Steel a brief note

The finest steel has to go through the hottest fire.

...........John N. Mitchell

The term Steel means an iron based alloy that contains carbon in amounts less than 2%
by weight. When carbon content increases beyond 2% the iron-carbon alloy is called
Cast Iron. Steels can be classified as carbon, low alloy or stainless steels. They are
available in wide range of strengths as in moderate levels of 200-300 MPa to those
exceeding 1400 MPa. A combination of chemical and physical properties determines the
type of steel that is to be used for a certain application.

Carbon steel requires a certain percentage of manganese, silicon and copper to be

present while quantities of other elements (chromium, molybdenum, nickel, vanadium,
etc.) are not specified. Carbon steels are further classified as low carbon (0<.2%),
medium carbon (0.2 0.5 %) and high carbon steel (>0.5%). Generally, carbon steels
with carbon equivalent not more than 0.48% are considered to be suitable for structural
applications. Where the (tensile) strength of such steel is not greater than 460 MPa, heat
treatment is usually exempted. A higher carbon equivalent or strength affects the
weldability of steel and thus requires further consideration in terms of brittle fracture,
heat treatment and weld quality inspections during manufacture.

The total alloying elements in low alloy steels is 8% by weight, while it is >8% in high
alloy steels. When chromium is in excess of 10%, the alloy is called as stainless steel.
Steel designation can be a random number as in American system or can be based on
chemical composition as in European system. Some of the standards follow a certain
numbering format as well to designate steel (EN and UNS systems). Comparing steel
standards usually follow a comparison between mechanical properties followed by
chemical composition for carbon and structural steels, whereas for alloy and stainless
steels, it involves comparing chemical composition first followed by mechanical
properties. Among mechanical properties, tensile strength is compared followed by yield
strength and within a group, comparison is further narrowed down by other mechanical
properties like impact testing requirements, elongation, etc.

As compared to structural grade steels, pressure vessel steels are manufactured under
much rigorous quality checks (in the mill) and also are expected to follow a stringent
procedure for fabrication and inspection (in shop/site). For example, ASTM A6, the code
for structural steel requires one mechanical testing for each heat while ASTM A20, the
code for pressure vessel plate requires one tension test for each plate-as-rolled and for
quenched and tempered plates, two such tests are to be done for each plate! Likewise,
the requirements for impact tests are also quite stringent for pressure vessel quality
plates as against structural quality steel. The reason being pressure vessels are
required to perform without fail (more so failure due to brittle fracture) at elevated/low
temperature.

The welding of steel also is to conform to the requirements of certain regulations

depending on applications. For example, welding of pressure vessel steel is to be
qualified according to ASME Section IX and subject to non-destructive examination as per
ASME Section V. Under Canadian building code, Structural steel welders and fabricators
are also required to be certified by a certifying agency! This means, the procedures are
to be produced for each material group, tests conducted to qualify the procedure and
then the welder also should undergo a test to be certified.

Manufacturing method plays an important part in the quality of steel produced. De-
oxidation requirements (killed, semi killed, rimmed), heat treatment (normalized,
tempered, annealed), and tests to be performed (specific chemical compositions to be
checked, mechanical tests, impact tests, non-destructive tests like ultrasonic testing,
etc.) are to be specified as part of procurement specifications. Only some of the tests are
mandatory to be included in a mill test certificate while others are to be expressly
specified (usually 14 chemical traces can be identified during ladle analysis, though only
5-7 are reported in the mill certificate; impact testing is to be included in the purchase
specification to be conducted by the steel supplier).
Heat treatment of steels significantly affects the mechanical properties. Heat treatment
is primarily done to remove any residual stresses from cold working or temperature effect
as in case of welding. This will improve the grain structure and also achieve better
quality of steel in terms of strength, toughness and ductility.

This article is only meant to introduce Steel as a subject. For additional clarifications the
reader is encouraged to refer to further material on the subject or contact the author.

Article by: MG Nagaraja Rao, Principal Engineer (Mechanical)

Any questions or suggestions are welcome. Please write your feedback to
mgn.rao@pbworld.com