial
musiciansfacinginalldirections,playingondifferentmusicalinstruments.Thesecelestialmaidensareshownplayingthe
Veena.Themassiveproportionsandpowerfulmodellingofthefigure,andagentlesmileonherface,expressasenseof
harmoniousdelight.
Anothercelestialmaiden,similartotheVeenaplayer,isthisdrummer.Theyareallinpinkcolouredsandstoneofarough
texture.Thesefiguresareofcolossalproportionsyetveryelegantlyandbeautifullycarved.
Suryaridingchariot,Surya
Mandir,Konarak,Orissa
Thereare,besides,serioussceneswhereateacherisshownsurroundedbyhisstudents,inanimatedpostures,fulloflife.
Narasimha,thegreatbuilderoftheKonaraktempleisshownhereonaswinginhisharem,surroundedbybeautifulwomenand
listeningtomusic.
Anothersceneshowshimappreciatingliteratureinanassemblyofpoetspatronisedbyhim.Yetanothershowshistolerancefor
faithsbypresentinghimbeforeSiva,JagannathandDurga.Thereareseveralothersimilarrepresentationsofhislife,andKonarak,
withitsrichsculpture,maybeconsideredastorehouseof13thcenturycultureinOrissa.
The image of Surya from the Sun Temple at Konarak drawn by seven rearing horses, one of which fully caparisoned, is of
monumentalproportions.
The Orissan artist without giving up the conventional lines of grace and vigour, produced images which were faultless in the
perfectionoftheirformandvitality.Theexamplesofthisschoolhavesensuouscharmandbeautyofform.TheMithuna,orapair
ofamorouslovers,glowswiththeexuberancecharacteristicofOrissanart.Theyhavetheeternalsmileofloverswhoareabsorbed
ineachother.Inpointoftimeaswellastechnique,OrissanartculminatesinthefamousSuntempleatKonarak.
ManjiraPlayer,Surya
Mandir,Konarak,Orissa
ThetraditionsofthemarblesculptureofGujaratinWesternIndiaareseenintheprofusionofintricatelycarvedsculptureswhichdecoratetheJaintemplesat
MountAbu,GirnarandPalitana.ThebeautifulimageofthefourarmedVishnu,theHindugodofpreservation,wasfashionedinthe13thcenturyA.D.under
the characteristic attributes, that is the mace, the discus and conch
shell. The hand which hold the lotus is now lost. The weapons are again shown as
personifiedattendantfiguresonthebase.Oneithersideareseentheconventionaldecorativemotifs,andtheminiatureimageofBrahmaandSiva,within
rectangularniches.TheDilwaratemplesatMountAbuaretheoutstandingproductionsofthewesternschoolintheJaintradition.Theyarenotmonumentsof
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temple,especially,isoneoftheworld'smasterpiecesofintricatesculpturalcarvings.
TheHoysalaswereanotherSouthIndiandynastywhoassertedthemselvesintheMysoreregionaboutthebeginningofthe12thcentury.Thetemplesthey
builtatHalebidandBelurlooklikelaceworkinstone.Thedecorationiselaborate,theemphasisbeingmoreonornamentationthanmovementorthegraceof
thehumanbody.Hoysalasculpturesaresomewhatsquatandshort,highlyembellished,oralmostoverloadedwithornamentation,butyetarepleasingto
behold.
A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain
GoverdhanatosavetheinhabitantsofGokulfromthewrathofIndra,wholetloosetorrentialrainstoteachthemalessonfortheir
insolence,inpayinghomagetoMountGoverdhanainsteadofworshippinghim.TheMountainwithitsforestandanimalkingdomis
heldaloftbytheyouthfulKrishnaonhislefthand,shelteringtheentirepopulationofGokul,includingthecows.
Bythistimewehavecomeveryneartotheendofourjourneyandwefindthatinthe13thcenturyA.D.loveforthebeautyof
thehumanfigurehasbeencompletelysmothered.Theartisttakesdelightnomoreinthedepictionofthebeautyofthehandsome
maleorthelovelinessofthefemalebody.Onthecontrarythehumanbodyalmostcompletelydisappearsunderafantasticmassof
decorationandornamentationwhichbecomemoreimportantthanthehumanfigure.
Inthesculptureoftheperiodshowingawomanholdingaflywhiskandotherfigures,wecometothealmosttotaldisappearance
of the body. A few centuries earlier, her lovely figure in sinuous curves, would have been glorified. Now nothing is left of that
beauty.Ornamentationhastrulyrunriot.Thebelt,thenecklaces,thecrown,thearmletsandbraceletseventhetreebehindand
aboveherischangedintoafancyscrollworkofdrapery.
Mohini,Chennakeshava
Temple,Belur,Karnataka
ThelastgreatHinduKingdominSouthIndiawasofVijayanagara.Duringthisregime,fromcirca1336to1565A.D.several
beautifultempleswereerectedatplaceslikeTadpatri,Hampi,Kanchipuram,etc.CarvinginthesetemplesshowtheCholaand
Chalukyanarttraditions.DuringthisperiodrepresentationsinnarrativeformsoftheRamayanaandKrishnaBalLilabecame
favouritethemes.TheVijayanagaraemperorscausedexcellentportraitstobecarvedbythesculptorstoimmortalisethemin
thevicinityoftheirfavouritedeities.
OnesuchfineexampleisofKrishnadevarayaatoneoftheGopurasatChidambaram.Thefinalflickerofthishowever,isseen
intheamazinglyvirilesculptureintitanicproportionscarvedbythesculptorsofTirumylnayak,andtheGopuraandthecourts
ofMeenakshitempleatMadurai.
The17thcenturywasagreatperiodoftitanicworkundertheNayakaofMaduraiandTanjavur.Duringthisperiodtheanimal
motifwithfantasticdetailasseenintheoutstandingsculptureatSrirangamtempleinTrichinapally,maybeseen.Though,
stylised,thisartisfullofvitality.Apairoframpant,furioushorseswhoseheadssupportthepillars,arecarvedwithgreatskill
andvigour.Theridersareshowninrealisticposestryingtocontrolthem.Eachsculptureisrealisticthoughtheconceptionis
fantastic.
Though traditions of stone sculptures continued, no major sculpture movement survived under the Mughal and the other PillarswithHorserider,
MuhammadanrulersUndertheMuhammadanrulersgreatimpetuswasgiventoarchitecture,butsculpturesarerarelyfound MeenakshiSundareshvara
and even those available are products of local chieftains. During the British regime no proper patronage was provided to Temple,Madurai,
sculptorsandthewholetraditionofIndianartalmostcametoastandstill. TamilNadu
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Resources VisualArt ModernIndianSculpture
1.IndianArchitecture The basic characteristics and problems of contemporary Indian Sculpture are very similar to those of contemporary
IndusCivilization painting.Ifanything,itisevenmorealienatedfromthegreatIndiantradition,thoughandevenmorestronglyhinged
BuddhistArchitecture tothemodern,eclectic,internationalconcept.
TempleArchitecture
It began in the academic style, based on midVictorian ideas of naturalism and smugness, and was a legacy of the
IndoIslamicArchitecture British.Thismannerismwasperpetratedinthegovernmentartschoolsandcollegesestablishedaroundthecenturyin
ModernArchitecture Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and elsewhere. The inane achievement of this so called realist or naturalist school never
evenattainedtheheightofrealacademicexcellenceandhasremainedafarcryfromtheiconographic,symbolicaland
religiousidealsofIndiansculpturethroughtheages.
2.IndianSculpture
IndusCivilization And then, when our sculpture was freed of this yoke, towards the 'forties' it looked again as in painting, to the
BuddhistSculpture westernworldforinspiration,resultinginsimilarprocessesofexperimentationandeclecticexercise.Fromthenonthe
storyofcontemporaryIndiansculptureisthestoryofatransitionfromacademismtowelldefinednonobjectivism.
GuptaSculpture
We have been introduced to new and unconventional materials, most certainly in the manner of employing them,
MedievalSchoolofSculpture such as, sheet metal, welded bricabrac wire, plastic, hardware and junk. Here and there, our sculptors may have
ModernIndianSculpture achievedworthwhileresultsintunewiththemilieu,butthisachievementisnotcomparablewiththeresultsattained
inthefieldintheshapeofarenewedinterestinfolkandtribalart.But,largely,thepreoccupationisstillwithshape
and form, polish and texture and midway abstraction. Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the
3.IndianPainting speedorvarietyofpaintingandhasnotarrivedatthelogical'culdesac'whichinthecaseofpaintinghasprovided
WallPainting thenecessaryheightandperspectivetoameaningfulintrospection,whichiscalledthe'Journey'sEnd'isasymbolical
MiniaturePainting paintingthatreachesbeyondtheexplicitpictorialelementsofthework.Thecrouching,gaspingcamelsetagainstan
ariddesertinthetwilighthourshasarelevancetolifeingeneral.
ModernPainting

Nandalal Bose is regarded as the most distinguished pupil of Abanindranath Tagore and his influence was
considerableonmorethanonegenerationofartists.Inthepaintingofawomanintheactofdoing'Pranam'one
seesbothsimplicityanddirectnessofhispictorialismasalsothesignificantimpactonhisworkofthevitalityoffolk
art.
Kshitindranath Majumdar was also a renowned pupil of Abanindranath. The beautiful picture of Spring owes its
inspirationtotheIndianminiatures.Kshitindranathwasknownforhissoftpaletteandthegraceandlyricalqualityof
hisdrawing.Heisalmostuniqueinthisrespect.
Painting:'Womanpluckingflowers'
byGagendranathTagore
JaminiRoywasacontemporaryoftheartistsmentionedabove,buthe,morethananyoneelse,soughtanentirelydifferent
pathofexpression,whichhadatremendousimpactonsubsequentpainters,deeplyinspiredbytheBengalfolktradition.His
imagesandideasasinthispaintingof'Pujarinis'aredirect,singularlystylised,andconceivedinemphaticflatspacesandstrong
lines.

GanganendranathTagoresharedverymuchwiththepaintersoftheIndianRenaissancebut,he,likethedistinguishedpoet
painterRabindranath,wasanindividualistofanextraordinaryorder.Hispaintingshavesomethingconsiderablycommonwith
cubisticapproachasinthisfantasticstudyofthemagician.Hispaintingsaredistinguishedforhisindividualistic,highlydramatic
conceptoflightandshadow.
Painting:'Pujarins'by
JaminiRoy
AbdurRahmanChughtaiwasgreatlyinspiredbytheBengalSchool.ButhewasequallyinfluencedbyPersianthoughtandart,andwiththesetwohe
developedastyleofhisownromanticandpoeticwithflowinglinesandapalettetomatchhisnostalgicmood.
ThestudyofaHeadinanexampleoftheworkofRabindranathTagorewhotooktopaintinginhislateyearsunderanirrepressibleurge.Hisimagescome
forthfromthesubconsciousregions,fromdreamandfantasyandhaveanarchetypalquality.
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K.SreenivasululikeJaminiRoy,wasgreatlymovedbyfolkartandrurallife.Byvirtueofthedirectness,decorativeeffectsandstylisation,hisworkshould
beunderstoodalongwithJaminiRoy's.SreenivasuludrewmuchinspirationfromtheartheritageofSouthIndia,particularlyfromthemuraltraditionof
TanjavurandLepakshi.
With A.A. Almelkar we enter a different phase of contemporary Indian painting. It is still largely inspired, both in technique and figurative, by Indian
miniatureandmuraltradition.Butonecanseetheveryindividualisticapproachtothecompositionalproblemswhichhadmarkedadepartureideologically.
WhatissaidaboveisexemplifiedremarkablyinthissimplepaintingbyK.K.Hebbar.Theraphicsymbolismofthebrideandbridegroom,thelargeuseof
white,thepanelofmusiciansatthebottom,pointaltogetherstronglyatthenewconceptofstructuralorganisation.
We see the full realisation of this concept and a glimpse of its enormous possibilities in Laxman Pai's 'Autumn'. In Pai's vision, man and nature are
inseparable,twoaspectsofmanandnatureintoafantasticamalgamadmirably.Theimageiselementarybuthighlysuggestive.
Paintings from the sixties by J. Swaminathan belongs to a phase of contemporary Indian painting wherein one sees an attempt, again, to rediscover
sourcesofindigenousinspiration.TheTulsiplantthatsproutsfromtheVrindavanagainstasymmetricalpairofconicalrocksisonekindofsucharesultant
imageonwhichSwaminathanhasachievedverysubstantialandindividualisticimagery.
The radiating, iridiscent concept of light by Biren De is another such effort. What Biran De achieves is a vision of
spirituallight,aprimeval,selfemanatingconceptoflight.Thedarkcentre,andtheconcentriceffulgenceemphasises
thisvisionadmirably.
The concept. of the human figure and of landscape has undergone a veritable transformation in the hands of the
contemporaryartist.ApaintingbySailozMookherjee,ofamotherandchildren,isanearlywork.Theemphasisison
thecompositionandtheconcernwiththebasicformalconceptofthefiguresasawholeratherthanonthedetails.
ThepictureofKathakalidancersdoingtheirmakeupbyS.D.Chavdaexemplifieshismeticulousdraughtsmanship.The
strongsinewybodiesofthedancers,theirpostures,areveryablyachieved.Therenderingofthefigureisunerringand
thevariouselementsofthepicturearesoundlydistributed.

Painting:'June70'byBirenDe
K.G. Subramanyan's cockseller carries abstraction of the figure further, and in a way acquires much expressive
power. The prancing cocks, the attenuated man and the cart which carries cocks and the vertical complex of
houses,allthisisdeliberatelysoconceived.
In "Two Figures' Husain reduces the figures to a purely orchestrated concept of colour, in mutual contrast. The
physiognomyisfurtherabstractedwiththebarestofdetails.HusainhaseverbeendeeplymovedbyIndianlifeand
people,particularlybytherusticandpicturesquerurallife.Husainhasbuiltuparemarkablypersonaliconography
overthecourseofyears.

In an early picture of the '50s, Satish Gujral expresses the idea of desolation beautifully by a semisurrealistic
imagery. The gaping emptiness in the background, the suggestion of a man in a state of utter collapse and the
noose,areallpartofthisweirdimagery.
Ganesh Pyne's 'Mother and Child' is not as simple. as it seems. It has an air of fantasy and this is true of his
paintingsingeneral.Thewaythemotherandchildconfronttheviewerandtheintentstareoftheeyesemphasise
Painting:'CockSeller'byK.G.
theinherentmysteryofthepainting.
Subramanyam
Acollageisanorganisationofanassortmentofmaterials,bothconventionalandunconventionaltoproduceanintegratedpictorialconcept.PirajiSagara
usesdismemberedoddsandbitsofoldwoodandcarvingstogetherwithpiecesofmetalandpaint.Theresultisparadoxicallybothmodernandtraditional.
Theworkrelatestoalegendonthesun.
A painting of F.N. Souza, of a landscape of a sprawling complex of buildings. It is highly individualised to suit the artist's structural consideration. It is
familiarbuthasanelementofstrangenessaboutit.
AvinashChandra's'Orchard'goesverymuchfurtherinthesamedirection,almostintotherealmoffantasy.Thesunlikeentitiesfloatinginthesky,the
shapeofthetrees,andtherhythmicclusterofpatternsthatinterplay,arepartofthisfantasy.
There are houses and houses. Most of them are nondescript. But some have character. And here is a house by N.S. Bendre, which has a remarkable
character,aportraitinitself.Bendreworksminutelyemphasisingeverydetailtoachievetheessentialspiritofthisstrangehouse.
For more than a decade and a half Shanti Dave has been painting in a style that is deceptively abstract, as one called 'Snow Shade'. It is no doubt a
pronouncedly nonobjective appearance which is brought about by diligent hard work and by unconventional use of materials, like wax and encaustic,

alongwithtimehonouredoilpaint.Heusesscript,blockswithfolkfiguresetc.toanimatethesurfaceandtocreatethetexture.Finallywhatonefeelsisa
worldwhichisbotholdandnew.
OneofGaitonde'searlyworksisunequivocallynonobjective.Thewidespaceinwhichthestripsofredandothercolouredareasfloathavenomeaning,
symbolicalorexplicitly.Thedimensionispurelyplasticinthiswork,althoughinhisrecentworkonenoticesapositivemetaphysicalelementcreepingin.
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Ramkumar has painted a lively abstract landscape in subtle grey and green. The rhythm of the tones and the
crisscrosslinesmorethansuggestthebasicideaofflight.Ramkumarwasafigurativepaintertobeginwith,then
wenttolandscapeseriouslyfromwhichhenowdistilstheseabstracted,unpeopledflightsintotherealmofnon
objectivity.
Animportantmonumentalworkbytherenownedsculptor,D.P.RoyChowdhury,iscalledthe'TriumphofLabour'.
Thestrongmuscularbodiesofthemenhaulingthework,theirveryanimatedposturesmakethisanextremely
expressivework.InfactitmaybesaidthatMr.RoyChowdhurybelongstotheexpressionisticschool.
Altogetherinadifferentvein,butanequallyexpressiveworkisabustofabuoyantyoungwomanbyRamkinker
Baij. The radiant, youthful face and the ample bosom typify vitality. Sculpturally speaking the texture is highly
expressiveandfullofenergy.
Sculpture,"Triumphoflabour'byD.P.
RoyChowdhury,Delhi
TheinterpretationofaphilosopherbyB.VithalisofaheadwhichiseverythingandVithalresortstoanaccentuationofallphysiognomicaldetails,suchas
thenose,thehalfopeneyes,thelongearlobes,etc.toconveythebasicidea.
The sculptor, Sankho Choudhuri, emphasises the physical attributes in a most vital manner in the sculpture of a woman preening herself. The raised
arms,theflowinglines,theroundedgracefulformadduptotheimageofYouthagain.

Quiteoften,inthecaseofsculpture,thematerialdeterminesthefundamentalformalconceptasinhisbullbyRaghaveKaneria.Fullofenergyandbrute
strength,thebullispoisedtocharge.Thecontoursemphasisemovement.
Anelongatedsculptureof'AMan'byDavierwallacarriestheconceptoffigureinsculpturetoanaltogetherdifferentlevel.Theanimatedfaceandraised
armsgiveitaweird,unearthlycharacter.Thereisanattempttoreducetheessentialstotheminimum.Thecharacterofthemetalisemphasised.
MahendraPandyaconceivesinasculpturethestoneasasolidmasswiththebarestsuggestionofthetwofigures,justenough.Theemphasis,asitshould
beinthecaseofstone,isonmassandvolumeinthisuprightsculpture.
Asimple,pastoralsceneofacoupleanglingbytheriversideisanearlyworkbyHarenDas,whichisratherconventional,unambiguousandexpressively
illustrative.Averycompetentworkinitsstyle.
SunirmalChatterji's'ManaliVillage'isastraightforward,conventionallandscape.Itexploits,withinlimitations,thespecificcharactersoftextureofthe

woodcutmedium.
SomnathHore's'Birth'springsoutofadream.Therefore,theemphasisisonthecombinationofunusualpictorialelements.Theroseitselfisthemost
prominent.Itisanetchingandtheartistexploitsallthepossibilitiesofthemediumsuitabletohistheme.
In'Study3'DipakBanerjimakestheetchingmediumyieldevenmorespecificeffectsinthisprincipallynonobjectivework.Thesharpline,thevariegated
texture,theincision,therelief,havealltheexcellenceofanetching.
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WallPainting
Resources VisualArt WallPainting
IndusCivilization
Paintingisoneofthemostdelicateformsofartgivingexpressiontohuman
TempleArchitecture thoughtsandfeelingsthroughthemediaoflineandcolour.Manythousands
IndoIslamicArchitecture ofyearsbeforethedawnofhistory,whenmanwasonlyacavedweller,he
ModernArchitecture paintedhisrockshelterstosatisfyhisaestheticsensitivityandcreativeurge.

AmongIndians,theloveofcolouranddesignissodeeplyingrainedthatfrom
2.IndianSculpture the earliest times they created paintings and drawings even during the
IndusCivilization periodsofhistoryforwhichwehavenodirectevidence.

BuddhistSculpture TheearliestexamplesofIndianpainting,thatwefmdevidenceof,areonthe
GuptaSculpture walls of some of the caves in the Kaimur Range of Central India, Vindhya
MedievalSchoolofSculpture HillsandsomeplacesinUttarPradesh.
ModernIndianSculpture Wallpaintingofadancer,Bhimbetka,
The paintings are primitive records of wild animals, war processions and MadhyaPradesh
hunting scenes. They are crudely but most realistically drawn. All these
3.IndianPainting drawings bear a remarkable resemblance to the famous rock shelter
paintingsinSpain,whicharepresumedtobetheworkofNeolithicman.
WallPainting
MiniaturePainting
ModernPainting

LeavingasidethewealthofmaterialsoftheHarappanCulture,theartofIndia,asawholedisappearsfromoursight
formanyyears.ThisgapinIndianartcannotbefilledsatisfactorilyasyet.However,wecanlearnalittleofthisdark
epochbyreferencetosomeofouroldliteraturesbelongingtothecenturiesbeforeandafterthebirthofChrist.The
Vinayapithak,aBuddhisttextofcirca3rd4thcenturyB.C.refersinmanyplacestothepleasurehousescontaining
picturehallswhichwereadornedwithpaintedfiguresanddecorativepatterns.Paintedhallsarealsodescribedinthe
MahabharataandRamayana,thecompositionofwhichintheiroriginalformisacknowledgedtobeofgreatantiquity.
Theseearlymuralpaintingsmaybeassumedtobetheprototypesofthecarvedandpaintedpicturegalleriesofthe
subsequentperiodsoftheBuddhistart,suchasinthepaintedcavetemplesofAjantasituatedinMaharashtraState
near Aurangabad. There are 30 caves chiseled out of the rock in a semicircular fashion. Their execution covers a
period of about eight centuries. The earliest of them is probably out in the 2nd century B.C. and the latest is
Painting:CaveI,Ajantacave,
sometimeinthe7thcenturyA.D.
Maharashtra
The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the
ceilingsandthepillars.TheyaremostlyassociatedwiththeJatakas,collectionofstories,recordingtheprevious
births of the Lord Buddha. The compositions of these paintings are large in extent but the majority of the
figuresaresmallerthanlifesize.Principalcharactersinmostofthedesignsareinheroicproportions.
Centrality is one of the main features of the composition so that attention is at once drawn to the most

important person in each scene. The contours of Ajanta figures are superb and reveal a keen perception of
beautyandform.Thereisnounduestrivingafteranatomicalexactitude,forthedrawingisspontaneousand
unrestrained. The painters of Ajanta had realised the true glory of the Buddha, the story of whose life was
employedherebythemasamotiftoexplaintheeternalpatternofhumanlife.Thestoriesillustratedhereare
continuousandelaboratepresentingthedramaofAncientIndiaenactedinthepalacesoftheKingsandinthe Painting:Cave2,DesignontheCeiling,
hamletsofthecommonpeopleequallyengagedinthequestforthebeautifulandspiritualvaluesoflife. Ajantacaves,Maharashtra
The earliest paintings at Ajanta are in cave No. IX and X of which the only surviving one is a group on the left wall of cave X. This portrays a king with
attendantsinfrontofatreedeckedwithflags.TheKinghascometothesacredBodhitreeforfulfillingsomevowconnectedwiththeprincewhoisattending
close to the king. This painting, though a fragmentary one shows a well developed art both in composition and execution which must have taken many
centuries to reach this stage of maturity. There is a close resemblance in the representation of human figures with regard to their dress, ornaments and
ethnicalfeaturesbetweenthispaintingandthesculpturesofAmaravatiandKarleofearlySatavahanarulesofcirca2ndcenturyB.C.
Another surviving painting at Ajanta, the enormously long continuous composition of Shaddanta Jataka along the right wall of the same cave (cave No.X)
belongingtocirca1stcenturyA.D.isoneofthemostbeautifulbutunfortunatelyoneoftheworstdamagedandcanonlybeappreciatedatthesite.
Wehavelittleevidenceofpaintingsofthenexttwotothreecenturiesthoughitiscertainthatagoodamountmusthaveonceexisted.Thenextsurviving
andthemostimportantseriesofAjantapaintingsareincaveNo.XVI,XVII,IIandIexecutedbetweenthe5thand7thcenturyA.D.
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AbeautifulexampleofthisperiodisthepaintingwhichillustratesasceneofJatakaandcommonlycalled'thedyingprincess'incaveNo.XVIpaintedinthe
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earlypartofthe5thcenturyA.D.ThestorytellshowNandawhowaspassionatelyinlovewiththisgirlwastrickedawayfromherbytheBuddhaandcarried
uptoheaven.OverwhelmedbythebeautyoftheApsaras,NandaforgothisearthlyloveandconsentedtoentertheBuddhistorderasashortcuttoheaven.
Intime,hecametoseethevanityofhispurelyphysicalaimandbecameaBuddhistbutthePrincess,hisbeloved,wascruellylefttoherfatewithoutany
such consolation. 'It is one of the most remarkable paintings of Ajanta as the movement of the line is sure and firm. This adaptation of line is the chief
characterofallorientalpaintingsandoneofthegreatestachievementsoftheAjantaartists.Emotionandpathosareexpressedherebythecontrolledturn
andpoiseofthebodyandtheeloquentgesturesofthehands.
There are flying apsaras in the cave No. X belonging to the late 6th century A.D. The rich ornamentation which was the characteristic of the period is
beautifullyportrayedinherturbandeckedwithpearlsandflowers.Thebackwardmovementofthenecklacesuggeststheflightoftheapsarawhichispainted
inamasterlyway.
ThelaterpaintingsatAjantabyfarthelargerpartofwhatsurviveswasdonebetweenthemid6thand7thcenturyA.D.andareincaveNo.IIandI.Theyalso
illustratetheJatakastorieswithgreaterdetailsandornamentaldesigns.
ThescenesofMahajanakaJatakaincaveNo.1arethebestsurvivingexamplesofAjantapaintingsbelongingtothisperiod.
InascenePrinceMahajanakathefutureBuddha,discussestheproblemsofthekingdomwithhismother,thequeenwhoisshowninanextremelygraceful
pose and is surrounded by maids. A few of them with fly whisks are seen standing behind the king. In their discourse, the Prince probably is seeking his
mother'sadvicebeforebeginninghismarchtoreconquerhiskingdomwhichhasbeenusurpedbyhisuncle.
AdetailedsceneofthePrinceshowsthegracefulgestureofhisrighthand.Thenextsceneofthestoryrepresentsthejourneyoftheprinceonahorseback
with all his retinue. The firm determination is beautifully suggested by his highly spirited horse while the prince himself is shown as a true embodiment of
tendernessasifmeltinginKaruna(kindness).Thesethreemaidsbelongtotheroyalhouse.Oneiswearingawhiterobewithabeautifulornamentaldesignof
ducks.
ThePrincearrivinginhisuncle'scapitaldiscoversthathisunclehadjustdiedandhaddesignatedashissuccessorthepersonwhowouldwinthehandofhis

daughter,Sivali.ThelatterfellinlovewiththePrinceandtheomensdestinedhimtooccupythethrone.Hewas,therefore,enthronedandagreatrejoicing
followed.
TheconsecrationceremonyscenewherethePrinceisshownbeingbathedbytwojarsoverhishead.Ontheleftsideofthescene,amaidwithatoilettrayis
approaching the canopy. This shows the royal harem where king Mahajanaka is sitting majestically while queen Sivali is beaming gracefully towards her
beloved.Theyareenjoyingdanceandmusic.
Thenextsceneportraysasumptuouslydressedgirldancerwearingabeautifuldiadem,herhairisadornedwithflowers
andsheisdancingtotheaccompanimentofanorchestra.Ontheleft,twowomenareplayingthefluteandontheright
areseveralwomenmusicianswithvariousinstrumentsincludingtwodrumsandcymbals.Thedancerandthemusicians
havebeeninvitedbyqueenSivalitopleaseanddivertthekingandtodissuadehimfromrenouncingtheworld.Theking,
however, decided to live an austere life on the roof of his palace and he goes to hear the sermon of a hermit who will
strengthenhiminhisresolution.Hisjourneyonanelephant'sbackisarepresentationofaroyalprocessionjustpassing
throughtheroyalgateway.Thelastsceneofthestorydepictsacourtyardofahermitagewherethekingislisteningtothe
discoursesofthehermit.
ThepaintingofBodhisatvaPadmapanifromcaveIisoneofthemasterpiecesofAjantaPaintingexecutedinthelate6th
centuryA.D.Inprincelyfashionheiswearingacrownadornedwithsapphires,hislongblackhairfallinggracefully.This
beautifully ornamented figure is more than life size and is shown stopping slightly and holding in his right hand a lotus
flower.Inthewordsofoneofthecontemporaryartcritics:"Itisinitsexpressionofsorrow,initsfeelingofprofoundpity,
thatthisgreatartexcelsandinstudyingit,wewouldrealizethatwearefacetofacewithanoblebeingundertheweight
of a tragic decision, the bitterness of renouncing forever a life of bliss is blended with yearning, sense of hope in the
happinessofthefuture".Thestrongdirectdrawingoftheshoulderandarmsismasterlyinitsunaffectedsimplicity.The
eyebrowsuponwhichdependsmuchofthefacialexpressionaredrawnbysimplelines.Thewayofholdingthelotus'and Painting,CaveI,Bodhisattva,
Ajantacaves,Maharashtra
thegesturesofthehand,asshownhere,isthegreatestachievementoftheAjantaartists.
TherepresentationofoneofthememorableeventsofBuddha'slifeafterenlightenmentandwhichranksamongthebestofthe
paintings at Ajanta, is in cave No.XVII painted probably in circa 6th century A.D. This represents Buddha's visit to the door of
Yashodhara'sabodeinthecityofKapilavastuwhilesheherselfhascomeoutwithhersonRahulatomeettheGreatKing.Theartist
haddrawnthefigureoftheBuddhaonalargescale,apparentlytoindicatehisspiritualgreatnessascomparedwithordinarybeings
for instance the representation of Yashodhara and Rahula looks very small by comparison. The head of Buddha is significantly
inclinedtowardsYashodhara,showingcompassionandlove.Thefeaturesofthefaceareobliteratedbuttheeyesareclearandthe
meditative gaze suggests an absorption of mind in the spiritual. There is a halo around the Great King's head and above it, a
Vidhyaduriisholdinganumbrellaasasymbolofhissovereigntyovertheearthandheaven.
Below, by the side of the door the figures of Yashodhara and Rahula are painted, the latter looking up towards his father with
affection mixed with astonishment since he was only seven days old when Gautama renounced the world. Yashodhara has been
shownwithallcharmofnaturalbeautyandoutwardadornmentsofcostumeandjewellerybutfarmorestrikingistheappealing
manner in which she is looking towards Buddha, more with a feeling of love than reverence. The rhythmic treatment ,of the
differentpartsofherbody,thegracefulposeandthefinebrushworkshowninthecurlsabovehertemplesandinthelocksspread
Painting,CaveI,Buddha overhershouldersallportrayanartofanhighorderandmakesthispaintingoneofthefinestportrayalsoffeminineeleganceand
visitingwifeandson, beauty.
Ajantacaves,
Maharashtra
AbeautifuldepictionofafemininebeautyasconceivedbyanAjantaartistisapparentlyrecognizedasMayaDevi,themotheroftheBuddhawhosebeautythe
artistwantedtodelineatewithouttherestrictionimposedbytheincidentofanystory.Theprincessisdepictedwithallbodilycharmwhichthepainterhad
skilfullyexhibited.Thepainterhaschosenastandingposefortheprincessandtoaddnaturalnessandgracehehasmadeherleanagainstapillarsothatthe
beautyofherslenderandslimlimbsmaybebestappreciated.Byaninclinationofherheadtheartisthasshownverycleverlythecharmofthedarkcoilsofher
hairadornedwithflowers.
AlongsidetheseBuddhistpaintingstherearealsoafewBrahmanicalfiguresoficonographicinterest.
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Indra, a Hindu divinity, is depicted flying amid clouds together with celestial nymphs holding musical instruments. Indra is wearing a royal crown, pearl
necklacesandinhisgirdleaswordandadagger.Thespeedofhisflightissuggestedbythebackwardmovementofpearlnecklaces.ThisisfromcaveNo.XVII
andbelongstocirca6thcenturyA.D.
Besidesthesereligiouspaintingstherearedecorativedesignsonceilingsandpillarsofthesecavetemples.UnliketheepicsandcontinuousJatakapaintings
therearecompletedesignswithintheirsquares.Thewholefloraandfaunainandaroundtheartistsworldarefaithfullyportrayedbutneverdowefindany
repetition of form and colour. The artists of Ajanta, as if here suddenly emancipated from the dictum of the Jataka text, have given free reign to their
perception,emotionandimagination.
AnexampleofceilingdecorationisfromcaveNo.XVIIandbelongstocirca6thcenturyA.D.Thepinkelephantisfromthesamedecorativepainting'andcanbe
seenindetail.Thisstrikingelephantrepresentsafmedelineationoflivingfleshnaturaltothatanimalalongwithadignifiedmovementandlinearrhythmand
canbetermed,perhaps,asoneofthefinestworksofart.
ThepaintingsfromBaghcavesinMadhyaPradeshcorrespondtothosepaintingsofAjantaincaveNo.IandII.Stylisticallybothbelongtothesameform,but
Baghfiguresaremoretightlymodelled,andarestrongerinoutline.TheyaremoreearthlyandhumanthanthoseatAjanta.Unfortunately,theirconditionis
nowsuchthattheycanonlybeappreciatedatthesite.
TheearliestBrahmanicalpaintingssofarknown,arethefragmentsfoundinBadamicaves,incaveNo.IIIbelongingtocirca6thcenturyA.D.ThesocalledSiva
andParvatiisfoundsomewhatwellpreserved.ThoughthetechniquefollowsthatofAjantaandBagh,themodellingismuchmoresensitiveintextureand
expressionandtheoutlinesoftandelastic.
ThepaintingsofAjanta,BaghandBadamirepresenttheclassicaltraditionoftheNorthandtheDeccanatitsbest.Sittannavasalandothercentresofpaintings
showtheextentofitspenetrationintheSouth.ThepaintingsofSittannavasalareintimatelyconnectedwithJainthemesandsymbology,butenjoythesame
normandtechniqueasthatofAjanta.Thecontoursofthesepaintingsarefirmlydrawndarkonalightredground.OntheceilingoftheVerandahispainteda
largedecorativesceneofgreatbeauty,alotuspoolwithbirds,elephants,buffaloesandayoungmanpluckingflowers.
ThenextseriesofwallpaintingtosurviveareatEllora,asiteofgreatimportanceandsanctity.AnumberofHindu,BuddhistandJaintempleswereexcavated
betweenthe8thand10thcenturiesA.D.fromthelivingrock.Themostimpressiveofthese,theKailashnathtempleisafreestandingstructurewhichisin
fact a monolith. There are several fragments of painting on the ceiling of the different parts of this temple and on the walls of some associated Jain cave
temple.
ThecompositionofthepaintingsatElloraismeasuredoutinrectangularpanelswiththickborders.Theyhavethusbeenconceivedwithinthegivenlimitsof
frames that hold the paintings. The space, in the sense of Ajanta, therefore, does not exist at Ellora. So far as the style is concerned, Ellora painting is a
departurefromtheclassicalnormofAjantapaintings.Ofcoursetheclassicaltraditionofmodellingofthemassandroundedsoftoutlineaswellastheillusion
ofthecomingforwardfromthedepthisnotaltogetherignored.ButthemostimportantcharacteristicfeaturesofEllorapaintingarethesharptwistofthe
head,paintedangularbentsofthearms,theconcavecurveofthecloselimbs,thesharpprojectednoseandthelongdrawnopeneyes,whichcanverywellbe
consideredasthemedievalcharacterofIndianpaintings.
TheflyingfiguresfromcavetempleNo.XXXIIatEllorabelongingtomidninthcenturyA.D.arebeautifulexamplesofswiftmovementthroughclouds.Boththe
characteristics,theroundedplasticityofAjantamodellingofclassicalperiodonthefacesandtheangularbendsofthearmsofmedievaltendenciesarewell
markedhere.Itisperhapsaproductofthetransitionalperiod.
ThemostimportantwallpaintingsinSouthIndiaarefromTanjore,TamilNadu.ThedancingfiguresfromRajarajeswaratemplesofTanjorebelongingtoearly
11thcenturyA.D.arebeautifulexamplesofmedievalpaintings.ThewideopeneyesofallthefiguresareaclearnegationofAjantatraditionofhalfclosed
droopingeyes.ButthefiguresarenolesssensitivethantheAjantafigures,theyarefullofmovementandthrobbingwithvitality.
Another example of a dancing girl from Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjore belonging to the same period is a unique representation of swift movement and
twistedform.Thebackandthehipsofthefigurearevividlyandrealisticallyshownwiththeleftlegfirnonthebaseandrightthrowninspace.Thefaceis
showninprofilewithpointednoseandchinwhiletheeyeiswideopen.Thehandsareoutstretchedlikeasharplineswinginginbalance.Therapturousfigure
ofadedicatedtempledancerwithvibratingcontoursisatrueembodimentofsophisticationinartandpresentsacharming,endearingandlovablefeasttothe
eyes.
ThelastseriesofwallpaintinginIndiaarefromLepakshitemplenearHindupurbelongingto16thcenturyA.D.Thepaintingsarepressedwithinbroadfriezes
andillustrateSaivaiteandsecularthemes.
Ascenewiththreestandingwomeninspiteoftheirwellbuiltformsandcontourshasinthisstylebecomesomewhatstiff.Thefiguresareshowninprofile
ratherinanunusualfashion,speciallythetreatmentofthefaceswherethesecondeyeisdrawnprojectinghorizontallyinspace.Thecolourschemeandthe
ornamentationofthesefiguresareverypleasingandprovethehighlysophisticatedtasteofIndianartists.
TheBoarhuntfromthesametemple,isalsoanexampleoftwodimensionalpaintingwhichalmostbecomescharacteristicoflatemedievalpaintingseitheron
walloronpalmleaforpaper.ThereafteradeclineofIndianwallpaintingsbegan.Theartcontinuedinto18th19thcenturyA.D.inaverylimitedscale.During
theperiodfrom11thcenturyA.D.onward,anewmethodofexpressioninpaintingknownasminiatureonpalmleavesandpaperperhapsmucheasierand
moreeconomicalhadalreadybegun.

SomeofthewallpaintingsofthisdecliningperiodinthereignofPrinceofTravancoreinKerala,inthepalacesofJaipurinRajasthanandintheRangmahalof
theChambapalaceinHimachalPradeshareworthmentioning.TheRangmahalpaintingsofChambadeserveaspecialnoteinthisconnectionastheNational
Museumisinpossessionoftheseearly19thcenturypaintingsintheoriginal.
TECHNIQUE
It would be interesting and perhaps necessary to discuss the technique and process of making Indian wall paintings which has been discussed in a special
chapteroftheVishnudharamotaram,aSanskrittextofthe5th/6thcenturyA.D.Theprocessofthesepaintingsappearstohavebeenthesameinalltheearly
examplesthathavesurvivedwithanonlyexceptionintheRajarajeshwaratempleatTanjorewhichissupposedtobedoneinatruefrescomethodoverthe
surfaceoftherock.
Mostofthecolourswerelocallyavailable.Brushesweremadeupfromthehairofanimals,suchasgoat,camel,mongoose,etc.
Thegroundwascoatedwithanexceedinglythinlayeroflimeplasteroverwhichpaintingsweredrawninwatercolours.Intruefrescomethodthepaintingsare
donewhenthesurfacewallisstillwetsothatthepigmentsgodeepinsidethewallsurface.Whereastheothermethodofpaintingwhichwasfollowedinmost
ofthecasesofIndianpaintingisknownastemporaorfresco
secco.Itisamethodofpaintingonthelimeplasteredsurfacewhichhasbeenallowedtodryfirst
andthendrenchedwithfreshlimewater.Onthesurfacethusobtainedtheartistproceededtosketchouthiscomposition.Thisfirstsketchwasdrawnbyan
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experiencedhandandsubsequentlycorrectedinmanyplaceswithastrongblackordeepbrownlinewhenthefinaldrawingwasadded.Afterthepainterhad
drawnouthisfirstschemeinred,heproceededtoapplyonthisasemitransparentterravertemonochrome,throughwhichhisoutlinecouldbeseen.Overthis
preliminaryglazetheartistworkedinhislocalcolours.Theprincipalcoloursinusewereredochre,vividred(vermilion),yellowochre,indigoblue,lapislazuli,
lampblack(Kajjal),chalkwhite,terraverteandgreen.
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ModernPainting
Resources VisualArt ModernPainting
IndusCivilization
TempleArchitecture
IndoIslamicArchitecture Nomenclatures are not always irrelevant, for example, the term 'modern'. It may mean many things to
manypersons.Soalsotheterm'contemporary'.Eveninthefieldofthefineartsthereisconfusionand
ModernArchitecture unnecessary controversy among artists, art historians, and critics. In fact, they all really have the same
thinginmindandtheargumentshoverroundterminologicalimplicationsonly.Itisnotnecessaryhereto
2.IndianSculpture indulge in this semantic exercise. Roughly, many consider that the modern period in Indian art began
IndusCivilization around 1857 or so. This is a historical premise. The National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi covers its
collection from about this period. In the west, the modern period starts conveniently with the
BuddhistSculpture Impressionists.However,whenwetalkofmodernIndianArt,wegenerallystartwiththeBengalSchoolof
GuptaSculpture Painting.Bothinthematterofprecedenceandimportance,wehavetofollowthecourseofartintheorder
MedievalSchoolofSculpture ofpainting,sculpture,andthegraphics,thelastbeingcomparativelyaveryrecentdevelopment.
ModernIndianSculpture Broadly speaking, the essential characteristics of the modern or contemporary art are a certain freedom
from invention, the acceptance of an eclectic approach which has placed artistic expression in the
3.IndianPainting internationalperspectiveasagainsttheregional,apositiveelevationoftechniquewhichhasbecomeboth
WallPainting proliferousandsupreme,andtheemergenceoftheartistasadistinctindividual.
MiniaturePainting
ModernPainting

Manypeopleconsidermodernartasaforbidding,ifnotforbidden,territory.Itisnot,andnofieldofhumanachievement
is. The best way of dealing with the unfamiliar is to face it squarely. All that is necessary is will, perseverence and
reasonableconstantexposureorconfrontation.
Towardsthecloseofthenineteenthcentury,Indianpainting,asanextensionoftheIndianminiaturepainting,snapped
andfellonthedeclineanddegeneratedintofeebleandunfeltimitationlargelyduetohistoricalreasons,bothpolitical

andsociological,resultinginthecreationofalacunawhichwasnotfilleduntiltheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,
andeventhennottruly.Therewasonlysomeminorartisticexpressionintheinterveningperiodbywayofthe'Bazar'
and 'Company' styles of painting, apart from the more substantial folk forms which were alive in many parts of the
country. Then followed the newly ushered Western concept of naturalism, the foremost exponent of which was Raja
RaviVerma.ThiswaswithoutparallelintheentireannalsofIndianArtnotwithstandingsomeoccasionalreferencesin
Indianliteratureoftheideaof'likeness'.
Painting:'LadyinThe
MoonLight'byRajaRavi
Varma
AnattempttostemthisculturalmorasswasmadebyAbanindranathTagoreunderwhoseinspiredleadershipcameintobeinganewschoolofpaintingwhich
was distinctly nostalgic and romantic to start with. It held its way for well over three decades as the Bengal School of Painting, also called the Renaissance
SchoolortheRevivalistSchoolitwasboth.Despiteitscountrywideinfluenceintheearlyyears,theimportanceoftheSchooldeclinedbythe'forties'andnow
itisasgoodasdead.WhilethecontributionoftheRenaissanceSchoolservedPaintingasaninspiredandwellintentionedifnotwhollysuccessfullinkwiththe
past,ithashadlittleconsequenceevenasa'takeoffgroundforthesubsequentmodernmovementinart.TheoriginsofmodernIndianartlieelsewhere.
TheperiodattheendoftheSecondWorldWarreleasedunprecedentedandaltogethernewforcesandsituations,politicalaswellascultural,whichconfronted
theartist,asmuchasallofus,withanexperienceandexposureofgreatconsequence.Theperiodsignificantlycoincidedwiththeindependenceofthecountry.
With freedom also came unprecedented opportunity. The artist was set upon a general course of modernization and confrontation with the big, wide world,
especiallywiththeWesternWorld,withfarreachingconsequences.ToofarremovedashewasfromIndiantraditionandheritageandemotionallyestranged
from its true spirit, he absorbed the new experience eagerly too fast and too much. The situation is as valid even to this day and has a ring of historical
inevitability.ThisisjustastrueofModernIndianliteratureandthetheatre.Indancetheprocessofmodernizationismarginalandinmusicevenless.While
theartistlearntmuchfromthisexperience,hehadunconsciouslyenteredtheracetowardsanewinternationalconceptinart.Onemightregardthisasa
typical characteristic of a newborn old nation and part of its initial predicament. Our attitude to life in general, the various approaches to solve an infinite
varietyofproblemsaresimilarlyoriented.
A major characteristic of contemporary Indian Painting is that the technique and method have acquired a new significance. Form came to be regarded as
separateentityandwithitsincreasingemphasisitsubordinatedthecontentinaworkofart.Thiswaswhollytrueuntilrecentlyandistruesomewhateven
now. Form was not regarded as a vehicle for content. In fact the position was reverse. And the means, inspired and developed on extraneous elements,
renderedtechniqueverycomplexandbroughtinitstrainanewaesthetique.Thepainterhasgainedagreatdealonthevisualandsensorylevel:particularlyin
regardtotheuseofcolour,intheconceptofdesignandstructure,texture,andintheemployment,ofunconventionalmaterials.Apaintingstoodorfellin
termsofcolour,compositionalcontrivanceorsheertexture.Artonthewholeacquiredanautonomyofitsownandtheartistanindividualstatusasnever
before. IRTS lpog
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Ontheotherhand,wehavelostthetimehonouredunifiedconceptofart,themodernartisticmanifestationhavingclearlytakenaturnwhereanyoneofthe
elementsthatoncemadeartawholesomeentitynowclaimedextraordinaryattentiontothepartialortotalexclusionoftherest.Withtheriseofindividualism
andtheconsequentisolationoftheartistideologically,thereisthenewproblemofthelackofarealrapportoftheartistwiththepeople.Thepredicamentis
aggravated by the absence of any appreciable and specific interrelation between the artist and society. While it may be argued up to a degree that this
characteristic predicament of contemporary art is the result of a sociological compulsion, and that present day art is reflective of the chaotic conditions of
contemporarysociety,onecannotbutnoticetheunfortunatehiatusbetweentheartistandsociety.Theimpactofhorizonsbeyondone'sownhasitssalutary
aspects and singular validity in the light of increasing international spirit of the present times. The easy transport with other peoples and ideas is salutary
particularlyinrespectoftechniqueandmaterial,inthesharingofnewideologiesandininvestingartandartistswithanewstatus.
Oncemore,attheendofquartercenturyofeclecticismandexperimentation,thereissomeevidenceofapentupfeelingandofanattempttoretraceandtake
stock of things. The experience and knowledge, invaluable as it is, is being shifted and assessed. As against the overbearing, nondescript anomaly of
internationalism,thereisanattempttolookforanalternativesourceofinspirationwhich,whileithastobecontemporarymaywellspringfromone'sownsoil
andbeintunewithone'senvironment.
ContemporaryIndianarthastravelledalongwaysincethedaysofRaviVerma,AbanindranathTagoreandhisfollowers
and even Amrita SherGil. Broadly, the pattern followed is this. Almost every artist of note began with one kind of
representationalorfigurativeartortheothertingedwithimpressionism,expressionismorpostexpressionism.Theirksome
relationshipofformandcontentwasgenerallykeptatacomplementarylevel.Thenthroughvariousstagesofelimination
and simplifications, through cubism, abstraction and a variety of expressionistic trends, the artists reached near non
figurativeandtotallynonfigurativelevels.The'pop'andthe'op',theminimalandantiarthavereallynotcaughtthefancy
ofourartists,exceptforveryminoraberrations.And,havingreachedthedeadandcoldabstraction,theonlywayopenisto
sitbackandreflect.Thiscopybookpatternhasbeenfollowedbyagreatnumberofartists,includingseniorandestablished
ones.Asareactiontothisjourneyintonothing,therearethreenewmajortrends:projectionofthedisturbedsocialunrest
andinstabilitywiththepredicamentofmanasthemainthemeaninterestinIndianthoughtandmetaphysics,manifested
in the so called 'tantric' paintings and in paintings with symbolical import: and more than these two trends is the new
interestinvaguesurrealistapproachesandinfantasy.Moreimportantthanallthis,isthefactthatnobodynowtalksofthe
conflictbetweenformandcontentortechniqueandexpression.Infact,andincontradictiontotheearlieravowal,almost
everybody is certain that technique and form are only important prerequisites to that mysterious something of an idea,
messageorspirit,thatsparkoftheunfathomableentitythatmakessuchmanalittledifferentfromtheother. Painting:'ThreeWomen'by
AmritaShergil
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PerformingArts
Resources PerformingArts
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance In India, various facets of performing arts are all pervading bringing
KathakDance colourandjoytonumerousfestivalsandceremonies,andreaffirming
the faith of the people in their heritage. These facets have been
ManipuriDance
responsible for sustaining the long continuities of ancient traditions.
OdissiDance They are the link between the past and the present. It thus
KuchipudiDance exemplifies the complex, organic interaction of all aspects of life
SattriyaDance implicit in all tribal and folk art forms art is not seen as something
MohiniyattamDance apart from life, a mere ornamentation or entertainment, but as an
intrinsicpartofit.
2.MusicofIndia
HindustaniClassicalMusic
PrehistoricCavepainting,Bhimbetka,
CarnaticClassicalMusic
MadhyaPradesh
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments

3.TheatreFormsofIndia
TheatreForms

4.PuppetFormsofIndia
PuppetForms

Under the patronage of Kings and rulers, skilled artisans and entertainers were encouraged to specialize and to refine
theirskillstogreaterlevelsofperfectionandsophistication.Gradually,theclassicalformsofArtevolvedforthegloryof
templeandpalace,reachingtheirzenitharoundIndiaaround2ndC.E.onwardsandunderthepowerfulGuptaempire,
whencanonsofperfectionwerelaiddownindetailedtreatisetheNatyashastraandtheKamasutrawhicharestill
followedtothisday.Throughtheages,rivalkingsandnawabsviedwitheachothertoattractthemostrenownedartists
andperformerstotheircourts.
While the classical arts thus became distinct from their folk roots, they were never totally alienated from them, even
todaytherecontinuesamutuallyenrichingdialoguebetweentribalandfolkformsontheonehand,andclassicalarton
theotherthelattercontinuestobeinvigoratedbyfreshfolkforms,whileprovidingthemwithnewthematiccontentin
return. In addition, while links with their folk roots distinguish the regional classical art forms, the myriad folk forms
throughoutIndiaareboundbycommonclassicalreligiousandmythologicalthemes.
Dancers,SunTemple,
Konarak,Orissa
In India, religion, philosophy and myth can not be divorced from their art forms. Dance and music are tied
inextricablytoceremonyofanykind.Weddings,births,coronations,enteringanewhouseortown,welcoming
aguest,religiousprocessions,harvesttime,anyoralloftheseareoccasionsforsonganddance.
Musicanddanceareprobablythemostelementalartforms,spontaneouslyexpressingtheentiregarmentof
humanemotionsandexperiences.TherearetribalbeltsthroughoutIndia,andalthougheachtribehasitsown
distinctivemusicanddances,theyallshareasimilarform,withmenandwomenformingseparaterowswith
linked arms and executing intricate leg movements in a gradually increasing tempo that builds up to a
crescendoofvigour.
DanceofShiva,Miniaturepainting,
Chamba,HimachalPradesh
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Thefolkmusicanddancesofagriculturalcommunitiescelebratetherhythmsofdailylife,theturnoftheseasons,thehighlights
oftheagriculturalcalendar,religiousfestivalsandimportanteventsthatpunctuatetheflowoflife,suchasbirthsandmarriages.
Whilefolkmusicanddancesharecommonthemesandconcerns,thereisawidevarietyofforms.AlongtheentireHimalayan
region,fromKashmirtoDarjeeling,folkdancerslinkarmsandswaygracefullyinundulatingmovements,celebratethesowingof
thewheatcropfewcanresisttheinfectiousbeatofthedholak,thetwosideddrum,andpairsofdancerstaketurnstoexecute
complexacrobaticmovementsinthecentreofacircleofabandoneddancers.WomenperformtheGiddha,alsocharacterisedby
itsspontaneousenergy.Rajasthaniwomen,theirfacescoveredwithflowingveils,areswirlsofcolourastheypirouetteinthe
Ghoomar dance, while their counterparts in Gujarat perform the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons. Their men
performtheDandiyaRas,amorevigorousversionofthesamedance,leapingandcrouchingintwirlingpatterns.Inthefishing
communitiesofMaharashtra,menandwomenlinkarmsanddancetogetherandthewomenclimbontothemen'sshouldersto
formpyramids.Thewomen'sLavanidancefromthisareaisnotableforitsunabashedsensuality.Therearealsoseveralformsof
dancedrama or folk theatre, such as the Nautanki of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Bhavai of Gujarat, the
irreverentTamashaofMaharashtra,theBengaliJatra,thespectacularYakshaganaofKarnatakaandTheyyamofKerala,all
ofwhichnarratelegendsoflocalheroes,kingsanddeities.Martialartformsthroughoutthecountryhavebeenstylizedtoquasi
danceforms,notableamongwhicharethemartialdancesoftheNortheasternhilltribes,theLazimdancesofMaharashtra,the
KalaripayattuofKerala,andthehighlystylizedmaskedChhaudancesofOrissa,WestBengalandBihar.
Sculpture,Dancer,
DelwaraTemple,
Rajasthan
Togetherthesedanceshaveformedavastreservoirfromwhichtheclassicaldanceshavedrawnsustenance.
TherearesevenmajorclassicaldancestylesBharatnatyamfromTamilNaduandKarnataka,Kathakali,a
classicaldancedramafromKerala,ManipurifromManipur,Kathak from Uttar Pradesh, Odissi from Orissa,
andKuchipudifromAndhraPradeshandSattriyafromAssamwhichhasrecentlybeenincludedinthefoldof
Classical Dances. In their present format, their history cannot be traced back to over two to three hundred
years,buttheyallhavelinkswiththeancientandmedievalliterary,sculpturalandmusicaltraditionsofIndia
andoftheirparticularregions.TheyalladheretothecanonsofclassicaldancelaiddownintheNatyaShastra,
asecondcenturyC.E.textascribedtothesageBharata,towhomitwassupposedlyrevealedbytheCreator,
Brahma. KathakDance,Miniaturepainting,
Kishangarh,Rajasthan
Folktheatreanddancedramawerethecommonrootsofbothclassicaldanceandtheatre,thetraditionsofboth
Sculpturalrelief,DanceClass, of which were elaborated upon the Natyashastra. Kalidasa is India's most famous poet and dramatist, and his
LakshmanaTemple,Khajuraho, playsarestillperformedtoday.NawabWajidAliShah,thelastrulerofAwadh,wasanotedplaywrightandstaged
MadhyaPradesh elaboratedramasathiscourt.
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ClassicalDances
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance
SattriyaDance Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating back to ancient
MohiniyattamDance times.Excavations,inscriptions,chronicles,genealogiesofkingsand
artists, literary sources, sculpture and painting of different periods
2.MusicofIndia provide extensive evidence on dance. Myths and legends also

support the view that dance had a significant place in the religious
andsociallifeoftheIndianpeople.However,itisnoteasytotrace
CarnaticClassicalMusic theprecisehistoryandevolutionofthevariousdancesknownasthe
RegionalMusic 'art'or'classical'formspopulartoday.
MusicalInstruments Dancer,PrehistoricCavepainting,
Bhimbetka,MadhyaPradesh
TheatreForms

PuppetForms

Inliterature,thefirstreferencescomefromtheVedaswheredanceandmusichavetheirroots.Amoreconsistent
historyofdancecanbereconstructedfromtheepics,theseveralPuranasandtherichbodyofdramaticandpoetic
literature known as the nataka and the kavya in Sanskrit. A related development was the evolution of classical
Sanskritdramawhichwasanamalgamofthespokenword,gesturesandmime,choreography,stylisedmovement
and music. From the 12th century to the 19th century there were many regional forms called the musical play
orsangeetnataka.Contemporaryclassicaldanceformsareknowntohaveevolvedoutofthesemusicalplays.
Palmleafmanuscript,Bihar

Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa (dating back to
25001500B.C.E.)Thesearesuggestiveofdanceposes.ThelatterhasbeenidentifiedastheprecursoroftheNatarajapose
commonlyidentifiedwithdancingSiva.
TheearliesttreatiseondanceavailabletousisBharatMuni'sNatyashastra,thesourcebookoftheartofdrama,danceand
music. It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E 2nd century
C.E.TheNatyashastraisalsoknownasthefifthveda.Accordingtotheauthor,hehasevolvedthisvedabytakingwordsfrom
theRigveda,musicfromtheSamaveda,gesturesfromtheYajurvedaandemotionsfromthe Atharvaveda. There is also a
legendthatBrahmahimselfwrotetheNatyaveda,whichhasover36,000verses.
Dancinggirl,Bronze,
Induscivilization
IntermsoftheclassicaltraditionformulatedintheNatyashastra,danceandmusicareaninextricablepartofdrama.Theartof natyacarries in it all

theseconstituentsandtheactorishimselfthedancerandthesinger,theperformercombinedallthethreefunctions.Withthepassageoftimethe
statusofanindependentandspecialisedart,markedthebeginningofthe'art'danceinIndia.
As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as having three aspects: natya, nritya andnritta.Natya highlights the dramatic element and most
dance forms do not give emphasis to this aspect today with the exception of dancedrama forms like Kathakali. Nrityais essentially expressional,
performedspecificallytoconveythemeaningofathemeoridea.Nrittaontheotherhand,ispuredancewherebodymovementsdonotexpressany
mood(bhava),nordotheyconveyanymeaning.Topresent nrityaandnatyaeffectively,adancershouldbetrainedtocommunicatethe navarasas.
These are: love (shringaara), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna), valour(veera), anger (roudra), fear (bhayanak), disgust (bibhatsa),
wonder(adbhuta)andpeace(shaanta).
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AnancientclassificationfollowedinallstylesisofTandavaandLasya.Tandavathemasculine,isheroicboldandvigorous.Lasyathefeminineissoft,
lyrical and graceful. Abhinaya, broadly means expression. This is achieved through angika, the body and limbs, vachikasong and speech and aharya,
costumeandadornmentandsatvika,moodsandemotions.
BharataandNandikesvara,themainauthoritiesconceiveofdanceasanartwhichusesthehumanbodyasavehicle
ofexpression.Themajorhumanunitsofthebody(anga)areidentifiedasthehead,torso,theupperandlowerlimbs
andtheminorhumanparts(upangas),asallpartsofthefacerangingfromtheeyebrowtothechinandtheminor
joints.
Two further aspects of natya are the modes of presentation and the style. There are two modes of presentation,
namelytheNatyadharmi,whichistheformalisedpresentationoftheatre,andtheLokadharmisometimestranslatedas
folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional. The style or vrittis are classified into Kaishiki, the deft lyrical more suited to
convey the lasya aspects, the Arbati, the energetic masculine the Satvati often used while depicting the rasas and
theBharati,theliterarycontent.
Nurturedforcenturies,danceinIndiahasevolvedindifferentpartsofthecountryitsowndistinctstyletakingonthe
cultureofthatparticularregion,eachacquiringitsownflavour.Consequentlyanumberofmajorstylesof'art'dance
areknowntoustoday,likeBharatnatyam,Kathakali,Kuchipudi,Kathak,Manipuri,OdissiandSattriya.Then,thereare
regionalvariations,thedancesofruralandtribalareas,whichrangefromsimple,joyouscelebrationsoftheseasons,
harvestorbirthofachildtodancesforthepropitiationofdemonsorforinvokingspirits.Todaythereisalsoawhole
newbodyofmodernexperimentaldance. NatrajaBronze
Sculpture,Cholaperiod
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BharatnatyamDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances BharatnatyamDance
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance BharatnatyamDance
SattriyaDance BharatnatyamDanceisconsideredtobeover2000yearsold.Severaltextsbeginningwith
MohiniyattamDance Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) provide information on this dance
form. The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual
2.MusicofIndia material,forthestudyofthetechniqueandgrammarofbodymovementinBharatnatyam
Dance.Thereisalsoagreatdealofvisualevidenceofthisdanceforminpaintingsandstone
and metal sculptures of ancient times. On the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple, one
CarnaticClassicalMusic canseeaseriesofBharatnatyamposes,frozeninstoneasitwere,bythesculptor.Inmany
RegionalMusic othertemples,thecharisandkaranasofthedancearerepresentedinsculptureandone
MusicalInstruments canmakeastudyofthedanceform.
Araimandi,Basic
standingposition
TheatreForms

PuppetForms

Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in a single
performance. In the early 19th century, the famous Tanjore Quartette, under the patronage of Raja
SerfojiaresaidtohavebeenresponsiblefortherepertoireofBharatnatyamdanceasweseeittoday.
Thestylewaskeptalivebythedevadasis,whowereyounggirls'gifted'bytheirparentstothetemples
andwhoweremarriedtothegods.Thedevadasisperformedmusicanddanceasofferingstothedeities,
inthetemplecourtyards.Someoftherenownedperformersandgurusoftheearlypartofthecentury
belongtothedevadasifamilies,awellknownnameisBalaSaraswati.
Adavu,Basicdanceunit
Adavu,Basicdanceunit
TherepertoireofBharatnatyamisextensive,however,aperformancefollowsaregularpattern.Atfirstthereisaninvocationsong.Thefirstdanceitemisthe
alarippu,literallymeaningtoadornwithflowers.Itisanabstractpiececombiningpuredancewiththerecitationofsoundsyllables.
Thenextitem,thejatiswaramisashortpuredancepieceperformedtotheaccompanimentofmusical
notesofanyraga of Carnatic music. Jatiswaram has no sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus
whicharepuredancesequencesnritta.TheyformthebasisoftraininginBharatnatyamdance.
Asasolodance,Bharatnatyamleansheavilyontheabhinayaormimeaspectofdancethenritya,
where the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement and mime. Shabdam follows the
jatiswaraminaBharatnatyamdanceperformance.Theaccompanyingsongisgenerallyinadorationof
theSupremeBeing.
After the shabdam, the dancer performs the varnam. The varnam which is the most important
compositionoftheBharatnatyamrepertoire,encompassesbothnrittaandnritya and epitomises the
essence of this classical dance form. The dancer here performs complicated well graded rhythmic
patterns in two speeds showing the control over rhythm, and then goes on to depict in a variety of Shringarrasa
ways, through abhinaya the lines of the sahitya. This portrays the dancer's excellence in abhinaya
andalsoreflectstheendlesscreativityofthechoreographer.
AngikaAbhinaya ThevarnamisbyfaroneofthemostbeautifulcompositionsinIndiandance.
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Karunarasa
Afterthestrenuousvarnam,thedancerperformsanumberofabhinayaitemsexpressingavarietyofmoods.Thebhavaor
rasaiswovenintothesahityaandthenexpressedbythedancer.Thecommonpiecesarekeertanam,kritis,padamsand
javalis.Inthekeertanam,thetextisimportantwhereaskritiisacompositioninwhichthemusicalaspectishighlighted.
Both are usually devotional in character and represent episodes from the lives of Rama,Siva, Vishnu, etc. Padams and
javalis,areonthethemeoflove,oftendivine.
ABharatnatyamperformanceendswithatillanawhichhasitsorigininthetaranaofHindustanimusic.Itisavibrantdance
performedtotheaccompanimentofmusicalsyllableswithafewlinesof sahitya.Thefinaleofthepieceisaseriesofwell
designedrhythmiclinesreachingaclimax.TheperformanceendswithamangalaminvokingtheblessingsoftheGods.
Veerrasa
The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player, a flautist
andacymbalplayer.ThepersonwhoconductsthedancerecitationistheNattuvanar.
Musicians
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KathakDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances KathakDance

1.DancesofIndia

ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance KathakDance
KathakaliDance
ThewordKathakhasbeenderivedfromthewordKathawhichmeansastory.Kathakarsor
KathakDance
storytellers,arepeoplewhonarratestorieslargelybasedonepisodesfromtheepics,myths
ManipuriDance andlegends.Itprobablystartedasanoraltradition.Mimeandgestureswereperhapsadded
OdissiDance later on to make the recitation more effective. Thus evolved a simple form of expressional
KuchipudiDance dance,providingtheoriginsofwhatlaterdevelopedintoKathakasweseeittoday.
SattriyaDance

MohiniyattamDance
TheVaishnavitecultwhichsweptNorthIndiainthe15thcentury.andtheresultantbhakti
2.MusicofIndia movementcontributedtoawholenewrangeoflyricsandmusicalforms.TheRadhaKrishna
theme proved immensely popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and
Krishnadas.
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments Thate,Basicposition

TheatreForms

PuppetForms

The emergence of Raslila , mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.) was an
important development. It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance in
Raslila, however, was mainly an extension of the basic mime and gestures of
theKathakarsorstorytellerswhichblendedeasilywiththeexistingtraditionaldance.
WiththecomingoftheMughals,thisdanceformreceivedanewimpetus.Atransitionfrom
the temple courtyard to the palace durbar took place which necessitated changes in
presentation.InbothHinduandMuslimcourts,Kathakbecamehighlystylisedandcameto
be regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment. Under the Muslims there was a
greater stress on nritya and bhavagiving the dance graceful, expressive and sensuous
dimensions.
Raslila,Mathura,UttarPradesh
TakingPireouttes
The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oudh. He
established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on bhava, the expression of moods and emotions. The
JaipurgharanaknownforitslayakariorrhythmicvirtuosityandtheBenarasgharanaareotherprominentschoolsofKathakdance.
ThetechniqueofmovementinKathakisuniquetoit.
Theweightofthebodyisequallydistributedalongthehorizontalandverticalaxis.Thefullfootcontactisofprimeimportancewhere
onlythetoeortheballofthefootareused,theirfunctionislimited.Therearenodeflectionsandnouseofsharpbendsorcurvesof
the upper or lower part of the body. Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the
manipulationsofthebackboneorupperchestandlowerwaistmuscles.Inthebasicstance,thedancerstandsstraight,holdsone
handatalevelhigherthantheheadandtheotherisextendedoutontheleveloftheshoulder.
Salami
The technique is built by the use of an intricate system of footwork. Pure dance (nritta) is all important where complex
rhythmicpatternsarecreatedthroughtheuseoftheflatfeetandthecontrolofsoundoftheanklebellswornbythedancer.
AsinBharatnatyam,OdissiandManipuri,Kathakalsobuildsitspuredancesequencesbycombiningunitsofmovement.The
cadencesarecalleddifferentlybythenamestukra,tora,andparana,allindicativeofthenatureofrhythmicpatternsused
and the percussion instrument accompanying the dance. The dancer commences with a sequence called That where soft
glidingmovementsoftheneck,eyebrowsandthewrists,areintroduced.Thisisfollowedbyaconventionalformalentryknown
astheAmad(entry)andtheSalami(salutation).
Thenfollowthevariouscombinationsofrhythmicpassagesallpunctuatedwithandculminatinginanumberofpirouettes.The
pirouettes are the most characteristic feature of the dance style in nritta portions. Recitation of the rhythmic syllables is
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common the dancer often pauses to recite these to a specified metrical cycle followed by execution through movement.
ThenrittaportionofKathakisperformedtothenagma.Boththedrummer(herethedrumiseitherapakhawaj,atypeof
mridangam, or a pair of tabla) and the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive melodic line. The metrical
cycle(tala)of16,10,14beatsprovidesthefoundationonwhichthewholeedificeofdanceisbuilt.
AngikaAbhinaya
In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which is
performedinalyricalmannertogentlerhythm.Theseareshortnarrativepieceswhichportrayabriefepisodefrom
Krishna's life. A poetic line set to music is interpreted with gestures in other numbers, such as
thetumri,bhajan,dadraalllyricalmusicalcompositions.
Inthesesections,thereisawordtowordorlinetolinesynchronisationinthesamefashionasinBharatnatyamor
Odissi. Both in nritta (pure dance) and the abhinaya (mime) there is immense scope for improvisation of
presentingvariationsonatheme.Theinterpretativeandtheabstractdancetechniquesareinterwovenintoeach
DancerwithMusicians other,andthedancer'sgreatnessliesinhiscapacityforimprovisationonthemelodicandmetriclineontheone
handandthepoeticlineontheother.
Today,Kathakhasemergedasadistinctdanceform.BeingtheonlyclassicaldanceofIndiahavinglinkswithMuslimculture,itrepresentsaunique
synthesisofHinduandMuslimgeniusinart.Further,KathakistheonlyformofclassicaldanceweddedtoHindustaniortheNorthIndianmusic.Bothof
themhavehadaparallelgrowth,eachfeedingandsustainingtheother.
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KathakaliDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances KathakaliDance

1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance KathakaliDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance Keralaisthehomeofseveraltraditionaldanceanddancedramaforms,themost
notablebeingKathakali.
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance
Kathakali, as a dance form popular today, is considered to be of comparatively
SattriyaDance
recent origin. However, it is an art which has evolved from many social and
MohiniyattamDance religious theatrical forms which existed in the southern region in ancient
times.Chakiarkoothu,Koodiyattam,KrishnattamandRamanattamarefewof
2.MusicofIndia theritualperformingartsofKeralawhichhavehadadirectinfluenceonKathakali
HindustaniClassicalMusic initsformandtechnique.LegendhasitthattherefusaloftheZamorinofCalicut
to send his Krishnattam troupe to Travancore, so enraged the Raja of Basicstandingpositionofa
Kottarakkara,thathewasinspiredtocomposetheRamanattam. femalecharacter
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments

TheatreForms In the temple sculptures in Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancheri temple of
approximately the 16th century, dance scenes depicting the square and
4.PuppetFormsofIndia rectangular basic positions so typical to Kathakali are seen. For body movements
andchoreographicalpatterns,Kathakaliisalsoindebtedtotheearlymartialartsof
PuppetForms
Kerala.

Basicstandingpositionofa
malecharacter
Kathakaliisablendofdance,musicandactinganddramatizesstories,whicharemostlyadaptedfromtheIndian
epics. It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of abhinaya angika, aharya,vachika, satvika and
the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly. The dancer expresses himself through codified
hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses(padams) that are sung. Kathakali derives its
textualsanctionfromBalaramaBharatamandHastalakshanaDeepika.
TheattakkathasorstoriesareselectedfromtheepicsandmythsandarewritteninahighlySanskritisedverse
forminMalayalam.ManyMalayalamwritershavealsocontributedtothevastrepertoireofKathakaliliterature.
ShriKrishnawithRadha
Kathakaliisavisualartwhereaharya,costumeandmakeuparesuitedtothecharacters,asperthetenets
laid down in the Natya Shastra. The characters are grouped under certain clearly defined types like
thepacha,kathi,thadi,kariorminukku.Thefaceoftheartistispaintedovertoappearasthoughamask
isworn.Thelips,theeyelashesandtheeyebrowsaremadetolookprominent.Amixtureofricepasteand
limeisappliedtomakethechuttionthefacewhichhighlightsthefacialmakeup.
MakeupforVellathadi
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Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative. The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided
intosatvika,rajasikaandtamasikatypes.Satvikacharactersarenoble,heroic,generousandrefined.
Inpacha,greencolourdominatesandkirita(headgear)iswornbyall.KrishnaandRamawearspecial
crownsdecoratedwithpeacockfeathers.ThenoblecharacterslikeIndra,ArjunandtheDevasaresome
ofthepachacharacters.
ShriKrishnawithDuryodhan
Thekathi type depict antiheroes. Though they are of the rajasika category, they are sometimes great
warriorsandscholarssuchasRavana,KamsaandSisupalatonameafew.Themoustacheandthesmall
knobcalledchuttippufixedon"thetipofthenoseandanotherinthecentreoftheforehead,ispeculiarto
the kathi character. The characters of the thadi (beard) category are the chuvanna thadi, (red
beard),vellathadi(whitebeard)andthekaruthathadi(blackbeard).Vellathadi or the white bearded
character is generally that of Hanuman, the dancer also wears the costume of a monkey. Kari are
characters whose makeup have a black base, they wear black costume depicting a hunter or forest
dweller. Apart from these, there are minor characters like minukku which are the women and sages.
Kathakali costumes and makeup are elaborate and designed so as to give a super human effect. The
makeupofKathakalicanbeclassifiedintotheteppu,chuttikuthuanduduthukettu.Theteppuddone
by the actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu. The second stage is done by experts who
specialiseinmakeup.Thewearingofhugebellowingskirtsiscalleduduthukettu.
A simple stage is used. A large oilfed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain
calledTirasseelaonthestage,themaindancersstandbehinditbeforetheperformance.
Kalasam
InnootherdancestyleistheentirebodyusedsocompletelyasinKathakali.Thetechnicaldetailscovereverypartofthebodyfromfacial
musclestofingers,eyes,handsandwrists.Thefacialmusclesplayanimportantpart.Themovementoftheeyebrows,theeyeballsandthe
lowereyelidsasdescribedintheNatyaShastraarenotusedtosuchanextentinanyotherdancestyle.Theweightofthebodyisonthe
outeredgesofthefeetwhichareslightlybentandcurved.
Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express himself and
displayhisskills.Theleaps,quickturns,jumpsandtherhythmiccoordinationmakekalasams,ajoy
towatch.
A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention followed by
the todayam. It is a devotional number performed where one or two characters invoke the
blessings of the gods. Kelikottu is the formal announcement of the performance done in the
eveningwhendrumsandcymbalsareplayedforawhileinthecourtyard.Apurenrittapieceknown
as the purappadu comes as a sequel to this. Then the musicians and drummers hold the stage
entertainingtheaudiencewithanexhibitionoftheirskillsinmelappada.Tiranokkuisthedebut
on the stage of all characters other than the pacha or minukku. Thereafter, the play or the
particularsceneofthechosenplaybegins.
Musicians
KathakalimusicfollowsthetraditionalsopanasangeetofKerala.ItissaidtobetheritualsingingoftheAshtapadisontheflightofsteps
leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragasthe raga and talaconforming to
thebhava,rasaanddancepatterns(nrittaandnatya).TheorchestrawhichisalsousedinothertraditionalperformingartsofKerala,
normallycomprisestheChenda,Maddalam,Chengila,Ilathalam,IdakkaandShankhu.
Ilakiattamisthatpartoftheperformancewhenthecharactersgetanopportunitytodemonstratetheirexcellenceinabhinaya.Forthe
most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity to the words in
thepadamssungbytheaccompanyingmusicians.
ThankstotheservicedonebythepoetVallathol,thisclassicaldanceformreceivedanewimpetusandtodaymanyinnovationsarealso
beingmadetosuittheneedsofachangingsociety.
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KuchipudiDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances KuchipudiDance
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance Kuchipudi
KathakDance
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance
SattriyaDance
MohiniyattamDance
KuchipudiisoneoftheclassicalstylesofIndiandance.Aroundthethirdandfourth

decadeofthiscenturyitemergedoutofalongrichtraditionofdancedramaofthe
2.MusicofIndia samename.
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments
Basicstandingposition,

maleandfemalecharacter
TheatreForms

PuppetForms

In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35 km. from Vijayawada.
AndhrahasaverylongtraditionofdancedramawhichwasknownunderthegenericnameofYakshagaana.In17thcentury
Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary who had the
capacitytogiveconcreteshapetosomeofhisvisions.HewassteepedintheliteraryYakshagaanatraditionbeingguidedby
hisguruTeerthanaaraayanaYogiwhocomposedtheKrishnaLeelatarangini.akaavyainSanskrit.
Nrittapuredance
ItissaidthatSiddhendraYogihadadreaminwhichLordKrishnaaskedhimtocomposeadancedramabasedonthe
myth of the bringing of paarijaataflowerforSathyabhaama, the most beloved queen of Krishna. In compliance
with this command Siddhendra Yogi composed the Bhaamaakalaapam which is till now considered the piece
deresistanceoftheKuchipudirepertoire.SiddhendraYogiinitiatedyoungBrahminboysofKuchipudivillagetopractice
and perform his compositions particularly Bhaamaakalaapam. The presentation of Bhaamaakalaapam was a
stupendoussuccess.ItsaestheticappealwassogreatthatthethenNawabofGolconda,AbdulHasanTanishahissued
a copper plate in 1675 A.D. granting the village Kuchipudi as an Agrahaarama to the families of Brahmins who
pursuedthisart.Atthattimealltheactorsweremaleandthefemaleimpersonationwasofasuperbquality.Tohave
an idea of the high standard of female impersonation one should see Vedaantam Satyanarayana Sharma, a great
Kuchipudidancer,eventodaydoingtheroleofSatyabhaama.
Nrittahasta,Angikaabhinaya
The followers of Siddhendra Yogi wrote several plays and the tradition of Kuchipudi dancedrama continues till today. It was
Lakshminarayan Shastry (18861956) who introduced many new elements including solo dancing and training of female
dancersinthisdancestyle.
Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate sequences. 'At times, even though the
dramaticsituationdidnotdemand,solodancingwasbeingpresentedtopunctuatethepresentationandtoenhancetheappeal.
OnesuchnumberistarangaminspiredbytheKrishnaleelataranginiofTeerthanarayanaYogi.
Satyabhama
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To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies, techniques like
dancingontherimofabrassplateandwithapitcherfullofwaterontheheadwasintroduced.Acrobaticdancing
becamepartoftherepertoire.Bythemiddleofthiscentury,Kuchipudifullycrystallizedasaseparateclassicalsolo
dancestyle.ThustherearenowtwoformsofKuchipudithetraditionalmusicaldancedramaandthesolodance.
SyanditaAdavu
Fromthelaterpartofthefourthdecadeofthiscenturyasequenceofthepresentationofthesolorecitalhasbeen
widely accepted. A recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other classical dance
styles. Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesha Vandana. Now other gods are also invoked. It is followed
bynritta,thatis,nonnarrativeandabstractdancing.Usuallyjatiswaramisperformedasthenrittanumber.Nextis
presented a narrative number called shabdam. One of the favourite traditional shabdam number is
theDashaavataara.TheShabdamisfollowedbyanatyanumbercalledKalaapam.ManyKuchipudidancersprefer
to perform entry of Satyabhama from the traditional dancedrama Bhaamaakalaapam. The song "bhamane,
satyabhamane,thetraditionalpraveshadaaru(thesongthatisrenderedatthetimeoftheentryofacharacter)isso
tunefulthatitsappealisuniversalandeverfresh.Nextinthesequencecomesapurenrityaabhinayanumberbased
on literarycum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc. In such a number each of the sung words is
delineated in space through dance, drishyakavita (visual poetry). A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with
tarangam.ExcerptsofKrishnaleelataranginiaresungwiththisnumber.Inthisthedancerusuallystandsona
brassplatelockingthefeetinshakatavadanampaadaandmovestheplaterhythmicallywithgreatdexterity. SthitaavartaAdavu
ThemusicthataccompaniesthedanceisaccordingtotheclassicalschoolofCarnaticmusicandisdelightfullysyncopatic.Theaccompanyingmusicians,
besidesthevocalistare:amridangamplayertoprovidepercussionmusic,aviolinorveenaplayerorbothforprovidinginstrumentalmelodicmusic,
andacymbalplayerwhousuallyconductstheorchestraandrecitesthesollukattus(mnemonicrhythmsyllables).
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ManipuriDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances ManipuriDance
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
Manipuri
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance Manipuri, one of the main styles of Indian Art or Classical
Dancesoriginated in the picturesque and secluded state of Manipur in the
OdissiDance
northeastern corner of India. Because of its geographical location, the
KuchipudiDance people of Manipur have been protected from outside influences, and this
SattriyaDance regionhasbeenabletoretainitsuniquetraditionalculture.
MohiniyattamDance
The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go
2.MusicofIndia beyondrecordedhistory.ThedanceinManipurisassociatedwithritualsand
traditional festivals, there are legendary references to the dances of Shiva
andParvatiandothergodsandgoddesseswhocreatedtheuniverse.
RegionalMusic LaiHaraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which
MusicalInstruments hasitsrootsinthepreVaishnaviteperiod.LaiHaraobaistheearliestform KhuningKaulhokpa,basicstance
of dance which forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur. Literally
meaning the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as a ceremonial
offering of song and dance. The principal performers are
TheatreForms themaibasandmaibis(priestsandpriestesses)whoreenactthetheme
ofthecreationoftheworld.
PuppetForms

WiththearrivalofVaishnavisminthe15thcenturyA.D.,newcompositionsbasedonepisodesfromthelifeofRadha
andKrishnaweregraduallyintroduced.ItwasinthereignofKingBhagyachandrathatthepopularRasleeladances
ofManipuroriginated.Itissaid,thatthis18thcenturyphilosopherkingconceivedthiscompletedanceformalong
with its unique costume and music in a dream. Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and melodic
compositionswereintroduced.
Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the Sankirtanaand
theThangTa.TherearefiveprincipalRasdancesofwhichfourarelinkedwithspecificseasons,whilethefifthcan
bepresentedatanytimeoftheyear.InManipuriRas,themaincharactersareRadha,Krishnaandthegopis.
RadhaandKrishna
The themes often depict the pangs of separation of the gopis and Radha from Krishna. The parengs or pure dance sequences performed in
theRasleeladancesfollowthespecificrhythmicpatternsandbodymovements,whicharetraditionallyhandeddown.TheRascostumeconsistsofa
richlyembroideredstiffskirtwhichextendstothefeet.
Ashortfinewhitemuslinskirtiswornoverit.Adarkcolouredvelvetblousecoverstheupperpartofthebodyandatraditionalwhiteveiliswornovera
specialhairdowhichfallsgracefullyovertheface.Krishnawearsayellowdhoti,adarkvelvetjacketandacrownofpeacockfeathers.Thejewelleryis
verydelicateandthedesignsareuniquetotheregion.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is

known as Sankirtana in Manipur. The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal
whiledancing.ThemasculineaspectofdancetheCholomsareapartofthe
Sankirtana tradition. The Pung and Kartal choloms are performed at all social
andreligiousfestivals.
PungCholam KartalCholam
Today, Manipur has an evolved and sophisticated

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ThemartialdancersofManipurtheThangtahavetheir ICSETS repertoire of martial dances, the dancers use swords,
origins in the days when man's survival depended on his spears and shields. Real fight scenes between the
abilitytodefendhimselffromwildanimals. dancers show an extensive training and control of the
body.
ThangTa
Manipuridanceincorporatesboththetandavaandlasyaandrangesfromthemostvigorousmasculinetothesubduedandgracefulfeminine.Generally
knownforitslyricalandgracefulmovements,Manipuridancehasanelusivequality.Inkeepingwiththesubtlenessofthestyle,Manipuriabhinayadoes
notplayupthemukhabhinayaverymuchthefacialexpressionsarenaturalandnotexaggeratedsarvangabhinaya,ortheuseofthewholebody
toconveyacertainrasa,isitsforte.
The rhythmic complexities are usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this
interfereswiththedelicatebodymovements.However,Manipuridanceandmusichasahighlyevolvedtalasystem.
TheManipuriclassicalstyleofsingingiscalledNatverydifferentfrombothnorthandsouthIndianmusic,this
styleisimmediatelyrecognizablewithitshighpitchedopenthroatedrenderingwithparticulartypeoftrillsand
modulations. The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum. There are also many
other kinds of drums used in Manipuri dance and music. The Pena, a stringed instrument is used in Lai
HaraobaandPenasinging.VariouskindsofcymbalsareusedinSankirtanaandRas.Thefluteisalsousedto
accompanyvocalsinging.
TheAshtapadisofJayadeva'sGeetaGovindaareverypopularandaresunganddancedinManipurwithgreat
religiousfervour.
BesidestheRasandotherleelas,eachstageinone'slifeiscelebratedwithSankirtanaperformances child
birth,upanayanam, wedding and shradha are all occasions for singing and dancing in Manipur. The whole
Musicians communityparticipatesassonganddanceformpartofdailylifeexpressions.
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OdissiDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances OdissiDance

1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
Odissi
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance
SattriyaDance
MohiniyattamDance

2.MusicofIndia

CarnaticClassicalMusic Sculpturalrelief,Dancers,SunTemple,
RegionalMusic Konarak,Odisha
MusicalInstruments

TheatreForms Odisha, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.
Sensuousandlyrical,Odissiisadanceofloveandpassiontouchingonthedivineandthehuman,thesublime
4.PuppetFormsofIndia and the mundane. The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the southeastern style
knownastheOdhraMagadhawhichcanbeidentifiedastheearliestprecursorofpresentdayOdissi.
PuppetForms

Archaeologicalevidenceofthisdanceformdatingbacktothe2ndcenturyB.C.isfoundinthecavesofUdayagiriandKhandagirinearBhubaneshwar.
Later,innumerableexamplesoftheBuddhistsculptures,thetantricimagesofdancingYoginis,theNataraja,andothercelestialmusiciansanddancersof
earlyShaivitetemplesbeartestimonytoacontinuingtraditionofdancefromthe2ndcenturyB.C.Etothe10thcenturyC.E.Theseinfluencesfound
synthesis in an unique philosophy the dharma or faith of Jagannath. With Hinduism taking roots in Odisha by about the 7th century A.D., many
imposingtempleswereerected.ThemagnificentSunTempleatKonarak,builtinthe13thcentury,withitsNatyamandaporHallofdance,marksthe
culminationofthetemplebuildingactivityinOdisha.Thesedancemovements,frozeninstone,continuetoinspireOdissidancerseventoday.
Forcenturiesmahariswerethechiefrepositoriesofthisdance.Themaharis,whowereoriginallytempledancerscameto
be employed in royal courts which resulted in the degeneration of the art form. Around this time, a class of boys
calledgotipuasweretrainedintheart,theydancedinthetemplesandalsoforgeneralentertainment.Manyoftoday's
gurusofthisstylebelongtothegotipuatradition.
OdissiisahighlystyliseddanceandtosomeextentisbasedontheclassicalNatyaShastraandtheAbhinayaDarpana.In
fact,ithasderivedagreatdealfromtheAbhinayaDarpanaPrakashabyJadunathaSinha,theAbhinayaChandrikaby
RajmaniPatra,andtheAbhinayaChandrikabyMaheshwaraMahapatra.
As in other parts of India, creative literature inspired the Odissi dancer also and provided the themes for dance. This is
especiallytrueofthe12thcenturyGitaGovindabyJayadeva.Itisaprofoundexampleofthenayakanayikabhavaand
surpassesotherpoemsinitspoeticandstylisticcontent.ThedevotionofthepoetforKrishnapermeatesthroughthework.
AngikaAbhinaya
Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand
gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the
ninerasas.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowkand
theTribhanga.Thechowkisapositionimitatingasquareaverymasculinestancewiththe
weightofthebodyequallybalanced.Thetribhangaisaveryfemininestancewherethebodyis
deflectedattheneck,torsoandtheknees.
ChowkBasicStanding
Tribhangiposition
position
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The torso movement is very important and is an unique feature of ICSETS the Odissi style. With the lower half of the body
remainingstatic,thetorsomovesfromonesidetotheotheralongtheaxispassingthroughthecentreoftheupperhalfof
the body. Great training is required for this control so as to avoid any shoulder or hip movement. There are certain foot
positions with flat, toe or heel contact. These are used in a variety of intricate combinations. There are also numerous
possibilitiesoflegmovements.Almostalllegmovementsarespiralorcircular,whetherinspaceorontheground.
In addition to the leg movement, there are a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and jumps and also certain postures
inspiredbythesculptures.Thesebhangis,astheyarecalledarereallyunitsofmovementendinginoneparticularstance.
Hand gestures play an important role both in nritta where they are used only as decorative embellishments and
innrityawheretheyareusedforcommunication.
The formal repertoire of Odissi has a certain order of presentation, where each successive item is systematically put
togethertoproducethedesiredrasa.
TheopeningitemisMangalacharanwherethedancerslowlyentersthestagewithflowersinherhandsandmakesan Hastamudraforbee
offeringtomotherearth.Thisisfollowedbyaninvocationtothedeityofthedancer'schoice.Generally,Ganeshaiscalled hoveringoveraflower
upontograntanauspiciousbeginning.TheitemendswithanrittasequencewithsalutationstoGod,theGuruandthe
audience.
The next item is called Batu where the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the
dualityofthemasculineandthefemininethroughthebasicstanceofthechaukandtribhanga.Thisisdancedinpraise
ofBatukeshwarBhairavorShiva.Theaccompanyingmusicisverysimpleonlyarefrainofdancesyllables.
After the very basic exposition of nritta in Batu, comes the flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in
Pallavi.Amusicalcompositioninaparticularragaisvisuallyrepresentedbythedancerwithslowandsubtlemovements,
buildingupintocomplexpatternshighlightingrhythmicvariationswithinthetalastructure.
This is followed by the rendering of abhinaya. Odisha has a continuing tradition of dancing of theAshtapadis of
Jayadeva'sGitaGovindasincethe12thcentury.ThelyricismofthispoemisparticularlysuitedtotheOdissistyle.Apart
fromtheGitaGovinda,thecompositionsofotherOdiyapoetslikeUpendraBhanja,BaladevaRatha,BanamaliandGopal
Krishnaarealsosung.
Hastamudraforplayingflute
The concluding item of the repertoire, which may consist of more than one pallavi and items based
onabhinaya, is called moksha. Pakhawaj syllables are recited and the dance moves from slow to quick
sequencestoreachaclimax,whenthedancerpaysthefinalobeisance.
An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a flutist,
asitarorviolinplayerandamanjiraplayer.
The dancer is adorned in elaborate Odiya silver jewellery and a special hairdo. The sari, usually stitched
nowadays,isuniquetothestyle.
Ineachperformance,evenamodernOdissidancerstillreaffirmsthefaithofthedevadasisormahariswhere Dancerwithmusicians
theysoughtliberationormokshathroughthemediumofdance.
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SattriyaDance
Resources PerformingArts ClassicalDances SattriyaDance

1.DancesofIndia
Sattriya
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the
greatVaishnavasaintandreformerofAssam,MahapurushaSankaradeva
ManipuriDance
asapowerfulmediumforpropagationoftheVaishnavafaith.Thedance
OdissiDance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on. This
KuchipudiDance neoVaishnava treasure of Assamese dance and drama has been, for
SattriyaDance centuries,nurturedandpreservedwithgreatcommitmentbytheSattras
MohiniyattamDance i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries. Because of its religious character
and association with the Sattras, this dance style has been aptly named
Sattriya.
2.MusicofIndia
HindustaniClassicalMusic Sankaradeva introduced this dance form by incorporating different
CarnaticClassicalMusic elements from various treatises, local folk dances with his own rare
RegionalMusic outlook.ThereweretwodanceformsprevalentinAssambeforetheneo
Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali and Devadasi with many classical
MusicalInstruments elements.TwovarietiesofOjapalidancesarestillprevalentinAssami.e.
SukananniorMaroiGoaOjahandVyahGoaOjah.SukananniOjapaaliis
3.TheatreFormsofIndia of Sakti cult and Vyah Goa Oja paali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva
TheatreForms includedVyahGoaOjahintohisdailyritualsinSattra.TillnowVyahGoaDancersdancingwithdrumsandcymbals
OjahisapartofritualsoftheSattrasofAssam.ThedancersinaOjapaali
chorusnotonlysinganddancebutalsoexplainthenarrationbygestures
and stylized movements. As far as Devadasi dance is concerned,
PuppetForms resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures
along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the
influenceoftheformeronthelatter.OthervisibleinfluencesonSattriya
dancearethosefromAssamesefolkdancesnamelyBihu,Bodosetc.Many
handgesturesandrhythmicsyllablesarestrikinglysimilarinthesedance
forms.
Sattriyadancetraditionisgovernedbystrictlylaiddownprinciplesinrespectofhastamudras,footworks,aharyas,musicetc.Thistradition,hastwo
distinctlyseparatestreamstheBhaonarelatedrepertoirestartingfromtheGayanBhayanarNachtotheKharmanarNach,secondlythedancenumbers
whichareindependent,suchasChali,RajaghariaChali,Jhumura,NaduBhangietc.AmongthemtheChaliischaracterizedbygracefulnessandelegance,
whiletheJhumuraismarkedbyvigorandmajesticbeauty.
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Resources PerformingArts HindustaniClassicalMusic

1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance Throughouttheages,manhassoughttoexpressthestirringsofhissoul,thesearchforsomethingbeyondthe
KathakaliDance mundanethroughthemediumofthearts.
KathakDance
Theevolutionofpoetry,paintingandothervisualartshasbeenpreservedonstone,leavesandpaperbutmusic
ManipuriDance beingauditory,nosuchevidenceexists.Assuchitisnotpossibletolistentodaytothemusicoftheancienttimes.
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance Inspiteofsuchavarietyofculturalinteractions,ourmusichasremainedessentiallymelodic.Inmelody,onenote
followstheother,makingforacontinuedunityofeffect,whereasinharmonymusicalsoundsaresuperimposed
SattriyaDance
ononeanother.Ourclassicalmusichasretaineditsmelodicquality.
MohiniyattamDance
Todaywerecognisetwosystemsofclassicalmusic:theHindustaniandtheCarnatic.Carnaticmusicisconfinedto
2.MusicofIndia Karnataka,AndhraPradesh,TamilNaduandKerala.Theclassicalmusicoftherestofthecountrygoesunderthe
HindustaniClassicalMusic name,HindustaniClassicalMusic.Ofcourse.therearesomeareasinKarnatakaandAndhrawheretheHindustani
Classicalsystemisalsopracticed.Karnatakahasgivenusintherecentpastsomeverydistinguishedmusiciansof
theHindustanistyle.
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments It is generally believed that the music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th century. Later it
bifurcatedintothetwomusicalsystems.
3.TheatreFormsofIndia ThepresentIndianmusichasgrownfromancienttimes.Almosteverytribeorpeoplehavelenttheirownsharein
TheatreForms thisgrowth.Whattherefore,wenowcallaragamighthavestartedasatribalorfolktune.

PuppetForms

It is usual to begin the history of Indian music with the melodic patterns of vedic chanting. The oldest
music,whichpossessedagrammarwasthevedic.Ofcourse,theRigVedaissaidtobetheoldest:nearly
5000yearsold.ThepsalmsoftheRigVedawerecalledtherichas.TheYajurVeda was also a religious
chant.ButactualmusicinNorthernorSouthernIndia,ofthosebygonedayscouldnothaveonlybeenof
thiskind.TherewerenonAryanpeoplewiththeirownart.Forinstance,SanthalmusicfromtheEastern
regionofIndiamayhavebeenpasseddownfromthem.Whilethedifferencesareobvious,thereisnodoubt
thatsuchmusicofthepeoplecontributedtotheformationofwhatwenowcallHindustaniClassicalMusic.
NatyaShastraofBharataisanotherimportantlandmarkinthehistoryofIndianmusic.Itissupposedtohavebeenwrittensometimebetweenthe2nd
century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. Some scholars are even doubtful whether it is the work of one author and the work might well have been a
compendium at least, the version which is available to us. The Natya Shastra is a comprehensive work mainly dealing with dramaturgy. But a few
chapters of this deal with music. Therein we get information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments. The then contemporary music
recognized two standard scales. These were called gramas.Thewordgrama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect: a village, for
instance. This probably lead to a set of svaras or notes being calledgrama. This could roughly be translated as scales. There were then
twogramasprevalent.OnewascalledtheShadjagrama,theotheronewastheMadhyamagrama.Thedifferencebetweenthetwowasonlyinone
note, the panchama. To speak more accurately. we say that the panchama in madhyama grama was one sruti lower than
thepanchamainshadjagrama.
Thesrutithusistheunitofmeasureorsmalldifferencebetweenthevariousconsecutivepitcheswithinagrama
orascale.Forallpracticalpurposestheyaresaidtobetwentytwo.Thisisonlyasfaraspracticalenumerationis
concerned.justaswewouldsaythattherearesevennotesinanoctaveorsaptakfromSatoupperSa.Butin
realitythenumberofsrutisemployedinIndianmusicisinfinite.
GettingbacktogramasinBharata'stime,thereweretwo,withsevennoteseach.Bharataalsomentionstwoother
note:theseweretheantaragandharaandkakalinishada.
Now,fromeachgramasubsidiaryscalesarederived.Thesearecalledmoorcchanas.Thenotesareplayedorsung
inadescendingmanner.Therearesevenbasicnotesinascale,hencetherecanbesevenmoorcchanas.There
weretwogramasandeachhadsevenstandardnotesandtwoauxiliaryones,aswasmentioned.Sinceeachnote
couldgiveamoorcchana, numerous such subsidiary scales could be obtained. It is possible to show that there
could be sixtyfour moorcchanas derivable from two gramas. The process gave different tonal orders within
whichcouldbegroupedorfromwhichcouldbeevolved,allknownclassicalmelodiesofthosedays.Thiscondition
remained for many centuries. In approximately the 13th century A.D. Sarangadeva whose forefathers hailed
from Kashmir settled in South India and wrote his monumental Sangeeta Ratankara. He also described
technicaltermssuchasgramasandmoorcchanas.Thestandardscaleswerestillthesame.ButwhereasBharata
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mentionstwoauxiliarysvaras,thenumberanddefinitionofthesewereverydifferentinmedievaltimes.
The whole scheme, what is often called the modal music, seems so strange to us now. But there is no doubting the fact that it was a very highly
advancedandascientificone.
Fromaboutthe11thcentury,musicfromCentralandWestAsiabegantoinfluenceourmusictradition.Graduallythisinfluencetookadeeperrootand
manychangestookplace.Ofthese,animportantoneisthedisappearanceofgramasandmoorcchanas.
Sometime around about the 15th century, this process of change became manifest, the grama system became obsolete. The concept
ofmelaorthatatakesitsplace.Inthisthereisonlyonestandardscale.AllknownnotesarereferredtoacommonnoteSa.
Byaboutthe18thcenturyeventhestandardorshuddhasvarainHindustanimusicbecomesdifferent.Thefollowingisthecurrentone,acceptedfrom
the18thcentury.
Saregamapadhani
ThisisthemelaaarohofthemodernragaBilaval.Besidesthesesevenshuddhanotesorsvarastherearefivevariants,makinginalltwelvenotestoa
saptak.
Sareregagamamapadhadhanini
Thereare,ofcourse,finervariations:thesearetheshrutis,Itisbetter,therefore,tocallthese12tonalregionsratherthannotes.
Allknownragasaregroupedwithinthistwelvetonescale.Indeed.itwasaCarnaticmusicologistVenkatmukhiofthe
17th century, who gave a system of 72 melas formed out of these twelve tones. Later on, in the 20th century, Pt.
Bhatkhande,chose10outofthe72toclassifyHindustaniragas.
Sofarwehavebeenspeakingofscales:thegrama,moorcchanaandmela.Theseareobviouslyconceptsdevelopedaftermelodieswereborn.Nofolk
singer thinks of a grama or a mela. The tribal and folk songs existed and still exist without a conscious grammar. It is the musicologist who later
classifiesmelodiesorragasintoscales.
We shall now turn our attention to the melodic structures. Again it is to the Vedas that we must turn for the first codified melody. In theNatya
ShastraofBharataarefounddescriptionsofmelodicformscalledjati.Howtheyweresungorplayed,wehavenoideabutsomesalientpointscanbe
calledfromNatyaShastraandlatercommentaries.Everyoneofthesejatiscouldbeputinsomemoorcchanaortheother.Theyweredistinguishedby
characteristicslikethegraha(startingnote)nyasa (note on which a phrase stops). the range of notes from low pitch to high and so on. Many
scholarsareoftheopinionthattheconceptofragawhichissobasictoourmusic,wasbornanddevelopedoutofjati.Themajorworkdealingwith
theragaistheBrihaddesiofMatanga.Theworkisdatedaroundthe6thcentury,A.D.Bythistime,theideaofthe raga as a melodic scheme had
becomeclearandwelldefined.MatangawasfromthesouthernareasofIndia,tobespecifichewasfromCarnatic.Thisshowsthatuptothisera,at
least,thegrammarofIndianmusicwasmoreorlessonethroughoutthecountry.Secondly,whathedealswithisdesimusic.Thatiswhyhehadtitled
theworkBrihaddesi.
AcharacteristiccontributionofIndiatomusicalrhythmisthetala.Talaisacyclicarrangementoftimeunits.Thebasicunitsoftimedivisionarelaghu,
guru,andpluta.Theseareactuallyderivedfrompoeticprosody.Laghucomprisesonesyllable,gurutwo,andplutathree.Therearealsolargerunits.
Bharata'sNatyaShastragivesdetailsofconstructionoftalaoutofvarioustimeunits,howtheyshouldbeplayedandsoon.Laterauthorsdevelopeda
scheme of 108 talas. Besides some ancient talas new ones, as for example, Firdost, seem to have entered Hindustani music. The most important
aspectofplayingthetalaintheHindustanisystemhasbeenthedevelopmentoftheideasoftheka.ThistechniqueischaracteristicofHindustanimusic.
Athekaisthedefinitionofatalabythestrokeofatabla.Eachstrokeonthedrumhasanamecalledabolorsyllable.Forinstance,dha,ta,ghe.etc.
Inanylanguageonecanhaveanepic,asonnet,alyric,ashortstoryandsoon.Similarly,givenaragaandatala,variousmusicalformshavebeen
created.Rightfromancienttimes,musicalformscanbedividedintotwobroadcategories.Theseweretheanibaddhaandthenibaddhasangeeta.The
firstmaybecalledtheopenorfreeformandthesecondastheclosedorboundform.
Anibaddhasangeetaisonewhichisnotrestrictedbymeaningfulwordsandtala.Itisafreeimprovisation.Thefinestformisthealap.
Ofthenibaddha variety, there are many. The earliest about which some knowledge is available is the prabandhagiti.Indeed,prabandha is often
usedasagenerictermtoindicateanynibaddhasongormusicalcomposition.Wehavelittleevidenceoftheseclosedforms,exceptthattheywereset
to definite ragas and talas. Of all known prabandhas those of Jayadeva are the best known. This poet lived in Bengal in the 12th century and
composedhisGitaGovinda,aSanskritworkwithsongsandverses.Thesongsareashtapadis:thatis,eachsonghaseightcouplets.Today,thesongs
have spread throughout the country and each region has its own style. As a matter of fact, singers have taken the liberty of giving
theprabandhastheirowntunes.Inthefaceofthis,itisimpossibletodeterminetheoriginaltunesoftheashtapadis.
ThepopularityofJayadeva'sGitaGovindaisduetomanyreasons.Thefirst,naturallyistheintrinsicpoetic
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beauty of the work almost unequalled. It also lent itself to dance and any conceivable style of music.
Again, it was in Sanskrit, thus transcending many linguistic barriers. Besides all this, the greatest
significantforcesustainingitisbhakti.Bhaktioradorationisasoldasman.Itreallyisastateofmind
beseechingtheLord.
WhiletheGodheadtakesonmanyformstothebhakta,asShivaorasParabrahmatheBhagavata,asthestoryofthetenavatarasofSriVishnu,has
capturedtheIndianmind.Roundthiswerewovensongsandhymns,preachingsandpsalmsofthesetwotravelledinwavestoNorthIndiatogiveus
singersaintslikeJayadeva,Chaitanya,Sankardeva,Kabir,Tulsi,Meera,Tukaram,Eknath,NarsiandNanak.Thisbhaktimovementengulfedallreligions
andclassesincludingthesufis.Ithasgivenusnumerousdevotionalformssuchasabhangas,kirtans,bhajans,baulsongs.
The next great formal aspect in Nibaddha Sangeet is met within the Dhrupad. It is believed to have been a further elaboration of
theprabandhastructure.Whileitmighthavehadanimpetusforpopularityevenbythe14thcentury,itfindsablossomingperiodfrom15thcentury
onwardstoaboutthe18thcentury.Duringthesecenturieswemeetthemostrespectedandrenownedsingersandpatronsofthisform.TherewasMan
SinghTomar,theMaharajaofGwalior.Itwashewhowasmainlyresponsiblefortheenormousvogueofdhrupad.TherewereBaiju,Bakshuandothers.
SwamiHaridasaahermitofBrindavanwasnotonlyadhrupadiya,butoneofthemostcentralfiguresintheBhakticultintheNorthernareasofIndia.
BytraditionhewastheguruofTansen,oneofthebestknowndhrupadsingersandoneoftheninejewelsofEmperorAkbar'scourt.
Instructuredhrupadhastwoparts,theanibaddhasectionandthesancharidhrupadproper.Thefirstisfreealap.Thedhrupadproperisasonginfour
parts:theasthayee,theantara,theSanchariandtheabhoga.
Theessentialqualityofthedhrupadicapproachisitssombreatmosphereandemphasisonrhythm.
Therewerefourschoolsorvanisofsingingthedhrupad.TheGauharvanidevelopedtheragaorunadornedmelodicfigures.TheDagarvaniemphasized
melodiccurvesandgraces.TheKhandarvanispecialisedinquickornamentationofthenotes.Nauharvaniwasknownforitsbroadmusicalleapsand
jumps.Thesevanis'arenowindistinguishable.
Thedhrupad is even now highly respected and can be heard on the concert platform but more often in temples of North India. Thedhrupad has
somewhatrecededtothebackgroundandisnotsopopularwiththemasses.TheBeenandPakhawajwhichwerecloselyassociatedwiththedhrupad
alsodonotfindmuchpatronagethesedays.
TodaytheprideofplaceinclassicalHindustaniMusicisoccupiedbytheKhyal.Wearereallynotsureaboutthebeginningofthe
Khyal.Thewordisalienandmeans'imagination'.Andasyouwillfindwhenyouhearitismorelyricalthanthedhrupad.But
whetherthemusicalformitselfisforeign.isamatterofdoubt.Somescholarsareoftheopinionthatinfact,ithasitsrootsin
theancientIndianroopakaalaps.ItisalsosaidthatAmirKhusrouofthe13thcenturygaveitanimpetus.SultanMohammed
Sharkhiofthe15thcenturyiscreditedwithencouragingthisform.However,itattaineditsmaturityatthehandsofNiyamat
KhanSadarangandAdarangofthe18thcentury.
Assungtoday,thekhyalhastwovarieties:thesloworvilambitkhyalandthefastordrutkhyal.Informbotharesimilar,theyhavetwosections
theasthayee and the antara. The vilambit is sung in slow tempo and the drut at a faster speed. In technique. the exposition is less grave than
thedhrupad.Therearemoredelicategamkasandornamentations.
Both types of khyals have two sections. The asthayee and the antara. The asthayee mostly confines itself to the low and middle
octaves.Theantaragenerallymovesinthemiddleandupperoctaves.Together asthayee and antaramake one song, a composition, or bandish,
'cheez'asitiscalled.Asatotalworkitrevealstheessenceoftheragainwhichitisset.
Comparabletothevanisofthedhrupads,wehavegharanas,inthekhyal.Theseareschoolsofsingingfoundedordevelopedbyvariousindividuals
orpatronssuchaskingsornoblemen.
TheoldestoftheseistheGwaliorgharana.ThefatherofthisschoolwasoneNathanPeerbaksh,whosettleddowninGwalior,andhencethename.He
had two grandsons Haddu Khan and Hassu Khan who lived in the 19th century and were regarded as great masters of this style. The qualities of
thisgharanaareanopenvoiceclearenunciationofwords,acomprehensiveattentiontoraga.svaraandtala.Someoftheprominentmusiciansof
thisgharanaareKrishnaRaoShankarPandit,RajaBhaiyaPoonchwaleetc.
TheAgraGharanaissaidtohavebeenfoundedbyoneKhudaBakshofAgra.HehadstudiedwithNathanPeerbakshofGwalior,butdevelopedhisown
style.Hereagainthevoiceisopenandclear,aspecialityofthisgharanaisitsboltaan:thatis,afastormediumlayakaripassageusingthebolsor
wordsofthesong.Thesongitselfisrenderedinmediumtempo.OfthemostwellknownmusiciansofthisgharanainrecenttimesareVilayatHussain
KhanandFayyazKhan.
TheJaipurAtroligharanaissaidtotakeoffdirectlyfromdhrupad.ItisassociatedwithAlladiyaKhanofthe19th20th
century. The khyal is always in medium speed. The words are pronounced clearly and in an open and clear voice. The
distinguishingcharactersarethepassageswhichareprimarilybasedonalankarsthatis.repetitivemelodicmotifsand
an almost metronomic insistence of tala division. Some of the prominent musicians of recent times are Mallikarjun
Mansur,KishoriAmonkaretc.
FinallywecometotheRampurSaheswangharana.SincetheearliersingerscamefromRampurinUttarPradesh,thisschoolhascometobecalledso.
TheslowandfastKhayalsusuallyarefollowedbyaTarana.Thestyleisverylyricalandfulloffinertonalembroidery.NisarHussainKhan,RashidKhan
arethetwoprominentmusiciansofrecenttimesbelongingtothisgharana.
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ThumriandTappa are popular types heard in concerts. The thumri is very lyrical in its structure and presentation.
Theseformsaretermedas'semi'or'light'classical.Thumriisalovesongandhencethetextualbeautyisveryimportant.
Thisiscloselycoordinatedwiththemusicalrendition.Andkeepinginminditsmoodathumriisusuallysettoragaslike
Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical grammar is not strictly adered to. There are two styles of thumri
singing:thePooraborBanaraswhichisfairlyslowandstaidandthePunjabstylewhichismoremercurial.RasoolanDevi,
SiddheshwariDeviareprominentmusiciansofthisstyle.
TheTappaconsistsofthesongutteredinfastnotepatterns.Itisadifficultcompositionandneedsmuchpractice.BoththeThumriandTapparequire
specialtrainingasdotheDhrupadandKhyalformsofsinging.RagasinwhichTappacompositionsaresetremainsameasinThumristyle.Pt.L.K.
Pandit,MaliniRajurkararenameswhospecializethisformofsinging.
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Resources PerformingArts CarnaticClassicalMusic
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance ThehistoryofthesystemofmusicthatprevailedinIndiafromancienttimes,goesbacktotheVedas.TheIndian
ManipuriDance musical system shows to what heights the genius of man could soar in quest of new forms of musical
OdissiDance expression. Apart from its entertainment value, music was cherished and practised for its quality of lifting
KuchipudiDance mankindtoanoblerplane,enablingthesoultoattaineternalbliss.Theperfecttonesystemandtheextensive
ragaandtalasystemsofIndianmusic,makeitcomparablewithanyothersophisticatedmusicalsystemofthe
SattriyaDance
world.
MohiniyattamDance
TheearliesttreatisewehaveonmusicistheNatyaSastraofBharata.OthertreatisesonmusicafterBharata,
2.MusicofIndia such as the Brihaddesi of Matanga, Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva, Sangeet Sudhakara of Haripala,
HindustaniClassicalMusic SwaramelakalanidhiofRamamatya,etc.,provideusafundofinformationaboutthedifferentaspectsofmusic
anditsdevelopmentduringthedifferentperiods.
RegionalMusic TheancientTamilsofSouthIndiahadalsodevelopedanhighlyevolvedsystemofmusicwithitssolfamethods,
MusicalInstruments concordantanddiscordantnotes,scalesandmodes,etc.Anumberofinstrumentswerealsousedtoaccompany
songanddance.TheTamilclassicofthe2ndcenturyA.D.titledtheSilappadhikaramcontainsavividdescription
of the music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the contributions of the Saivite and Vaishnavite
3.TheatreFormsofIndia saintsofthe7thand8thcenturiesA.D.alsoserveasresourcematerialforstudyingmusicalhistory.
TheatreForms

PuppetForms

ThecourseoftheevolutionofIndianmusicsawtheemergenceoftwodifferentsubsystemsasHindustaniandCarnaticmusic.InHaripala's"Sangeeta
Sudhakara",writteninthe14thcenturyA.D.,thetermsCarnaticandHindustaniarefoundforthefirsttime.Thetwodistinctstyles,Hindustaniand
CarnaticcameintovogueaftertheadventoftheMuslims,particularlyduringthereignoftheMughalEmperorsofDelhi.Boththesystemsofmusic
received their nourishment from the same original source. Whereas the Indian music of the Northern part of India assimilated some features of the
musicofthePersianandArabicmusicianswhoadornedthecourtsoftheMughalrulersofDelhi,themusicoftheSouthcontinuedtodevelopalongits
ownoriginallines.ButthefundamentalaspectsofboththesystemsoftheNorthandSouthhavebeenthesame.
Itissaid,thatSouthIndianMusic,asknowntoday,flourishedinDeogirithecapitalcityoftheYadavasinthemiddleages,andthataftertheinvasion
and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign of
Krishnadevaraya.Thereafter,themusicofSouthIndiacametobeknownasCarnaticMusic.
TheadventofPurandaradasa,intheyear1484,markedaveryimportantlandmarkinthedevelopmentofCarnaticmusic.Heeffectedsuchathorough
systematisationandrefinementintheart,that,uptothepresentday,ithasremainedthesame.Hehasbeenjustlytermedas"CarnaticSangeeta
Pitamaha".HewasnotmerelyacomposerbutaLakshanakaraofthehighestcalibre.ThesystemofSouthIndianMusic,aswehaveitnow,isentirely
hisgifttoposterity.HeintroducedtheMalavagowlascaleasthebasicscaleformusicinstruction.Healsoframedgradedexercises,formingpartofthe
seriesoflessonstobeginnersofmusic.Thissystemprevailseventodayintheteachingofmusic.TheSvaravalis,Jantavarisas,theSuladiSaptatala
alankarasandgitams,composedbyPurandaradasa,formthebasisformasteryintheart.Amongthecompositionaltypes,hehastohiscreditnumerous
lakshya gitams and lakshna gitams, tana varnams, tillanas, suladis, ugabhogas, vritta namas and kirtanas. His kirtanas are popularly referred to as
DasaraPadasorDevarnamas.
Movingintothe17thcentury,thehistoryofCarnaticmusicsawtheepochmakingschemeofthe72Melakartas,introducedbyVenkatamakhiandlaid
downinhismonumentalworkChaturdandiPrakasikaintheyear1620A.D.TheMelakartaschemeisahighlycomprehensiveandsystematicformula
whichincludeswithinitsfoldallthemodesusedinancientaswellasmodernsystemsofmusicofthedifferentpartsoftheworld.Theschemeopened
outnewvistasofragacreationandlatercomposerslikeTyagarajainventedmanyabeautifulragabyfollowingit.
Inthefieldofpracticalmusic,SouthIndiahadasuccessionofbrilliantandprolificcomposerswhoenrichedtheartwiththousandsofcompositions.After
Purandaradasa,TallapakamAnnamacharyaNarayanaTirtha,BhadrachalamRamdasaandKshetranjamadecontributionstothewealthofcompositions
ThebirthoftheMusicalTrinityTyagaraja,MuthuswamiDikshitarandSyamaSastriatTiruvarurbetweentheyears1750to1850A.D.usheredinan
eraofdynamicdevelopmentinCarnaticmusic.TheTrinitywerenotonlycontemporariesamongthemselvesbut,alsocontemporariesofgreatcomposers
ofWesternMusic,asBeethoven,Mozart,WagnerandHaydn.Itwasthe'GoldenAge'ofmusicthroughouttheworld.Carnaticmusicreacheditspinnacle
ofartisticexcellenceduringthisperiod.
A galaxy of composers in the postTrinity period kept the banner of Carnatic music flying high. Vina Kuppayyar, Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, Ramnad
SrinivasaIyengar,MysoreSadasivaRao,MysoreVasudevatharandPapanasamSivanareonlyafewnamestobementionedhere.
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TheSangeetaSampradayaPradarsini,writtenbySubbaramaDikshitharintheyear1904,servesasanauthorityforinformationregardingthemusic,
musiciansandcomposersofthepreviouscenturies.
ManyofthemusiciansandcomposersoftheSouthwerecloselyacquaintedwiththeHindustanisystemofmusicalsoandwhereverpermissible,adopted
Hindustaniragasfortheircompositions.TheragasYamanKalyan,HamirKalyan,Malkaunsa,BrindavaniSarang,Jaijaivanti,etc.wereadoptedintheir
compositionsbytheMusicalTrinity.RagaKaphi,Kanada,Khamaj,Paraj,Purvi,Bhairav,etc.bearaverycloseresemblancetotheircounterpartsinthe
Hindustanisystemofmusic.
There are musical forms belonging to Nibadha and Anibadha Sangeeta, that is, Kalpita sangeeta and Manodharma sangeeta or improvised music. All
these forms are generally classified under different heads, as Sacred music, Art music, etc. The several forms under these heads possess distinctive
characteristics of their own. The ancient musical forms like Prabandhas, etc. gradually gave away to the different musicals forms that are in use in
present day music, though the basic elements of the ancient Prabandhas are still retained in the modern forms. The following musical forms offer
interestingstudy:
GITAM
Gitamisthesimplesttypeofcomposition.Taughttobeginnersofmusic,thegitamisverysimpleinconstruction,withaneasyandmelodiousflowof
music.Themusicofthisformisasimplemelodicextensionoftheragainwhichitiscomposed.Thetempoisuniform.Ithasnosectionsdividingone
partofthesongfromtheother.Itissungwithoutrepetitionfromthebeginningtotheend.Therearenointricatevariationsinthemusic.Thethemeof
thesongisusuallydevotional,thoughthereareafewgitasinpraiseofmusicalluminariesandAcharyas.Anotablefeatureofthegitamistheexistence
of gitalankara phrases like a iya, a iyam, va iya, etc., called matrika padas, reminiscent of similar syllables occuring in Sama gana. Gitas have been
composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha. Purandaradasa's introductory gitas in praise of Ganesha, Maheswara and Vishnu, collectively
referredtoasPillarigitas,formtheveryfirstsetofgitastaughttothestudentsofmusic.Asdistinguishedfromthetypeofgitasdescribedabove,known
as Lakshya gitas or Samanya gitas, which, as the name itself suggests, describe the Lakshanas of the raga in which they are composed. Paidala
GurumurtiSastrywasaprolificcomposerofgitasafterPurandaradasa.VenkatamakhitoohascomposedmanyLakshanagitas.
SULADI
Verymuchlikethegitaminmusicalstructureandarrangement,theSuladisareofahigherstandardthanthegitam.TheSuladiisatalamalika,the
sectionsbeingindifferenttalas.Thesahityasyllablesarefewerthaninthegitasandthereisaprofusionofvowelextensions.Thethemeisdevotional.
Suladisarecomposedindifferenttemposvilambita,madhyaanddruta.PurandaradasahascomposedmanySuladis.
SVARAJATI
Thisislearntafteracourseingitams.Morecomplicatedthanthegitas,theSvarajatipavesthewayforthelearningoftheVarnams.Itconsistsofthree
sections,calledPallavi,AnupallaviandCharanam.Thethemeiseitherdevotional,heroicoramorous.Itoriginatedasadanceformwithjatis(tala,solfa
syllablesliketakatarikitanakatatinginatam)taggedon.Butlater,SyamaSastri,oneamongtheMusicalTrinity,composedsvarajatiswithoutjatis,
whicharebrilliantconcertpieces,notedfortheirmusicalvalue.
JATISVARAM
Verysimilartothesvarajatiinmusicalstructure,thisformJatisvaramhasnosahityaorwords.Thepieceissungwithsolfasyllablesonly.Itisnotedfor
itsrhythmicalexcellenceandthejatipatternusedinit.Thisisamusicalformbelongingtotherealmofdancemusic.InsomeJatisvarams,thePallavi
andAnupallaviaresungtojatisandtheCharanasaresungtoamixtureofsvarasandjatis.TherearealsoRagamalikaJatisvarams.
VARNAM
The Varnam is a musical form in Carnatic Music. Whereas musical forms like the Kirtana, Kriti, Javali, Tillana, etc. have their similar counterparts in
HindustaniMusic,theVarnamdoesnotfindacounterpart.TheVarnamisabeautifulcreationofmusicalcraftsmanshipofahighorder,combiningin
itselfallthecharacteristicfeaturesoftheragainwhichitiscomposed.ThisformisaptlycalledaVarnam,sincemanyofthesvaragrouppatternscalled
'Varnas'inancientmusic,aredexterouslyinterwoveninitstexture.PracticeinVarnamsinginghelpsamusiciantoattainmasteryinpresentationand
commandoverraga,talaandbhava.Thevocalistgetsagoodtrainingforthevoiceandtheinstrumentalistagoodmasteryovertechnique.Veryfew
wordsandprofusionofvowelsmarkthesahityaofthisform.Thethemeofthepieceiseitherbhakti(devotion)orsringara(love).
Therearetwotypesofvarnams,onecalledtheTanaVarnamandtheothercalledthePadaVarnam.Whiletheformerisamusical/concertform,the
latterispurelyadanceform.Therearetwoangasorsectionsinavarnam,knownasthePurvangaconstitutingthepallavi,anupallaviandthemuktayi
svaras,andtheUttarangaortheEttukadai,comprisingthecharanamandthecharanasvaras.Thepadavarnamhassahityarnorwordsforalltheangas
unlikethetanavarnamwhichhassahityamonlyforthepallavi,anupallaviandcharanam.
Varnams have been composed in all the major ragas and most of the minor ragas, in all the principal talas. Pachchimiriyam Adiyappayya, Sonti
Venkatsubbayya, Syama Sastri, Swati Tirunal, Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar and Mysore Vasudevachar were prominent
composersofVarnams.
KIRTANAM
TheKirtanamhaditsbirthaboutthelatterhalfofthe14thcentury.Itisvaluedforthedevotionalcontentofthesahitya.Clothedinsimplemusic,the
kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is suited for congregational singing as well as individual presentation. The Talapakam composers of the 15th
centurywerethefirsttocomposekirtanaswiththesections,pallavi,anupallaviandcharanas.Usuallytherearemorethantwocharanasthemusicofall
ofthembeingthesame.Composedinalltheimportanttraditionalragasandsettosimpletalas,thekirtanasoffersoulstirringmusicofthehighestform
ofdevotion.BhadrachalamRamadasaandTyagarajawereprolificcomposersofKirtanams.
KRITI
The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. It is an highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic excellence is reached in the Kriti
composition.Theragabhavaisbroughtoutinalltherichandvariedcoloursinthisform.Itwasonlyaftertheemergenceofthekritiasamusicalform,
thatadefinitestyleinmusicalcompositionsbecameapossibility.Thepallavi,anupallaviandcharanamaretheminimumandessentialangasofakriti.
Thepallaviissungfirst,followedbytheanupallaviandendswiththepallavi.Thecharanamissungnextandlinkedwiththepallavibeforeending.The
CarnaticmusicworldowesitsdebtofgratitudetotheMusicaltrinityforhavingmadesuchamonumentalcontributioninthefieldofnibaddhasangeeta,
intheformofkritis.Therearekritisinalltheexistingragasandinalltheprincipaltalas.Thekritiasamusicalformhasmanyfeaturesincommonwith
theDhrupadofHindustanimusic.MuthuswamyDikshitarhascomposedmanykritisintheDhrupadstyle.
Besidestheessentialangas,manydecorativeangasarealsoappendedtokritisforembellishment.Theyare(a)Chittasvarasorasetofsolfapassages,
sungattheendoftheanupallaviandcharanam,(b)Svarasahityaanappropriatesahityaissuppliedforthechittasvara,(c)Madhyamakalasahitya
anintegralpartofthekriti,(d)Solkattusvararesemblingthechittasvara,thishasjatisalongwithsvaras,(e)Sangativariationsonamusicaltheme,
developedstepbystep,(f)Gamakathedhatuisfloodedwithgamakas,(g)Svaraksharadhatumatualankara,wherethesvaraandthesahityaare
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identical,(h)Manupravalabeautywordsoftwoorthreelanguagesfigureinthesahityaofakriti,(i)ProsodicalbeautieslikePrasa,Anuprasa,Yatiand
YamakaalsofiguremainlyinmanyoftheKritis.
PADA
PadasarescholarlycompositionsinTeleguandTamil.Thoughtheyarecomposedmainlyasdanceforms,theyarealsosunginconcerts,onaccountof
theirmusicalexcellenceandaestheticappeal.Apadamalsohasthesections,pallavi,anupallaviandcharana.Themusicisslowmovinganddignified.
There is a natural flow of music and, sustained balance between the words and the music is maintained throughout. The theme is madhura bhakti,
portrayed as bahir sringara and antar bhakti. The characters nayaka, nayika and sakhi represent respectively the Lord (Paramatma), the Devotees
(jeevatma)andtheGuru,wholeadsthedevoteeontothepathofmukti(liberation)byhissagecounsel.Variousrasasaredepictedinalltheirdelicate
shades,throughsuitableragaswhichreflectsuchrasas.Allthenavarasasareportrayedinpadas,thoughsringaraisthemaintheme.
The pada, when sung, presents an epitome of the raga in which it is composed. Ragas specially noted for evoking typical rasa bhavas, such as
Anandabhairavi,Sahana,Nilambari,Ahiri,Ghanta,Mukhari,Huseni,Surati,SourashtramandPunnagavarali,tomentiononlyafewarespeciallychosen
forpadas.Kshetrajanaisthemostprolificcomposerofpadas.
JAVALI
Ajavaliisacompositionbelongingtothesphereoflightclassicalmusic.Sungbothinconcertprogrammesanddanceconcerts,thejavalisarepopular
becauseoftheattractivemelodiesinwhichtheyarecomposed.Incontrasttothepadaswhichportraydivinelove,javalisaresongswhicharesensuous
inconceptandspirit.Theyaregenerallysetinmadhyamakala.Intheseformsalso,thenayaka,nayikaandsakhifigureisthetheme,but,thereisno
dualinterpretationofthesahitya.Thecatchyandliltingtunesofthejavalisenhancetheirappeal.DesyaragaslikeParaj,Kaphi,Behag,Jhinjhoti,Tilang,
etc. have also been used in these compositions. Javalis are composed in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. This form resembles the Thumris of Hindustani
Music.
TILLANA
The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a dance form, but on account of its brisk and
attractivemusic,itsometimesfindsaplaceinmusicconcertsasaconclusionpiece.Itusuallybeginswithjatis.
ThenameTillanaisconstitutedoftherhythmicsyllables,tilana.Itistheliveliestofmusicalforms.Thisformissaidtohavehaditsbirthinthe18th
century.ThesahityaofatillanamaybeinSanskrit,TeluguorTamil.Thepresenceofrhythmicalsolfasyllablesalongwithasprinklingofsahityaenhance
thebeautyoftheformoftheTillana.ThemusicisofcomparativelyslowtempoinTillanasmeantfordancepurposes.Thepallaviandanupallaviconsists
of jatis and the charana has sahitya, jatis and svaras. Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar, Pallavi Seshayyar and Swati Tirunal are some of the prominent
composersofTillanas.
PALLAVI
This is the most important branch of creative music. It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician has ample opportunities of
displayinghisorhercreativetalents,imaginativeskill,andmusicalintelligence.ThetermPallaviiscoinedfromtheinitialsyllablesofthethreewords:
Padam,meaningwordsLayam,meaningtimeandVinyasam,meaningvariations.ThewordschosenforaPallavimaybeeitherinSanskrit,Teluguor
Tamilandmaybeonanytheme,thoughthedevotionalisalwayspreferred.Neitherthesahityanorthemusicisprecomposed.Thesingerhasthechoice
to choose the sahitya, the raga and the tala. The two parts Prathamangam and Dvityangam are divided by the period of a short pause, called
Padagarbham.Thesahityamisrepeatedagainandagain,asthemusicalvariationsdevelopandproceedinstagesofincreasingcomplexity.TheKhyalof
Hindustani music has very much in common with the Pallavi of Carnatic music. Kalpana svaras are sung to the Pallavi after the different stages of
development,includingtheSangatis,AnulomaandPratiloma(singingthethemeindoubleandquadruplespeedsandviceversa)aresung.Sometimes
thekalpanasvarasaresungindifferentragastopresentaRagamalikaPallavi.
'Niraval ' literally means filling up by adjustments. In musical parlance, it refers to the art of singing the sahitya within the rhythmical setting, with
improvisationsinthemusicaltheme.Asuitablelineofthesahityafromakritiischosenandmusicalimprovisationisdonewithineachcycleofthetala.
NiravalisamustinPallavisandanoptioninKritis.
TANAM
Thisisabranchofragaalapana.ItisragaalapanainMadhyamakalaormediumspeed.Thereisperceptiblerhythminthis.Therhythmicalflowofmusic,
flowinginfascinatingpatterns,makestanamsingingthemostcaptivatingpartofragaexposition.Theword'Anantam'isdexterouslyusedtomerge
withthemusicalpatterns.
TosumuptheoutstandingfeatureofCarnaticmusicisitsragasystem,intheconceptofwhich,theidealor'absolutemusic'isreached,andthehighly
developedandintricatetalasystem,whichhasmadeitextremelyscientificandsystematicanduniqueinallrespects.Thoughclearcutdemarcationsin
thestyleofmusicalpresentation,similartothegharanasofHindustanimusicarenotseeninCarnaticmusic,yet,wedocomeacrossdifferentstylesin
renderingcompositions.
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RegionalMusic
Resources PerformingArts RegionalMusic
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance CulturaltraditionsfromvariousregionsofthecountryreflecttherichdiversityofRegionalMusicofIndia.Eachregion
OdissiDance hasitsownparticularstyle.
KuchipudiDance
TribalandfolkmusicisnottaughtinthesamewaythatIndianclassicalmusicistaught.Thereisnoformalperiodof
SattriyaDance
apprenticeshipwherethestudentisabletodevotetheirentirelifetolearningthemusic,theeconomicsofrurallife
MohiniyattamDance does not permit this sort of thing. The musical practitioners must still attend to their normal duties of hunting,

agricultureorwhatevertheirchosenprofessionis.
2.MusicofIndia
HindustaniClassicalMusic Musicinthevillagesislearntfromchildhood,themusicisheardandimbibedalongwithnumerouspublicactivities
thatallowthevillagerstopracticeandhonetheirskills.
RegionalMusic The music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births. There is a
MusicalInstruments plethoraofsongsforsuchoccasions.Therearealsomanysongsassociatedwithplantingandharvesting.Inthese
activitiesthevillagersroutinelysingoftheirhopes,fearsandaspirations.
TheatreForms

PuppetForms

Musicalinstrumentsareoftendifferentfromthosefoundinclassicalmusic.Althoughinstrumentslikethetablamaysometimesbefounditismorelikely
thatcruderdrumssuchasdaf,dholak,ornalareused.Thesitarandsarodwhicharesocommonintheclassicalgenreareabsentinthefolkmusic.One
oftenfindsinstrumentssuchastheektar,dotar,rabab,andsantur.Quiteoftentheyarenotcalledbythesenames,butmaybenamedaccordingtotheir
localdialect.Therearealsoinstrumentswhichareusedonlyinparticularfolkstylesinparticularregions.Theseinstrumentsareinnumerable.
Theinstrumentsofclassicalmusicarecraftedbyartisans whose only job is the fabrication of musicalinstruments. In contrast the folk instruments are
commonlycraftedbythemusiciansthemselves.
Itisverycommontofindfolkinstrumentsthathavebeenfabricatedofcommonlyavailablematerials.Skin,bamboo,coconutshells,andpotsarebutafew
commonlyavailablematerialsusedtomakemusicalinstruments.
RasiyaGeet,UttarPradesh
TherichtraditionofsingingRasiyaGeetflourishedinBrajwhichisthesacredlandofLordKrishnascharmingleelasfromtimeimmemorial.Thisis
notconfinedtoanyparticularfestival,butiscloselywovenintotheveryfabricofdailylifeanddaytodaychoresofitspeople.Rasiyawordisderivedfrom
thewordrasa(emotion)becauserasiyameansthatwhichisfilledwithrasaoremotion.Itreflectsthepersonalityofthesingeraswellasthenatureof
thesong.
Pankhida,Rajasthan
SungbythepeasantsofRajasthanwhiledoingworkinthefields,thepeasantssingandspeakwhileplayingalgozaandmanjira.Theliteralmeaning
ofthewordPankhidaislover.
Lotia,Rajasthan
LotiaissunginthechaitramonthduringthefestivalLotia.Womenbringlotas(avesseltofillwater)andkalash(avesselconsideredtobe
auspicioustofillwaterduringworship)filledwithwaterfrompondsandwells.Theydecoratethemwithflowersandcomehome.
Pandavani,Chhattisgarh

InPandavani,talesfromMahabharataaresungasaballadandoneortwoepisodesarechosenforthenightsperformance.Themainsingercontinuously
sitsthroughouttheperformanceandwithpowerfulsingingandsymbolicgesturesheassumesallthecharactersoftheepisodeoneafteranother.
ShakunakharMangalgeet,Kumaon
NumberlesssongsaresungonauspiciousoccasionsinthefoothillsofHimalaya.Shakunakhararesungduringreligiousceremoniesofbabyshower,
childbirth, Chhati (a ritual done on the sixth day from the birth of a child) Ganesh pooja etc. These songs are sung by only ladies, without any
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instrument. ICSETS
InShakunakharoneachauspiciousoccasionprayerforgoodhealthandlonglifeismade..
Shakunade,Shakunade
KajyeAtiNeekoSoRangeelo
PatloAnchliKamlooKoPhool
Barhamasa,Kumaon
ThisregionalmusicfromKumaonisdescribingthetwelvemonthsofanyear,eachwithitsspecificqualities.InoneofthesongstheGhughutibird
symbolizestheonsetofchaitmonth.Agirlinherinlawsplaceasksthisbirdnottospeakbecausesheisdisturbedwiththememoriesofhermother(Ija)
andsheisfeelingsad.
Mando,Goa
GoanregionalmusicisatreasuryofthetraditionalmusicoftheIndiansubcontinent.Mando,thefinestcreationofGoansongisaslowverseand
refraincompositiondealingwithlove,tragedyandbothsocialinjusticeandpoliticalresistanceduringPortuguesepresenceinGoa.
Alha,UttarPradesh
Alha,typicalballadofBundelkhandnarratestheheroicdeedsofAlhaandUdal,thetwowarriorbrotherswhoservedRajaParmalofMajoba.Thisis
themostpopularregionalmusicofBundelkhandwhichispopularelsewhereinthecountryaswell.
TheAlhaisfulloftalesoffeudalchivalry,whichhaveappealtocommonmen.Ithighlightsthehighprinciplesofmorality,chivalryandnobility
prevalentinthosetimes.
Hori,UttarPradesh
ThehistoryofHori,itsevolutionandtraditionisquiteancient.ItisbasedonthelovepranksofRadhaKrishna.Horisingingisbasicallyassociated
withthefestivalofHolionly.InIndiatraditionofsingingHoriduringspringseasonandwhilecelebratingHolihasbeencontinuingsinceancienttimes.
BrajmeinHariHoriMachayi..
Sohar,UttarPradesh
Socialceremonieshave,attimes,servedasapotentfactorforinterminglingofdifferentcultures.NorthIndiahasastrongtraditionofsinging
Soharsongswhenasonisborninafamily.ThishasinfluencedthemuslimcultureandaformofSoharsonggainedcurrencyinthemuslimfamilies
livinginsomeregionsofUttarPradesh.Soharsongsunmistakablypointtotheminglingoftwocultures.
Chhakri,Kashmir
ChhakriisagroupsongwhichisthemostpopularformofKashmirsfolkmusic.
Itissungtotheaccompanimentofthenoot(earthenpot)rababs,sarangiandtumbaknari(anearthenpotwithhighneck).
Laman,HimachalPradesh
InLamanagroupofgirlssingastanzaandagroupofboysgivereplyinthesong.Thiscontinuesforhours.Interestingisthatthegirlssingingon
oneofthepeaksofthehillseldomseethefacesoftheboyssingingonanotherpeak.Inbetweenisthehillwhichechoestheirlovesong.Mostofthese
songsaresungespeciallyinKulluValley.
Kajri,UttarPradesh
Kajriisafolksongsungbywomen,fromUttarPradeshandadjacentregion,duringrainyseason.Onthethirddayinthesecondhalfofthebhadra,
womensingKajrisongsallthroughthenight,whiledancinginasemicircle.
Qawwali
Originally,QawwalisweresunginpraiseofGod.InIndiaQawwaliwasbroughtfromPersiaaroundthirteenthcenturyandSufisenlisteditsservices
tospreadtheirmessage.AmirKhusro(12541325)aSufiandaninnovatorcontributedtotheevolutionofQawwali.Itisamodeofsingingratherthana
formofcomposition.InperformanceQawwalipresentsafascinating,interchanginguseofthesoloandchoralmodalities.
Tappa,Punjab
TappaisaformofsemiclassicalvocalmusicinspiredbythefolksongsofcamelridersinthePunjabarea.Tappa,inPunjabiandPashtolanguage,is
setinragasgenerallyusedforthesemiclassicalforms.Itischaracterizedbyjumpyandflashytonalmovementswithrhythmicandrapidnotes.
Powada,Maharashtra
PowadaisthetraditionalfolkartfromMaharashtra.ThewordPowadaitselfmeansthenarrationofastoryingloriousterms.Thenarrativesare
alwaysodesinpraiseofanindividualherooranincidentorplace.ThechiefnarratorisknownastheShahirwhoplaysthedufftokeeptherhythm.The
tempoisfastandcontrolledbythemainsingerwhoissupportedbyothersinchorus.
TheearliestnotablePowadawastheAfzalKhanachaVadh(TheKillingofAfzalKhan)(1659)byAgnidaswhichrecordedShivajisencounterwith
AfzalKhan.
TeejSongs,Rajasthan
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TeejiscelebratedwithgreatinvolvementbywomenofRajasthan.Thisisafestivalcelebratedonthethirddayafterthenewmoonoramavasyaof
shraavana month. The theme of the songs sung during this festival revolve around the union of Shiva and Parvati, the magic of monsoon, greenery,
peacockdanceetc.Oneofthesongis..
AakhaTeejAayiRe,
SavankiKudtikeMaleMor
MandaDeRe....
Burrakatha,AndhraPradesh
Burrakathaisahighlydramaticformofballad.Abottleshapeddrum(tambura)isplayedbythemainperformerwhilerecitingastory.Theballad
singers,likestageactor,wearmakeupandahighlystylisedcostume.

Bhakha,JammuandKashmir
TheBhakhaformoffolkmusicispopularinJammuregion.Bhakhaissungbythevillagerswhenharvestingisdone.Itisconsideredtobethe
regionalmusicwithmostmelodicandharmoniouselements.Itissungtotheaccompanimentofinstrumentslikeharmonium.
Bhutasong,Kerala
ThebasisofBhutasongisrootedinsuperstitions.SomecommunitiesofKeraladoBhutaritualstosendawaytheevilghostandspirits.Thisritualis
accompaniedwithvigorousdancingandthemusichasapiercingandeeriecharacter.
Daskathia,Odisha
DaskathiaisaformofballadsingingprevalentinOdisha.DaskathiaisanamederivedfromauniquemusicalinstrumentcalledKathiorRam
Tali,woodenclappersusedduringthepresentation.TheperformanceisaformofworshipandofferingonbehalfoftheDas,thedevotee.
Bihusongs,Assam
Bihusongs(bihugeet)arethemostdistinctivetypeoffolksongsofAssam,bothfortheirliterarycontentandfortheirmusicalmode.Bihusongs
areblessingsforahappynewyearandthedanceisassociatedwithanancientfertilitycult.ItisBihutimewhenanopportunityisthereformarriageable
youngmenandwomentoexchangetheirfeelingsandeventochoosetheirpartners.Thejoyfulnessisreflectedinsonglike
Mikirboresangotkookookuliyebinale
Bojaiborerahekookookuliyebinale
SanaLamok,Manipur
Manipurshillsandvalleybotharefondofmusicanddance.SanaLamokissungatthetimeofcoronationceremonybytheMaaiba(priest).Itmay
alsobesungtowelcometheking.ItissungtoevokethespiritofPakhangba,thepresidingdeity.Thereisabeliefthatthissongispotentwithmagical
powers.
SongsofLaiHaraobaFestival,Manipur
ThemeaningofLaiHaraobaisthefestivalofgodsandgoddesess.ItisperformedfortheUmangLai(forestdeity).OugriHangen,songofcreation
andHeijingHiraoaritualisticsongissungonthelastdayofLaiHaraobafestival.
SaikutiZai(songsofSaikuti),Mizoram
Mizoaretraditionallyknownasasingingtribe.TheregionalfolksongsofMizoramconstitutetherichestheritageofMizos.Saikuti,apoetessof
Mizoramcomposedsongsinpraiseofwarriors,bravehunters,youngmenaspiringtobegreatwarriorsandhuntersetc.
Chaihia(songsoftheChaiDance),Mizoram
AsperMizocustomduringtheChapcharKutfestivalnotonlysinging,danceshouldalsocontinuethroughoutthefestival.Special occasion for

singinganddancingiscalledchaiandsongsareknownaschaihia(chaisongs).
Basanti/BasantGeet,Garhwal
BasantorspringseasoniswelcomedinauniquemannerinGarhwal.Landisfilledwithdifferentcolourfulflowers.OnBasantPanchmifloordesigns
aremadewiththericeflourandthegreenoatsbundlesareusedtoputimpressionswithcowdung.Swingsaretiedonthetreesandfolksongsaresung.
OneoftheBasantisongsis:
SeeriPanchamiMauki
PailiHaryaliJauki
GhasiyariGeet,Garhwal
Youngwomenofmountainshavetogoinfaroffforeststogetgrassfortheircattle.Theygototheforestdancingandsingingingroups.Alongwith
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entertainmentemphasisislaidontheimportanceoflabourintheGhasiyariGeet.
BajliTeriJhanwarJhamJhamOho..
SukarkeBiah,BhojpuriSong
Bhojpurisongsportrayalivelypictureofcommonfolk.Theygiveexpressiontotheinnermostfeelingsofsimplehearts.Villagefolkshavetheirown
interpretationsofnature,planetsandconstellations.ThestoryofShukraandBrihaspatissungeventodayhowShukraforgetstheweddingornament
andcomesbacktotakeit,wherehefindshismotherdrinkingricewater,whichispoormansfood.Onaskingmotheraboutthis,hismotheranswersthat
shedosentknowwhetherShukraswouldbewifewillevengiveherricewaterornot.Shukradecidestoremainunmarried.
VilluPattu,BowSong,TamilNadu
Villu Pattu is a popular folk music of Tamil Nadu. The lead singer also plays the role of the main performer. He also handles the dominating
instrumentwhichisbowshaped.Thesongsrevolvearoundtheologicalthemesandtheconquestofgoodoverevilisemphasised.
Ammanaivari,TamilNadu
AmmanaivariaresongssunginpraiseofCholamonarch.Ammanaiisawoodenballandthewomenfolksingappropriatesongswhileplayingthe
ball.ThisgameofAmmanaiisstillcurrentinTamilNadu.
RegionalMusicofIndia
ReferredBooks/website
RajasthanKaLokSangeet,ShannoKhurana.GuideBookonIndianMusicproducedbyCCRT.
KeywordsandConceptsofHindustaniClassicalMusic,AshokDaRanadeFolkSongsofGoaAryanBookInternational
HindustaniSangeetMeinHoliGaan,NeetaMathurKumaoniLokgeetTathaSangeetShastriyaParivesh,
Dr.JyotiTiwari
www.maharashtratourism.netMusicCultureofNorthEastIndia,Dr.PrabhaSharma
PaudiGarhwalKeLokSangeetKaVishleshnatmakAdhyayan,
Dr.ShikhaMamgai,Dr.SudhaSehgal
MarriageSongsfromBhojpuriRegion,ChandramaniSingh
MusicthroughtheAges,PremlathaV.
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MusicalInstruments
Resources PerformingArts MusicalInstruments

Indiaistheinheritorofoneofthemostancientandevolvedmusicsystemsintheworld.Thecontinuityofthe
musicaltraditionsofIndiaisestablishedthroughastudyofmusicaltextsandnumerousvisualreferencesone
1.DancesofIndia findsofmusicalinstrumentsinpaintingandsculpturefromprehistorictimestothepresentday.
ClassicalDances TheearliestevidenceofmusicactivityisfoundonthewallsofcavepaintingsatBhimbetkaandinseveralparts
of Madhya Pradesh, which were occupied by man approximately 10,000 years ago. Much later, in the
BharatnatyamDance
excavationsoftheHarappanCivilizationalso,evidenceisavailableofdanceandmusicactivity.
KathakaliDance
KathakDance Musicalinstrumentsarethetangibleandmaterialrepresentationofmusicwhichisanauditoryart.Astudyof
ManipuriDance thesehelpsintracingtheevolutionofmusicandalsoexplainsmanyaspectsofthematerialcultureofthegroup
OdissiDance ofpeopletowhichtheseinstrumentsbelong.Forinstance,thehairusedformakingthebow,thewoodorclay
usedformakingthedrum,orthehideofanimalsusedintheinstruments,allthesetellusaboutthefloraand
KuchipudiDance
faunaofaparticularregion.
SattriyaDance
MohiniyattamDance TheTamilwordforinstrumentKaruviisfoundinSangamliteratureofthe2ndto6thcenturyA.D.,theliteral
meaningofwhichis"tool".Thisisextendedtomeaninstrumentinthecontextofmusic.
2.MusicofIndia Veryancientinstrumentsmaybeseenasanextensionofthehumanbodyandwefindeventoday,sticksand
HindustaniClassicalMusic clappers.Driedfruitrattles,theKaniyaniDandaofOraonsorthedriedberriesorshellstiedtothewaistareused
forproducingrhythm,eventoday.
CarnaticClassicalMusic The hand was referred to as the Hasta Veena, where the hands and fingers are used to show the notation
RegionalMusic systemofvedicchanting,coordinatingsoundwithmudrahandgesture.
MusicalInstruments
IntheNatyaShastra,compiledbyBharatMunidated200B.C.200A.D.,musicalinstrumentshavebeendivided
3.TheatreFormsofIndia intofourmaincategoriesonthebasisofhowsoundisproduced.
(i)TheTataVadyaorChordophonesStringedinstruments
TheatreForms
(ii)TheSushiraVadyaorAerophonesWindinstruments

(iii)TheAvanaddhaVadyaorMembranophonesPercussioninstruments
4.PuppetFormsofIndia (iv)TheGhanaVadyaorIdiophonesSolidinstrumentswhichdonotrequiretuning.
PuppetForms

TataVadyaStringedInstruments
Thetatavadyaisacategoryofinstrumentsinwhichsoundisproducedbythevibrationofastringorchord.Thesevibrationsarecausedbypluckingorby
bowingonthestringwhichhasbeenpulledtaut.Thelengthofthevibratingstringorwire,thedegreetowhichithasbeentightened,determinesthe
pitchofthenoteandalsotosomeextentthedurationofthesound.
Thetatavadyaaredividedintotwobroadcategoriesthepluckedandthebowed,andfurthersubdividedintothefrettedandnonfrettedvariety.
The oldest evidence of stringed instruments in our land, however, are harps in the shape of the hunters bow. They had a varying number of parallel
stringsmadeoffibreorgut.Thereusedtobeonestringforeachnote,pluckedeitherwiththefingersorwiththeplectrumcalledthekona.Veenawas
thegenerictermforstringedinstrumentsreferredtointexts:andwehavetheekatantri,thesatatantriveena,etc.TheChitrahadsevenstringsand
theVipanchininethefirstwasplayedwiththefingersandthesecondwithaplectrum.
Representation of these can be found in many sculptures and murals of olden days, as for example, in the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupa, the reliefs of
Amaravatiandsoon.Mentionof.YazharefoundinoldTamiltextsfromthe2ndcenturyA.D.Theplayingofsuchinstrumentswasanimportantpartof
ritualandceremonies.Asthepriestsandperformerssang,theirwivesplayedoninstruments.
Anotherclassisofthedulcimertype,whereanumberofstringsarestretchedonaboxofwood.Thebestknownofthesewasthesatatantriveenathe
hundredstringedveena.AcloserelativeofthisistheSantoor,averypopularinstrumentstillplayedinKashmirandotherpartsofIndia.
Alaterdevelopmentofstringedinstrumentsarethefingerboardvariety,whichweremostsuitedtoRagaSangeetandmanyoftheprevalentinstruments
oftheconcertplatform,whetherfrettedornonfretted,bowedorpluckedfallintothiscategory.Thegreatadvantageoftheseinstrumentsistherichness
oftoneproductionandcontinuityofsound.Inthefingerboardinstrumentsalltherequirednotesareproducedononechord(stringorwire)byaltering
the length of the wire either by pressing it with a finger or a piece of metal or wood. This increase or decrease in the length of the vibrator wire is
responsibleforthechangesinpitchesofnotesswaras.
BowedinstrumentsareusuallyusedasanaccompanimenttovocalmusicandarereferredtoasGeetanuga.Theyaredividedintotwobroadcategories
theuprightandtheinverted.InthefirstcategorythefingerboardisheldstraightupasinthecaseofSarangiandinthesecondcategory,thatis,inthe
invertedvariety,theboardorresonatorisheldtowardstheshoulderandthefingerboarddandiisheldacrossthearmoftheplayerasinthecaseofthe
Ravanhastaveena,theBanam,theViolin.
Kamaicha
TheKamaichaisabowedluteplayedbythemanganiarsofwestRajasthan.Thewholeinstrumentisonepieceofwood,the
sphericalbowlextendingintoaneckandfingerboardtheresonatoriscoveredwithleatherandtheupperportionwithwood.
Therearefourmainstringsandanumberofsubsidiaryonespassingoverathinbridge.
The kamaicha links the subcontinent to Western Asia and Africa and is considered by some scholars to be the oldest
instrument,withtheexceptionoftheRavanaHattaorRavanaHastaVeena.
Thevarietyofuprightbowedinstrumentsaregenerallyseeninthenorthernareasofttiecountry.Inthesethereareagaintwo
varieties,thefrettedandthenonfretted.
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(a)Differentpartsofastringedinstrument
TheresonatorToombaofmoststringedinstrumentsiseithermadeofwoodorfromaspeciallygrowngourd.
OverthisToombathereisaplateofwoodknownastheTabli.TheresonatorisattachedtothefingerboardtheDandaatthetop
endofwhichareinsertedthepegstheKhoontis,fortuningtheinstrument.
On the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivory or bone. The main strings pass over the bridge, some instruments also have a
number of sympathetic strings below the main strings. They are called the Tarab. When these strings vibrate, they add
resonancetothesound.
On the fingerboard of danda, in some instruments, metal frets are attached which are either permanently fixed or are movable. Some stringed
instrumentsarepluckedwiththefingersorbyusingasmallplectrumcalledtheKona,whileinothers,soundisproducedbybowing,(SeediagramA)
(b)PlacementofSwaras
ThelinedrawingshowsplacementofnotestheswarasSaReGaMaPaDhaNiSaona36"lengthofwire,thefrequencyofvibrationofeachnoteisalso
showninthepicture.(SeediagramB).
SushiraVadya
IntheSushiraVadyagroup,soundisproducedbyblowingairintoanhollowcolumn.Thepitchofthenoteisdeterminedbycontrollingtheairpassage
andthemelodyisplayedbyusingthefingerstoopenandclosetheintheinstrument.Thesimplestoftheseinstrumentsistheflute.Generallyflutesare
madeofbambooorwoodandtheIndianmusicianpreferstheseduetothetonalandmusicalattributesofthesematerials.However,therearereferences
offlutesmadeofredsandalwood,blackwood,cane,ivory,bronze,silverandgoldalso.
Thediameterofthebambooflutesisusuallyabout1.9cmsthough,fluteswithwiderdiameters.arealsocommonly,used.ThemusicaltextSangeet
Ratnakarwritteninthe13th.centurybySharangdevrefersto18kindsofflutes.Thesecategoriesarebasedonthedistancebetweentheblowholeand
thefirstfingerhole(seediagram).
Excavations of the Indus civilizations have shown bird whistles of clay, and seals which show wind and percussion instruments. Actual musical
instrumentsaremadeofbamboo,wood,animalhide,etc.whichperishwhenburiedforanylengthoftime,hence,flutesmadeofwoodorbamboohave
notsurvivedtheravagesoftimeandarenotfoundinexcavationsofpastcivilizations.
ThereisreferenceintheVedastoaninstrumenttheVenuwhichwasusedasanaccompanimenttochantingandrecitation.Thereisalsomentionofa
kindofaflutecalledtheNadi.TheflutehasavarietyofnameslikeVenu,Vamsi,Bansuri,Muraliandsooninthenorth,andPullankuzhal,Pillankarovi
andKolaluinthesouth.Thewindinstrumentsareroughlydividedintotwocategoriesonthebasisofhowsoundisproduced.Theyare:
theflutes,and
thereedinstruments
Flutes
Singleordoublefluteswithonlyonehollowtubewithfingerholesforcontrollingthepitchofthenoteareverycommoninmanypartsofthecountry.
LonghorizontalfluteswithalargerdiameterareusedtoplayslowpassagessuchasAlapofthelowerregisters.Smallerandshorterflutes,sometimes
heldvertically,areusedforTaans,thefasterpassages,andalsoforproducinghigherpitchesofsound.Thedoubleflutesaremostlyplayedbymusiciansof
thetribalandruralareasandarerarelyfoundontheconcertplatform.Theyresemblebeakfluteswhichhaveanarrowapertureatoneend.Onefinds
referencestothesetypesofinstrumentsinthesculpturesofthefirstcenturyintheSanchiStupawhichshowsamusicianplayingonadoubleflute.
Reedinstruments
ReedinstrumentsliketheShehnai,Nadaswaram,etc.,haveoneortworeedsinsertedinthehollowbeakortubeofthe
instrument,thesevibratewhenairisblownintothem.Inthistypeofinstrumentthereedsareboundtogetherwitha
gapbetweenthembeforeinsertingintothebodyoftheinstrument.Thebodyofthetubeisconicalinshapenarrowat
theblowingendandopeningoutgraduallywithametallicbellatthefartherendtoenhancethevolumeofthesound.
Asetofsparereeds,anivoryorsilverneedleforadjustingandcleaningthereedsarealsohungfromthemouthpiece
oftheinstrument.
TheShehnaiisareedinstrumentinwhichtherearesevenholesalongthetubewhichareusedforplayingthemelodybyopeningandclosingthemwith
thefingers.ItisknownasaMangalvadyaandisusuallyplayedonallauspiciousoccasionsinnorthIndiasuchasmarriages,templefestivals,etc.The
ShehnaiisconsideredtohavecometoIndiafromWestAsia,thereareotherscholarswhobelievethatthisinstrumenttravelledtoChinafromIndia.Itis
nowapopularinstrumentinconcerts,thesoundisverysweetandsuitedforplayingRagaSangeet.Intheearlyfiftiesofthiscentury,UstadBismillah
Khaniscreditedforpopularisingthisinstrument.Today,Pt.AnantLal,Pt.DayaShankararealsonotedShehnaiplayers.
AvanaddhaVadya
IntheAvanaddhaVadyacategoryofinstruments,soundisproducedbystrikingtheanimalskinwhichhasbeenstretchedacrossanearthernormetal
potorawoodenbarrelorframe.TheearliestreferencestosuchinstrumentshavebeenfoundintheVedaswherethereismentionofBhumiDundhubhi
thiswasahollowpitduginthegroundandcoveredwiththehideofabuffalooroxwhichwasstretchedacrossthepit.Thetailoftheanimalwasusedfor
strikingtheanimalhideandthussoundwasproduced.
Drumshavebeendividedintodifferentcategoriesonthebasisoftheirshapesandstructureasalsothepositionandplacementforplaying.Themain
categoriesareOordhwaka,Ankya,AlingyaandthewaistedortheDamarufamilyofdrums.(seediagrams).
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Oordhwaka
The Oordhwaka drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them
withsticksorthefingers.ProminentamongthesearetheTablapairandChenda.
Tabla
TheTablapairisasetoftwoverticalOordhwakadrums.TherightsideiscalledtheTablaandtheleft,theBayanor
Dagga. The Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together with leather straps.
Betweenthestrapsandthewoodenbody,oblongwoodenblocksareplaced.Theseareusedfortuningthedrums.
Thereisasyahipasteappliedinthecentreoftheanimalskin,thetablacanbetunedaccuratelybystrikingtherims
withahammer.Thebodyofthebayanismadeofclayormetalandiscoveredwithanil'J1alskinwhichalsohassyahi
pasteappliedonit.Somemusiciansdonottunethisdrumtoanaccuratepitch.
ThetablapairisusedasaccompanimenttovocalandinstrumentalHindustanimusicandwithmanydanceformsofnorthernIndia.Thecomplicatedtalas
oftheHindustanimusicareplayedwithgreatvirtuosityonthetabla.ProminentmusiciansplayingthetablatodayareUstadAliaRakhaKhanandhisson
ZakirHussain,ShafatAhmedandSamataPrasadtonameafew.
Ankya
TheAnkyadrumsareheldhorizontallybeforethemusicianandusuallybothsidesarecoveredwithanimalhide.Soundisproducedbystrikingbothsides
with sticks or fingers. Today, in this variety, the Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc. are prominent. The musician may sit on the floor and play the
instrumentorhangitfromtheneckwhiledancingorstanding.SealswhichhavebeenexcavatedoftheIndusCivilizationshowfiguresofmenplayingthe
horizontaldrumshungfromtheneck.
Alingya
The third variety are the Alingya drums. These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are
embracedorheldclosetothebodywithonehandwhiletheotherhandisusedforplayingontheinstrument.Underthis
category,theDuff,Dufflies,etc.areverypopular.
Damarutypes
Another prominent group of drums are the waisted or Damaru variety. The instruments in this category range from, the
smallHuddakaofHimachalPradeshtothelargerinstrumentknownasTimilaofthesouthernregion.Theformerisstruck
withthehandswhilethelatterishungfromtheshouldersandplayedwithsticksandfingers.Thesearealsoknownasthe
hourglassvarietyofdrumsastheirshaperesemblesanhourglass.
GhanaVadya
TheearliestinstrumentsinventedbymanaresaidtobetheGhanaVadya.Onceconstructed,thisvarietyofinstrumentdonotneedspecialtuningprior
toplaying.Inearlytimestheseinstrumentsweretheextensionofthehumanbodysuchassticks,clappers,rods,etc.andwerealsocloselyrelatedto
objectsofutilityindailylifesuchaspotsandpans,jhanj,falams,etc.Theyareprincipallyrhythmicinfunctionandarebestsuitedasaccompanimentto
folkandtribalmusicanddance.
JhanjPlayer,Konarak,Orissa
IntheSuntempleofKonarak,Orissa,weseethislargesculpturenearly8f1.highofaladyplayingtheJhanj.
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TheatreForms
Resources PerformingArts TheatreForms
TRADITIONALTHEATRE
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
LivingtraditionsoccupyaprominentplaceintheIndiansocialsystem.Any
BharatnatyamDance
livingtraditionhasanaturalflow.Therecanbenodoubtaboutthefactthat
KathakaliDance traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the society, its determination to
KathakDance survive,itsethos,emotions,fellowfeelings,andsoon.Dramainitselfisa
ManipuriDance completeformofarts.Itincludesinitsframeworkacting,dialogue,poetry,
OdissiDance music,etc.
KuchipudiDance
In community living, the art of singing has its own importance. In all the
SattriyaDance traditional theatreforms, songs and the art of singing have an important
MohiniyattamDance roletoplay.Traditionalmusicofthetheatreisanexpressionofthefeelings
ofthecommunity.
2.MusicofIndia
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments

TheatreForms

PuppetForms

Traditionallythelanguageofordinarypeoplehasanelementofcreativity,thoughnotbasedonclassicalorgrammaticalroots.Thiskindofcreativityis
spontaneous, emerging from the circumstances. When there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions. It is this
naturalrhythmfromwhichemergesthetraditionaltheatreform.Inthisartform,sorrow,joy,frustration,hatredandlovehavetheirroleandplace.
IndifferentregionsofIndia,therearereligiousfestivals,fairs,gatherings,ritualofferings,prayers,almostthroughouttheyear.Duringtheseoccasions,
traditional theatre forms are presented. They reflect the common mans social attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there is also the
individualsrolewhichisgivendueimportance.
Traditionaltheatreformsincorporatenotonlythecommonmansinterestsbutthereisalsoaclassicalelementinthem.Thisclassicalfacet,however,
takesonregional,localandfolkcoloring.Itispossible,thatthoseassociatedwiththeclassicalworldofSanskritdrama,wenttotheneighbouringregions
afteritsdeclineandintermingledwiththelocaltheatreforms.Thiskindofsynthesis,giveandtakemusthavetakenplaceonvariouslevelssuchas
written,verbal,classical,contemporary,nationalandlocal.
Intraditionaltheatreformstherearespecialstylesofdanceportrayingtheentryontothestageorplatform,narrativeanddescriptiveroles.Thebest
example of descriptive acting is the Bidapat naach. In this traditional theatre form, emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and narrative and
descriptiveskills.DanceasanarrativeartisthebaseoftheatreformwhichcanbeseeninthetraditionaltheatreformofBhavaiofGujarat.Inthisform,
quickorslowfootmovementisameansofnarration.TheartofmakingtheentrybydancinghasbeenperfectedinthetraditionalKashmiritheatre
form,BhandJashn.Thewayeachcharacterwalksandenterstheplatform,identifieshim.InKoodiyaattamandAnkiaNaat,theentrybydancingitselfis
complicatedandartistic.Intheforms,thetempoandbasicpostureandgestureidentifiestheroleofthecharacter.
Intraditionaltheatre,ageoldforms,customsandthedesiretoimproviseareintermingled.Itisusuallywhenthesignificantthemesareenacted,that
theactingrestrictsitselftotraditionalnorms,notdeviatingfromit.But,everytimethethemeinchestowardsthecontemporary,theactorsimproviseas
farasdialoguedeliveryisconcerned.
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Intraditionaltheatreformstherearecertainconventionsofpresentationsdependinguponandchangingaccordingto
theformandsizeofthestageortheplatformandotheravailablesituations.Thereisnoformalsetupgoverningthe
entryorexitoftheactors.Dependingonthesituationorcontext,theactorsenterintothestageandenacttheirrole
withoutbeingformallyintroduced.Afteraparticulareventorincidentisover,alltheartistsmakeanexit,orallof
themsitdownonthesidesofthestageornearthebackdrop,conveyingthechangeofascene
Intraditionaltheatreforms,thereisnosuchthingasepisodes.Thereisalwayscontinuityinitstheme,structureandpresentation.Thereisalsoascope
forimprovisationandincorporationofnewreferencesleadingtosubtleextensioninthestoryline.Thereisdirectandintimatecommunicationbetween
theactorsandtheaudience.
Traditionaltheatreformshavedefinitelybeeninfluencedbyindustrialcivilization,industrialization,andurbanization.Thesocioculturalaspectsofthese
influencesshouldbecarefullystudied.TherewasatimewhenKanpurbecamethecentreofthetraditionaltheatreNautanki.Artists,dancersandsingers
produced plays based on local heroes, their popularity and traditional love stories. Thus, a local theatre form acquired significance in the field of
entertainment.
Traditional theatre forms have a common distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity. What is the underlying force of traditional theatre
formsthathasenabledittosurviveandmaintainitssimplicity?Thefactremains,thatitistheimmediate,direct,realisticandrhythmicrelationshipthat
thespectatorsareabletodevelopwiththeartistsoftraditionaltheatreformswhichisgenerallynotexperiencedinotherartforms.Itisreflectedinthe
applaudbythespectatorsbymeansofclappingtheirhands.
Secondlythedevelopmentoftraditionaltheatreformsisbasedonsuchlocalandregionalpeculiaritieswhicharenotboundandrestrictedbysocialand
economic divisions, limitations, etc. Tradional art forms have influenced classical art forms and viceversa. It is an eternal journey in the sphere of
culture.
Intraditionaltheatreforms,characterskeepchangingtheirplaceonthestagetobemoreimpressiveandtogivethesituationagreatersignificance.
Thistechniquealsoreducesthechanceofboredomthroughrepetitionandstillness.Dialoguesdeliveryisusuallycarriedoutinahighpitch.Thishelps
theactorsinreachingouttoalargeraudience.Theartistsalwaysaddsomethingortheothertotheoriginaldialogueontheirown.Thechangesbrought
through improvisations, make the spectators ecstatic. Also, it establishes a direct relationship between the artists and the spectators. The clown also
playsasimilarrole.Whilebeinghumorous,healsotouchesuponthesocioeconomic,politicalissuesandsituationswithlotofsatire.Therearedifferent
methodstoo,inthewaytheclownmakeshisappearance.Iftheking,intraditionaltheatreforms,decidesonastepnotbeneficialforthepeopleat
large,theclownappearsandtakesthesideofthecommonman.Hemakestheaudiencelaughandatthesametimedisclosestheantipeopleattitude
oftheking.
DIFFERENTFORMSOFTRADITIONALTHEATRE
BhandPather,thetraditionaltheatreformofKashmir,isauniquecombinationofdance,musicandacting.Satire,
witandparodyarepreferredforinducinglaughter.Inthistheatreform,musicisprovidedwithsurnai,nagaaraand
dhol. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living,
idealsandsensitivityisdiscernible.
OriginallythetheatreformSwang, was mainly musicbased. Gradually, prose too, played its role in the dialogues.
Thesoftnessofemotions,accomplishmentofrasaalongwiththedevelopmentofcharactercanbeseeninthistheatre
form. The two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the style belonging to Rohtak, the
languageusedisHaryanvi(Bangru)andinHaathras,itisBrajbhasha.
Nautanki is usually associated with Uttar Pradesh. The most popular centres of this traditional theatre form are
Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras. The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Beharetabeel.
There was a time when only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also started taking part in the
performances.AmongthoserememberedwithreverenceisGulabBaiofKanpur.Shegaveanewdimensiontothis
oldtheatreform.
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RaasleelaisbasedexclusivelyonLordKrishnalegendsitisbelievedthatNandDaswrotetheinitialplaysbasedon
the life of Krishna. In this theatre form the dialogues in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes from
Krishna'spranks.
BhavaiisthetraditionaltheatreformofGujarat.ThecentersofthisformareKutchandKathiawar.Theinstruments
used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. In Bhavai, there is a rare
synthesisofdevotionalandromanticsentiments.
Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their framework musical plays are known
asJatra.ThisformwasbornandnurturedinBengal.KrishnaJatrabecamepopularduetoChaitanya'sinfluence.
Later,however,worldlylovestoriestoo,foundaplaceinJatra.TheearlierformofJatrahasbeenmusical.Dialogues
wereaddedatlaterstage.Theactorsthemselvesdescribethechangeofscene,theplaceofaction,etc.
MaachisthetraditionaltheatreformofMadhyaPradesh.ThetermMaachisusedforthestageitselfasalsoforthe
play.Inthistheatreformsongsaregivenprominenceinbetweenthedialogues.Thetermfordialogueinthisformis
bolandrhymeinnarrationistermedvanag.Thetunesofthistheatreformareknownasrangat.
Bhaona is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam. In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa,
Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in
eitherBrajboliorAssamese.
TamaashaisatraditionalfolktheatreformofMaharashtra.IthasevolvedfromthefolkformssuchasGondhal,
Jagran and Kirtan. Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the female actress is the chief exponent of dance
movements in the play. She is known as Murki. Classical music, footwork at lightningspeed, and vivid gestures
makeitpossibletoportrayalltheemotionsthroughdance.
DashavataristhemostdevelopedtheatreformoftheKonkanandGoaregions.Theperformerspersonifytheten
incarnationsofLordVishnuthegodofpreservationandcreativity.ThetenincarnationsareMatsya(fish),Kurma
(tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lionman), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram), Buddha
andKalki.Apartfromstylizedmakeup,theDashavatarperformerswearmasksofwoodandpapiermache.
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ofKingManavadaofCalicut.Krishnattamisacycleofeightplaysperformedforeightconsecutivedays.Theplays
are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and
Swargarohana.TheepisodesarebasedonthethemeofLordKrishnahisbirth,childhoodpranksandvariousdeeds
depictingvictoryofgoodoverevil.
Mudiyettu, traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November
December).ItisusuallyperformedonlyintheKalitemplesofKerala,asanoblationtotheGoddess.Itdepictsthe
triumphofgoddessBhadrakaliovertheasuraDarika.ThesevencharactersinMudiyettuShiva,Narada,Darika,
Danavendra,Bhadrakali,KooliandKoimbidar(Nandikeshvara)areallheavilymadeup.
Koodiyaattam, one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of Kerala, is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions. The
characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those
taking on women's roles. The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists. It is the
Vidushakalonewhodeliversthedialogues.Emphasisonhandgesturesandeyemovementsmakesthisdanceand
theatreformunique.
Yakshagaana, traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is based on mythological stories and Puranas. The most
popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna
ArjunyuddhandfromRamayanai.e.Raajyaabhishek,LavkushYuddh,BaaliSugreevayuddhaandPanchavati.
Therukoothu, the most popular form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means "street play". It is mostly
performedatthetimeofannualtemplefestivalsofMariamman(Raingoddess)toachieverichharvest.Atthecore
oftheextensiverepertoireofTherukoothuthereisacycleofeightplaysbasedonthelifeofDraupadi.Kattiakaran,
theSutradharaoftheTherukoothuperformance,givesthegistoftheplaytotheaudienceandKomalientertains
theaudiencewithhisbuffoonery.
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PuppetForms
Resources PerformingArts PuppetForms
1.DancesofIndia
ClassicalDances
BharatnatyamDance
KathakaliDance
KathakDance
ManipuriDance
OdissiDance
KuchipudiDance
SattriyaDance
MohiniyattamDance
Apuppetisoneofthemostremarkableandingeniousinventionsoftheman.Ithas
2.MusicofIndia beensaidthatapuppethastobemorethanhislivecounterpartforitisdefinitelythe
suggestiveelementthatismorecaptivatingandenduringinapuppet.
RegionalMusic
MusicalInstruments

TheatreForms

PuppetForms

AncientHinduphilosophershavepaidthegreatesttributetopuppeteers.TheyhavelikenedGodAlmightytoapuppeteerandtheentireuniversetoa
puppetstage.SrimadBhagavata,thegreatepicdepictingthestoryofLordKrishnainhischildhoodsaythatwiththreestringsSatta,RajaandTama,
theGodmanipulateseachobjectintheuniverseasamarionette.
InSanskritterminologyPuttalikaandPuttikameanslittlesons.TherootofPuppetisderivedfromthelatinwordPupameaningadoll.Indiaissaidto
be the home of puppets, but it is yet to awaken to its unlimited possibilities. The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic
Silappadikaaramwrittenaroundthe1stor2ndcenturyB.C.
Natyashastra,themasterlytreatiseondramaturgywrittensometimeduring2ndcenturyBCto2ndcenturyAD.,doesnotrefertotheartofpuppetry
but the producercumdirector of the human theatre has been termed as Sutradhar meaning the holder of strings. The word might have found its
place in theatreterminology long before Natyashastra was written but it must come from marionette theatre. Puppetry, therefore, must have
originatedinIndiamorethan500yearsbeforeChrist.
AlmostalltypesofpuppetsarefoundinIndia.Puppetrythroughouttheageshasheldanimportantplaceintraditionalentertainment.Liketraditional
theatre,themesforpuppettheatrearemostlybasedonepicsandlegends.Puppetsfromdifferentpartsofthecountryhavetheirownidentity.Regional
stylesofpaintingandsculpturearereflectedinthem.
Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties.
Awareness programmes about the conservation of the natural and cultural environment have also proved to be useful. These programmes aim at
sensitising the students to the beauty in word, sound, form, colour and movement. The aesthetic satisfaction derived from making of puppets and
communicatingthroughthemhelpsintheallrounddevelopmentofthepersonalityofthechild.
Storiesadaptedfrompuranicliterature,localmythsandlegendsusuallyformthecontentoftraditionalpuppettheatreinIndiawhich,inturn,imbibes
elements of all creative expressions like painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc. The presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative
effortsofmanypeopleworkingtogether.
StringPuppets
ShadowPuppets
RodPuppets
GlovePuppets
In modern times, educationists all over the world have realised the potential of puppetry as a medium for communication. Many institutions and
individualsinIndiaareinvolvingstudentsandteachersintheuseofpuppetryforcommunicatingeducationalconcepts.
StringPuppets
Indiahasarichandancienttraditionofstringpuppetsormarionettes.Marionetteshavingjointedlimbscontrolled
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by strings allow far greater flexibility and are, therefore, the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan, Orissa,
KarnatakaandTamilNaduaresomeoftheregionswherethisformofpuppetryhasflourished.
Kathputli,Rajasthan
ThetraditionalmarionettesofRajasthanareknownasKathputli.Carvedfromasinglepieceofwood,thesepuppets
are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. Their costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval
Rajasthani style of dress, which is prevalent even today. The Kathputli is accompanied by a highly dramatised
versionoftheregionalmusic.Ovalfaces,largeeyes,archedeyebrowsandlargelipsaresomeofthedistinctfacial
featuresofthesestringpuppets.Thesepuppetswearlongtrailingskirtsanddonothavelegs.Puppeteersmanipulate
themwithtwotofivestringswhicharenormallytiedtotheirfingersandnottoaproporasupport.
Kundhei,Orissa
ThestringpuppetsofOrissaareknownasKundhei.Madeoflightwood,theOrissapuppetshavenolegsbutwearlongflowingskirts.
Theyhavemorejointsandare,therefore,moreversatile,articulateandeasytomanipulate.Thepuppeteersoftenholdawooden
prop,triangularinshape,towhichstringsareattachedformanipulation.ThecostumesofKundheiresemblethosewornbyactorsof
theJatratraditionaltheatre.Themusicisdrawnfromthepopulartunesoftheregionandissometimesinfluencedbythemusicof
Odissidance.
Gombeyatta,Karnataka
The string puppets of Karnataka are called Gombeyatta. They are styled and designed like the
characters of Yakshagana, the traditional theatre form of the region. The Gombeyatta puppet figures
are highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. These puppets are
manipulatedbyfivetosevenstringstiedtoaprop.Someofthemorecomplicatedmovementsofthe
puppet are manipulated by two to three puppeteers at a time. Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are
usually based on Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays. The music that accompanies is dramatic and
beautifullyblendsfolkandclassicalelements.
Bommalattam,TamilNadu
PuppetsfromTamilNadu,knownasBommalattamcombinethetechniquesofbothrodandstringpuppets.Theyaremadeof
woodandthestringsformanipulationaretiedtoanironringwhichthepuppeteerwearslikeacrownonhishead.
Afewpuppetshavejointedarmsandhands,whicharemanipulatedbyrods.TheBommalattampuppetsarethelargest,heaviest
andthemostarticulateofalltraditionalIndianmarionettes.Apuppetmaybeasbigas4.5feetinheightweighingaboutten
kilograms. Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries which are divided into four parts Vinayak Puja, Komali,
AmanattamandPusenkanattam
ShadowPuppets
India has the richest variety of types and styles of shadow puppets. Shadow puppets are flat figures. They are cut out of
leather,whichhasbeentreatedtomakeittranslucent.Shadowpuppetsarepressedagainstthescreenwithastrongsource
of light behind it. The manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case
maybe,fortheviewerswhositinfrontofthescreen.ThistraditionofshadowpuppetssurvivesinOrissa.Kerala,Andhra
Pradesh,Karnataka,MaharashtraandTamilNadu.
TogaluGombeyatta,Karnataka
The shadow theatre of Karnataka is known as Togalu Gombeyatta. These puppets are mostly small in
size.Thepuppetshoweverdifferinsizeaccordingtotheirsocialstatus,forinstance,largesizeforkings
andreligiouscharactersandsmallersizeforcommonpeopleorservants.
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TholuBommalata,AndhraPradesh
TholuBommalata,AndhraPradesh'sshadowtheatrehastherichestandstrongesttradition.Thepuppetsarelargeinsize
and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees. They are coloured on both sides. Hence, these puppets throw
colouredshadowsonthescreen.Themusicisdominantlyinfluencedbytheclassicalmusicoftheregionandthetheme
ofthepuppetplaysaredrawnfromtheRamayana,MahabharataandPuranas.

Ravanachhaya,Orissa
ThemosttheatricallyexcitingistheRavanachhayaofOrissa.Thepuppetsareinonepieceandhavenojoints.Theyare
notcoloured,hencethrowopaqueshadowsonthescreen.Themanipulationrequiresgreatdexterity,sincethereareno
joints. The puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses. Apart from human and animal
characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also used. Although, Ravanachhaya puppets are
smallerinsizethelargestnotmorethantwofeethavenojointedlimbs,theycreateverysensitiveandlyricalshadows.
RodPuppets
Rod puppets are an extension of glovepuppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods
frombelow.ThisformofpuppetrynowisfoundmostlyinWestBengalandOrissa.
PutulNautch,WestBengal
The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as Putul Nautch. They are carved from wood and follow the
variousartisticstylesofaparticularregion.InNadiadistrictofWestBengal,rodpuppetsusedtobeofhumansizelikethe
BunrakupuppetsofJapan.Thisformisnowalmostextinct.TheBengalrodpuppets,whichsurviveareabout3to4feetin
height and are costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre form prevalent in the State. These puppets have
mostlythreejoints.Theheads,supportedbythemainrod,isjoinedattheneckandbothhandsattachedtorodsarejoined
attheshoulders.
Thetechniqueofmanipulationisinterestingandhighlytheatrical.Abamboomadehubistiedfirmlytothewaistofthe
puppeteeronwhichtherodholdingthepuppetisplaced.Thepuppeteerseachholdingonepuppet,standbehindahead
high curtain and while manipulating the rods also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the puppets.
Whilethepuppeteersthemselvessinganddeliverthestylizedprosedialogues,agroupofmusicians,usuallythreetofour
innumbers,sittingatthesideofthestageprovidetheaccompanyingmusicwithadrum,harmoniumandcymbals.The
musicandverbaltexthaveclosesimilaritywiththeJatratheatre.
TheOrissaRodpuppetsaremuchsmallerinsize,usuallyabouttwelvetoeighteeninches.Theyalsohavemostlythreejoints,butthehandsaretiedto
strings instead of rods. Thus elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of puppetry. The technique of manipulation is somewhat
different.TheOrissarodpuppeteerssquatonthegroundbehindascreenandmanipulate.Againitismoreoperaticinitsverbalcontentssinceimpromptu
prosedialoguesareinfrequentlyused.Mostofthedialoguesaresung.ThemusicblendsfolktuneswithclassicalOdissitunes.Themusicbeginswitha
shortpieceofritualorchestralpreliminarycalledStutiandisfollowedbytheplay.
The puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of Orissa are more operatic and prose dialogues are
seldomused.
Yampuri,Bihar

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ThetraditionalRodpuppetofBiharisknownasYampuri.Thesepuppetsaremadeofwood.UnlikethetraditionalRodpuppets
of West Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece and have no joints. As these puppets have no joints, the
manipulationisdifferentfromotherRodpuppetsandrequiresgreaterdexterity.

GlovePuppets
Glovepuppets,arealsoknownassleeve,handorpalmpuppets.Theheadismadeofeitherpapiermache,clothorwood,withtwo
handsemergingfromjustbelowtheneck.Therestofthefigureconsistsofalongflowingskirt.Thesepuppetsarelikelimpdolls,
butinthehandsofanablepuppeteer,arecapableofproducingawiderangeofmovements.Themanipulationtechniqueissimple
themovementsarecontrolledbythehumanhandthefirstfingerinsertedintheheadandthemiddlefingerandthethumbare
thetwoarmsofthepuppet.Withthehelpofthesethreefingers,theglovepuppetcomesalive.
ThetraditionofglovepuppetsinIndiaispopularinUttarPradesh,Orissa,WestBengalandKerala.InUttarPradesh,glovepuppet
plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the
puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogues, the
movementofthepuppetandthebeatofthedholakarewellsynchronisedandcreateadramaticatmosphere.
Pavakoothu,Kerala
InKerala,thetraditionalglovepuppetplayiscalledPavakoothu.Itcameintoexistenceduringthe18thcenturyduetothe
influenceofKathakali,thefamousclassicaldancedramaofKerala,onpuppetperformances.InPavakoothu,theheightofa
puppetvariesfromonefoottotwofeet.Theheadandthearmsarecarvedofwoodandjoinedtogetherwiththickcloth,cut
andstitchedintoasmallbag.
Thefaceofthepuppetsaredecoratedwithpaints,smallandthinpiecesofgildedtin,thefeathersofthepeacock,etc.The
manipulatorputshishandintothebagandmovesthehandsandheadofthepuppet.Themusicalinstrumentsusedduring
theperformanceareChenda,Chengiloa,IlathalamandShankhatheconch.ThethemeforGlovepuppetplaysinKerala
isbasedontheepisodesfromeithertheRamayanaortheMahabharata.
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