JOURNAL OF

THEINSTITUTION OF
CIVIL ENGINEERS.
- . ~

No. 2.
1943-44
DECEMBER 1943

Paper No. 5350.

'' A Lattice Analogy for the Solution of Stress Problems."

By DOUGLAS
MCHENRY.*

(Ordered by the Council to be published with written discussion.t)

TABLE O F CONTENTS
PAQE
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
. . . .
The two-dimensional stress problem . . . . . . . . . 60
. . . .
First derivation-Taylor's theorem . . . . . . . . . 62
. . .
Second derivation-the lattice analogy . . . . . . . . . 65
Solution of the lattice . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Determination of stresses . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Computation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Special applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

INTRODUCTION.
THISPaper describes a computation method which may be adapted to the
numerical solution of almost any type of two-dimensional stress problem
involving elastic materials. The method is one of successive approxima-
tion in which the accuracy of the result is controlled entirely by the quan-
tity of labour expended. The two-dimensional section may be of any
* Engineer, Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Department of Interior.
t Correspondence on this Paper can be received until the 15th April 1944, and
will be published in a Supplement to the Institution Journal for October 1944. Con-
tributions should be limited to about 600 words.-ssc. INST. C.E.
5 59
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 60 LATTICE
ANALOGY
MCHENRYA ON FOR

shape, and it may be subjected to any desired boundary loading or dis-

placement, or to non-uniform body forces or temperature-changes. The
section may be a composite of two or more materials, or it may contain
reinforcement;
The method may be derived either through the equilibrium equations
of elasticity or from a simple application of the elementary principles of
designing statically indeterminatestructures. (Both derivations are
given.) The engineer who uses his calculus infrequently need feel ho
uneasiness, for neither the derivation nor the application need involve any
principles beyond those which are used daily by all designers. The more
abstract derivation on pages 62 to 65, post, may beomitted entirely,
without great loss, by any who are more concerned with the immediate
application than with the proof or the possible continued development of
the method.
The scheme will find its application in the field of problems which are
inherently difficult for rigorous methods, and it is not to be supposed that
it will yield solutions without the expenditure of thought and labour. The
variouspracticalapplications which have been made so far haveeach
required from 20 hours to about 80 hours of computation. It seems safe
to say that the proposed method will provide the numerical solution to
many problems for which no reasonably simple solution has been available,
and it will do so with a degree of accuracy exceeding that of many of the
ourrentlyacceptedmethods of structural design. The scheme was
inventedthrough necessity when it was found thatin analysing the
measured deformations of structures in service, the idealized conditions of
most rigorous solutions deviated so widely from actual conditions that they
were not applicable.
The Author is well aware that thepresent demonstration of the method
is lacking in rigour ; but the luxuryof a rigorous investigation must await
more settled times. He hopes that the presentation will partially fill the
need for a method applicable to a variety of new stress problems which
must, under present conditions, be solved in some fashion without the
benefit of the usual period of preliminary mathematical investigation.

THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL
STRESS
PROBLEM.
Design problems which have to dowith the distribution of stress
throughout a section often present extreme difficulties when attacked by
formal methods. Only a few exact solutions are known, in spite of the
fact that such problems are among the most important which confront the
designer. AS is well known, the difficulties which arise in applying the
exact mathematics of elasticity are commonly avoided by introducing
assumptions which may or may not lead to " reasonably correct ') soh-
tions-usually by assuming that certain components either of stress or of
displacement are distributed linearly across the section. In thisconnexion,

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 SOLUTION
THE OF STRESS
PROBLEMS. 61
a distinction should be noted between mathematical and physical assump-
tions. The mathematician who sets the sine of a small angle equal to the
angle (or to its tangent), for example, can usually demonstrate by simple
arithmetic that he is wholly within his rights. On the other hand, the
designer who assumes in advance that certain plane sections will remain
plane when his structure is loaded can but rarely form even a rough estimate
of the error introduced thereby. The distinction is between an (approxi-
mation and an assumption. ,
Most of the currently used solutions of problems involving stress dis-
tribution are assumed solutions. From time to time general methods for
appozimate solutionhave been published. In 1910 L. F. Richardsod
investigated with remarkable thoroughness the solution of the Airy stress
function by successive approximations ; and a similar investigation by
Poritsky, Snively, and Wylie2 was published more recently. A method for
solving the slab analogyby successive trials hasalso been developed by the
UnitedStatesBureau of Reclamation.3 These presentationsare rather
toomathematicalformanypractising designers, andthey have the
additional practical disadvalrtage that theydeal withthe equation V4F=O,
which is relatedto stress and strain through a rather circuitous route. This
equation has dominated the field of two-dimensional elasticity since its
introduction in 1862, and its utilityis beyond question; nevertheless, it is
a rather unnatural approachto the stress problem.
Many recentauthoritativewritingshaveindicatedtheadvantages
which may be gained byapproachingvariousstress problems through
displacements.Themathematics of displacementsshould, it seems,be
simpler,for fewer unknownquantitiesareinvolved ; but perhaps the
greatest advantage lies in the simplicity of visualizing the two (or three)
components of displacement, in comparison with the difficulty of picturing
the simultaneous action of three (or six) components of stress. Actually,
it is almostimpossible to thinkin terms of stress. Prescott4 has advocated
a displacement attack particularly for solid-body problems, and others have
displayed a similar view toward the problem of articulated structures. A
section through a solid body may, in fact, be compared to a two-dimen-
sionalarticulatedstructure. Such structuresarefrequently classed as
statically determinateif stresses inthe members can be found without con-
sideringdisplacements ; otherwisetheyare indeterminate , and the
((

degree of indeterminacy is governed by the number of displacement con-

ditions which must be satisfied. A solid section is, in general,indeter-
minate to an infinite degree, for the compatibility condition of displace-
ments must be satisfied at every point.
An approximate method for the solution of such a section is here pre-
sented. Two approaches tothe problem are given. In the first,the
fundamental relationships of elasticity, applicable to any point, are com-

The references are to the bibliography on p. 82, post.

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 62 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

bined with the point-to-point relationships expressed by Taylors theorem,

resulting in simple expressions which may be solved by iteration. In the
second, the section which is indeterminate to aninfinite degree is simulated
by a lattice of finite indeterminacy, and the latticeis solved by successive
adjustments. The two approaches lead to a single method in which dis-
placements are determined directly (without regard to stresses) a t discrete
points throughoutthe section. The differences between successive dis-
placements yield thestrainsand, in turn,the stresses. The Author
considers that the displacement computation represents the simplest and
the most natural approach to the problem. In any case, however, the
computation of displacements need not be considered as extraneous work,
for a plotted diagram of the displacements will convey to the designer an
understanding of his structure which can seldom be reached through stress
diagrams.
The following section, dealing with the approach through the funda-
mental differential equations of elasticity, may be omitted by anywho are
willing to accept upon faith the validity of the lattice analogy developed
in pp. 65 to 73, post.

FIRSTDERIVATION-TAYLORS
THEOREM
Consider a square element of side dimensions 26 in theinterior of a two-
dimensional plane section, and 1ocate.the points 0, a, b, c, . . . h (Fig. I ) .

Fig. I .

Let U, v denote displacements in the directions of X and y, respectively.

The displacements of all points maybe referred to thecentre displacements,
uo and vo, by Taylors theorem.* Neglecting derivatives higher than the

* Taylors theorem for E function of two variables is :

f ( r + h , y + k ) = f ( 5 , y ) + h ~af+ k - af
a!/

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 SOLUTION
THE OF STRESS
PROBLEMS. 63
second, sixteen equations of the form :
au 1 a 2 u
U, = U0 + 6 - + -62-ay2 . . . . . . . . . .
ay

are derived. The remaining six equations in U and the eight equations in
v may be written out a t once. If these displacements are such that they
can existin theinterior of a stressed body in equilibrium, they must satisfy
the conditions of equilibrium and of compatibility. For plane stress, in
the absence of body forces or thermal effects, the equations of equilibrium
in terms of the displacements take thefollowing form :

E
where E denotes modulus of elasticity, p Poissons ratio, and G
(These equations can be derived readily from the corresponding
p).
= ___
+
equations for three dimensions given in the standard texts on elasticity.)
In the following use of these equations, p may be assigned values a t
will ; but the results will assume their simplest form if the value is taken
as 4. Equations ( 2 ) then become :

Equations (la), (lb), etc., which are linear in U and v, represent a set of
necessary relations between the displacements, neglecting terms of the
thirdand higher orders ; hence any linear combination of them also
expresses a necessary relation. It is desired to find, if possible, a particu-
lar linear combination in which-all of the derivatives will disappear when
(3a) and (3b) are satisfied. This may be accomplished by the following
combinations* :
C.( + + + + uf + +
ug) Ub ob - Od + vf - vh

4 (v, $. v,) + vb + + vf f
vd
~~ ~~
vh
~~~~
fu b - ?Ad
~
+ uf - uh

* Because of the approxirnatc naturc of these solutions, other combinations are

also possible.

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 64 LATTICE
MCHENRY ON ANALOGY
A FOR

. . . (4b)

If the stresses are in equilibrium, and if the displacements are compatible.

these become
U0 = + v b + 4%
h('% + Ud + uf + vf + 4ug+ -
- vd uh Vk) (sa)
v0 = &(4Va + +ub vb - u d + + 4ve + + vf - + vh)
vd 'uf uh (5b)
These last two are the only equations required for determining dis-
placements throughout a rectangular section when the boundary conditions
are completely specified in terms of displacements. If equations (5) are
' satisfied for small elements into which the section is divided, then thecondi-

tions of equilibrium will be satisfied throughout toa degree of approxima-

tion which may be controlled by choosing the dimension 6. This condi-
tion of equilibrium may be reached by successive applications of equa-
tions (5) starting from any initial condition. Continuity is automatically
maintained a t discrete points simply by making displacements of these
points single-valued. Proof of the convergence of this iterative process
would followlines similar to theproof of the well-known method of satisfy-
ing Laplace's equationfor given boundary conditions by successively
averaging, a t each point, assigned values a t four equidistant surrounding
points.6
If boundary values are given in terms of loads, then the element of
Fig. 2 may be considered. In addition to the previous conditions, the

Fig. 2.

boundaryequations of elasticitymust be satisfied. These are, for the

case of Fig. 2, with p = +

. . (6b)

where X and Y are forces per unit of area. The following combinations of

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 THE
SOLUTION OF STRESS
PROBLEMS. 65
displacements may be used :

2% + '% - vd + uf + vf f

These reduce to

86 -
vug = - Y
9E
+ *
(Vd - Ud + +
4% Vf.+ U f ) * . .
For this case, the boundary displacements will alter continuously
during the iteration process ; but it may be judged intuitively, and has
been demonstrated in practice, that the process converges. (The infinite
half-plane, with infinite displacements, represents a special case in which
convergence is not to be expected.)
It is evident that theabove treatment might be extended into a usable
system covering a variety of conditions, but it seems preferable to develop
this extension by means of the analogy described on p. 66, post.

SECOND
DERIVATION-THE
LATTICE
ANALOGY.

Any problem in two-dimensional elasticity might conceivably be solved

by dividing the section into small elements (such as squares), estimating a
continuous stress-distribution throughout, and investigating the resulting
conditions of stress and distortion for each of the small elements. If in
this way a stress-distributioncould be found for which each element was in
equilibrium with respect to translation and rotation, and was in contact
with each of its neighbours ; and if the boundary conditions were satisfied ;
then such a solution would be unique and would be correct to a degree of
approximation controlled by the size of the elements investigated. An
actual solution by such a method was published by Ferriss in 1933. The
difficulties in a pure trial anderror scheme are almost insurmountable ;but
it has been found that thisbasic scheme can be systematized into anentirely
feasible method.
The artifice which makes this method practicable is the representation

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 06 LATTICE
MCHENRY ON A ANALOGY FOR

of each square element of the section by a square frame composed of six

elastic members.*
Fig. 3 (a) shows a square element of continuous material of length I and
thickness t (for convenience, the continuous section will hereafter be
referred to as a plate) acted upon by the uniformly distributed horizontal
P
force P per unit of thickness which produces elongations Eh = -.
E
and
P
= - '"E"
Fig. 3 (b) shows a braced framework of six members connected at the
four corners by frictionless pins and loaded by the same total horizontal
force. It is apparent that this frame will elongate horizontally and con-
tract vertically, and that by choosing the properties of the members
Figs. 3.
(b)

suitably, the extentof this elongation and contraction might be made the
same for the frame asfor the plate.
Denoting by AE, theproduct of area by elastic modulus for the
horizontal and vertical frame members, and byAE, the product of area by
elastic modulus for the diagonal members, it is found that thetwo elements
will deform identically if

Similar considerations will apply if the two elements are subjected to

equal shearing forces. I t is found in t,his case that the deformations will
be identical if

. ~~
.. ~

* Thephysicalanalogybetween the behaviour of a continuous section and an

articulated framework has evidently been under consideration by others for some time.
The Author h t heardof it from Prof. R. W. Carlson in 1936, and madehis first use of
it in 1940. Mr. A. Hrennikoff prepared a thesis in 1940 entitled, Plane Stress and
Rending of Plates by Method of Articulated Framework ", and published' an extract
from this thesis while the Author waa preparing his first formal report * on the method.

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS. 67
In the general case, when normal and shearing forces act simultan-
eously, the deformations will be the same only if equations (Sb) and (9) are
identical. This restricts the value of Poissons ratio to +
and gives the
expressions

. (loa)

Thus the first step in thesolution of the two-dimensional problem is to

replace the section by a lattice of braced square frames the members of
which have the properties defined by equations(10a) and (lob). These
relationships (10) were derived for certain special cases : the dimensions of
the plate element and the frame were chosen identical, as also were the
forces acting upon them ; only one component of stress was acting ineach
case, and thiscomponent was acting uniformly over the sides of the element,
or was divided equally between the joints of the frame. Under these con-
ditions the identity of the plate -element and the framemay be considered
as exact. When extension is made to other cases, some of these retain
theexact relationships, whilst othersintroduce approximations. The
superposition of stress components may be considered as entirely valid ;
changes in scale without distortion, or changes in elastic modulus retaining
the relation AE, = AE, .tz
introduce only simple similitude relation-
ships. However, non-uniform distribution of stress will, in general,
produce curvilinear distortion of the plate element which cannot be repro-
duced by a single frame element. In this case the degree of approximation
may be made as close as desired by choosing the dimensions of the elements
small enough for the curvature to be adequately represented. When the
complete plate is simulated by a lattice composed of the interconnected
elemental frames, the validity of the simulation may be shown by demon-
strating that, in the limit, as the dimensions of the frames approach zero,
the differential equations of equilibrium and of compatibility become
identical for the lattice and theplate, and theboundary conditions become
expressible in thesame form ; the two solutions therefore become identical.
Thus, although for obvious reasons the lattice is referred to as analogous
to theplate, the two may (asa limiting condition)become identical so far as
the present problem is concerned.
+
The restriction that Poissons ratio must be for complete identity-
between the plate and the lattice is usually unimportant. The distribution
of stress in an elhstic Eody7iindependent of the values of E and p in most
types of problems where the boundary conditions are given in terms of
stress or load. When displacements are computed from loads, when the
boundary conditions are given in terms of displacements, or if the plate is
not singly connected, then the restriction upon p may enter into the prob-

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 68 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

lem. However, Poisson's ratio effects are almost always of secondary

importance, and a substantial error in the value assigned to the ratiowill
ordinarily produce only a negligible error in theresult, particularly in so far
as concerns the stress.* The value 4 is very close to the correct ratio for
steel, whilst for concrete the true ratioranges from $ t o i.

SOLUTION
OF TEE LATTICE.
It is proposed to represent a plate stressed by forces acting in its plane
by an assemblage of braced frames connected together a t their pinned
corners, and t o determine the stresses and displacements in the plate from
the displacements in the frames. The technique of solving the lattice is
closely akin to Professor R. V. Southwell's method of systematic relaxa-

tion of constraints.9 Although the present method was developed inde-

pendently, it may be considered as a special and somewhat simpli6ed case
of the relaxation method"deve1oped in more general terms by Southwell.
A typical problem which presents considerable difficulty in applying the
conventional methods of elasticity is illustrated by Figs. 4. In (a) a rect-
angular two-dimensional section is shown witha uniformly distributed
load applied to .the upper half, whilst (b) shows the corresponding lattice
system with equivalent loading. Because of symmetry, only one-half of
the lattice, on either side of the vertical centre-line, need be considered.
The problem, then, is to solve for the displacements in this lattice of
sixteen frames, made up of seventy-four members with twenty-sevenjoints.

* This statement is based upon numerous examples m the literature on elasticity

in which the effect of varying Poisaon's ratio hasbeen investigated.

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS. 69
By the conventional methods appliedto indeterminate structures, seventy-
fourequations would be required. These might be derivedfrom con-
siderations of strain energy, or bysupplyinghfty-oneequationsfrom
statics and twenty-three from the requirements of continuity. The direct
solution would be quite possible, but verylaborious. Moreover, in an
actual case it would be desirable to employ a t least twice as many frames
on each boundary, bringing the number of members to 276, of which 109
are redundant. The direct solution of this system would be almost too
laborious to contemplate.
The " relaxation " method brings the solution within the usable range
by restricting each step to a small region in which equilibrium with sur-
rounding forces isestablishedby simple operations.Bringing the next
adjoining region into equilibrium then disturbs the first region, but leaves
it closer to thefinal state inwhich the entire system isin (or very close to)
equilibrium.
If the region adjusted in each step is restricted to a single joint, the
operations involved become very simple, requiring only a few formulas
which may be readily memorized, and in most cases involving no more
complicated operationthan division by 12. The process is reduced entirely
to one of adjusting displacements, and no consideration need be given t o
internalstresses untilthe displacementadjustmentis complete. Dis-
placements and strains maybe considered identical in the lattice and in the
plateprototype. Simple relationshipsthenexistbetweendisplacements
and stresses.
The simplest case occurs when the boundary conditions are given as
displacements. The general procedure is then as outlined below.
To visualize the process, imagine the lattice actually constructed, to a
small scale, of elastic members (or springs) with their ends hooked over
small rings to form the frictionless joints. (The members must, of course,
be able to sustain compression without buckling.) Lay this lattice out
upon a horizontal board, and, before applying any displacements, fasten
each joint to theboard by a nail passing through the ring. The condition
is thenone of complete constraint of all joints, with all displacements zero.
Next, move tlie various boundary joints through distances corresponding
to their assigned displacements and drivethe boundary nails in again in the
new positions. Then, in a line of joints adjacent to one of the displaced
boundaries, remove one nail, let the jointmove to itsequilibrium position,
and drive the nail again in the new location. Repeat the procedure a t
successive joints, removing and replacing only one nail a t a time until the
entiregridhas been gone over once. Thenrepeatthe entire process
(keeping only the boundary joints fixed in conformity with the given dis-
placements) the number of times requiredto give a satisfactory approachto
the condition of complete transfer of forces from the interior nails (or
constraints) to the members of the lattice.
It is apparent from the mechanical concept, and it has been demon-

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 70 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

strated mathematically,QJO that the process of freeing one joint a t a time

will eventually yield the desired condition, in which no further displacement
will result from the removal of any constraint. Experience with a few
problems has shown that the rate of convergence is sufficiently rapid and
the required numerical work is sufficiently simple for the computation
scheme to be entirely feasible. At any stage of the computation, the state
of the adjustment may bedetermined by computing the forces acting
upon the constraints (the imaginary nails). This computation is practically
identical withthe computation of displacements and requires no new
equations.
Therelaxationconcept is convenient inthat it assigns an easily
visualized physical meaning totheadjustment process. However, it
should be pointed outthat mathematically the process is simply an
iterative one in which the unknowns are progressively improved by
repeating each operation upon the product of that operation.
The method converges to the correct result (at least, so far as the
lattice is concerned) regardless of the imposed initial condition ; therefore
the unknown displacements may be all assumed as zero to start with, or
any system of displacements based upon experience with similar problems
may be used. At any stage in theprocess, estimated adjustments may be
introduced to speed the convergence, or to over-adjust to such an extent
that the correct result is approached from two directions. Arithmetical
mistakes made in any step will be rapidly eliminated by the succeeding
adjustments, for the final result must be correct (within some specified
range of permissible error) regardless of the course by which it is reached.
If the boundary conditions are given as forces rather than as displace-
ment~, theprocedure is unchanged, except that the boundary positions
must be adjusted by definite and progressively diminishing amounts until
the end-point is reached. Convergence under this condition is rather
slower, but it may be speeded considerably by various artifices.
To solve the problem of a lattice which simulates a rectangular plate
prototype, three pairs of equations are required : one for corners, one for
straight boundaries, and one for the interior. One additional pair will be
required if the section contains re-entrant corners.
Consider first the interior equations, assuming an assembly of four unit
frames (F@. 5), with joints lettered a, b, c, . . . h and 0. Neglecting, for
the moment, the forces H , and Vo,certain displacements are assigned to the
eight exterior joints, these displacements being either permanently fixed
(as at a h e d boundary) or temporarily fixed during a step in the adjust-
ment process. With these conditions given, the central joint 0 is per-
mitted to move to its equilibrium position. All displacements are given in
terms of their horizontal and vertical components and are referred to the
coordinates assigned to the respective joints when the lattice is free from
stress. The lengths of the horizontal and vertical members of Fig. 5 are
taken as I (between joints), the lengths of the diagonals as 2 2/% and all

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS. 71
angles as either 45 degrees or 90 degrees. The interiorhorizontal and
vertical members (Oa, Oc, Oe, Og) are each common to two frames ;there-
fore they are treated as double members. The diagonals are single mem-
movement of 0 whether the other members
bers, and it is immaterial to the
are single or double. Taking E as the elastic modulus of the plate material,
then the productof area by elastic modulus for the double horizontal and
3Elt
vertical members is, from equation (loa), 2AEN = - and for the dia-
4
da
gonals, from equation (lob), AED = 3EZt - . Obviously, with displace-
8
ments of a, b, c, . . . h fixed, the corresponding displacement of 0 is
Fig. 5.

independent of any conditions outside of the four-frame region. The

problem of determining the corresponding displacement of 0 is so simple
that only the result need be given.* Denoting the horizontal component
of a displacement by h, and the vertical component by v, with subscripts
a,, b, c, . . . denoting the joint to which the displacement applies,

These are identical with equations (5), p. 64, ants, derived by the use of
Taylor's theorem.
If body forces are acting in the plane of the plate, they may be repre-
sented by the forces H , and V,, per unit of thickness. The movement of 0
due to these forces (with the surrounding joints fixed) is given by
4
h --H0
-9E
. . . . .

* See Appendix for the derivation of the equations.

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 72 LATTICE
MCHENRYANALOGY
A ON FOR

These movements may be added to those produced by surrounding dis-

placements.
The four pairs of equations required for a plate with re-entrant corners
are given in Figs. 6. These equations are the only ones which the Author

Figs. 6.

EXTERIOR
CORNER. :d REENTRANT CORNER, d

LAWICE EQUATIONS
BOR HOMOQENEOUS, ISOTROPIC
MATERIBLS.

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 SOLUTION
THE OF STRESS
PROBLEMS. 73
has required so far in thesolution of numerous problems involving homo-
geneous materials. If the value of Poissons ratio must be taken as other
than 4, or if the shape of the elements must be taken as other thansquare,
the derivation of the required equations forframes becomes rather cumber-
some. However, the method described on pp. 62 to 65, ante, appears to be
entirely general and may be applied, if required, to the more complex
cases.
A simple and systematic notation is very important in thecomputation
scheme, andthe systemindicatedabove is followed throughout. The
jointswith given displacements are lettered clockwise, starting from
12 oclock, and thejoint whose displacement is to be determined is lettered
0. When only one or two frames are considered, they are lettered as a
part of the four-frame assembly, with the unknown always in the position
of 0 in Fig. 5. The components of forces acting at the joints are desig-
nated H and V , to distinguish them from h and Q, the displacements.
The positive directions of the coordinate axes in Pigs. 6 are taken as
shown. If the positive directions are changed, or if the boundaries are
located on the sides opposite to those shown by thefigures, certain signs in
the equations will be changed ; if the boundaries are a t right angles to
those shown, the designations h and v will be interchanged, with perhaps
sign changes as well. An attempt to memorize the equations applicable to
a1 such cases would be futile. It is farbetter t o visualize the simple
relationships which the equations express andto memorize only the
coefficients. The best way for thecomputer to accomplish this is t o work
through an independent derivation of the equations. If this is done, the
correct application will soon become an automatic process.

DETERMINATION
OF STRESSES.

The principal function of the lattice analogy will usually be to deter-

mine stresses rather than displacements in the prototype. For this pur-
pose it is most convenient to terminate theanalogy when the displacement
adjustment is complete, and to proceed wit5 the computed displacements
as those of the prototype. The difference between displacements of sue-
cessive lattice joints will yield strains, and from these the stresses may be
determined by the usual stress-strainrelations for elastic materials. It
will usually be best to work with the centre of each lattice square, averag-
ing the twohorizontal members to obtain thehorizontal strain and thetwo
vertical members to obtain the vertical strain. It is also convenient to
express the stress directly in terms of the displacements of the lattice and
the elastic modulus of the prototypematerial.
Numbering the four corners of a square as shown in Fig. 7, the strains
at thecentre of the square are given by :

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 74 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

7
i

Pig. 7.

and the stresses at thesame point by :

To determine the principal stresses, substitutionin the usual equations

yields
h1 + v1 - h, + - h3 - v3 + h4 - v4
. .
tan 20 =
hl - v1 + h, + v2 - h3 + 03 - h4 - v4
(15)

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS. 75

COMPUTATIONMETHODS.
It is hardly withinthe scope of this Paperto discuss all of the difficulties
which may beset the user of the process, or the expedients by which they
may be overcome. A beginner in the method will usually be discouraged
by the slow rate of convergence ; and this is especially true of cases in
which deflexions are large in comparison with strains, or in which large
changes in deflexion correspond to small changes in stress : but in such
cases the strains and stresses may reach reasonable accuracy long before the
displacements have reachedan end-point.
Perhaps the most useful advice which might be given to a beginner is
an admonition to keep continually in mind a clear mental picture of the
process which he is using. This may be accomplished readily by means of
the simple analogy of the board, the springs, and the nails. The system is
adapted to expression as an abstract mathematical procedure ; but the
Author has taken pains to avoid such an approach because the slowness of
convergence in many problems requires that the mathematics be supple-
mented by judgment. With a clear understanding of the analogy, it is
always possible (and advisable)to speed the normal rate of convergence by
forcing the joints to move toward their equilibrium positions as soon as a
few adjustmentshaveindicatedthedirections of the movement.Pre-
quently it is possible to visualize the effect of releasing a large number of
joints simultaneously, and to apply estimatedmovements accordingly.
Time will usually be gained by solving h s t a very coarse lattice of, say,
eight to twelve squares, and using the displacements so determined as a
starting-point for a finer lattice. If additionaldetailsarerequiredin
certain regions, as a t corners or loading points, these particularregions may
be still further subdivided.
As mentionedpreviously, convergence is most rapid when certain
boundarydisplacements are k e d . It happensnotinfrequently that a
fixed load condition can be expressed as a fixed displacement condition.
Thetheorem of reciprocaldisplacementsisparticularly useful in that
respect. For example, a " portal ''-type continuous structure supporting
a distributed loadwas analysed bythe following steps : (1) a fixed displace-
ment was applied at the topcentre and the latticewas adjusted to conform
to this condition ; (2) the magnitude of the corresponding concentrated
load at the top centre was determined from the vertical stresses in the
structure ; (3) the reciprocal theorem was applied t o determine the centre
displacement produced by the distributed load ; and (4) the distributed
load was applied with the centre-point fixed in accordance with step (3),
and the lattice was solved for this condition.
In important problems, where a high degree of accuracy is required, it
may be advisable to work out equations which permit the simultaneous
release of a number of joints. In one case, equations were derived which
released an entire row or column of seven joints. The time required t o set
6
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 76 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

up the equations was undoubtedly more than offset by the rapid conver-
1 gence, Suchequations will have to be derived,usually, to fit the parti-
cular problem a t hand.
The successful practical application of the method will depend to a
large extent upon the ingenuity of the computer in applying such exped-
ienta as those mentioned above. It should be emphasized, however, that
these expedients are desirable but not essential. Once a problem has been
set up and any initial condition whatsoever assigned, the method must
eventually yield the correct sclution to anyone who can operate a com-
puting-machine.
It need scarcely be mentioned that substitution in theequations should
be made directly in the computing-machine, with nothing entered upon
paperexcept the values h. and vo. Totaldisplacements(rather than
increments) should be computed directly a t each step, and new values
should be used as soon as they have been determined. The time required
for the computation of both h0 and v, a t each joint should average l&
minute, or less. One computer devised a set of masks which fitted over
hisdisplacementtable in sucha way that only the particular values
required for each equation were exposed, with the proper sign and coeffi-
cient written underneath.
It s e e m generally advisableto choose the value of E , and also the side
dimensions andthickness on each lattice square, as unity, making the
adjustment to actual prototypeconditions as thefinal step in the solution.
Mention was made previously of the distinction between approximate
and assumedsolutions.The user of this methodshouldguardagainst
transferring it from the first to thesecond of these categories,as he may do
if heassumes that at a certainstage a satisfactorysolutionhas been
reached. No computation should be considered as complete (even though
the changes have become very small) without some investigation of its
accuracy. Unfortunately, no simple method is available to determine the
accuracy to which the latticerepresents the plate ; but the accuracy of the
lattice solution itself may he estimated readily. Perhaps the best method
of locating the end-point is by deliberately overadjusting the system so
that a reversal occurs in thedirection of movement. It may be advisable,
also, to compute the residual constraining forces which are acting on the
joints. These should, of course, reduce to zero for a perfectsolution. .
This computation is made by the equations of Pigs. 6, merely rewritten so
that the forces H , and V , are the unknowns. The requirements of statics
will usually provide some conditions which must be satisfied by the areas
or moments of the stress diagrams, and checks against these conditions
should not be overlooked.

SPECIALAPPLICATIONS.
Body forces.-Body forces of entirely arbitrary nature may be intro-
duced by substituting the required values for H0 and V , in the equations

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 SOLUTION
THE OF STRESS
PROBLEMS. 77
of Pigs. 6. This property of the method will be found especially valuable in
computing thermal stresses, discussed below. Certain restricted types of
body force may also be handled by the method of M. A. Biot,ll in which
fictitious boundary pressures are applied. In the case of a gravity force
the weightIess section is immersed, inverted, in a liquid ; the resulting
stress system then bears a simple relationship to the system of gravity
stresses.
Thermal stresses.-Two methodsareavailable for solving thermal
stress problems by the lattice analogy. By the first method, representing
a direct attackupon the problem, the stress-free length of each member of
the lattice is made a function of its temperature. The imperfect fit of the
various members will then introduce stresses which may be determined by
the successive adjustments. This scheme has been used successfully for
simple problems, but it appears generally preferable t o use the second
method, in which fictitious boundary and body forces are applied in
accordance with methods which have been developed for elastic materials.
The derivation has been given in detail by Timoshenko.19 If X', Y', and
X',F, denote the fiatitious body and boundary forces,

where U denotes the coefficient of linear expansion, T the temperature

(zero may be placed anywhere on the scale), and 1, m denote the direction
cosines of the normal to the boundary. The displacements for this system
of forces having been determined, the stresses will be given by the usual
stress-strain relations, provided the term " strain " is interpreted as the
unit elongation in excess of that produced by a stress-free temperature-
change from zero to the assigned temperature.
Composite sections.-If the section is composed of two or more materials,
only a slight added complication enters the latticeanalogy. The displace-
ment equations of Figs. 6 may be used without change, except a t the
j u k t i o n of two materials. Equations for movements at thejunction may
be derived without difficulty. They are of the same form as those wbucb
apply elsewhere, but certain of the coefficients depend upon the ratio of
the elastic moduli of the twomaterials.
Reinforced sections.-The case of reinforoement (such as steel bars iu

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 78 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

concrete) represents a special type of composite section in which single

members of the lattice may simulate the bars. Again, the usual equations
will apply everywhere exceptfor the bar itself. Theequations for bar
displacements will contain coefficients which depend upon the ratio of
elastic moduli and upon the dimensions and spacing of the bars. The
method should be used with particular caution in this case, as certain
assumptions which must be made add some uncertainty toa method which
is already frankly approximate.
Thefoundation.-The analogy has not yetbeen applied to thecase of a
structure resting on an elastic foundation ; but a method for handling
such cases seems to be clear. It is obvious that the lattice itself might be
extended downward and outward into thefoundation a sufficient distance
to permit an imaginary boundary to be fixed. However, the section of
foundation included would have to be even larger than the structure, and
thus would increase considerably the labour of reaching a solution. This
procedure is unnecessary, however, because the solution for displacements
in an infinite half-plane with any system of boundary loads is already
known.12 The suggested procedure, then, is to release the constraints a t
the foundation surface as the successive adjustments proceed, permitting
this surface to move in accordance with the normal and tangential forces
acting upon it. The foundation and the structure are thus carried simul-
taneouslytoward their final equilibrium positions. Certain fixed con-
ditions must be assigned to the foundation to preventinfinite movements.
The Author has not found the equations for foundation surface displace-
ments given in suitable form in the literature, but they havebeen derived
from the known stress functions without serious difficulty.

EXAMPLES.
Two examples have been selected from a number of cases to which the
lattice method has been applied. Figs. 8 show a massive type of con-
tinuous or monolithic single-span frame resting on a rigid foundation and
uniformly loaded. Body forces were not included. An estimate of the
overall accuracy of this solution may be obtained from the following con-
siderations : total applied load, 1,200 units ; total load indicated by area
under vertical stress diagrams, 1,052 to 1,166 units ; greatest constraining
forces at anyjoints, 5 units vertical, 5 units horizontal ; total constraining
forces a t all joints, 54 units vertical, 53 units horizontal.
A two-dimensional section containing an embedded strip of different
material is shown in Figs. 9. The load is applied to the exposed end of the
strip, which has an elastic modulus fifteen times that of the surrounding
material. The foundation is again taken as rigid, and no body forces are
acting. In this case the total applied force is 554 units ; the force indi-
cated by vertical stress diagrams, 534 to 570 units ; the greatest constrain-

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS. 79
Pigs. 8

VERTICAL STRESS ON
HORiZONTAL SECTIO-.

Rlgid foundation. 8 88 Dlsplacement

0 % 3% Mlilionthr
D --
Scaler
Structure

For load In lbwlth

E = 1 X 10' p.r.i.
DISPLACEMENTS

PRINCIPAL STRESSES
HORIZONTAL STRESS ON
VERTICAL SECTIONS.

+ denotes tenuon.

DISPLACEMEFTS IN CONTINUOUSZRAME.UNIFORM
AND STRESSES LOAD.

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 80 MCHENRY ON A LATTICE ANALOGY FOR

Figs. 9.

DISPLACEMENSS~ %EimKmJ

i denotes tension.

HORIZONTAL STRESS
J LI '2
FIRST PRINCIPLE STRESS :
O N VERTICAL SECTIONS MAGNITUDE A N D DIRECTION'.

DISPLACEMENTS
AND STRESSES SECTIONWITH EMBEDDED
IN SQUARE BAR.

ing forces at any joints, 1.5 unit vertical, 1.5 unit horizontal ; total con-
straining forces a t all joints 12.1 units vertical, 10.2 units horizontal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The lattice analogy was developed by the Author in connexion with the
design and testing of structures of the United States Bureau of Reclama-
tion. The work was carried out under the direction of Mr. K. B. Keener,
designing engineer on dams, and Mr. J. L. Savage, M. Inst. C.E., chief

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 THE SOLUTION OF STRESS PROBLEMS, 81
designing engineer. The Bureau of Reclamation is headed by Cornmis-
sioner Harry W. Bashore, of Washington, D. C., and all engineering and
construction work is directed by Mr. S. 0. Harper, chief engineer, with
headquarters in Denver, Colorado.

The Paper is accompanied by four sheets of drawings, from which

the Figures in t,he text have been prepared.

APPENDIX
DERIVATION
OB LATTICE EQTJATIOXS
Consider three elastic members intersecting at a point 0 and terminating a t points
a, b, and c, as shown in Fig. 10. The membersOa and Oc are to be taken of length I and
parallel to theX and y axes, respectively ; and Ob of length I d\/2and making an angle
of 45 degrees with the axes. With point 0 fixed, apply displacementsha, wu, hb, . . .
in dimtions of X and y, respectively, to theends a, b, c, moving them to thenew posi-

Fig. 10.

IY

tions a, b, c. Using values of the product of elastic modulus times area of AEN=
3Eltf0r members Oa and Oc, and AED = 3Elt2/8 for member Ob, the totalforces cor-
8 8
responding to these movements are foundto be
3Et
z H = s ( ) h b + & f f b + & ) . . . . . . . (18a)
3Et
zv = -g- (V. f )hb + fffb) . . . . . . .
If, then, theends at a, b, c are fixed in theirnew positions and0 is released, 0 will
move to a position in which the forges are in equilibrium with the applied forces
H,, V , (which maybe zero). Now, a movement of 0 in the direction of h will stress the
members by the same amount asw lian equalmovement of a, b, and c in the direction
of -h, and similarly for amovement of 0 in the direction of 2). So, for a displacement
of 0, it is only necessary to apply the previously determined coefficients to h, and vo,
giving
3Et
EH = - - h, + &W,) . : . . . . . . (19a)
8

zv= - -
8
3 Et
(& ha + WO) . . . l. . . . . (19b)

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 wherein H,, and V , are taken as forces per unit of thickness. These two equations
apply directlyto a frame locatedat thecorner of a lattice.
To apply the preceding method to an assembly of four frames, for example, it is
only necessaryto make use of equations (18) and (19) four times, taking due account of
the sign of the stressproduced in each member by a positive displacementh or W , and
remembering that any members which are common to two squares mustbe treated as
double, that is, having twice the value of A E N , assigned to thesingle members. In the
case of a composite section, the same procedure is applicable, providedthe properties of
the individual frame members are chosen to correspond with those of the prototype
material which they represent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. L. F. Richardson, The Approximate Solution by Finite Differences of Physical
Problems Involving Differential Equations, with an Application to theStresses in a
Masonry Dam , Philosophical Transactionsof Royal Society of London, vol. 210,
pp. 307-357, 1910.
2. H. Poritsky, H. D. Snively, C . R. Wylie, Numerical and Graphical Method of
Solving Two-Dimensional Stress Problem , Journal of Applied Mechanics, June
1939, p. A63.
3. Stress Studies for Boulder Dam ,Boulder Canyon Final Reports, Part 5, Bull. 4,
pp. 119-251, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation.
4. John Prescott, Applied Elasticity ,London, 1924 (especially p. 24).
5. Frank and Von Mises, Die Differential- und Integralgleichungen der Mechanik und
L

Physik ,vol. 1, pp. 73P737, Brunswick, 1935.

6. L. W. Perris, Theory of Elasticity, Solution of Problems by Trial , Trans.
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, vol. 41, pp. 55-61 (1933).
7. A. Hrennikoff, Solutions of Problems in Elasticity by the Framework Method ,
Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol. 8, No. 4, Dec. 1941.
8 . Douglas McHenry, TheNumericalSolution of Two-Dimensional Problemsin
Elasticity by a Lattice Analogy ,Technical Memorandum No. 628, IT.S . Bureau
of Reclamation (1942).
9. R.V. Southwell, Relaxation Methods in EngineeringScience ,Oxford University
Press, 1940.
10. G. Temple, The GeneralTheory of Relaxation MethodsApplied t,o Linear
Systems , Proc. Royal Society (A), vol. 169, pp. 476-500 (1939).
11. M. A. Biot, Distributed Gravity and Temperature Loading inTwo-Dimensional
Elasticity Replaced by Boundary Pressures and Dislocations , Journal of AppZied
Nechanics, June 1935, pp. A41-A45.
12. S.Timoshenko, Theory of Elasticity ,New York, 1934,

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