Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
PETROLEUM SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
(Volume 14)
S.L. Sah
KALPAZ PUBLICATIONS
ENCYCLOPAeDIA Of' PeTROLEUM
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Left Blank
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF
PETROLEUM SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
(Volume 14)
Well Logs Interpretation, and
Fundamentals of Palynology
S.L.Sah
IB
PDBucmONS
KALPAZ PUBLICATIONS
DELHI-11 0052
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
S.L. Sah
ISBN: 978-81-7835-652-5
"We usually find oil in new pla<:e with old ideas. Sometimes we fmd
oil in an old place with a new idea. But we seldom find oil in an old place
with an old idea. Several times in the past have thought that we were
running out of oil, when actually we were running out of ideas".
Professor Parke A Dickey
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural ~as. currently supply around
85 per cent of the world's energy needs, and according to predictions
by the International Energy Agency, will continue to'do so for many years
to come. The burning offossil fuels is a major source-of excess CO 2, the
gas that has most contributed to the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. There is an urgent need to reduce
the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases that are likely to
produce rapid, human-induced climate change. It is possible to decrease
greenhouse gas emissions through increased energy efficiency, switching
to lower carbon-intensive fuels, enhancing natural carbon sinks
(vegetation), making greater use of renewable energy and through
geosequestration, the long-term geological storage of CO2 ,
Changes in the exploration business require a new perspective on
technology development and implementation. Due to significant advances
in sensor technologies in electromagnetic and potential field technologies
as well as in seismic technologies, there is a real opportunity to exploit
new high resolution exploration method based on richer physical
principles that go beyond just conventional seismic technology, e.g.,
newly developed electromagnetic technologies allow for hydrocarbon
charge testing remotely. Combining several of these "non-seismic"
technologies together with seismic measurements allows for reducing
sub-surface risk more than any of the individual measurements would
be able to do. These new technologies will change conventional
exploration methods, which are largely based on seismic technologies,
e.g., rock physics requires to underpin quantitative interpretation. In the
immediate future, efforts will concentrate on developing 'joint inversion"
of engineering, geologic and geophysical data. Further progress in
geosciences is likely to be based on "coordinated advances" involving
12 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
geosciences and petroleum engineering in the development of oil fields.
This definitely has a potential of mitigating technological risk. Minimizing
cost and risk through implementation of cutting edge technologies is
very important to spur the exploration activities especially deepwater
exploration. The petroleum industry has been continually equipping itself
with the new technologies, techniques and expertise needed to deal with
the challenges of the future. The pursuit is demanding and its course
uncertain, but for the petroleum companies with imagination and fleXlbility
to reach for it, the prize to be obtained will be a great reward.
Part-one of this encyclopaedia gives about the well logs
interpretation. Interpretation of well logs is very important. When the
interpreter comes to establish a tie between his seismic sections and a
borehole section, he faces the problem of making a direct correlation
between patterns of reflectors which are scaled vertically in terms of two
way reflection time and the realities of sub-surface geology as determined
by lithological logging of rock chippings and cores obtained from a
borehole. The geologist's lithological log is of prime importance in that
it provides the basis for identification of reflectors in terms of boundaries
between rocks of different type. Other geological work on the cores and
chippings aims to establish the age of stratigraphy of the geological
section and the presented results of exploration drilling normally include
a lithostratigraphic log as well as a chrono-stratigraphic scale. As far as
the seismic interpreter is concerned, the geophysical logging methods
of most value to him are gamma-ray logging, compensated formation
density logging, compensated sonic logging and well velocity surveys.
The results of these are most usefully combined to provide a synthetic
seismogram. Geophysical logs will be used to estimate formation
correlation between wells by comparison of sonic and gamma-ray logs.
The final geological analysis of a borehole is detailed in a composite
log. Where the well has penetrated and/or detected hydrocarbons,
pertinent data will be listed which may be utilized by the geophysicist in
seismic hydrocarbon indicator studies.
Part-two of this encyclopaedia gives about the fundamentals of
palynology. Palynology already has earned a prominent place in
paleobotany. The ubiquity and abundance of palynomorphs in diverse
kinds of rock provide a source of material that has enormous potential in
documenting the geological record of plants. New applications of
palynology have been recognized in geology and botany. In oil geology
particularly the phenomenal growth and expansion of palynology has
been stimulated by the successful practical application of the results of
Preface 13
research. Growth in palynological knowledge has not been accompanied
by a commensurate body of published information in the form of
comprehensive accounts of synthesis. Palynology in combining aspects
of geology and botany attracts interest from those whose background
may be incomplete in one or the other of these disciplines. Part-two
summarizes the nature, scope and application of the study of fossil pollen
and spores.
The aim of this encyclopaedia is to make interconnections among
the different disciplines of petroleum science and engineering like
interpretation of well logs and fundamentals of palynology.
At the end of this encyclopaedia five appendixes have been included.
These appendixes will give more information to readers about interesting
topics besides the petroleum science and engineering.
This encyclopaedia will help to promote understanding and
communication among users. It is suitable for geophysicists, geologists,
scientists, universities, organizations, teachers, students and other
working in different disciplines of petroleum science and engineering.
The author will be grateful for comments and criticism which might
help to improve the later edition of this encyclopaedia.
Some of the material of this encyclopaedia has been taken from the
books and the papers published in different journals. I am thankful to all
of them who have contributed to the development of this encyclopaedia.
Introduction
When the interpreter comes to establish a tie between his seismic
sections and a borehole section he faces the problem of making a direct
correlation between patterns of reflectors which are scaled vertically in
tenns of two-way reflection time and the realities of sub-surface geology
as determined by lithological logging of rock chippings and cores
obtained from a borehole. The geologist's lithologic~l, log is of prime
importance in that it provides the basis for identification of reflectors in
tenns of boundaries between rocks of different type. Other geological
work on the cores and chippings aim to establish the age and stratigraphy
of the geological section and the presented results of exploration drilling
normally include a lithostratigraphic log (rocks described in tenns of
lithology) as well as a chrono-stratigraphic scale (the rock units
subdivided according to age).
It is standard industry practice that at various stages during the
drilling of a well and upon reaching total depth (TD) geophysical logging
tests are made with a variety of instruments. These are lowered to the
bottom of the well, as drilled at the time oflogging, on a wire line which
is usually a multicore electrical cable on which the logging tools can be
suspended. The logging tools are then drawn upwards through the
borehole, measurements of various parameters being made either
continuously or by tests at selected horizons. The processed results of
these geophysical tools provide data which allow identification of the
interrelation between the seismic section time scale and the borehole
section depth scale and thereby directly correlation between reflector
pattern and stratigraphy. These measurements also provide data on the
physical properties of the rocks penetrated by the borehole and such
data are important to a geological understanding of the variation in
reflector pattern which can be seen in seismic sections throughout an
exploration province. As far as the seismic interpreter is concerned, the
16 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
geophysical logging methods of most value to him are gamma-ray logging,
compensated formation density logging, compensated sonic logging and
well velocity surveys. The results of these are most usefully combined
to provided a synthetic seismogram which is a process which aims to
produce from the borehole physical data a computed seismic section
display whih should be comparable with an actual seismic section
surveyed thro'\.lgh the well site.
Interpretation of well logs depends on the experience of the
interpreter because one well logs may be different from another well logs.
Well logs depend on the lithology, bore content, bore size, permeability,
etc. of the formation and mud cake thickness and well bore conditions.
Detection and evaluation of oil and gas deposits in subsurface formations
require measurements of several factors. Beside determining the top and
bottom of the pay zone data are needed on the intergranufar pore space
(porosity, ~) and the hydrocarbon saturation (fraction of the space which
contains oil or gas), and the way of verifying permeability of the
formation (to establish that oil and gas will be producible). All of these
can be obtained by using suitable borehole logs. The choice of the
logging suite depends on borehole conditions and on the characteristics
of the reservoir rocks.
Detailed Encyclopaedia
This encyclopaedia is arranged in alphabetical order. The detailed
encyclopaedia is given below:
Acoustic Neutron Gas Detection
The combination of an acoustic and neutron log for gas detection
is often recommended for shaly sandstones. Both measurements
are influenced by shale in the same manner and thus the gas effect
is independent of the shaliness. The only problem is that having
once detected the gas, and often the gas effect seen on the logs is small,
it is often difficult to obtain the porosity. The acoustic log does not
give good results much of the time when corrected for sP.ale content of
the formation. The neutron log has both gas and shale effects and thus
does not give us an avenue to obtain porosity. In clean formations the
density neutron combination is superior to the acoustic neutron
combination as porosity is easy to obtain. The acoustic neutron
combination is only used in some very special cases where nothing else
seems to work. Fig. I shows an acoustic-neutron overlay for a Gulf Coast
well. The acoustic log has been normalised in the water zones. The
overlay is not as good as it could be as the CNL is recorded in porosity
~;:"Hl i:.J,UC!\.'US rute\.\ tis1
_.
~phe~1cAlly Focused
0:tu!1I- 'lDclu.~1.DJl_ - - _. ~I!._ ~onlC ~ ~ml.("roseCI <~J .....
:>u ._
...:. ~
+-.
I. .. I ~ ohr n.) J 5 :L ~C' i~O ..)_ .. \~1o.ep!.c.::!!JL.~ 5 ~
--'--- t. ., j _.. i-- ~ b-~.I .... ~
t- ~.. -=.":'"~~Lt.C.t t ~ ~
:'t -----
r-' ---,.~.
- \1-_.
.+--.1.-.-1-- .
..... _.l_. -
.~-:.-.-r-t.':- .. ,.-+ I
R1 . ''5""
. ..
~ 1 .... I
to. ~
T=t=~. ~t;t.~tn U .. ,~
. ...~ 1->.. . ,r--....~,.,...I ' ..
~
l .
L" J _,', _ ....
~ ~
, .__ . -t.--~" I ~ .... " ~"~ I.AS
I
! tmlTh
~ 1.-.-,.... .-(~" ~
I
a-
i \. .
.'
'-~- ~l
I
! s
;::t
.
.tt ~,.:
-~..
~ '-~-~
I
\ _ _ ~ GA'
I'~'-"'-'
~ -- -.~ ...-...... -. r-f-.. f ~:. .. .- ....
I H- .. - .- .. :. "-
-~ .
- ~. ~~
. .
~~:., ~~
'~ti}~
.L: ...
-,.E~ji;'~t,
_ .... ~_.....__ _
_.. .
.
. _.- - ~ .
I
t;AS-
r--~-I,.!
~~
t . . c: ..".
..... f"-= . ''':', :. . . :: .,
--
.- I- -- ~H -- - .-
.
'-'
.. - f:::
1-- -. -
--, __ L-__ .
"
~
Fig. I. A compensated neutron and sonic log on the Louisiana Gulf Coast showing gas sands (Courtesy Schlumberger). -J .
18 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
and the acoustic is in travel time. In some of the water zones there is an
apparent gas separation.
Advanced Gas Diction
Distinguishing between gas bearing and oil bearing reservoirs with
resistivity logs is almost impossible. Although the gas bearing zones
have lower water saturations than oil bearing zones the pore size
variations usually marks our ability to separate the two on a pure
resistivity or water saturation basis. Most gas detection today is done
with the density and neutron log. Other porosity log combinations are
sometimes used but are usually more difficult to analyze. The acoustic
log generally is not influenced by gas when the formations are well
consolidated or compacted. This includes essentially all carbonates,
cements and consolidated sandstones and unconsolidated sandstones
that are deeply buried and under normal net overburden stress. Normal
overburden pressures are those where the pore (fluid) pressure is in the
0.433 to 0.465 psilft range. Values higher than that are considered
abnormally pressured. .
Gas effects on the acoustic log show up as increases in travel time
(porosity calculated). The changes are apparently not related to the
volume of gas (gas saturation) as the influences appear on the logs to
be sharp and significant. There is little difference between 85 percent
gas saturation and 60 percent gas saturation on the travel time measured.
The gas effect appears to more influenced by the formation consolidation
or compaction than by the gas saturation. In modestly uncompacted
formations, where shale travel time is in the 100 to 125 1-1 seclft range the
porosity can be corrected using the following equation:
<p "" B <P calculated ... ( 1)
where B is 0.7 for gas zones and 0.9 for oil zones. Equation (1) is only
approximate. The correction is of course dependent upon little or no
invasion, which is usually the case for uncompacted formations. If
invasion is deep, greater than about one foot from the side of wellbore,
there is a good chance the gas effect will not show up on the acoustic
log. When the formation is very uncompacted, with shale travel times of
over 125 1-1 sec/ft, using equation (1) is not sufficient. Travel times in gas
zones off of Nigeria was as high as 220 1-1 sec/ft. These cannot be
corrected back to a reasonable porosity. In cases where the acoustic log
cannot be corrected it is common practice to obtain the porosity in a
nearby water bearing zone and assume the gas bearing zone has the same
porosity. The acoustic log corrections for gas are not truely quantitative.
Well Logs Interpretation 19
Gas in the field of vision of the density log reduces the bulk density
and thus shows up as an apparent increase in porosity. The density log
is easier to handle than the acoustic log as the density log is controlled
by known theory. The bulk density is related to the rock and fluid by the
following equations:
Ph = <l>Pf+ (1- <1 Pma ...(2)
and Pf = SwPw + She Phe ... (3)
where
Ph = bulk on total density
Pf = factional density
Pma matrix or solid material density.
Sw water saturation
Pw water density
She hydrocarbon saturation
Phc hydrocarbon density
S decimal fraction of pore space (saturation)
<I> decimal fraction porosity
Since about 75 percent of the density log measurement is in the first
3 inches of formation next to the well bore the saturation values in
equation (3) could be thought of as Sxo and for Sch = 1 - Sxo With Rxo
and density the porosity can be obtained either by figures 2 and 3 or by
trial and error.
The trial and error method uses the following equations:
Pma -Pb
<I> = ...(4)
Pma - Pr
..
u
u
E
~
-!'0t--.... IVOt.,"..
ohrns-m'Z./m SANDSTONE POROSITV
I!>__ ~~I_ ~~I::~ 2~
.. .....'-,
.J J" I
0
\\. ,'
20
4T--'I'~~
I
,-- ... I ......
: t;!t"'j~;---r- .:../'2L
-~ :..- tf=\ . -.s __ --...-
I
~'i"ic;-
I '...
Y A I
.
II ___
--I
/ ,'" /~ ' . .,~;,
/~;-:x" 'lyp~
~I, ,-~:~ J ". ..~~ ~../.
!:' ! ' .,
G"" eON"
\..l \) I
'
,I
C) ,
~f-
,.,
<,~
'\.:\ [ "
=>- (? ...-.:- ----,. --..,
(' ",,- -----
J , ~
4~
Am = 1.2.
\ =O~ } (;i)Tf
> Amf
t !)
~ Arne=1 C
'"
~
1{' "
I '-
Fig. 4. Gas shows on the Density-Neutron combination (after Hung and Salisch,
13th SPWLA Trans., 1972).
Case-II results from the invasion of the mud filtrate being deep
enough into the formation to cover up the density log measurement but
not deep enough to completely cover up the neutron. This results from
the density logs 3-4 inch depth of investigation compared to the neutrons
(compensated) 6-14 inch depth of investigation. The two measurements
are being influenced by different gas saturations, the density being
usually lower than the neutron. A case-ll situation occurs in most
reservoirs with porosities under 20 percent or formation with a tendency
to invade. Case-ll density-neutron situation is recognised by the fact that
the density and neutron do not mirror each other. In a case II situation
the density log is used for porosity. Case-I and case-II gas effects on
Well Logs Interpretation 23
the density-neutron combination are easily recognised as the neutron is
always reading a lower porosity than the density log. When looking at
logs we should be aware of the scales on the density and neutron log. If
we are in a sandstone and the logs were run on a limestone porosity
scale, every time we see a clean sandstone the two curves will crossover
by about 6 porosity percent. This apparent gas crossover is even more
significant if the density log is run on density scale. The only time gas
crossover on the density and neutron log is legitimate is when the logs
are on the proper lithology scale. See Fig. 5. Many times the density and
neutron do not crossover but yet the interval produces gas. This can be
caused by either effective or non-effective shales or by heavy minerals
in the formation. If we look on a density-neutron crossplot we will see
these influences push the data point in the southeast direction while
gas pushes the data points in the north-west direction. The opposite
effects reduce or completely eliminate the "gas effect" on the density-
neutron.
Case-III gas effect on the density neutron is due to shaliness, non-
effective shales or heavy minerals. In the case-III situation the neutron
Density
Call1lla Ray
______ !:2!l!~!!!!!~_ Neu~!2~ _~!:~2 __________ _
o API Units 200 Apparent Sandstone Porosity %
6-~~!~e!E-~!!!~~~L_16 30 ro W 0 -W
CD
0;
o
E Liquid
r---....:--~--t=:::=- filled
D f, ... Density
C :r'
~: ...... .
, Gas Effect
A
I
I
I
"
E
/
t Liquid tiny D
B
/ C
/ Cas Effect
.,
Call1ll4 ~y .....
Fig. 6. Schematic logs for a case III gas situation (After Hilchie, 1982).
and density in sandstone porosity for a liquid filled formation on the
right hand side. The simulated formation consists of 5 zones that are
getting progressively cleaner with depth. As the formation becomes
cleaner the density and neutron porosities move closer together until in
a clean formation the two values are the same. Gas effect is added to
zone C which shows up as lower neutron porosity and higher density
porosity. The separation between the density and neutron is reduced
due to the gas effect. The. lower pot in this figure is a method of
separating the liquid filled from the gas containing intervals. The vertical
scale is the separation of the density-neutron porosity values (cjlN- cjlD)'
The horizontal scale is the gamma ray values. In a liquid filled situation
there is a direct correlation between the increase in the gamma ray and
the separation of the density and neutron porosities as shown by the
liquid line. Gas causes a reduction in the neutron-density separation but
does not effect the gamma ray and thus gas points drop down on the
plot as shown with point C. A case-III plot is used only to identify
Well Logs Interpretation 25
potential gas bearing zones. The interpretation falls into one of the two
categories, shally zones or heavy minerals. If the minerals are heavy, just
do a conventional clean sand analysis using the density-neutron
crossplotted porosity.
Carbon-Oxygen (C/O) Logging
The carbon-oxygen log prime area of use is the determination of
water saturation in formation with fresh water, an area where conventional
logs do not work. Carbon-oxygen (C/O) logging is most applicable in
the search for oil. These are better ways to determine the existence of
gas. The idea for carbon-oxygen logging started in the 1950s with the
development of the accelerator neutron source that had high energy
neutron output and could be pulsed. In the 1970's a C/O log was
marketed. This log was obtained with stationary measurements of from 5
to 15 minutes. In the late 1970s the continuous C/O log was introduced,
by Dresser Atlas. The interpretation of the stationary and continuous
logs follow the same principles but the constants used change, probably
due to tool design changes.
Inelastic scattering is the process by which, upon being "hit" the
nucleas becomes excited. The added energy which causes the excitation
is disposed of by the giving off of one or more gamma rays. The energy
of these gamma rays is a characteristic of the nucleus from which the
emissions occur, e.g., carbon gives off a gamma ray at 4.43 MeV, oxygen
similarly gives of a gamma ray at 6.13 Me V. Other gamma rays are given
off by carbon and oxygen but these are the predominent gamma rays.
Fig. 7 shows the spectra of gamma rays from a C/O tool in a laboratory
environment where the formation is simulated by sand filled tank with
water and oil present. The peaks on the spectra occurring at 0.51 MeV
and 1.02 MeV below the primary peak are called escape peaks and are
caused by nuclear reaction in the detector. This figure is for the difference
between 100 percent oil saturation and 100 percent water saturation and
for a 10 minute stationary measurement with no borehole equivalent.
Fig. 8 is a more typical spectra for a C/O logging tool in a borehole
environment. The gamma rays counted in these energy windows are
ratioed and this is the carbon-oxygen ratio recorded. In an oil zone there
is more carbon due to the oil and less oxygen due to the absence of
water. In a water zone there is less carbon and more oxygen. Thus is a
water zone the carbon-oxygen ratio is lower than in an oil zone. For the
stationary tool, C/O ratios of around 1.6 in water zones and 1.7 or higher
for oil zones (Lock and Hoyer, 1974). See Fig. 9. This figure is for
26 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
--r-----,------,------r------r------r-----,---,
\
. - _. Oil TANK
1000 - WAT,,. TA".
" ZU
CAPTIJIt[) to WINUTE ACCU"VI.. UIO_S
f
.i
C..... OM WINDOW OIT'GN _*oow
1000
C(UI
w
!
,,,
~ \ A e
:I
C
c 41)00
! '", \44~1'
... \ 010['
i 1000
\
~,
I
1!11II1II!IIIIIIIjIIIIIl.j.lllln,",
2D 10 10 100 120 I~ 110 180 200 220 2~
Channel No.
Energy of Gamma Rays (MeV)--+
1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 8- 1 ',I 'i 0 2 1
~,CaRATIO
Fig. 9. Stationary C/O log interpretation chart (After Lock and Hoyer, 1974).
1.6
.......o
~
t:
CI
~ 1. j
~I
t:
o
...1/1
'..0
1.30~---L--~1~O~--~--~20~--~--~3~O----W
Porosity %
Fig. 10. Carbon-oxygen ratio versus porosity for various water saturation (Sw)
for continuous C/O log (After Oliver et. aI., 1981).
in cia of 0.1. In a clean sand (with a low SilCa ratio) an increase of 0.05
in cia ratio should be oil. The Cia log is more practical as an evaluation
tool for known or suspected oil bearing zones.
Density Acoustic Gas Detection
The density and acoustic log combination is only good under some
very specific conditions. Since the acoustic log only responds to gas
when the formation is not compact or consolidated so this combination
is very limited. For the acoustic and density to be a good gas detection
system the formation must be uncompacted. When this occurs the
acoustic will indicate higher porosity and the density by itself must be
used to calculate porosity. Fig. 11 shows an example of gas detection
using the acoustic and density log. In compacted formations the density
mayor may not see the gas and the acoustic will not see the gas. If
there is much invasion, the amount of gas seen by the density will be
small and no definitive indication will be available.
Well Logs Interpretation 29
. >
;! g
....... - ..................
. ! " ;.'
I' .... I!I.
' ,
~ . . ..
I
l;'
: !
I i
, ;0
.
, I
~s
'
NONINVADE1l
ZONE
ENERGY 'ATH IN
fORMATION
UPPER IJlRA Y
EIIERGY II(
MUoc.w
,
BACKUP t - - - - - {
ARM
MUOCAXE
Fig. 13. Schematic of the EPT tool (Courtesy Wharton et. al.).
Well Logs Interpretation 35
..
;t
z
"'S
~
g
.
Q
e
0
IX
Tpo - tPnl
t pwo - tpm
where,
Tpo propagation travel time obtained from the log
tpm propagation travel time obtained from solid matrix
tpwo propagation travel time obtained from the water in the pores.
Fig. 14 shows an example of the EPT combined with other logs. Zone
A is gas bearing, zone B contains light oil, while zones C, D and E are
essentially water saturated.
Empty Hole Log Interpretation
Empty holes are filled with gas at the time of logging. They have
been either air or gas drilled or have been drilled with cable tool rigs. In
empty hole log interpretation we are dealing with non-permeable
formations and formation that produce gas. The logging program is limited
to the density, neutron, gamma ray, caliper and induction resistivity logs.
The other logs do not work in this environment because the gas in the
borehole will not conduct electricity or acoustic waves effectively. Even
the neutron logs are somewhat limited in that the CNL's are either not
calibrated for gas filled holes or the tools require a neutron moderator
for them to work properly. So in empty holes the neutron logs are either
sidewall neutron logs or old conventional "uncalibrated type" neutron
logs that output in cps, inches of deflection, API units or other units. In
empty boreholes the density log must also be watched as often the
sandstone formationscave badly when being drilled with air or gas.
The three major logs are the density, neutron and resistivity. The
density log is the source of porosity. Since the formations of interest
contain both water and gas and the density log is investigating the
uncontaminated virgin zone (because of no invasion), the interpretation
requires some fmesse. The gas is a very low pressure because there is
only gas in the borehole. The gas is assumed to have a zero density.
Since gas at low pressure has a Z fA ratio significant different than the
normal water filling the pores a correction must be made. This correction
is approximately:
P b = 0.9353 Plog +0.1747 ...(1)
This correction is close enough to use for sandstones, limestones
and dolomites and must be used to correct the log values of density to
the "true" formation density. The neutron log responds to only the water
in the formation unless the porosity is relatively high. The existence of
significant quantities of gas in a formation will cause the neutron log to
read too low because of the change in density of the formation. This
has been called excavation effect by Schlumberger. Fig. 15 shows a plot
Well Logs Interpretation 37
of excavation effect versus water saturation. At low porosities the
influence is only around I porosity percent on the neutron log but reaches
to 6 porosity percent at porosities of 30 percent and water saturations in
the 50 percent range. It tends to increase the calculated porosity and
decreases the gas saturation, and decreases the total gas in place. Since
the neutron responds primarily to the liquid saturation it is used to
determine the liquid saturation by the following equation:
8 --DOLOMITE
-._.- LIMESTONE
- - - SANDSTONE
C)
o...J
Z
~
!:; 40 80
'"z I I
e Water Saturation (Sw%) ~
g
~ _4L-__J -__-L__~L__ _~_ _-L__~____~__~__~__~
S = ~N ... (2)
fiq ~
Where the liquid saturation is the ratio of neutron porosity, corrected
for excavation effect if necessary, to actual porosity. The induction
resistivity log responds only to the water filled porosity.
With the density neutron combination we can determine porosity
and liquid saturation. If no oil is present, this liquid saturation is then
the water saturation. To do this, we can either the equations or the chart
shown as Fig. 16. This figure includes the density log correction for
ZIA effects but not excavation effects on the neutron log because the
latter is small for low porosities. Using the equations we first use equation
(1) to obtain with density from the log density. Then, assuming the fluid
density is equal to ~J~ and the gas density is zero, we have:
Pma -Pb +~N
~ = ...(3)
38 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
POROSITY AND GAS SATURATION IN EMPTY HOLES
DENSITY AND HYDROGEN INDEX OF
Use Onl'l THE GAS ASSUMED TO BE ZERO Use Only
If no .f no
Shale IS 011 IS
Presenl POROSITY 1%) Prestnt
+o ~
----
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
I'"
~S
:: I:: t l:! Il 14 '} ::~ ~
"'! 10000
4000
...,.,
-- ,*-
2000
4
~ ~ '<:;j '--. i- d.. ::j .:J ::. II' r1"! 1000
6
'\: ~ ':F. Y-- Y ~ I I 7" '+ .....;. 400
300
[\J l\: :-.... K :f... :1 'f. I r-. "- /. I I 200
~ 8 ....... 150
Q\ IV N ~ / ~ tl oj :') ~ '70
~_ 10
'"
\ 'A. i.. '/... I- :1 '1 ',,, l':- ~ L - -
. I ,......., 100
'"
01;
~.2 12 10
12
~5
'v ~ 0- r-" / Y-.. I i)jI 60 Rt
u;~
14
! .f I ~ P"V ! ~,~ :--
r-o
"'-
40
Rw
~~ 16
t--.. \ 11\If rv! 'j I
~J;
&' ~ 18 3C
~~
1\1 \. if II' J :
kI rv 1
20
.... u
:>- 22 20
!oJ
z
24 ...;.:.. . .c. ,.-. ' - ' f..- -:. ....
\ V b( 'f d ;:;
26
'"
r\ :\ F:: I::::.: :
.
:
I'
/ ~
14
:):
28
\' . "
'2
-;;
30
:..r" 2f",('vi""":
: ~
-_z 4' .23 .2
.:'
'. :2 I':
,C'
:2~:
;:
:I~. S
II
...
E 265 .:, , .., . X:
->- 270 .~. .
r\I So ndstone
~~ XLlm..,one
~'.~~~~\~\
I-
iii 275
z
k . ,:
r-'--~ ~
w
0 280
z 285 "'\;X:'\ :,'\ I:~\ ~ Dolom".
<i
a: 290 2.8 2.7 2.6 2 ~:. 24- 2.3 .. U II 20': F9
'"
~N
and ...(4)
~
and Sg 1-Sw ...(5)
Using Fig. 20 we enter the chart at the bulk density and proper matrix
density, proceed vertically on the chart to the neutron porosity and read
the porosity and gas saturation directly.
With the density resistivity combination we determine porosity from
the density log and water saturation from the induction resistivity
measurement. No oil may be present in this method. Fig. 16 may again
be used only instead of the neutron porosity we input the ratio of R)R,.
Well Logs Interpretation 39
In equation fonn this is written as :
~ =
Pma - Pb +..JR:JR: ...(6)
Pma
Where the bulk density has been corrected for ZIA. Water saturation is
detennined by the following equation:
Sl1' --
~ -RR.v
--
t
This method relies on conventional log interpretation concepts. If
... (7)
the pore geometry is unusual the technique will be good. The density
neutron combination ignores pore geometry as it does not rely upon the
conversion of porosity to resistivity. With the combination of density,
neutron and resistivity logs we can, in an empty borehole, calculate water,
oil and gas saturation. The density neutron is used to calculate porosity
and gas saturation. Resistivity plus porosity gives us water saturation.
Water, plus oil, plus gas saturation must equal 100 percent.
Formation Water Resistivity
There are basically three ways of determining the formation water
resistivity: (1) from production or drill stem test, (2) from the SP, and (3)
from the resistivity and porosity logs (usually ir.. a water saturated zone).
Water catalogs are collections of measured values of waters obtained
from formations of interest. Usually the data is classified by formation.
The catalogs can be listings of water resistivities, well location, formation
name, etc. In fresh water mud systems (where ROlf> Rw) water catalog
values should be considered to be maximum values. The Rw (resistivity
of the saturating water) could always be less. In salt mud systems the
real Rw could be higher or lower depending upon if the problem is mud
contamination or effective shale stripping ofthe ions. The catalog values
must then be corrected to the formation temperature. SP gives good
estimates ofR w in a wide variety oflocals. Rw's from the SP are usually
considered upper limits. This is because the things that influence the
SP, like shalilless and hydrocarbon suppression reduce the SP amplitude
and result in higher calculated Rw's. Two possible things cause the SP
amplitude to be too high. The first is a pressure depleted reservoir. The
second is a non-penneable zone. In detenninations of Rw from SP make
sure we have a normal mud. A quick way to handle potassium muds is to
add -25mV to the measured SP and calculate nonnally. Determination of
Rw from porosity and resistivity logs requires a water bearing zone to be
present or if no water is present the Rw calculated is a maximum
Gas Detection in Low Porosity Formations
In low porosity formations gas detection can be a problem due to
the lack of lithology control (e.g., in dolomites and limy dolomites) or
40 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
due to lack of sufficient data to determine. The solve the problem more
data is needed. In most cases this represents the addition of the acoustic
log. In low porosity carbonates a case-I! situation is most common. Case
I! results from the invasion of the mud filtrate being deep enough into
the formation to cover up the density log measurement but not deep
enough to completely cover up the neutron. In limestones the situation
is not too bad as the lithology control is good. We can take the density
log and calculate porosity assuming a limestone matrix. In limy dolomites
and dolomites the uncertainty increases. For example, the difference
between a limestone matrix at say 2.6 gmlcc bulk density is from 6.5
percent porosity for a limestone to 14.5 percent for a dolomite. Lithology
control is absolutely essential to obtain a good interpretation. Good
lithology control can be either regional data on the formation that allows
us to have a good feel for the matrix values we must use to calculate
porosity or absolute assurance that the acoustic log is a reliable porosity
device. In many areas the acoustic log gives erroneous porosities in
carbonates. In the latter case we may have to use an R,o device as a
backup to indicate the minimum porosity for the interval. Gas detection
in complex lithology is diffi..:ult unless we know or can deduce the
lithology. All three porosity devices are needed and sometimes it is
impossible to any more than establish the range in which the porosity
will lay.
Litho-Density Log (LDT)
This log is an adaptation of the density log by Schlumberger. The
measurement system has been adapted to measure the results of low
energy gamma ray (photoelectric effects) interactions with the formations
as well as the higher energy (Compton scattering) interactions. The
standard tool has been changed slightly in that the source to detector
spacing has been reduced. Compton scattering is the physical process
used in bulk density measurements in the density log. The absorption
of gamma rays in the density log follows the equation:
N = No exp (uL) ...(1)
where
N counts at the detector
No counts at the source
L length from the source to detector
u absorption coefficient for Compton scattering.
Equation (I) shows that the g:mlll1a rays reaching the detector
experience an exponential reduction based on absorption of tlle gamma
rays by the formation. This relationship only takes into account Cornpton
Well Logs Interpretation 41
scattering. Fig. 17 shows gamma ray absorption coefficient versus gamma
ray energy. At higher energies (over 0.1 MeV) the coefficient are much
larger for Compton scattering and low for photoelectric effects. Below
o.1 MeV the photoelectric absorption coefficient become larger than the
Compton scattering coefficient. This means the gamma rays are more
1 r----,-,rrffl~-rTlnT----_r--_r_r_rTi_rn
...
I:
QI
0.1
...
~
tJ
~
QI
0
U
c:
0
.r4
~
0.
~
0
III
.Q
<:
.01
III
til
r:s
::;:
01 ~
1
____~__L--L-L~~~____~~-U~L-~-L~
1 ,.
Gamma Ray Energy Mev
Fig. 17. Gamma rays mass absorption coefficients (After Hilchie, 1982).
42 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
influenced by the photoelectric process then by the Compton scattering
process at the lower energies. The reason is that Compton scattering is
predominately interaction of the gamma rays with the orbital electrons.
Photoelectric effects are the result of interaction mostly (about 80 percent)
with the K shell of the atom. Bigger atoms can absorb more energy.
Fig. 18 shows a schematic of the LDT measurement system with the higher
H~U ___~~~~~,-~
R-vion of Complon
,...,,--_laftwi,.
Ip information onlyl
CPS/,c.V
GR 2.0 P!o 3
~ f- ......-15
-~':!,"!."---
&$ 30 15 0 _.,.
~~~-:~:!r~~~~~~~=:=~'= 10
1I
I :'1 i I I I
I .~ II I I I
; --'1';' F;;f I 11
I I~ TIT! , J I
I l'l I , I I I) I.' I.i" I i I I
I i("l 'II 1f1~11 11
! lot , 'II 'I I j I I
I ,I' I I I, I' >i I I I I
cAL I ~ GR ,... ~ ~.!): !)PIo II I SHALE
TT 'I JA I : ,'-!-. I: I III, II I
11111 ;')f 11 "1 1.11.1 TTTT I I I I
111'1..' IJI I I.lI ~.;, I IIII III
TT I" m ITT!rf I, I
II I
I: I'
I! II
Ie TT III jlll'i"~III'It.ltJ.1I1 I
, 1I'!l1 I I : I " 'I ' II I I'i I Il.l I t
, :J I I I /I II : ! ' ' , '" I ! I I 11;1 ,,,,(OOLOM'
: I 111111 I 1'1 j,] I I I:' ,-->: I
,;C:::;: I Tn I I '1'_1' i 1111Ti~ I I
ITJI I Itt I I I I : , illlll~ I I i
,1\.1 ITl, I I ' I 11: ITill19 Ii
GR I CAL I I , I I ~ 1111 NIJ i I
II, ,II II', I tTTTL ...TI 11 -:7;...,;; -! I
I' t ~,rl ' ,IIIIII'HLII 'll-N~
! .... I til II: 11'1 j! !,"I T I
, I , I II lIT "~I
r
II I
' I i ,,
III! " 1131 fN
I I Oct.,' I
I
1'1
ANI<VOR'TI
IT TT I i : I tt I I I f< Ii II I~I
,
I
I 11 , m
TT':II
, I CAL 'J
T f j ~
CRI I,ll
TI I,:'
II I, i I
TT " 'i
PO"fA 55 JUM
!"I"IIIII.
u.
o
:!
..
ID
C
o
f
o .!> I ,.5 2 2.5 l
'AM"" -ItAY EHI!If.G"( ( ..ltV J
emissions versus energy for these three sources of natural gamma rays.
Potassium is the cause of much of the radioactivity we see on gamma
rays logs. A small percentage of all natural potassium is radioactive and
thus the existence of potassium in a material indicates that the material
will have some natural radioactivity. The materials that have potassium
that we encounter in sedimentary rocks are : illite, potassium feldspars,
mica and some of the smectites have potassium between the layers. The
absence of potassium in montmorillonite and other smectite clays causes
radioactivity due to cation iron exchange (CEC). Good correlations of
CEC versus gamma ray emissions have been shown. This implies that
the radioactivity comes from radioactive ions absorbed on the clay
surface due to the CEC. The clays with significant CEC must strip the
ions of the water as it migrates through the shales. The effective shales
concentrate the radioactivity due to their CEC. Marine shales are more
radioactive than non-marine shales because marine shales contain
organic type materials. These organic type materials, due to their colloidal
nature, absorb ions. Why do we have radioactive sandstones, limestones
and dolomites. Uranimn ions in the water, when exposed to a reducing
environment, precipitate out of solution. Oil and gas are reducing
Well Logs Interpretation 45
environments. If this is so, why are all formations not radioactive? It
depends upon which moves through the formation first, water or
hydrocarbons. If water migrates through the formations with no oil or
gas present the shales concentrate the radioactive ions and the other
formations maintain their low radioactivity. If oil or gas enter the formation
and then water migrates through the formation, or both happen at the
same time, the radioactive ions precipitate out and the formation is
radioactive. This also applies to fractures which are sometimes detected
due to their radioactivity. Thorium/CEC correlations are poor. Thorium is
not very soluble and is deposited with the solids. Thorium is a product
of depositional environment.
The natural gamma ray spectral logs separate the three basiC
radioactive sources using the distinct energies of each of the three
sources. Potassium gives of gamma rays with an energy of 1.46 MeV.
One of the uranium series (Bi214) gives off gamma rays with an energy
of 1.76 MeV. The thorium series is represented by thallium 208 which
gives off2.61 MeV gamma rays. See Fig. 21. The lack of distinct peaks is
dN
::IE
T+U+K
y r'.
I \
--', I \
I
SCALE
10
{
"t
\: \T,i
I
l'4
- '-.! \I
,
I
, ,,
I
,
.
,
,
,
'.,
"-
K U ---
---:'\'\
,
ENERGY (MeV)
Fig. 21. Natural gamma ray spectra (After Serra et. aI., 1980).
due to the loss of energy of the gamma rays as they pass through the
formation. The same process that the density log relies upon to measure
density. The gamma rays reaching the detector with energies around the
three energies noted for potassium, uranium and thorium are counted
and displaced as either count rates or as curves calibrated into ppm. The
overall smearing is eliminated by stripping the spectra of the background
at each energy level. This leaves only the bumps on the spectra. See
Fig. 22. A comparison of the primary run and the repeat shows significant
46 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
-:~----.---
'"
. .. --._.
- -0 _
. . .... .- -.
....- - -.
_. ._
~.;~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : .
::...::-:..-:::-
.- __ . . .....
-_... .~~-...
:-:- ---;:.
:t:~
. ',.+:
~.:... -
~
F--
~-
...-
~.:::
+--
S:f
~. -- - ---' F'Io-
1= ~~ ..-
1:::- =: ~".""
~~Ium -Thorium
.-:-:::...:.:....- - ---
"---":.~'
Fig. 22. Spectral gamma ray log over Permian Carbonates in Kansas (Courtesy
Dresser Atlas).
statistical fluctuation of the curves. This is due to the low count rates or
small number of gamma rays being measured. The curves are often filtered
to make them appear smoother.
Nuclear Magnetism Logging (NML)
The NML has been around since 1959. It was developed by
Well Logs Interpretation 47
the Byron Jackson company and was put into commercial application
by PGAC (then the Pan Geo Atlas Corp.). Now Schlumberger has
developed the NML. The logging tool consists of a coil through which
a large direct current (DC) is passed. The magnetic field caused by this
action orients the protons (the hydrogen nucleus which is the
only common reservoir rock or fluid material to respond). When the
magnetic field is released the protons are accordingly released. The
protons, which are always spinning like a top, start to fall out the pattern
caused by the magnetic field and return to the original orientation which
is controlled by the earth's magnetic field. The process results in the
proton precessing. This precession releases some of the energy that was
put into orienting the protons. This released energy is measured by the
coil as a variation in the magnetic field. The energy detected by this
system is related to the number of protons that are free to be oriented
and relaxed (allowed to return to the original alignment in the earths
magnetic field). This energy is very small. The proton that are free and
thus measured are those associated wit the bulk water and oil in the
formation. Protons that are absorbed or chemically bound in materials
are not free. These include solid hydrocarbons, tar, fluids in shales, water
in gypsum, etc. See Fig. 23. The free fluid index (FFI) or the equivalent
free fluid filled porosity (4).1) is obtained by extrapolating back from
the received signal to the beginning of the time of precession.
RESISTIVITY
SP
.2 LL8
Ii12mV
,
~
---~",
Z
3
...... : .. ,- :----'~~~~~3;tt!:tt==l
- -
."t+:----=
J,..1.
,
.. ~ ..... -Fqrmalion: . ',-,-.'ffi"".~'-~
.. +- .. ~- .... ~ of Tl"2.000 MS-......+'ffif-':---J
, ' I " ',I : I
, j 1LV~
-::
-
=-:=~
: : 1.. -
Time (millisecs) ms
-
(b)
Time ms
Fig. 25. Tl measurements: (a) for an oil zone, and (b) for a water zone
(After Collidge, 1962)
the T, by increasing the surface area. Fig. 26 shows the influence of water
saturation versus hydrocarbon (decane) saturation on T, versus mercury
injection pressure (which relates to pore size). The higher the mercury
injection (capillary) pressure the smaller the pore size. The porous media
is porcelain samples. Residual oil saturation has also be determined using
the NML. Residual oil saturation is needed for enhanced oil recovery
50 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
methods. The mud is treated so that it has a very short relaxation time.
Thus the only signal comes from the oil and the FFI reflects only the
residual oil and not the mud filtrate. For this to work invasion must be
efficient and greater than about 6 inches.
Porosity and Lithology Determination
The conventinal density-neutron and acoustic-neutron crossplots
assume that the rock is composed of two minerals. In mathematical terms
the solution is one of three equations and three unknowns. One of these
unknowns is porosity. These conventional crossplots can be used
singularly or in combination. Fig. 27. This crossplots for the density-
CNL for the appropriate fluid density assume a two minerals composition
of the rock. In most cases the porosity obtained is good. We discuss
only relatively cleans rocks filled with liquid. Since both the neutron and
density log respond to density, if we adopt the theory that as the points
on this chart move to the lower right hand corner (they move in a
southeast direction) the matrix rocks have increased density. Then the
lines labeled sandstone, limestone and dolomite are not lithology lines
but lines of rocks with matrix densities of2.65, 2.71 and 2.87. A sandstone
with a heavy quartz matrix, and there are a significant number, will plot
towards or on the limestone line. A sandstone with anhydrite or dolomite
cement will also leave the sandstone line and more towards the dolomite
line depending upon the fraction of cementing material present. For
example, a sandstone with significant amounts of ironstone will plot below
the limestone line. The porosity read from the chart will be about right
but the lithology cannot be read off the labeled lines.
Well Logs Interpretation 51
'9~---r----r----l~I--~~--~--~-:-----'~~~=_~_-'~~~-_-:-':~.~
20r---+---~---4----~--+--'---"-~'----=-~~'--~----~'~~~----:~~nt-
~~:.~ ~~ ~=~~40
.. --. y-:-:~ 7~'
2.1~-:-:-"N"'~.14>.
I
:!~;:--t-~--:-~r==t=7-t=~~:=i'
: ,,~~~..., ::=-="IHZ T
. ~
~3~
2.2
'tC~",- ... _ .: - -P'- - - +:... _ . ~
u
2.3
.:)~~~~~~-t7-~: ~~
fY" . . I/" " - - -----, ---'"
....u . '. ::;t -: ~ .j9[Y-::-~- ':--=----..)'. ~~-~= 1-20 ~
E . l'l / ' ':1".' . .. . ... ~'l Y', .... ::i
co 24
.V" "'- .. --l;L:.:.:..:~:-:.
~
~ -- ..
~ ~'\ ~::. :~:J_:_:~:) H~ ~
.
.
....~ -. Y.::.. ... . - ..
0':'
1----
~ 2.51----+---:j,..U'it-+~~~-+-_l.2:.)~__l_-_l--__t
+w: --' a:
.w - ... ~; : / . . ,~V,f<; . "-'bl'--' - ....--. 1---. ~
: :-::~~ ~-i:: ./. v'_:: :v-.~-:~~ ._ .+ ___ 10 ~
~ 2.6 R /: ::.v. : .: '"" . :',c.y'
:.: : V'~:.:.I- ---.- -.- --:.:-=-~~
........ " . "'... .. L-..~. >-
ce 27 . . if . - - '. .... - 'Y~ PI -1.0 l-
f------~~ ~
:~.~. .... :::-~--t~ =.::':~h-:---f---
I--. ----- H
~
2.8 '::-~.:: ~~~r . :-.~~-" .~. ' -. --.--/------/------ -~-IO
-~
2.9 ',:-;-' 'i"r<: 1 #'... ' ':~.:-:- :::-:: __ .. "---~.'--- .
~ ..,..I)"~ . .:.~' .:::~ .::::~-.-.-Or,;,;-SCi,;:~:.=-I---I~
30
o ~ w ~ ~
Fig. 29. Determination of Pma a from density and CNL logs for fresh mud
(Courtesy Schlumberger).
identification or MID plots). Entering this chart with density (or apparent
limestone density porosity) and the apparent CNL limestone porosity
we obtain the apparent matrix density (P ma a). From this we inter Fig. 30
a~d for the combination of minerals we think are present we obtain an
apparent matrix travel time (tma a). With this apparent matrix travel time
we, go to a conventional travel time versus porosity chart like Fig. 31
and. calculate porosity. The following is a check to determine if our matrix
estimation was correct.
54 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
w
o
CLEA~ F"OR.'!ATIONS
...o POROSITY (%)
w
o
..
o
V>
o
-t-
""
'
0
~ ~
~<.-===--.
.1e-":! r.,
t-
--'~ ...... ==
I .:::::
'<
~
0
~
~
~J'.s...,_<~"
~ ~.>
:YJ SJ : ~~
's::::.
04'
~~''''': o
:0 -'I":::::
'i' 1 ___
~
~
~
~ g ...:!.s
-!..:.t
, . "'t .o) ~ r~= "
:r
...~~..,'"i5
~< .. It
'"... ..
.. n
-::;:: .
- n
0
~
ii
~
. C
"n
...
!
n ..
.
0
....
~
0
; 8'=FIg,
I-f>- ...
I-!' t
.....
" ...
_~
=;... ""
II
....
_
gg ,.
~
0
0 ~
./
=
;:::ee~ ~
~ j<~'_./
= ...
Co
./'':.1
~ ~ 4-' or
... ~ 1,,'tIo.n VI .:...
~
.~
'"
... en
, .
~
.. ..=... f;;
0
>
0
.. .
~
.
0
... ~
~
0
,. :::
t"
~
~
Ii...
.. ..... i
'is
.t.
0
~ -
~
0:>
,
-
o
N
o ...o
SHALE CORRECTED POROSITY (%)
Fig. 31. To find porosity from the acoustic log (After Hi\Chie, 1982).
Fig, 33, To determine (Pm) a from FDC and SNP logs for fresh mud
(Courtesy Schlumberger).
58 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Fig. 34. To detennine (1m) a from sonic and SNP logs (Courtesy Schlumberger).
Well Logs Interpretation 59
Fig. 35. MID solutions for various rock combinations (After Hilchie, 1982).
60 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
% dol- - -
Fig. 36. Matrix density for tri-matrix : sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.
%anh-
v
dol
+ v
anh
+ v
sd
= 100%
Fig. 37. Matrix density for tri-matrix : sandstone, dolomite, and anhydrite.
Well Logs Interpretation 61
Pm.
Fig. 38. Matrix density for tri-matrix : limestone, dolomitl, and anhydrite.
using clean matrix points indicate the possible solutions. Using three
porosity logs we are only allowed to try and solve for three rock types.
That is a point represented by : Pma a = 2.72 gmlcc and tma a = 50
microsec!ft falls in two triangles. It could be a combination of dolomite,
limestone and quartz or it could be limestone, anhydrite and quartz. Both
of these triangles, or mathematical solutions can be solved with no
problems. Of course only one is probably correct for the given formation.
Or if the rock actually contains four matrix components none of the
solution may be correct. Fig. 35 shows a break down of the triangles for
limestone, dolomite and anhydrite. We can go into one triangle with the
apparent matrix density and travel time and obtain the proportions of
limestone and dolomite. Anhydrite is obtained by subtracting the percent
of limestone and dolomite from 100 percent. These mineral fractions
should only be considered, at best, approximate. Using these mineral
fraction we can then enter Fig. 36 and obtain an apparent matrix density
for the combination of the three minerals. The apparent matrix density
can then be used with the conventional density porosity chart to obtain
a porosity. Figs. 37 and 38 are matrix density charts for mineral
combinations of sandstone, limestone and dolomite and dolomite,
62 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
sandstone and anhydrite, respectively. Fig. 39 is a conventional density
porosity chart.
In complex lithologies even with the best data we can only approximate
porosity. Secondly, using two porosity logs in complex lithologies can
result in porosities that are significantly different than the true porosities.
:..,. III
,
+: j:.
~
~ 00
0\
itt ~
<I)"
:.a~
'.: f
~~;.t i...
. '"
<I)
~."i
::
~
0
:..L:' '00
., -,
...00
i 0.
~
, il
~!
"roc::
't 0
..
~
.G
'00
c::
<I)
U
"c::
ffl . ...t <I)
<I)
.E"" ~
~ .. .D
c::
:::;:;::;:::;: 1 II LL
'. E'
0
.~
J ..,I It', I .~
~
'~" Q)
~
tl . 0\
- 1'"1,.:: ::; <;
,. I .~t. M
..... oil
~ ~~
, II
~
'1 !...:,: ... ..;"
f;': : I~
L, .",
.., .+
. trit
N
1!1
.. ~ 4 1
.. !!i
~-r ~. w
1\1 i
;a <>
'"
Well Logs Interpretation 63
Pulsed Neutron Capture Logs
Pulsed Neutron Capture (PNC) logs such as the TDT and Neutron
Lifetime have been commercially available since about 1962. The key to
the measurement is a neutron source that can be turned off and on. These
electronically controlled sources produce fast (14 MeV) neutrons. The
measurement is a pulsed system. The neutron source is turned on for
some discrete time (typically from 20 to 200 micro-seconds) and then shut
off. The neutrons produced scatter off things like hydrogen atoms and
slow down by elastic type scattering. Once they reach a stable energy
(or velocity) they are called thermal neutrons. At this stage they are like
gas molecules in that they have a velocity that is controlled by the
temperature. At this stage in their life they are very susceptible to being
captured by some atoms and not others. This property of materials that
is a measure of the ability of atoms to capture thermal neutrons is the
thermal neutron capture cross section. Normalizing the cross sections to
where NaCl is one, Print Table 2, shows the relative capture cross section
for various common materials 3 found in sedimentary rocks. Print Table
3, shows a comparison of various capture cross sections for sedimentary
rocks and associated fluids. Thermal neutrons are more readily absorbed
by chlorine than the other common materials. Hydrogen does influence
the cross section. Essentially capture cross section is dependent upon
primarily water salinity and hydrogen content. The capture cross section
of a reservoir rock filled with salty water, oil and other materials is given
by the equation as :
Table 2
Thermal neutron capture equivalents to NaCI
Boron 121
Calcium .14
Carbonate .00002
Potassium .094
Lithium 20
NaCl
Sulfur .028
Sulfate .01
, 64 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Table 3
Capture cross section of sedimentary rocks and
associated fluids
where
L.t formation true or actual cross section
4> fluid filled porosity
S"o fraction of pore space filled with water
(water saturation)
L. w Cross section of formation water
L. ma Cross section of reservoir rock at zero
porosity.
L."c Cross section of hydrocarbons.
Equation (1) indicates that at zero porosity reservoir rocks will have
a cross section of around 10 cu. For 100,000 ppm NaCl water filling the
pores as the porosity reaches 10 percent the cross section will be 15 cu
while for 20 percent porosity the cross section will be 20 cu and for a 30
percent porosity it will be 25 cu. Hydrocarbons present will reduce these
capture cross sections.
The measurement of capture cross section requires that the rate of
thermal neutron absorption be measured. This is called Lifetime or
Well Logs Interpretation 65
Thennal Decay Time. These are related to cross section as shown by
the following equation:
3150 4550
...(2)
L T
Where,
L = half life of the neutron in microseconds
T = thermal decay time or mean lifetime of
neutrons in microseconds
~ = cross section in cu or (10-3 cm- I )
The larger the cross section the shorter the life-time or decay time
of the neutron population. The pulsing of the neutron sources at about
1000 times per second produces a cloud of neutrons that slow down
and then are captured with little to no hang over between pulses. The
logging tool has a gamma ray detector located on the tool mandrel about
15 inches above the 40 source. Fig. 40 shows the counting rate at a
detector versus time for a laboratory logging tool in a simulated borehole
environment. The neutrons in the borehole environment die away
quicker and their presence is not noticable after about 400 microseconds.
The neutrons in the formation have a longer life and their
presence is noted as an exponential decay after the borehole signal has
gone. The capture cross section is related to the slope of the fonnation
signal.
Dresser Atlas uses two time gated windows which measure the
neutrons arriving 400-600 and 700-900 microseconds after the source is
shut off and determine the equivalent of the slope of the line in earlier
Fig. 40. Schlumberger either uses three controlled floating windows that
vary in width and time location or a series of fixed windows. These are
the TDT-K and TDT-M respectively. Most PNC logs are obtained in
cased holes where sufficient tiille has elapsed for the invaded zone to
disappear. This time can take from days to months depending upon the
reservoir conditions. With a good cement job and a water zone below
a gas zone the capillary forces will pull the invading fluids into the
water zone within days. If no water zone is present it will probably take
weeks to disperse the invasion fluids into the reservoir. The vertical
resolution of the PNC measurement is in the order of 2 to 3 feet.
The measurement is subject to statistical fluctuations which require
66 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
100,000
"
'.
1.000
100
.'
..
low logging speeds. The true test of statistics on a log is how well
the multiple passes of the log repeat. Fig. 41 shows the limitations of the
system with regards to porosity and water salinity. The quantitative range
of use for gas reservoirs is wider than that for oil reservoirs. This is due
to the very low cross section for gas (about 4 eu on the average)
relative to the higher value for oil (around 22 eu). The wider the
separation between the water saturation lines the more quantitative the
Well Logs Interpretation 67
interpretation should be (Hilchie, 1982). The best cross section we can
measure is probably one cu and the best porosity resolution is one
porosity percent.
Equation (1) is used for all interpretations of clean sands and
carbonates. The known parameters are obtained from a series of charts
like Figs. 42, 43 and 44. We must know the salinity of the water to perform
a calculation to determine water saturation. The water salinity can be
>. :I :. . :r
I
=-~I I
...._ ..... I J . ....... . l -- I
30 t-----.:;:;~"_'r_II----(fuan t -i t~ t ive . .
o~~~~~~~~~~~--~
2~0--~~--~--~----~--~
100 120
LW
Fig. 41. Pulsed neutron log applicability (After HiIchie, 1982).
68 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
determined from the usual water catalogs, Rwa and SP analyses. The cross
section of methane (or gas) is a function of both temperature and pressure
as these control the hydrogen content of the gas. The pressure of the
reservoiHs-OOtained by dividing depth by 2 in psi. Usually oil is assumed
to have a cross section of 22 cu. The PNC logs are not too sensitive to
the type of the rock. An analysis of Fig. 45 shows that the interval 6592-
6620 (all NLL depths) is hydrocarbons and actually produce oil. There is
an oil-water contact at 6596 (NLL). The sand at 6553-6568 (IES) was the
original completion and shows water saturations on the NLL of 55 to 80
percent. The thin sands centre around (NLL) 6542, 6550 and 6578 still
appear to be productive. Water saturations from PNC logs are not subject
to pore geometry problems as are resistivity logs.
300,::100 150
',40
il30.eoo
l~lO'
260,000
:)40,000 120
22:J, 000 - no
200.000 100
180.000 .
. 90
13
:D
z '!'If:.OOO -
'"
c " 80 ':'
Ji t:
.~ . \40.000 :::;
.
6-
So
70
~,
--
b
....
CL..
1'20,000 '1
I-J
1 OC),CJOO'
60
.80,000 . 50
1'10,000
40
40,000
2C,OOO 30
22
Fig. 42. Water cross sections.
70 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
10,...-------------.-.,.................
i6 ~-- - - - - -- 0 -. ----*l-+:H
6 ~a 10 12 1~
, 20000
!!
~I
o
~ 2000
r-+-~---~~-r_+_+~~~k-~+-+-~~~-t-J
~ 1000
100
100
600
SOO
.00 --- . ----------+--------~ -- + - J --.--l"-.-I-~
lOO ___ o _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ,~_~ _ _ o - - --.----i'-.loo,:-+-~-l
zoo ~- .... !
IOO~;;---- ._0__
.:....--;_.-:- - -:-:--_--_--:t~L-t~1_. ....L_-:':..""_- r__~~C1C;L-\-~l-lJ
+ _!_.
Q ~ U ~
_t. a
~s:
'~'~-'-'-'--j
_ _ J
(:: .. . '
Fig. 45, PNC (Dresser Atlas Neutron lifetime) log and induction electrical log on
Offshore Taxas Well (After Hilchie, 1982).
~t = (1-~)~ma+~Sw~w+~(1-Sw)~hc ,..(1)
Second method is from nomographs. Shaly sandstone interpretation
using PNC logs is not as good as for resistivity logs because shales
generally have relatively high cross sections. In most cases when we
are looking for bypassed production with the PNC logs we do not have
god control of porosity. At these times the dual spaced PNC logs are
helped. The Schlumberger TDT-K and TDT-M allow the calculation of
water saturation and porosity.
The most valuable contribution made by the PNC logs is the ability
to monitor the reservoir after casing has been set and the well produced.
The overlaying of the cross section curves as changes in water saturation
occur due to the rise of the oil (or gas) water contact or the over running
of water provide a quick and easy tool to diagnosis what is happening.
72 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Fig. 46 shows a case in which the oil water contact is rising. The apparent
water oil contact in run #2 was too high due to water coning. Run #3
shows the actual water contact after a few months of shut in. The
separation of the curves is a direct indication of the change in water
TOT
MICROSECONDS
100 400
200 ~~~P~AR~E~X=T------I~--~~~--~
\~ATER ..;.- ..........
TABLE - - ,---:
,
ACTl:AL ~ ....
WATER .,"
TABL[--~;r
300 ~----~~----~----------~
Fig. 46. A PNC showing a rising oil water contact (Courtesy Schlumberger).
Well Logs Interpretation 73
saturation between run #1 and run #2 of course excluding statistics. This
figure shows significant statistical variations. This could have been
eliminated by multiple runs and averaging of the multiple runs. In an
equation form the difference in cross section (L\L) between run #1 and
run #2 is:
L\ Sw = ...(2)
~(LW - Lh)
Equation (2) only needs porosity and the water and hydrocarbon
cross sections to make the determination of the change in water saturation
quantitative. If there is no change in water saturation the cross section
will not change unless there is a significant increase in gas saturation
which could result in the decrease of the cross section measured with
the log. The determination of residual oil after the zone has been watered
out is a popular application of PNC logs. In this application the zone is
logged and the water with significantly different salinity and cross section
is injected into the formation to displace tlle original water and the interval
relogged. The water saturation is then:
...(3)
~(Lwl - L w2 )
Usually the water in the formation is salty and fresh water is injected.
This often plugs the formation and causes incomplete flushing of the
formation water due to preferential flow channels being set up in cleaner
stringers or fracturing of the formation.
Special caution should be used when working with PNC's in
carbonates. Acid treatments with HCl result in anomalous behaviour due
to the chlorine left in the formation after the treatment. The interaction
ofHCl acid plus limestone or dolomite results in calcium carbonate. This
calcium carbonate stays in the formation and results in a larger cross
section on the PNC's. Fig. 47 shows an example ofPNC logs before and
after an acidization job (AI-Saif et.ai., 1979). This particular well was
reported to have produced 1,000,000 bbls of oil between the acid job
and the after PNC. The only way to remove this chlorine effect was to
back flush the core with water.
Pulsed Neutron Capture (Tool and Log Differences)
Now the Dresser Atlas Neutron Lifetime Logs (NLL) is 1-11116 inch
in diameter tools. The measurements could be made without pulling the
74 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
well tubing. The smaller diameter tools are of course bothered more by
statistics due to lower neutron source output and small diameter detectors.
Schlumberger originally came out with a 3-5/8 inch diameter tool and then
added a 1-11116 inch tool later. The Dresser Atlas NLL log originally only
displayed the counting rates of the two time displaced windows. Latter
the two windows were used to calculate cross section and the log looked
like Fig. 48. Gate 1 was taken from 400 to 600 microseconds after the
neutron burst and Gate 2 from 700 to 900 microseconds after the burst.
The cross section was calculated from this data. The dotted curve in track
1 on the left hand side is the monitor curve which indicates the level of
neutron output from the source. The casing collar locator (CCL) is the
curve immediately to the left of the depth column. A gamma ray log was
( ; Oft." 1M 1II011(
~ .Al!O "IU ACID I0Il1( 'OIlOSIT,
I _ _ _ _ _ .. _ _
~ -I--f---+--I,~--
Fig. 47. PNC logs before and after acidization (After AI-Said et. aI., 1979).
Well Logs Interpretation 75
NEUTRON LIFETIME LOG
~t}--
5,
~'
_0
. 1 .
; .
1 .
1<:
i
to
---",,':.. ..
- ; .
Fig. 48. A Dresser Atlas Neutron lifetime log from offshore Louisiana (Courtesy
Dresser Atlas).
.
"(UTlla" caPTu_C CIltOSS SCT'O~' II
c".''''_' """'''s I, ~I
BACKGROUND
F!
---- - -I-
dual detector NLL although the porosity calibration was not as good as
Schlurnbergers. The TDT-M was introduced in 1981. It is still a dual
detector system only the floating gates to determine cross section are
gone. They now use a series of counting windows to determine the cross
section. They also record cross section from the long spacing rather than
the older short spacing cross section. This new longer spacing is more
like the spacing Dresser Atlas uses.
Resistivity
Resistivity is the electrical resistance of a material in the form of a
cube one metre on the side. Electrical flow in most well logging is through
ionic conduction which makes the measurements independent of the
frequency of the electricity. Reservoir type rocks are defmed as being
78 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
o 40 . $0 40
L (c.uJ r (c.u.)
8 w2 = FRRw (1)
R
t
l
l i!' I' ~
-: ... ..! !.~ .
,1 .2 .3.4 ,6 .8 1 "
L j .;
ReFli.Gtiv1 t}'
Fig. 52. A log-log resistivity and porosity crossplot (After Hilchie, 1982).
86 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
saturations less than lOO percent water filled porosity is less than the
porosity. This is related to the water saturation which is given below:
Sw = ~; ...(7)
where ~w is the fraction of total rock that is filled with water and ~ is
porosity. Fig. 53 is a schematic of an RPC plot. Since ~w is not convenient
to plot it is converted to resistivity by the following equation:
...(8)
Equation (8) shows that at infinite resistivity the water filled porosity
is zero. RPC paper for various m's commonly used in log interpretation
0 0w = ~
11 0
0w 1 0
0 W<0
0
0 -
Fig. 53. Schematic RPC plot.
Important points ofRPCAlgorithrn(Hilchie, 1982) is given below:
1. Read the resistivity and porosity log values from the logs for
the interval to the analyzed. Be sure to cover a complete range
of porosities so that a good Ro line can be drawn. The
porosities do not need to be productive. Porosities of 1 percent
very effectively tie down the low porosity range on the Ro line.
2. Set up scales on the appropriate RPC paper, i.e., choose the
proper m. Make sure the horizontal porosity scale goes from
zero porosity to the highest porosity we read off the log. If we
have a density and neutron (or acoustic and neutron) plot the
porosity obtained from the density-neutron crossplot. Scale the
resistivity scale on the RPC so that the lowest resistivity is near
the top of the graph. Change the RPC resistivity scale by
multiplying or dividing by a constant to obtain a scale where
the lowest resistivity is close to the top of the RPC paper.
3. Read the log data and plot it on the RPC paper. Use a number
for each zone so that you can fmd the zone later. Plot porosity
increasing to the right.
Well Logs Interpretation 87
4. Water zone (if any) data will plot in the upper and left edge of
the envelop formed by the data. Draw a straight line through
an average of the left edge data. The line should go from the
base line (infInite resistivity) to the lowest resistivity plotted.
5. Layout a porosity scale. Use the matrix if we plotted density or
travel time, to construct porosity scale.
6. The slope of the Ro line is controlled by Rw. To check that the
Rw is reasonable, i.e., in a water zone, you must use some
porosity value and the equivalent Ro value from the line.
7. All intervals with water saturations less than 100 percent will
fall below the Ro line. All the water saturation lines go through
the matrix point.
The log-log plot gives us m and if we are lucky an indication of Rw.
The RPC gives us matrix, or if we wish porosity control, and if we are
lucky Rw. The log-log plot is sensitive to small porosity changes in the
low porosity range. The RPC is sensitive to small resistivity changes at
high porosity. Both are relatively sensitive to Rw variations. In both cases
we need to know Rw to do a good job although often the crossplots will
tell us Rw. Both crossplots require high grade data to work effectively.
Thin resistive beds will throw both plots into erroneous answers if the
thin beds are not detected during the analysis. With both crossplots
changes in reservoir texture show up as group lings at different locations
on the plot. As both plots accentuate, different parameters the two may
be used in combination. The combined use of log-log and RPC plots is
often very advantageous. This combined use age requires a good
knowledge of the Rw otherwise we can sometimes fall into a trap. The
combined useage is best done with a computer. The computer allows
the construction of RPC paper with any m. The m must be constant for
all RPC and log-log plots. The easiest way is to start with the RPC and
then having established porosity control go to the log-log plot to
establish m and then go back to the RPC to refIne porosity control, etc.
Resistivity Ratio Methods
Conventional interpretations rely on everything staying the same over
the interval evaluated. Everything being Rw and the textural properties of
the rocks. One way is to measure the resistivity in the completely invaded
zone (Rxo) and compare it with the resistivity of the virgin zone. The
only problem with this technique is that the zone must be invaded enough
to be able to make the comparison. If the formation does not have
88 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
adequate invasion this system does not work. Sw is given by the following
equation:
RxO RW)5/8
Sw = ( Rt Rmf ...(1)
R.~
S = -'.- ...(2)
w Rt Rt
Where Z is the decimal fraction of formation water left in the invaded
zone (usually assumed to be 0.075). Z is the function of invasion depth.
Changes of invasion from well to well will cause variations RIR,. In any
given well over a limited vertical distance invasion is constant. With
resistivity ratio charts the zones must be invaded. If we run into a zone
that is not invaded the ratio will decrease (in fresh mud) and look like
hydrocarbons. Usually in tight zones Ri and R t are close to being equal.
With the RIRt techniques, in water zones that are invaded the RIRt ratio
will be essentially constant with Sw = 100 percent. The ratio will reduce
to about 50 percent or less where we have Sw less than 60 percent. This
makes a good qualitative way to look at the logs. The modem logs which
use SFL, LL, etc. for Ri work better than the older logs that use the 16
inch normal as the newer tools do not see as deep as the 16 inch normal.
There is better defInition of Ri"
On modem logs presented with resistivity on a logarithmic scale,
the separation between the Ri and R t curves is the ratio, e.g., on a full
dual induction log if the RIRt ratio is 10, the Ri and Rt curves will always
be 1.25 inches apart. In shaly formations the RIRt ratio is reduced over
what it would be under the same conditions in a clean formation. A quick
rule of thumb is that if the formation has a shale volume of 30 percent,
the ratio will be reduced 30 percent. What this means on a Fig. 54 if we
put in the SP that will give us the correct R w' and the formation is shaly
the apparent Sw will be 70 percent. But if we put in the apparent SP from
the shaly formation, with the apparent Rj and R,. The Sw will calculate to
be about 100 percent unless hydrocarbon suppression is large. The
technique tends to be self compensating for shale if we put in the actual
data unless hydrocarbon suppression is severe. Use of the gamma ray
to normalize the SP would make the system self compensating. Fig. 55
shows a viking sandstone water bearing zone. The zone is shalying
Well Logs Interpretation 89
downward at a fairly constant rate. R/R t ratio is reducing with shaliness.
Below we see some points plotted for the interval from top to bottom.
The very top interval is well off the plot of earlier Fig. 54. This is probably
due to the difference in vertical resolution of the R j (LL8) and R (lLd)
t
devices. The rest of the points tend to converge to the Sw = lOO percent
line as plotted actual SP versus R/R,.
Shaly Sandstone Interpretation
The problem with shaly formation is that the water saturation we
calculate from the resistivity logs is too high in that it does not represent
~()R.'1AL I:"" AS 10:-:
RM: /11...: SP
.100
. ,0
30
20
'1$
_ 10
s
4
.7
L- .10--
;.....10-- ,
0 '"
0
0 0
on .... .
T 10 lIS 10 10: 40 50
HffltSiI <t . , ~
I ",;
I '.: :-:
1I
d' ~
: -=----'1!:
I:: : ::: : :: ,: ~. i i - -~. ,---<.
;. :
_. ..u ~
.g
~ ~
, .. R-
i:~
;
1\ 0-.
~
~
~
~
1III-I'll"'] I-J. : : ;
t 't. ..... lii"'
!::
~
f- . , .
I! o o.
~
~
: . l ! _ ~ I
IS t<:(' ~.
~
.. '..
[
. . -:l tz::l
... ~~.
~
,1 I I T f-: ;. '~~I
~.
Fig. 55. An example of resistivity ratio change in a water sand with Shaliness (After Hilchie, 1982). ;::!.
~
Well Logs Interpretation 91
the time water saturation in the pores. This is caused by the shale (or
clay), which has a lower resistivity than the sand grains. Porosity logs
are often influenced by shale so that the calculated porosities are wrong.
In shally sandstone it is difficult to determine Rw and most important is
that the shale often influences the permeability. Usually with no shale
corrections, the water saturation is too high, making the zone look like it
could be non-productive, and the porosity is also too high or too low
depending upon the logs used. The high CEC (cation exchange capacity)
shales, montmorillonite, bentonite and illite an effective shales, while
kaolinite and chlorite are noneffective shales. Montmorillonite has a
resistivity of about 0.7 to l.5 ohm m at 77P' The porosity logs all show
montmorillonite to look like higher porosity than there actually is. Thus
in a sand of lO percent porosity the shale will make the porosity appear
higher than the actual porosity. In high porosities, like 30 percent the
density log will read lower than true porosity while the neutron will appear
to have higher porosity than the true porosity. The acoustic log response
is more complex as the acoustic log influences are determine by where
the shale is rather than the apparent travel time of the shale. In general,
if the shale is purely in the pore space, the acoustic log will not see the
shale. If the shale is in layers that are perpendicular to the path of the
acoustic wave propogation the acoustic log will see the shale. In this
case it will see the compacted shale. The travel time of the acoustic wave
in the shale will of course be influenced significantly by the degree of
compaction of shale.
Illite on the gamma ray looks about as radioactive as montmorillonite
as it is contains radioactive potassium as well as CEC. It looks like a
shale on the SP as it is an effective shale. The resistivity of illite it higher
than montmorillonite due to its lower CEC.A resistivity of illite is of 1 to
3 ohm m. The m for illite is about 2.1 which means it acts much like a
sand. The density log sees illite as a sandstone porosity of less than
zero. A large amount of illite in a sandstone will result in the density log
porosity being lower than the real porosity. At 30 percent illite the porosity
calculated will be about 2 porosity percent too low which could be serious
at the 8 to 9 percent porosity range where we are trying to decide if the
rock is tight or not. The acoustic and neutron logs see illite much like
montmorillonie. Illite thus results in larger separations on the density
neutron log combination than montmorillonite. It looks shalier. Kaolinite
is one of the noneffective shales. On the gamma ray, SP and resistivity
logs it looks like sand grains. Using these three logs we would expect
92 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
the reservoir to be a clean sandstone. The m factor for kaolinite is 1.87
and thus still reacts like a sand grain. The higher surface area and smaller
"grain" size will result in an increase in the water saturation but acts just
like a very fine grained sand. The density log sees kaolinite as being
very close to that for a sand. The neutron log shows kaolinite as 40+
porosity. Thus, in a bed with a great deal of kaolinite the neutron indicates
a much higher porosity than the density log. The density neutron
combination looks shaly. Kaolinite on an SP, gannna ray, resistivity, density
and neutron log combination looks anomalous. Everything looks clean
except the neutron log. We can calculate Rw from the SP with good results
and the density log give porosities that agree with the core analysis.
The acoustic log looks the same for montmorillonite and illite only with
possibly a little shorter travel time for as the formations become more
compact.
Chlorite is generally a non-effective shale. It looks like sand on the
SP and gamma ray just as kaolinite does. The resistivity is usually just
like a sand grain although sometimes iron appears in the matrix and the
resistivity is lower. Chlorite looks like a porosity less than zero on the
density log. The matrix density is significantly heavier than sandstone,
e.g., from 2.76 to 3 gm/cc which means that with chlorite in place the
density log porosity can be significantly too low. The neutron and
acoustic log see chlorite as high porosity. The iron effects should be
compensated for when a density neutron crossplot porosity is obtained.
Shaly Sandstone Interpretation Factors
The various factors influence the interpretation of shaly sandstones.
The water salinity and volume of effective shale significantly influence
the accuracy of shaly sandstone interpretations. The effective shales,
because of their CEC, attract the ions from the formation water. In a very
salty water (i.e., 100,000 ppm or more) the ions of the centre of the pore
are equal to or greater than the density of ions that are adsorbed on the
CEC sites on the effective shales. Fig. 56 shows a schematic of a pore
space filled with very salty water. The water in the centre of the pore is
free to move while the ions adsorbed on the effective shales are not free
to move. Oil or gas moving into this pore space would displace the water
and associated ions in the centre of the pore space leaving the ions
adsorbed on the shale particles and the water wetting the sites of the
pore. Bound water refers to the water associated with the effective clays,
free water is the water that can move in the centre of the pore space and
the combination of these two is mixed water. In very salty water the free
water is either the same or saltier than the bound water. In a oil or gas
Well Logs Interpretation 93
sand where the free water is displaced, the effective shale acts like a low
resistivity solid added to the pore space which reduce the formation
resistivity. The effective resistivity of the clay is probably higher than
the water resistivity. This disturbs the water saturation calculation. In
relatively fresh water (10,000 to 30,000 ppm range) we can end up with a
situation like that shown in Fig. 57. Most of the ions are adsorbed on
the clay sites and the free water appears less salty than the adsorbed or
bound water. When the oil or gas displaces the free water, the overall
resistivity of the pore is not increased nearly as much as in the salty
~Effective Shale
Fig. 56. A shaly sand pore space filled with salty water.
~ effec~ive shale
+- ions. (only pOSitiVe
shown) .
Fig. 57. A shaly sand pore space with low salinity water.
water case. In fact when interpreting this type of shaly sand the analyst
is often forced to assume that the water has changed from relatively fresh
in the water zone to salty in the hydrocarbon bearing zone. If there are
not enough ions to satisfy all the effective shale sites water obtained
from drill stem tests or production test may be very fresh as the clays
filter the ions out of the water as it moves through the formation. In this
case the water catalog values show the water resistivity to be two high,
e.g., Cretaceous sands. The relatively fresh water shaly sands are'more
difficult to interpret than the salty water shaly sands. A good value of
Rw for the shaly sand is a must for the reasonable shaly sand
interpretation as it is for any interpretation.
In shaly sandstone we must first decide if the shale is effective or
non-effective. Correction for effective shales is the conventional
approach to shaly sand interpretation. This requires a correction that
requires volume of shale and the resistivity of the shale, or CEC (cation
94 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
exchange capacity) or the amount of bound water and its resistivity. A
correction for the amount of non-effective shale would only require an
estimate of the amount of non-effective shale and its influence
(associated water). The gamma ray has been one of the classical ways
of obtaining the volume of shale. The gamma ray thus is an indicator of
effective shales of no outside influences interfere. The SP reduction due
to shaliness is due to effective shales and not non-effective shales.
Additionally the SP, when hydrocarbons are present, and the formation
is shaly, is reduced due to hydrocarbon suppression. A higher volume
from the gamma ray or density-neutron crossplot indicates other
influences than effective shale on the measurements. Obtaining the
correct porosity is important from two points : one the volume of the
reservoir and, two, the porosity is used in most of the shafy sand
interpretation models that are used to calculate water saturation. The
correction of the density log for shale content is relatively easy and
accurate if we know the shale volume and the type of shale. A good
shaly sand interpretation for porosity requires that the shale be a single
clay. A mixture of effective and non-effective clays can make the picture
very complex and unsolvable in some cases. The acoustic log is the most
difficult of the porosity devices to correct for shale content. The position
of the shale or clay in the rock matrix is very important. If the shale is
truly dispersed in the pore space the acoustic log will not see the shale
and the porosity will be the porosity calculated from the acoustic log
minus the fraction of pore space filled with shale. If the shale is in a
structural position, i.e., lumps of shale in a load bearing position
(replacing sand grains) the acoustic log will probably not see the shale
unless there is a lot of shale and it is disseminated throughout the bed
so that it looks homogeneous. We need excellent geological control to
obtain porosity from the acoustic log in a shaly sandstone. Do not use
the acoustic log for porosity in shaly sandstones unless we have good
control of the rocks. We have cores and do not need the acoustic log
for porosity.
The common practice ofusmg the shale resistivity from the resistivity
log in an adjacent formation is practical if the shale is laminated. If the
shale is dispersed in the pore space and not compacted or contaminated
(not pure) it would seem that the pure shale resistivity should be used.
The numbers quoted for montmorillonite (0.7 to 1.5 ohm m at 77F) and
illite (1 to 3 ohm m at 77F) seem tlike the numbers that should be used
in shaly sand interpretation. CEC measurements are made on rock samples
and not by logging devices. The sample used for most CEC
Well Logs Interpretation 95
measurements is very small. Only in relatively homogenous reservoirs
can we effectively relate the CEC measured on the small sample to the
logs which average a great deal to rock. Models are used to determine
water saturation from resistivity. For more complete discussion and more
models please refer to "A comparative look at water saturation
computations in shaly sands" by Fertl and Hammack, 12th SPWLA Trans.
1971. The Simandoux equation is used most and produces the water
saturations that has never been proven to be the case. The merits of
any particular model should be based on how well the model fits the
particular geological conditions of the reservoir. The three most used
shaly sand interpretation techniques are : Simandoux, Waxman-Smith, and
the Dual Water. Simandoux equation has been the most used by service
companies in their interval computer programs. Waxman and Smits
developed a Shaly sandstone model using CEC as the input. The Dual
Water Model consists of recognising that the pore space is filled with
two different waters, free water (Rw[) and bound water (R wb ) on the
effective shales. Rw is calculated as the combination of the bound and
free water. The amount of effective shale controls the amount of bound
water so the resistivity of the mix of bound and free water (Rwm) changes
as the shaliness changes. The adjacent shale or shaly water zone is used
to calculate Rwb In a water zone the sum of the free water and bound
water equals the porosity.
Temperature Logs
If we could only run one log in an empty hole which is producing
gas it should be the temperature log. Gas flowing from a formation into
an empty hole cools due to expansion. This can be seen on temperature
logs. Thus with a temperature log we can pinpoint the source of the gas.
The degree of cooling depends upon the reservoir pressure, the
permeability, the reservoir thickness and the volume of gas produced.
The higher the production rate the larger the temperature anomally
although sometimes the anomally is decreased by heating of the gas as
it flows Qrrough the formation. The determination of the boundaries of
the gas producing zones requires a knowledge of the shape of the curve
created by the gas. Fig. 58 shows a temperature log for a single gas zone.
The flowing temperature well above the gas zone is higher than the
geothermal gradient. The temperature in the gas producing zone is lower
than the geothermal gradient. Note the smooth transition between the
gas producing zone and the temperature well above the zone. Also notice
the sharp increase in temperature below the producing zone and the
return to the geothermal gradient. Differential temperature logs are also
96 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
GnZ...
Fig. 58. Gas expansion effect on the temperature log (Courtesy Walex).
often run in empty holes to detect gas producing zones. Fig. 59 shows
both a temperature and a differential temperature log. The differential
temperature log is a recording of the differential or slope of the temperature
log. Although the differential temperaru,e log makes it easier to fmd the
anomallies the temperature log better defmes the producing zone. With
just a differential temperature log it is not possible to determine the relative
production rates or the boundaries of the production zones. In this figure
the gas producing zone is thin as marked on the log. On the temperature
log each entry of gas from a different zone causes a reduction in the
temperature. Thus in a case where there are multiple zones producing
gas we will see a temperature reduction at each of these zones. See
Fig. 60.
Tying WelJ Data
If a seismic section can be tied directly to well information, the
synthetic seismogram or VSP (with the correct polarity and frequency
Well Logs Interpretation 97
. .,.
. ......
.--
~
"OIL
.....
.--
LOCATING GAS ZONE
c..lot .. ,,,.,,,
I If
.. '
\'
'.iJII.~'f
I''''''II
Co c.,,, .... , .. ,
WHl""" W[ll.
Fig. 61. Example of borehole tie from Western Canada. Synthetic seismograms are (b) and (f). Displays (b) to (f) are supplied into the
field section (a). (Courtesy Digitech Ltd.).
Well Logs Interpretation 99
bandwidth) should be overlain or spliced in at the appropriate location.
The earth acts as a filter for seismic pulses, so it is unreasonable to expect
a perfect match in amplitude, frequency and phase. Where there is a good
fit, often a time mis-tie will be found due to errors in any of the applicable
corrections for NMO, weathering, elevations, depths of guns, cables, etc.
Other mis-tie effects may be induced by phase distortion in the recording
or playback instrumentation. Correlation should therefore be made on
an interval best-fit basis as has to be done with the synthetic seismogram
which has been produced from an uncalibrated sonic log. Static errors
should always be investigated but may be unresolved. In the absence
of, or in conjunction with a synthetic seismogram, the logged velocity
trace from a well velocity surveyor sonic can be overlain on or spliced
into a seismic section and velocity contrasts aligned with appropriate
peaks and troughs. See Fig. 61. Where the above are not available,
interval velocities can be plotted on a suitable time scale from a
continuous velocity log and compared as above. If neither synthetics
nor well velocity surveys are available, the integration on a sonic log
can be plotted manually as an interval velocity curve and used similarly.
If no sonic log are available, a formation density log can be used to give
a very qualitative indication of the relationship between the geological
section penetrated by a well and the equivalent seismic section. If there
is some confidence in the velocities derived regionally from seismic data,
the gamma-ray or formation density trace can be converted, depth to
time, and empirical correlations made. When seismic lines do not tie
directly to coreholes, various approaches can be adopted for reflection
identification but mainly in this situation there is a considerable reliance
on intuition and there can be no substitute for a good borehole tie.
REFERENCES
1. Al-saif et. aI., 1979; Analysis of pulsed neutron decay time logs
in acidized carbonate formations, SPEJ, VoLlO, No.1.
2. Berry W.R., Head M. and Mougne, 1979; Dielectric constant
logging: A progress report; SPWLA 20th Ann. Log. Symp.
Trans., June.
3. Clavier et. at., 1976; Effects of pyrite on resistivity and other
logging measurements; 17th SPWLA Symp. Trans. Paper HH.
4. Coolidge and Gramson, 1960; Present status of nuclear
magnetism logging; presented at SPE Form. Eval. Symp.,
Huston, Nov., paper 1645 G.
5. Coolidge, 1962; Nuclear magnetism logging; Oil & Gas Jour.,
MarS.
100 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
6. Herrich et. ai., 1978; An improved nuclear magnetion logging
system; presented in Las Vegas, Sept., SPE paper 8361.
7. Hi1chie D.W., 1982; Advanced well log interpretation; Douglas
W. Hilchile, Inc., P.O. Box 785, Golden Colorado 80402.
8. Lock G.A. and Hoyer W.A., 1974; Carbon-oxygen (C/O) log:
use and interpretation; Jour. Of Pet. Tech., Sept., SPE of AIME
paper 4639.
9. Loren, 1972; Permeability estimates from NML measurements;
Jour. Pet. Tech., August.
10. Oliver D.W. et. a/., 1981; Continuous carbon/oxygen (C/O)
logging instrumentation, interpretive concepts and field
applications; SPWLA 22 Ann. Log. Sym. Trans., June.
11 Serra et. ai., 1980; Natural gamma ray spectra; SPWLA 21st Ann.
Syn. Trans., Paper Q.
12. Tittman J., 1956; Radiation logging; Univ. of Kansas Pet. Engr.
Con f., April.
13. Wharton et. ai., 1980; Electromagnetic propagation logging:
Advances in technique and interpretation; presented SPE 55th
Ann. Mtg., DalIas, Sept., paper 9267.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PALYNOLOGY
Introduction
Palynology, a word coined by Hyde and Williams (1944), was defined
by them as "the study of pollen and other spores and their dispersal,
and applications thereof'. The term includes both modem and fossil
pollen and spores. Fossils are elements of a continuum of once-living
organisms whose succession was shaped by organic evolution.
Palynology depends mainly on four characteristics of pollen and spores:
(1) their greater resistance to degradation than most other plant parts,
thus facilitating their survival as fossils, (2) their small size, mostly less
than 200 microns, so that they are transported and deposited as
sedimentary particles, (3) their morphological complexity, so that can be
distinguished and characterized, and (4) their production in enormous
numbers, which facilitates recovery of statistically significant
assemblages.
Fossil plants have been found in rocks ranging in age from the
Precambrian to the Recent. Spores are among the earliest structurally
preserved remains of plant life and accompany material that is probably
derived from bacteria, algae, and perhaps fungi. The fIrst unequivocal
plant spores bearing trilete sutures are found in rocks of Silurian age.
The advent of vascular tissues, a most signifIcant step in land-plant
evolution, occurred at about the same time. Vascular and reproductive
structures may have evolved more or less concurrently, but the two
developments probably were essentially, independent of one another.
Heterospory (the development of megaspores and microspores) is fIrst
noted in the fossil record of the Devonian Period. Heterospory is the
prologue to development of the seed. Two important structure types,
monosulcate and bisaccate pollen, fIrst appear in the Pennsylvanian
102 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Period. Monosulcate pollen became established as characteristic in
the cycadophytes. Bisaccate pollen is common in the conifers. A
significant aspect of both monosulcate and bisaccate pollen is that the
aperture for the emergence of the prothallial tissue is on the distal surface.
In trilete and monolate spores the aperture is along the suture on the
proximal side of the spore. The last prominent evolutionary milestone
was the appearance of recognizable, true angiospermous pollen. The
palynological record shows recognizable angiosperm pollen in the late
early Cretaceous.
There are three major groups of phenomena from which inferences
concerning the age of rocks can be drawn: (1) sediments and processes
of sedimentation, (2) the record of evolution of life, and (3) rates of
radioactive decay. Table 1 shows geological time scale. Palynological
studies can be approached from the viewpoint of botany, with emphasis
on the plant relationships, or from the geological perspective, with
emphasis on biostratigraphy. Adequacy requires a knowledge of both
fields. Significant scientific contributions have demonstrated the value
of palynology, and its future expansion will yield further contributions
in the fields of plant systematics, plant geography, paleoclimatology, and
a better understanding of the history of the plant kingdom Palynology
will furnish more refined and more extensive geologic and stratigraphic
data as its coverage enlarges.
Detailed Encyclopaedia
This encyclopaedia is arranged in alphabetical order. The detailed
encyclopaedia is given below :
Acritarchs
The acritarchs comprise unicellular or apparently unicellular
microfossils that consist of a test, composed of organic substances,
enclosing a central cavity. Shape, symmetry, structure, and ornamentation
are varied. An inner body may be present or not; where present it may
be connected to the outer wall by varied means or it may lack such
connection. The test may be unruptured or may open by formation of a
pylome of varied design. Acritarchs include many of the fossils formerly
known as hystrichospheres, especially those from the Paleozoic. Many
types bear spine-like processes and superficially resemble the
dinoflagellate hystrichospheres. Acritarchs are widespread in carbonates,
cherts, and fme clastic sediments from Proterozoic and younger horizons.
Table-l
Geological Time Scale ~
;:s
Beginning of -
/ntervaiI ~
~
;:s
System (s) Stage (million years) Duration ....
~
or Series or Kulp Holms (million years) ......
en
Era Period (Epoch) Age (1961) (/965) Helmes (1965)
.s;,
Quaternary Recent ~
Pleistocene 2 or 3 2 or 3 ~
;:s
0
......
Pliocene 13 12 9 or 10 ~
~
Miocene 25 25 13
Cenozoic Tertiary Oligocene 36 40 15
upper2 45
Eocene middle2 52
lower 58 60 20
Paleocene 63 70 10
Mesozoic Maestrichtian 72
Campanian
Upper (Late) Santonian 84
Cretaceous Coniacian 90
Turonian 65
Cenomanian 110
Albian 120
Lower (Early) Aptian
Neocomian 135 135
Upper (Late) to-'
0
Bathonian 166 C/.j
(Cont.)
Beginning of ......
0
Interval! 01:>-
Lower (Early)
Upper (Late)
181
200
180 .g
Triassic Middle (Middle)
~
Mesroic R.
Lower {Early} {230) 225 S
Upper (Late) ~
Pennian 260 45
Lower (Early) 280 270 ~
.....
Carbon] Pennsylvanian Visean 320 Cl
pwI, iferous
Devonian
Mississippian
Upper (Late)
Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early)
Toumasian 345
(365)
390
405
350
400
1il
\::
~
C"'-l
(")
~.
Silurian (425) 440 40 ;::s
Upper (Late) 2
~
Trenton 445
Ordovician Middle (Middle) 60 ~
Lower (Early) 500 500 l:tj
Upper (Late) 530
100
...
~
...~
Cambrian Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early) 600 ""'I
~
Fundamentals of Palynology 105
The acritarchs constitute a "catch-all" utilitarian category of organic
microfossils. They are morphologically varied and offten abundant
microfossils. General affinities of these microfossils with the algae have
been suggested by Eisenack (1962). These fossils occur in rocks of many
lithologies, shales and limestones having yielded the richest
assemblages. Most appear to have been elements of the marine plankton,
although freshwater examples have been reported. The essential
morphological feature of an acritarch is a central cavity closed off from
the exterior by a wall of primarily organic composition. Spines or other
projecting structures occur on many acritarchs. They commonly vary in
number within a single species and may also vary in length on a single
specimen. Surface structures that project appreciably from the central
body fall generally into two categories. Processes are spine like to
colunmar projections and may have simple to elaborately branched tips,
free or interconnected. Septa are membranous structures that rise more
or less at right angles to the surface of the central body. The variety of
form and structure evidenced by the acritarchs seems virtually limitless.
Acritarchs are classified in many subgroups : (1) Acanthomorphitae,
(2) Polygonomorphitae, (3) Herkomorphitae, (4) Sphaeromorphitae,
(5) Netromorphite (6) Pteromorphitae, Prismatomorphitae, and
(7) Diacromorphitae. See Fig. 1.
Most of the acritarchs have a wall composed of one principal layer.
However, an assortment of organic microfossils, especially from the
Jurassic and Cretaceous, consist of an outerwall about a distinct inner
body. They may be further categorised by differences in shape. Although
critical identifying features are lacking, distinctive external shapes and
traces of openings, which may prove identifiable as archeopyles on
closer study, suggest that some of these fossils may be dinoflagellates.
Wallodinium is represented by several Jurassic species in Europe and
Australia. It is cylindrical and is truncated by an opening at one end. A
large inneJ: body of somewhat similar shape is enclosed.
Chitinozoa
The chiefly vase-shaped tests of Chitinozoa range from 30 to 1500
microns in length and resemble pseudochitin in composition. They are
widespread in Ordovician to Devonian marine sediments and have proved
highly useful for stratigraphic zonation in some areas. Genera and species
.are distinguished chiefly by differences in the shape of the test, presence
and structure of spines and other projections, and structures associates
106 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
tOnI ....'
_tome
II" I - Coltnttt
i' "" , j I
--
.'\4 I 4
\\"',-1 "
II
. .\.
: ' .. ' J
'lop. , If
~
'" "" 'I
~\\ I, J
........
..
~ ~~
_ - Appendage
Ba..
(a) IAbOtal pol" !h'
Table-2
Two Systems of Plant Classification
J~
Phylum Schizomycophyta - bacteria
Phylum Myxomycophyta - slime molds
Phylum Eumycophyta - true fungi
Subkingdm Embryophyta
Phylum Bryophyta (or Atracheata)
Class Musci - mosses Division Briophyta
Class Hepaticae - liverworts ] Division Hepatophyta
Class Anthocerotae - homworts
Phylum Tracheophytal - vascular plants
Subphylum Psilopsida
Class Psilophytineae Division Pripophyta
Order Psilophytales2
Order Psilotale.,
Subphylum Lycopsida - clubmosses
Class Lycopodineae Division Lycapodophyta
Order Lycopodiales - clubmosses
Order Selaginellales - small clubmosses
Order Lepidoden-drales2 - giant clubmosses
Order pleuromeiales2
(Contd.)
110 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Order Isoetales - quillworts
Subphylum Sphenopsida - horsetails
Class Eqisetineae Division Arthrophyta
Order Hyeniales2
Order Spheno-phyllales2
Order Equisetales - horsetails
Subphylum Pteropsida
Class Filicineaeferns Division Pterophyta
Order Coenopteridales2
Order Ophioglos-sales
Order Marattiales
Order Filicales
Class Gymnospennae-
conifers and their allies
Subclass Cycadophytae
Order Cycadofili- Division
cales2 3 - seed Pteridosperrnophyta
ferns
Order Bennettitales2 4
Order Cycadales-cycads
j Division Cycadophyta
Subclass Coniferophytae
Order Cordaitales2 Division Coniferophyta
Order Ginkgoales- Division Ginkgophyta
maidenhair tree
Order Coniferales-confiers Division Coniferophyta
Order Gnetales Division Gnetophyta
Class Angiospennae- Division Anthophyta
flowering plants
Subclass Dicotyledoneae
Subclass Monocotyledoneae
1. Also known as Tracheata.
2. Known only as fossils.
3. Also known as Pteridospermae.
4. Also known as Cycadeoidales.
Fundamentals of Palynology 111
has an affInity to the algae, based largely on the absence of haptotypic
structures. Coenobia of Pediastrum are not uncommon in palynological
preparations. Pediastrum may be of importance as a facies indicator.
Filamentous algae are rarely found as fossils. Botryococcus is another
alga that is often found in palyndogical assemblages. It has been reported
from rocks at least as old as Ordovician.
Boghead coal is made up largely of an alga similar to Botryococcus.
This alga is living today in fresh-water lakes and brackish-water localities.
An attribute of living Botryococcus is its ability to produce large
quantities of oil. Fossil representatives of the Cyanophyta, Euglenophyta,
and Chlorophyta are occurring in the Green River shales. The phylum
Pyrrophyta, which includes the dinoflagellates, is very well represented
in palynological preparations. The two remaining algal phyla, the
Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta possess plant bodies that are commonly
difficult to preserve. The remaining phyla of the Thallophyta do not
possess chlorophyll and may be considered bacteria and fungi. Bacteria
have been recorded as fossils. Mycelia of the Eumycophyta, or true fungi,
are common accompaniments of palynological assemblages. Spores
similar to the teliospores of rusts are also fairly common. A few other
fungal remains such as Phragmothyrites have been reported. In the
subkingdom Embryophyta only one phylum, the Bryophyta, does not
possess vascular tissues. This phylum includes the mosses, liverworts,
and homworts. It is the only non-vascular phylum that produces thick-
walled spores in tetrads. These spores, when separated from the tetrad,
commonly display a trilete suture. See Fig. 3.
The subphylum Psilopsida embraces two orders, the Psilophytales
and the Psilotales. The Psilophytales are known only as fossils.
Four species of a primitive group of vascular plants were described
from the Rhynie chest of Devonian age and their genera were Rhynia,
Horneophyton, and Asteroxylon. An abundance of trilete spores
was found in the sporangia of Rynia major. The earliest vascular plants
known to possess trilete spores are Baragwanathia from r09ks of Silurian
age in Australia. The Psilotales are represented in the Imodem flora
by the genera Psilotum, with two species, and Tmesipteris, with only a
single species. Two of the five orders belonging in the subphylum
Lycopsida are known only from fossils. They are the Lepidodendrales,
and the Pleuromeiales. The Lepidodendrales were all trees. They appeared
first in the Devonian and persisted to the end of the Carboniferous. These
112 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
.~ ~
:/. r
.'
,
I,
Fig. 3, Examples of spores and other structures from nonvascular plants (After
Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology 113
plants were among the dominant elements in Carboniferous forests.
The Pleuromeials attained a height of only 2 metres and never were a
dominant part of any flora. The single genus Pleuromeia is known only
from the Triassic. The Lycopodiales, or modern clubmosses, are generally
herbaceous and of worldwide distribution, e.g., from Arctic to temperate
and tropical regions. The order Selaginellales is represented by one
living genus, Selaginella. These small, herbaceous plants are widely
distributed in temperate and tropical localities. The order Isoetales is
represented by two living genera: (1) stylites, and (2) Isoetes. This
Isoetes genus is worldwide in distribution and is found commonly in
shallow lakes or ponds. The Lycopsida may have evolved from the
Psilopsida. The subphylum Sphenopsida contains one class, the
Equisetinese. It consists of three orders: (1) the Hyeniales, (2) the
Sphenophyllales, and (3) the Equisetales. The first two orders are
represented only as fossils. The order Equisetales consists of two families
: (1) fossil germs Calamites, and (2) the living genus Equisetum. Equisetum
possesses spores. Each mature spore is invested with two hygroscopic
elaters that coil and uncoil with changes in humidity. The subphylum
Pteropsida contains all the remaining plants in the plant kingdom. The
class Filicineae is subdividd into four orders. The first of these is
the Coenopteridales, known exclusively as fossils. They apparently
originated in the Devonian and persisted at least through the Permian.
Most of the genera recognised as belonging to the Coenopteridales
are known from stem and petiole anatomy. The Ophioglossales are
the adder's tongue and grape ferns. The Marattiales possess some
characters indicating a more advanced phylogenetic position.
The Marattiales are homosporous and produce both the trilete and
monolete types of spores. The Filicales is a large group containing
about 132 genera. Both the monolete and trilete spore types are found in
this order. All the families of the Filicales are homosporous except
the Marsiliaceae and the Salviniaceae. Both of these families are called
water ferms. Members of these families had already developed atleast
by Cretaceous time and have persisted to the present. The members
of the class Gymnospermae, or conifers and their allies, are
all heterosporous. See Fig. 4. The subclass Cycadophytae contains
the orders Cycadofilicales and Bennettitales, known only as fossils.
The Cycadofilicales, or seed ferns, may have originated in the late
Devonian, attained their acme of development in the Carboniferous, and
114 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
~A
~".'" W"
~
Fig, 4. Examples of spores from the phylum Tracheophyta
(After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
some may have persisted into the Cretaceous. The Bennettitales became
extremely abundant in the Jurassic and probably became extinct in the
Cretaceous.
The modem representative of the Cycadales are mostly limited to
the tropics and subtropics. The pollen is consistently of the mono sulcate
type. The Cordaitales, an extinct order, is perhaps the oldest of several
orders of the subclass Coniferophytae. The order Ginkagoales, once
widespread and made up of many genera, is now represented by only
Fundamentals of Palynology 115
one genus and species, Ginkgo biloba. The order Coniferales is
represented by such well-known plants as pine, fIr, juniper, and spruce.
The plants in this group fIrst appeared in the Pennian and were dominant
in Jurassic and Triassic times. The Genetales, the most advanced order
of the subclass Coniferophytae, is represented at the present time by
the three genera: (1) Welwitschia; (2) Gnetum; and (3) Ephedra. The class
Angiospermae, or flowering plants, is divided into the subclasses
Dicotyledoneae and Monocotyledoneae. The pollen and spore types
known from the orders are given in Table 3.
Cycles of Plant Life
The life cycles of plants typically consist of two stages, a
gametophyte generation with a single complement of chromosomes (n)
and a sporophyte generation with a double complement (2n). An
examination of the life cycles of a few plants demonstrate the evolutionary
trends from simple life form to the most complex i.e., the attgiosperms.
See Fig. 5. The gametophyte generation in most lower plants is physically
the larger plant of the two generations. In some algae the sporophyte
generation is represented by a single cell, the zygote, e.g., spirogyra.
When growth of the zygote begins reduction division takes
place immediately, and the gametophyte generation reappears. The
converse is true in the angiosperms in which the gametophyte generation
is confmed to the pollen-grain tube and to the few cells of the female
gametophyte, hidden in the ovule enclosed in an ovary. The larger
plant is the sporophyte. Pollen grains have evolved from spores. The
spore has a nucleus that has undergone reduction division in the
formation of the spore. The spore represents the beginning of the
gametophyte generation and on germination and growth produces the
gametophyte generation. In some heterosporous genera the female
gametophyte develops within the spore coat. In both the gymnosperms
and the angiosperms the magagametophyte is entirely enclosed within
the tissues of the sporophyte. Pollen grains differ from spores is being
multinucleate young male gametophytes, whereas spores are uninucleate
and develop into gametophytes outside the spore coat. Pollen is
commonly different in external form. But it is essentially a spore in which
development of a male gametophyte has proceeded before liberation from
the sporangium.
116 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Table-3
Spore and Pollen 1YJ1es in the Bryophyta and Tracheophyta
Spore or Homosporous or
Plant Group Pollen TYpe Heterosporous
Fig. 7. Range chart to show the knoWn distribution of Devonian spore genera
(After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
122 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Cingl.tlum
./
Trlrtwer5lt
- Flagellum
L...........
- - ......tum
1.1
IiI
(,l flJ
m
In)
Fig. 10. Examples of Recent dinoflagellates (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
2'
---------- Anterior Intercalary plates
Antapex
laJ
{I}}
1<1
f,1I
-
(J 0 -
I
" "
~
.....
m
:.
-',
. ~'~
4'
. ',,~
"
':
Processes .nd
Oth"
Surf.ce
Featurts
1-// Sutural
, ,A
,C\CtL\/
"'1\- - -.0- '-.<:\- '. J;\
Fig. 15. Surface features of fossil dinoflagellates (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969.
In some species an archeopyle has never been observed; in others it is
consistently present, in still other species the operculum is in place in
some specimens and missing from others. Opercula found separated from
the rest of the test can often be identified with the species they represent
on the basis of details of surface structures, processes, size, or shape.
A tendency toward bilateral symmetry is recognizable in most
species, even when shape or projecting structures suggest a radial or
axial symmetry at first glance. The walls of fossil dinoflagellates are as
Fundamentals of Palynology 135
'''''
An::heopv1e Types
31 2A" 6P
~
-----
~--
pp
pe
ep
C.,lloflt-phdlll.nt () Hvs",chusp"aera
~'
(hJ LJe/lulidrea
~ (dJ Wn:eildlu
(,I PseudocrrQtlllm
Ashg,lI Richmond li
c Cincinnatian &'~
Maysville
~.ij
a~
;:)5
0.0
Mohawk,an ?-
:;)"l! ~ Eden
0
Caradoc
1-__.::B:;;at.;:ne~ve~Id~ _ _-lr--?-
Wilderness
z
Cha~I- P:" :~_:_:_~r_Id
Kukru.
fu.;;;;;- -----
U 0.00- lIandeoio ___ ______-
>-
JE:~~--~~~----
0
0
c<
0
.c
llanvirn
Wh't,rock
n
00
-'"l!
0
-----
Arentg 1
Canadian
J :: . --
.., ...... 0';--- -
r 8eek~wn ;=-=---
1---....:.....
~ --4----~
~._. _ _ ~madOC ,_~ Trempealeau
Oolgelly ~ --------- ---
FrancDnian
c
Festimog (Olelus) ------- --
&~
Maentwrog
I
Croixlan f Dunde,be"uz)
(Aphe/asplS)
"E
:;) .
u
-------
Dresbach,an
c
J!~
H.
:;;
u
---- ----- ---I
Caerfai Ta,:oman _ - - L ______ _
Fig. 18. Stratigraphic units used for lower Paleozoic systems in Europe and
North America (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
16
crj
19
0
20
22
Fig. 19. Acritarches from upper Precambrian and lower Paleozoic deposits
(After Timofeyeu, 1959).
Fundamentals of Palynology 139
symmetrical, occur in the Ischorian (Middle Cambrian) beds and above.
See Fig. 20. The spheroidal types (35 to 45), no doubt are acritarchs or
O
i: ;
-.. "~ 9
~
~
Q
2 J ACANTHOMJRPH
SPHAEROMORPH
4 HERKOMORPH
5 PTEROMORPH
NETROI>DRPH
9
7 POLYGONOMORPH
'-:
63 \ ...
':
.-
;,
6 PRr3MATOMORPH
8 OOMORPH
O
~~
-~ . ~ .. -...... -~
...
10 DISPHAEROMORPH 11 PLATYMORffi DINETROI>DRPH
,::..
2 ~
':,,"
(
'r":; J
.JJj"
)( "
~~8~.
Fig. 22. Silurian and Devonian acritarchs (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fossil Plant (Angiosperm History)
Angiospenns have dominated the land flora of the earth since mid-
Cretaceous time. The angiosperm-fossil record, which consists mostly
of leaves, is the most extensive from the standpoint of numbers of
specimens of any vascular-plant group. The oldest known plants that
can reasonably be called angiospenns are Sanmiguelia, the palmlike plant
from the Late Triassic, and Furcula, from the Rhaetic. The remains
consists only of leaf impressions and a few fragmentary stem
Fundamentals of Palynology 143
casts, though some cuticle is retained in Furcula. Angiosperms did
undergo remarkable spread and diversity during Cretaceous time. 40
families appeared in the Dakota Sandstone flora of the early Late
Cretaceous. Flowering plants had evolved rapidly during the Early
Cretaceous interval. At least 80 percent of the living angiosperm
families have fossil records of sorts. A considerable number are limited
to remains in Pleistocene peat deposits, but more than half of the
extant families have Tertiary records, and a considerable member can
be traced into the Cretaceous. Leaf impressions and silicified trunks of
palms occur in a number of Upper Cretaceous localities. The list of
angiosperm families is continually expanding as investigations on cuticles
and pollen are completed and published, and as old collections are
reexamined and analyzed by modern techniques. For additional
information consult Engler (1964). Partial list of Cretaceous Angiosperm
Families is give below:
Palmae Ericaceae Meliaceae Rosaceae
Aceraceae Fagaceae Menispermaceae Salicaceae
Annonaceae Guttiferae Moraceae Sapindaceae
Araliaceae Hamamelidaceae Myricaceae Starculiaceae
Betulaceae Icacinaceae Nyrnphaeaceae Tiliaceae
Celastraceae Lauraceae Oleaceae Ulmaceae
Cercidiphyllaceae Leguminosae Plantanaceae Vitaceae
Comaceae Magnoliaceae Proteaceae
Fossil Plant Record
Fossil plants occur mostly in sedimentary rocks. Marine deposits
may contain algae and other forms of sea life, but terrestrial vegetation
is preserved in greatest abundance in sediments laid down under non-
marine conditions. Wherever coal seams occur fossil plants are likely to
be found. Volcanic activity provides ideal condItions for preservation of
plants in large numbers. Lava flows dam streams and form fresh-water
lakes that quickly become filled with erosion products of loosely
consolidated ash deposits. Man of the best known Tertiary floras were
preserved under such circumstances, e.g., Florissant in Colorado. All
parts of the plant body may be preserved as fossils, but they are usually
disconnected from each other, e.g., leaves, pollen, seeds, or stems. The
organs preserved in the greatest quantities are made up of tissues with
144 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
the greatest resistance to decay or abrasion, e.g., woody tissues, hard
nuts, seeds, cutinized parts such as spores, pollen grains, and leaves of
coriaceous texture. Plants are fossilized in several ways. The most familiar
types are impressions, which are merely imprints left in soft sediments.
In compressions or compactions the plant parts are squeezed flat between
layers of compacted sediments but under conditions that arrest
decay. In casts a cavity left by decay of a plant part is secondarily filled.
In petrifications some or all the tissue structure is retained by infiltration
with various minerals. The process of petrification is responsible for
the preservation of countless tree trunks found in many parts of
the world, ranging in age from the Devonian to the Recent. Coal
balls, carbonate, and pyritic nodular masses sometimes found in coal
seams or roof shales. Petrifications are of special value in paleobotanical
research because they supply information not revealed in other types of
fossils on the internal structure of extinct plants. Changes do take place
in the chemical composition of plants during petrification. Analyses of
petrified wood have revealed the persistence of cellulose and lignin,
though in proportions that are somewhat different from those found in
living woods.
Fossil Plant Record (In Different Eras)
Archeozoic Era has a dim plant record. The fossil record fails to
enlighten us as to when, where, or how life came into existence. Plants
capable of photosynthesis and the consequent release of free oxgen into
the air had certainly come into existence by middle Precambrian time
roughly 2.3 billion years ago. At about this time the oldest fossilized
organisms were alive. From the middle Huronian Gunflint chest Barghoom
and Tyler (1965) found minute objects that resemble colonies of blue-
green algae and filamentous objects with attached spores that seem to
represent fungi. Most of the Evidence of life during the Archeozoic is
indirect, in the form of precipitates of calcium, iron or sulfur. In the Belt
series of Montana large and distinctly formed reeflike structures show a
close resemblance to similar ones formed by blue-green algae of the
present day. In the Paleozoic Era the development ofland floras is started.
Remains of higher plants are scare in the predominantly marine rocks of
the earlier half of the Paleozoic Era. There is ample evidence of both
calcareous and noncalcareous algae in the Cambrian seas. An axis bearing
small, sinlple, leaflike appendages from the Middle Cambrian of Siberia
was named Aldenophyton antiquissimum. Externally the plant resembles
Fundamentals of Palynology 145
a herbaceous lycopod. 12 types of cutinized spores have warty exines
and triradiate tetrad scars. They resemble some of the vascular plant
spores found in Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. The Ordovician seas
supported rich algae floras that supplied ample food for the many forms
of invertebrates and primitive fishes that appeared during that time. The
algal floras of the Ordovician seas persisted into the Silurian. An enigmatic
plant that appeared in the Silurian was Prototaxites. The Middle Cambrian
Aldanophyton is a vascular plant, the oldest plants of this category come
from the Middle Silurian. In the Devonian exphasis shifts from the
predominantly marine algal floras to land floras composed of vascular
plants. The floras of the Lower and Middle Devonian were formerly
referred to as the Psilophyton flora, and that of the Upper Devonian, as
the Archaeopteris flora. The lycopods are especially well represented in
the Middle Devonian by several genera. Upper Devonian floras contain
a variety of lycopods. No objects definitely identified as seeds have been
found in the Devonian. Floras evolved rapidly during the transition from
the Devonian to the Mississippian Period, and the plants existed in the
latter period in greater variety and abundance then in the rocks of the
Devonian System. Several new lycopods appear in the Lower
Mississipian. The oldest seed plants, the pteridbsperms, are found in
rocks of the earliest Mississipian age. The Mississippian phase of the
New Albany black shale contains a rather large flora represented mostly
by small sterns and petiole fragments preserved in small phosphatic
concretions.
Plant remains are abundant in the Pennsylvanian rocks that
represented deposition in swamps where coal was formed. In some places
large quantities of plant material is preserved in coal balls, and these
have yielded valuable information on the internal anatomy of the plants
of that period. Pennsylvanian floras, early and late, are set apart from
those of other periods by an abundance of arborescent lycopods such
as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, giant-sized members of the scouring-
rush group typified by Calamities, the low growing Sphenophyllum, true
ferns and the fernlike Coenopteridales, seed ferns of the Lyginopteris
and Medullosa types, and early fore-runners of the conifer class, the
Cordaitales. Members of these groups are often preserved in profusion
in the shales that overlie coal beds. Equisetites closely resembles and
may have been virtually indistinguishable from a modem Equisetum. The
Mississipian and Pennsylvanian Periods were for a long time referred to
146 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
collectively as the Carboniferous because of the abundance of fernlike
foliage in rocks of the two periods. A number of form genera had been
created for the various kinds of fossil fernlike foliage, e.g., Pecopteris,
Sphenopteris, Neuropteris, Mariopteris, and Alethopteris. They are
distinguished from each other mainly by the form and venation
pattern of the pinnules. Probably the largest and most diversified
group of fernlike plants in the late Paleozoic floras was the
Coenopteridales. The largest of the known late Paleozoic ferns was
Psaronius, which appears in the Early Pennsylvanian and extends
into the Early Permian. Several families are recognised among the
Paleozoic pteridosperms, but the best established ones are the
Lyginopteridaceae and the Medullosaceae. The Cordaitales constituted
another group of seed-bearing plants of the late Palezoic coal-swamp
forests. The Coniferales apparently date from the Pennsylvanian Period.
Vast changes took place in the plant world during the Permian
Period. The cold climate that had spread over much of the Southern
Hemisphere began to extend its influence over the rest of the earth. The
lowered temperatures were accompanied by aridity. The swamps dried
up, and the lush vegetation that they supported disappeared. It was
replaced by newly evolved forms with smaller, thick, heavily cutinized
leaves. Only the groups that were able to modify themselves to the
adverse conditions were able to survive, e.g., Gigantopteris, Callipteris,
Tingia. The youngest Permian flora found in North America was described
by White (1929). Glossopteris flora spread throughout the Southern
Hemisphere during the latter part of the Paleozoic Era, occupying ancient
Gondwana-land, and remnants of it are found in southern Africa, India,
Australia, and South America. The Glossopteris flora characterizes the
lower of the two divisions of the Gondwana group. It has a total
thickness of 30,000 feet in India and other places in the Southern
Hemisphere. The upper Gondwana flora is quite different from that of
the lower series. No actual traces of the Glossopteris flora have been
found in North America.
The Mesozoic flora was initiated during the latter part of the
Paleozoic Era. In the earliest Triassic the scouring-rush order is
represented by Equisetites and Schizoneura. The principal lycopod is
Pleuromeia, a plant more than a metre high that resembled a dwarf Sigillaria.
Neuropteridium is the most characteristic fern genus, and a few fronds
Fundamentals of Palynology 147
1 Valanginian
Berriasian
Kilianella roubaudiana
Berriasella boisseri (approximately) Including upper and middle Purbeck beds
"Tithonian" Gravesia spp., Including lower Purbeck beds, Portland
Taramelliceras lithographicum beds, upper and middle Kim meridge Clay
:6
.,.
" 2J
Ch.ttian (upper)
Oligocene Rupelaan (mIddle)
Lattorlian
Spamaclan
Montian - Daman
Jf - - - - - - - -
SantOnian
Austm Chalk
Upper Cretaceous
ConiaCian
~----------~
Cenomanian
Woodbine Formallon
Fig. 24. Selected stratigraphic divisions of the Late Cretaceous and early
Tertiary (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
70
60
~50
t
1 40
.
~
j30
'0
0.
~ 20
"-
10 ,,
Fig. 25. Total fossil pollen and spore groups Lower Cretaceous-Pleistocene
(After Cousminer, 1961).
is.
::J 40
e
..'"
(;
r.t 30
..
"0
c:
c:
.!! 20
"0
Q.
'w
...S 10
Fig. 26. First and last appearances of Mesozoic fossil pollen and spores
(After Cousminer, 1961).
Open water
Coal,; from torest swamps Coarse/fine
Coal~~~e59raS'i Detrital Gyttl8s
Fig. 27. Inferred moor types of the Miocene niederreinische Braunkohe in their
probable lateral succession (After TeichmiilIer, 1958).
Early Miocene pollen floras have been described from Silesia and
from the Lausitz basin. Late Miocene pollen floras are known from Stare
Gliwice in Silesia and from the Konin deposits. Pollen and seed floras
from Mizerna in southern Polland represent the early Quaternary section
through Mindel and probably include the latest Pliocene. The Polish
Miocene is rich in Tertiary relict genera. See Table 5. In Fig. 28 the relative
importance of various geographic elements in the floras is plotted
according to geologic age. In Poland pollen of Gramineae and
Compositae are rare or lacking in the early Miocene but become more
common in younger beds. Megafossil evidence of arctic species does
not appear in Poland until the Mindel, or third European glaciation.
Hungarian late Miocene and early Pliocene floras have a general similarity
to floras of similar age from north-western Europe. Pollen, spore, and
plankton floras from primarily marine deposits of late Oligocene, Miocene,
and Pliocene age in Romania are summarized. Each of these floras is
distinctly more cool temperate than are floras of corresponding age from
northwestern Europe. The evidence from Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene
pollen floras of the Russia is summarized in a series of maps showing
Table-5
Percentages in the Total Pollen Count of Certain Tertiary Relict Groups in the Late Cenozoic of Poland
Early Late M,zerna II Mizerna III
Taxon M,ocene Miocene Pliocene (= Tigllan) (= Cromerian)
Pliocene
o
Fig. 29. Mississippian-Pennsylvanian spore genera (After Tschudy and
Scott, 1969).
170 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
orientation. Radial and trilete spores possessing continuous equatorial
structure are present in Mississippian and Pennsylvanian strata. Radial
and trilete spores which are roundly triangular to triangular in proximo-
distal view and which posses continuous equatorial thickening tended
to be flattened in good proximo-distal orientation, e.g., Murospora.
An ideal system of classification is one in which only morphologic
features are required to classify fossil spores and pollen. Theoretically,
according to the "International Code of Botanical Nomenclature", a single
texon may have but one valid name based on priority and other features
of the code. Richardson (1964) and Butterworth (1964b) reported their
fmdings relative to the stratigraphic distribution of genera. See Fig. 30.
Most Mississippian and Pennsylvanian spore and pollen genera are radial
.,"''"
AND Kosanke, SU'fton. Wonless, ond WoN ~9631 '" W_.(963) Wanless (1963)
I- MISSISSIPPI Willmon (1960)- Playford (19621 Read and Mamoy ~ ~_'h(I96.i.bI
>- VALLEY 11964) en Playford (1962)
V>
SERIES GROUP FORMATION FORMATION
.,
>-
STAGE STAGE
McLEANSBORO
BOND CONEMAUGH ., STEPHANIAN A
....z
MISSOURI GlHEUAN
:::>
z MODESTO IE
CARBONOAL.E
...'"
Z WESTPHALIAN 0
>
., ..J
>-
O[S MOINES KEEWANEE
SPOON
ALLEGHENY
.
0
III
a: MOSCOVIAN
....Z U
WESTPHALIAN C
Z
II>
ATOKA
McCORMICK
AB80TT
CAS(YVILLE
KANAWHA
..'"
a:
:::>
WESTPHALIAN a
.
0
III
a:
1111111 1IliHI POCAHONTAS
NAMURIAN B
NAMURIAN
ELVIRA NAMURtAN A
U
CHESTER HOMBERG
V>
:::>
NEW DESIGN 0
..
z
ii: MERAMEC
a:
...Z'" VISEAN
.;. .,.,
!!.
~
.fil
0:
u
a:
:i! OSAGE
'"3:
0
..J TOUFtNAISIAN
KINDERHOOK
'--'------
IOnlyUppcr CatbOnlf.rOt,ls pori of Nomufloft Sh'YWft (Wonlul.1963. P '5)
5 6
Fig. 31. Megaspore genera (After Wilson, 1959).
70
60
'"g .,
~
-t
~ E
!)O
Vl
c: ::J
:'!
'"
w
<:
u
<:
.,'"<: ~ "'
e
'"
(:J 40 ~
:2 v
"'"'"'"
C
.
'0
<:
~
"0.
<:
30 o
'"
l: :;
"-'" ill
20 "'u
~
~ E
e "'
:J
UJ ~ z
10
i z Z
_ MegafossIls D Mlcrufosslls
leaf and insect fossils preserved in paper shales. Except the White River
beds and certain sectors of the Bridge Creek flora, American Oligocene
plant beds are not intercalated with fossiliferous marine sediments, and
their associated vertebrate evidence has been fragmentary. The Florissant
flora is interpreted as indicative of a woody, upland flora growing under
subhumid conditions at moderate elevations. 29.7 percent of the
178 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Florissant species have living counterparts in Asia, but 57.1 percent are
still native to the region southwestern Coahuila State, Mexico.
Gymnosperms study verify the presence of Ephedra, Pinus, Picea and
Abies. The taxodiaceous pollen encountered is morphologically more
similar to that of modern Taxodium species than to Sequoia. The
Oligocene strata of American Northwest are characterized by the
abundance of conifer pollen; by herbaceous genera represented by pollen
Graminae, etc; and by a variety of fern genera belonging to the
Polypodiaceae. The plant remains, consisting of seeds, fruit, and wood,
as well as microfossils, occur in a brown coal deposited in a small Tertiary
basin on the west side of the Green Mountains of Vermont. The flora is
considered indicative of a forest swamp growing under warm temperate
or subtropical climates.
Faunal and floral evidence both indicates the development, during
the Oligocene, of two major biotic provinces, Northern and
Mediterranean, but European Oligocene palynology is still mainly that
of the Northern province. Here sweeping strand-line changes, beginning
with the great wave of flooding at the start of the Oligocene, followed
by major regressions at the close, had produced successions of marsh,
lagoonal, and coastal swamp environments. See Fig. 33. Oligocene
flooding of the North Sea earlier had encroached into this old arc of
subsidence as far as Cologne, leaving thick sediments, of various facies,
between Bonn and Wesel. Under cooling, but still warm temperate
conditions, with average annual temperatures declining from about 20
rT--'--~
54
.
\
K.J!.seler .....
.~Basm .:-
\. /
K..as'5el '., .' 0 100" n
L - - __ J
14
Fig. 33. The transgressions of the North Sea into the North German lowland
during mid-Miocene and late Oligocene time and the distribution of the
bogs (After Teichmuller, 1958).
Fundamentals of Palynology 179
degree C in early Oligocene to about 17 degree C in late Oligocene time,
and under relatively humid conditions, at least during the middle and
late Oligocene, corals, crocodiles, some palms and sapotaceous plants
were still able to thrive. For the most part, the plant associations
reconstructed from spore and pollen analysis reflect three things : (1) a
general decrease in Palmae and Sapotaceae, (2) a general increase in
conifers, and (3) a gradual increase in Betulaceae, Fagaceae,
Juglandaceae, and herbaceous general of the Gramineae, Polygonaceae,
and Chenopodiaceae. On palynological grounds no sharp floral break is
discernible between Eocene and Oligocene. For Central Ewope the floral
character of the Neogene become fIrst evident in sediments of middle
Oligocene. The spores and pollen most frequently recorded from the
German Oligocene were derived from the following things:
1. Haploxylon and Sylvestris pines
2. Schizaeaceous, gleicheniaceous, and polypodiaceous ferns
3. Nonvesiculate Conifers
4. Oaks, elms, Tilia, Carya, Engelhardtia, Alnus, Fagus
5. Symplocaceae spp., Myricaceae spp.
The source materials for the great Miocene brown-coal "Hauptflozes"
were derived from four major forests and bog associations: (1) Sequoia
forests, (2) Myricacean-Cyrillacean shrub thickets, (3) Nyssa-Taxodium
swamp forests, and (4) Reed, sedge, grass-everglades.
Pokrovskaya (1962) has pointed out that Upper Cretaceous
and Paleogene spore and pollen complexes in the European part of the
Soviet Union are very similar to coeval complexes of Germany, reflecting
a broadly developed northern flora province during mid-Tertiary
times extending beyond the Urals and well into the Siberian plain of Asia.
The palynological characterization of the Russian Oligocene, indicated
the essential similarity of German and Russian pollen floras, noting
the' preponderance of taxodiaceous and Haploxylon Pinus pollen, and
the presence of Juglans, Carya, Fagus, Salix, Alnus, Rhus, etc. Pollen
of subtropical evergreen dicotyledons and palms is scare in Russian
Oligocene sediments. Pollen of herbaceous angiosperms is
not encountered in sediments older than Miocene. The total
pollen assemblage from the Kansu site is interpreted as indicating a dry
climate supporting a steppe-type vegetation with nearby stands of
Ginkgo and Magnolia. Families represented by the herbaceous pollen
180 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
were the Gramineae, Compositae, etc. Only a few species of tree pollen
were recorded, e.g., Betula, Tamarix, Pinaceae, etc., Much of the
palynological investigation in Japan has concentrated on the Eocene and
Oligocene sediments intercalated in the commercially important coal
seams of Hokkaido and northern Honshu. Important Oligocene spores
and pollen indicate a constant warm temperate climate for northern Japan
during the Paleogene. Arboreal pollen accounts for 70 to 80 percent of
the total number of grains in the Ashibetsu Formation of late Oligocene
age.
De Porta (1961) has described Miocene-Oligocene spore and pollen
flora from Colombia, consisting of fern spores, podocarp pollen, and
angiosperm pollen from some dozen families, all with genera still native
to northern South America. Most of the Australian mid-Tertiary
proteaceous pollen has been described under the genera Banksieaeidites,
Beaupreaidites, Proteacidites, and Triorits. The stratigraphic ranges of
New Zealand plant microfossils show no striking differences between
the flora of the upper Eocene Arnold Series and that of the lower
Oligocene London series. The dominant forest species continued to be
Nothofagus matauraensis of the Brassi group. The interval is marked by
the first appearance of pollen representative of the Bombacaceae and
Restionaceae, as well as pollen of Podocarpus aff. dacrydioides Rich.
The first palynological evidence of climate cooling occurs in the upper
Oligocene in the strong dominance of both the Brassi and Fusca groups
of southern beeches.
Palynological Characterization of the Paleocene
Krutzsch (1957) summarized the palynological record of the earliest
Tertiary floras of Central Europe. He noted that "The transition into the
Tertiary takes place without any significant charge. The Normapolles are
somewhat shifted into the background of new form groups dominating
the Paleogene." A typical Paleocene assemblage of this province might
yield porate dicotyledonous pollen of suspected Juglandaceae,
Myricaceae, Myrtaceae, and Haloragaceae affInities, including such form
genera of Pflug as Extratriporopollenites, Intratriporopollenites,
Subtriporopollenites, and Stephanoporopollenites. In company with these
there may be found also palynomorphs of plants persisting from
Senonian and earlier times, together with palm pollen and, in low
percentages, pollen representing Nyssaceae, Sapotaceae, Aquifoliaceae,
etc., whose frequencies increase through the Eocene and Oligocene. The
Fundamentals of Palynology 181
absence or low incidence and winged conifer pollen seems to be a
characteristic feature of Central European pollen floras of Paleocene time.
Sequoia forests were thought to cover the highlands surrounding the
marshy zone. See Fig. 34. These studies bring to light the prevalence
Transgression Regression
--....,.~ ~
Ii:.
5
-:-:.-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:"':...- --
4 ~----
Fig. 35. Paleocene pollen floras (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology 183
in austral regions until upper Miocene times. In New Zealand pollen floras
of both the Teurian stage of the Mata series and the Dannevirka series
remain dominated by long-ranging podocarpaceous species. The low
frequency of Triorites harris ii, together with the restricted occurrence of
Nothofagus waipawaensis, serve to identify the New Zealand Danian.
The Australian-New Zealand Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary flora is the
rare occurrence of pollen suggestive of Anacolosa of the pantropical
family Olacaceae. Cookson and Pike (1954) pointed out that the presence
of Anacolsa in the Indian-Malayan flora and its absence from the modem
Australian flora provides another example of a migration toward the
equator of plants that had a more extensive southern distribution during
the Tertiary Period. Present knowledge of the classification and the
paleoecological and stratigraphic usefulness of Latin American spores
and pollen rests mainly on published papers. The Colombian Paleocene
spore-pollen floras show marked quantitative changes among certain palm
pollen from the base to the top of all sections studied. No gymnosperm
pollen is recorded, and the abundance ofPsilatriletes fern spores is much
less. Proxapertites operculatus has its greatest representation in the
Paleocene. Angiosperms constitute the entire Paleocene vegetation, and
the flora shows a definite trend toward the existing South American
aspect. The genera of recent palms are relatively wide ranging and more
resistant to temperature declines. Pollen assemblages made possible a
Paleocene age determination.
Kuprianova (1960) noted the occurrence of pollen of Cedrus, Myrica,
Ilex, Nyssa, Liquidambar, Castanea, Platycarya, the Rhamnaceae,
Mystaceae, and Cunoniaceae from Kazakhstan in Central Asia. The
angiosperm pollen is stated to have been derived from sclerophyllous
forms. The Paleocene assemblage indicated a warm temperate or
subtropical climate. The Kazakhstan record of Liquidambar is regarded
as the earliest find of sweet-gum pollen. Kuprianova concluded that this
genus and its Paleogene cohorts covered the coasts and islands of the
Tethys. A record of Platycarya (Juglandaceae) in Paleocene sediments is
interesting. The existing genus is monotypic and restricted to the
temperate Orient. The worldwide Eocene fossil record gives clear evidence
of the modem and largely tropical to subtropical aspect of the early
Tertiary vegetation. Tertiary floras give the evidence of a widespread
tropical zone ranging between 45 degree to 50 degree north and south,
with mild, continuously moist, temperate climates reaching into the polar
184 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
regions. See Fig. 36. Climates remained broadly zoned throughout most
of the Paleogene but began to modify into diverse types attending the
cooling and drying of the Neogene.
+ Cor.1 mIl
, Par,."
....
T~._ 10 ~ 1""'JII'r.W forftH
- CII""'f Il'llluencmQ mullf'lt.un
- ' " Warm ou.n turrenl
'''"ge
G,",_ ."... CD4d 0.: . . " ("'rent
Fig. 36. Climate and climate belts in the older Tertiary (Paleocene,
Eocene, Oligocene).
Palynology Correlation
Correlation is the process of determining that geological events in
two or more areas are contemporaneous. In palynology it implies the
establishment of qualitative and quantitative similarity between the plant-
microfossil assemblages derived from two or more segments of rock
strata. A comparison with published material from other regions may yield
information of value but should not be expected to provide information
that is as reliable as that derived from nearby control samples. Two steps
are involved in the collection of data : (1) preliminary examination of the
prepared material followed by a qualitative listing of the pollen and spore
flora, and (2) a quantitative determination of the dominant palynomorphs
present. The first examination of the prepared slides should provide
information on the reliability of the sample. If the sample is reliable, the
most useful information normally gained by a qualitative examination is
a record of the total composition of the flora. The vertical range of species
is especially significant and useful. Accessory information may be
Fundamentals of Palynology 185
obtained relative to such subjects as floral origin, evolution, and the
nature of the facies and the climate at the time of deposition. During the
examination of any sample morphologic variations within species should
be noted. When the qualitative examination of a particular sample has
been completed the data are compiled as a list of genera or a list of
species. Quantitative counts have proved to be extremely useful,
particularly in local correlation problems. Such counts provide estimates
of the dominant species or forms present. The dominant forms may differ
with climatic or edaphic changes, even though no evolutionary changes
can be recognized. All stratigraphic presentations today involve
quantitative data. A sample yielding only a few species will require a
smaller count than one that yields many species. The double-count
method provides an estimate of the overall palynomorph representation.
A procedure that is often employed in making a relatively complete
qualitative, as well as quantitative, estimation is to make the quantitative
count fIrst (200 to 500 specimens), then to scan the remainder of the slide
or slides for species not included in the quantitative tally. Any additional
species would contribute to a knowledge of the complete assemblage,
and to the known vertical ranges of the scarce species, but would not
be included in the percentage figures.
Information derived from the microscopic examination of samples
should be made easily understandable to others. This presentation is in
the form of tables or graphs. A correlation diagram that incorporate
relative frequencies, absolute frequencies, maxima, minima, increases and
decreases in abundance, and ranges of groups of palynomorphs is
presented by Jekhowsky and Varma (1959). This procedure makes
maximum use of the data collected and presents it in a concise form. After
data have been assembled it is necessary to interpret these data. A
detailed exposition of a statistical method of determining correlation
between paleontologic sections, using primarily the upper and lower
extremes of the ranges of taxa recovered, has been presented 'by Shaw
in "Time in Stratigraphy" (1964). Basically the method derives on
expression of time-equivalence on a two-axis graph. One axis represents
the standard section and the other the section being compared. Another
criterion for measuring floral similarities is that employed by Couper
(1958). A percentage figure is obtained that is based on the number of
localities from a given rock unit in which a species is presented. The
relative abundance of the species at the localities is unimportant. Another
186 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
statistical method of measuring faunal or floral resemblance, based on
numbers of taxa and abundance of taxa, was suggested by Simpson
(1960). He provides 13 formulas for obtaining indices of faunal
resemblance. Correlation problems may arise from several causes. The
most serious correlation problems arise from the failure to consider
adequately the rocks in relation to the samples or to recognize either
diastems or unconformities or faunal and lithologic breaks. Rock units
are mappable lithic entities. The time required for their deposition at a
specific locality may be short and may encompass only one or a few
biozones or it may be relatively long and encompass several biozones.
Some formation or parts thereof may be barren of palynomorphs, and
consequently the number of recognizable zones within a given formation
cannot be estimated a priori.
Palynological age determinations must depend for verification on
dating methods other than the use of pollen and spores. If a palynomorph
assemblage is obtainable from rocks that are well dated by vertebrate or
other well-established fossils, then these other fossils serve to date the
plant-microfossil assemblage. Later this palynomorph assemblage can
serve as a basis for other palynologic dating. In the absence of well-
dated comparative material certain bed or stratigraphic interval can be
dated with some measure of precision if the overlaying and underlying
strata are well dated. A palynologic assemblage from such a rock unit
can thereby be dated even though no exact stratum of equivalent data is
available for comparison. Close similarity of fossil content, other things
being equal, indicates age identity. A type or control section is often
required in palynological work. If we are analysing a formation or
stratigraphic section of a known age or are trying to correlate samples
from several wells, it may be necessary to know not only the floral
changes that take place within the interval of interest but also any
changes that may occur above and bel~w the interval. The sampling
interval is controlled by the problem to be solved. If we are trying
to establish the floral changes that took place at or near a known
time or rock boundary, a few samples on either side of the known
boundary usually are sufficient. On the other hand, if we are examining a
well section embracing 10,000 feet of Eocene sediments in an attempt
to establish correlation zones within such section, the number of samples
may be in the hundreds. Outerop samples should be taken from
each recognizable. rock unit that might produce palynomorphs. Cores
Fundamentals of Palynology 187
provide the best samples for establishing a control section. If a well has
been completely cored, we may then choose the most promising
lithotypes for examination. Well cuttings can be used, but ranges of
species are commonly unreliable because of mixing of cuttings.
Palynological zones can be no closer than the sampling interval. The
number of recognizable zones depends on the history of the vegetation
within and surrounding a basin and on the rate of sedimentation. The
number will be different in different regions. Assemblages or groups of
fossils are always more reliable indicators of zones or of time than are
individual index fossils. Climate changes that affect a significant segment
of the total plant flora are more likely to produce recognizable and
widespread time zones than are other factors that may affect only one
element of a flora. The known stratigraphic distribution of some groups
of palynomorphs is shown in Fig. 37. Fig. 38 is the generalized chart
showing the stratigraphic distribution of some plant groups and genera
in post-Triassic strata. During Early Cretaceous and pre-Cretaceous time
world floras were more uniform than at the present time. Floral
provincialism makes necessary, particularly in the younger part of the
stratigraphic column, the establishment of control sections for each
province or basin concerned.
Palynology may be applied to all problems amenable to solution by
the use of fossils, assuming that palynomorphs can be obtained from
the rocks in question. Pollen and spores are deposited at the same time
in contiguous or even separate continental and marine beds may permit
time lines to be drawn across boundaries between marine and continental
facies. Few other fossils can be utilized in this manner. Pollen and spores
carried by wind and water can be simultaneously deposited in continental
swamp or deltaic sites and in both brackish and wholly marine
depositional basins, thus providing time markers across extremely varied
depositional facies. The diachronous nature of a channel sand and its
matrix can be recognized in many places by the fact that the plant fossils
present in the sand are younger than those in the adjacent rock. This
recognition is particularly useful in subsurface investigations in which
the channels are not visible as such and can be recognised only by their
dissimilar fossils content. Many disconformities can be distinguished
from diastems by the pollen assemblages above and below the zone of
interrupted deposition. Coal and associated strata may contain types of
fossils other than pollen and spores. Therefore correlation of coal seams
devolves almost entirely on the results obtained from the examination of
188 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Period
u Quaternary
2o 1- I- ----+-+--+--+-j
a Tertl8ry
Cretaceous
TriaSSIC
PrnnsyfvaOlan
I
I
I
.'
f----------------,H'-+-I---t--- r+- -.-t---t-..- ---'--1--
---~---r
I
I
MISSISSIppian
OrdOVICIQn
J-HH'-If- r----- ----
I
- - - --- -- - ------ --- f-- f-- -- 1-----
-r-:---[--
C.!mbnan
---I----
Precambnan
L - - - - -______________ ___ __ __ L - -__ __
I
-
L
~
~
~
~
Fig, 37, Stratigraphic distributions of some palynomorph groups,
Fundamentals of Palynology 189
r--~---"---'---,"--r--'-
Period
E
J
~ Recent
Pfeistoc:ene
I
Pliocene
u
5
a
c MIocene
a I
~
Oligocene
!
Eocene
Paleocene
I
r- --r-t-II-++-+---+--
I
CretaatOus
JurassIc
TriassIC
il
' - - - l ._ _ _ _ _ _ _..L..L--1..__.....L._--'-_.l.--.JL__ ' - -__ L__ L.. ___ - - ' - _ - ' - - - '
Fig. 38. Stratigraphic ranges of some post-Triassic pollen and spores in North
America (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
190 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
the spores and pollen that they contain. In exploratory wells the
successive strata often can be dated palynologic ally and thereby can
provide information about the depositional history of the basin. After a
control well has been examined correlative horizons can be established
on the basis of similarities in pollen-and-spores assemblages. This
information, integrated with other data, provides knowledge to guide
further drilling. Correlation diagrams involving several wells may indicate
the direction in which to look for stratigraphic traps or other types of oil
reservoirs.
Palynomorphs (Depositions)
The factors that influence the deposition of inorganic particles also
influence the deposition of palynomorphs. These factors include particle
size, shape, density, coagulability, and the physical conditions at the site
of deposition. Some of the physical conditions of at the site of deposition.
Some of the physical conditions of significance are density of water,
turbulence, salinity, and bottom topography. A set of curves prepared
by Hjulstrom (1955) shows the interrelationships of particle size and water
velocity to erosion, transportation, and deposition. See Fig. 39. Deposits
that have been winnowed may have no pollen in the sand fraction, but a
significant increased pollen concentration may occur in the fraction that
has been removed and deposited in quite water. At the deposition site a
complex of physical, chemical and biological factors influences the
characteristics of the sediment. Terrestrial non-aquaous deposits are
.0
>
g
j
1
< 05
03
02
Fig. 39. Approximate curves for erosion and deposition of uniform material
(After Hjulstrom, 1955).
Fundamentals of Palynology 191
mostly either from arid regions or from glaciers. They also include those
transported by gravity as talus and those developed in situ. Aquatic
depositional sites are continental, transitional, and marine. Continental
deposits include fluvial, lacustrine, and paludal. Lacustrine and paludal
environments provide reducing conditions under which pollen and
spores may be very well preserved. Transitional sites include deltaic,
lagooned, and littoral. The deltaic and lagoonal sites are more likely to
yield palynomorphs than are the littoral sites. Normal marine
environments includes the neritic, the bathyal, and the abyssal. The
neritic zone, particularly off deltas, may yield excellent palynomorph
assemblages (Woods, 1955). Bathyal and abyssal sediments are likely to
be impoverished in organic content from land-based plants but to be
enriched in oceanic organic material.
Pollen grains and spores are rarely so abundant that they make up
most of the volume of an organic deposit. Some rocks, however, may
yield an exceedingly sparse pollen and spore flora. The concentration of
pollen decreases rapidly as distance from shore increases. In some areas
the absolute fossil pollen and spore concentration per unit of sediment
may provide an estimate as to whether the sediment was accumulated
off shore or near shore. The shape of a palynomorph influences the
orientation of it in the sedimentary matrix. In general palynomorphs come
to rest with their greatest diameter parallel to the bedding plane. Nearly
all fossil grains of the genera Carya and Cirratriradites are flattened at
right angles to the line running through their proximal and distal poles.
Nearly all prolate pollen grains present an equatorial view, and most oblate
grains preset a polar view. The first noticeable effect of the weight of
overburden on palynomorphs is corripression, or flattening. In ancient
sediments a nomeversible flattening is evident. Pollen and spores are
compressed with the same attitude as that in which they came to rest,
and their shapes are the determining factors in their preferred orientation.
Pollen and spores embedded in clays are flattened to a maximum degree.
If the matrix has not been compacted, the palynomorphs, where preserved,
will retain their original shape. This preservation of shape is independent
of whether deposition is in a clay, silt, sand, or an organic matrix (bog).
Some evidence of distortion of fossils by pressure from sand grains during
compaction has been observed. Perhaps one reason for the good
preservation of palynomorphs is compression, or flattening. In ancient
sediments a nomeversible flattening is evident. Pollen and spores are
192 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
compressed with the same attitude as that in which they come to rest,
and their shapes are the determining factors in their preferred orientation.
Pollen and spores embedded in clays are flattened to a maximum degree.
If the matrix has not been compacted, the palynomorphs, where preserved,
will retain their original shape. This preservation of shape is independent
of whether deposition is in a clay, silt, sand, or an organic matrix (bog).
Some evidence of distortion of fossils by pressure from sand grains during
compaction has been observed. Perhaps one reason for the good
preservation of palynomorphs in some shales and coals is that these
matrices provide a protection cushion during compaction, thus permitting
only a minimum of distortion aside from flattening.
Palynomorphs (Diagenesis)
Before or during early diagenesis the least resistant parts of
palynomorphs are destroyed, probably by bacterial action. The cell
protoplasm disappears. The inner layer of the pollen grain coat, the intine,
normally does not persist. Usually the perisporiurn, particularly the thin
walled perisporia of such monolete genera as Asplenium, is readily
destroyed and therefore does not appear in the fossilized state. Coals
are characterized by a high content of lignin and hurnic acids. These
substances are the relatively resistant residues left after partial selective
bacterial and fungal decomposition of the original vegetable matter. The
resistant, original spore and pollen coats are preserved, typically as
compression fossils. During late diagenesis changes in the matrix and in
the organic fraction continue at a retarded rate as additional sediment
accumulates. Interstitial water is gradually squeezed out. After expulsion
of most of the interstitial water by compaction, diagenesis probably
ceases. The oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) of sediments is intimately
related to and perhaps more important than hydrogen-ion concentration
(pH) for the preservation of palynomorphs in sediments. See Fig. 40. This
figure shows that normal marine waters are oxidizing and that only in an
euxinic marine environment is the Eh low enough to provide a reducing
environment. Confined waters, particularly in the presence of organic
matter, rapidly lose their oxygen content. Hydrolysis of silicates causes
this environment to become alkaline as well as reducing. Biochemical
reactions initiated by micro-organisms rapidly remove oxygen and at the
same time produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, resulting in a
lowering of pH. Some anaerobic bacteria release hydrogen, which causes
strongly negative Eh potential to be developed, and as a result strongly
reducing conditions are created.
Fundamentals of Palynology 193
+ 1 0 r---,-----...r--,---r----r----,.--,
+0 B
+ 0.6 -
+04
+0.2
Eh
00
- 0.2
-04
0.6 -
0.8
. 1 0 ___ ~_-!:_.-.....-,:_-..L---L...-.....J
o 2 4 14
pH
Fig. 41. Crystal imprints on polynomorphs (XI 000) : (a) from the Permian of
Texas; (b) from the Mississippian of Montana (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology 195
Leaching of rocks by ground water may, particularly in porous rocks,
carry sufficient oxygen through the rocks to oxidize or destroy any
organic matter that is present. Leaching is commonly in evidence in
sandstone that immediately underlies a coaly layer. These sandstones
standout in outcrops as white ledges. This kind of white leached interval
may sometimes be used to locate coaly horizons that are hidden by talus
or otherwise covered. Redeposition of Devonian spores in Cretaceous
rocks is not at all serious. These redeposited spores show much greater
evidence of corrosion and destruction than spores from the younger
deposits. Spores and pollen grains preserved in a rock, on the
disintegration and erosion of that rock, are again subjected to the effects
not only of atmosphere oxygen but of aerobic bacteria. These fossils
may be more susceptible to attack by organisms and by oxygen than are
freshly shed pollen and spores.
Palynomorphs (Sources)
The principal pollen-producing and spore-producing plants are
those of land origin. These plants include angiospermous and
gymnospermous trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns and fern allies, and, to a lesser
degree, mosses and fungi. In addition to these, flagellates, algae, and
fragments of animals and plants living in the water of the depositional
basin may and often do contribute palynomorphs to the organic fraction
of the sedimentary complex. These fossils are extremely useful additions
to the spore-pollen complex. Fossils are used in making age
determinations and also in the interpretation of ecology at the deposition
site. The disseminules of plants from the various original growth sites
were carried to the place of deposition almost entirely by wind or by
water. The principal processes normally involved in the formation of
sedimentary rocks are erosion, transportation, deposition, diagenesis, and
consolidation of particles or aggregates. Detrital sediments are those solid
particles or aggregates that and in suspension or they have finally come
to rest. Included organic particles are a part of the sediment. The product
of mechanical or chemical breakdown of sediments may consists of both
altered and unaltered rock particles, plus an incorporated organic fraction,
bacteria, fungi, and microscopic anirnallife. To this organic fraction is
added the fallout of pollen and spores from the atmosphere. Within a
depositional area other types of sediment may originate, e.g., important
deposits are carbonates, sulfates, and chloride. Significant volumes of
such sediments have accumulated during various stages of geological
196 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
time. Sediments, including the organic residues, are moved from source
areas by wind and water. Other minor agencies are ice, volcanic
explosions, or birds. Most sediments are fmally deposited under water.
Exceptions include deposits such as loess and dune sand. Once the
sediments arrive in the sea or other aqueous deposition sites, many of
the particles may be transported long distances before finally coming to
rest. Wave action, bottom currents, turbulence, or mass movement of
water may act to keep some of the fme particles, which include most
pollen and spores, in suspension for a long time. During this phase of
transport particularly, winnowing, or separation, of the fme and light
particles occurs. The average size of particles that are transported
decreases with increasing distance. The organic fraction is commonly
separated from the coarser detritus and deposited with the fme-grained
clastics.
Plants~wing within a basin or an area of deposition may drop
their pollen or spores in situ. The pollen will then commonly be moved
about only by such currents as may be active within the area. Plants
growing in, and forming the vegetation of, a peat bog contribute relatively
enormous amounts of pollen and spores to the sediments that may
eventually be transformed into coal. Wind or water may also carry in
pollen and spores from source areas outside the bog. During the time
that palynormorphs are being transported they may be subjected to
various agencies whose effects may ch .. nge their distribution,
concentration, and state of preservation. The original distribution and
concentration of palynormorphs in a sediment may be altered by sorting,
flotation, stirring, mixing, and resettling. This alteration may result in
qualitative or quantitative change in the recovered pollen and spore
assemblage. The slate of preservation may be adversely affected by
abrasion, chemical action, or the activity of animals. The state of the
specimens may range from only slightly altered to corroded and abraded.
Differential destruction of less resistant forms could radically alter the
composition of the assemblage. Abrasion of pollen grains is usually
minimal. Chemical action including biochemical degradation is the most
destructive agent in the degradation of pollen and spores during transport.
Oxidation, or biological attack, commonly corrodes surfaces or entirely
destroys structure. The acid insoluble fraction of the organic content of
phytoplankton and zooplankton is about 5 percent, whereas the acid-
insoluble organic content of marine sediments is more than 30 percent.
Even the acid-insoluble fraction may be totally destroyed if subjected
Fundamentals of Palynology 197
for a long enough time to the effects of aerobic bacteria and fungi or to
atmospheric oxygen.
Permian Palynofloras (Areal Distribution)
From the total of palynologic evidence it is valid to accept the
existence of the two distinct Permian geographic areas of Laurasia and
Gondwanaland, whether or not we accept continental drift. The
palynologic separation of the two landmasses is one of the most striking
features in studying any distribution map of Permian miospores at the
global level. In all the major taxa there is an almost complete separation
of the two landmasses, and it is clear that India belongs to the
Gondwanian landmass. A more logical analysis is to plot world-distribution
maps of all the Permian miospores and define palynofloristic palaeobotanic
provinces with a purely empirical technique, i.e., without reference at all
to class;fjcally defined provinces. This can act as a check on the validity
of both the palynofloristic and classical palaeobotanic methods as
palaeobiogeographic tools. Distribution maps were constructed for all
of the Permian miospores. See Fig. 42, 43, 44, and 45. Few species occur
beyond the limits of particular palaeobotanic provinces. The Saccites
show the greatest member of species that transgress their normal endemic
areas and becomes exotics in a foreign province. The main mixing is on
the fringes of 6rovinces. The Cathaysian palaeobotanic province is the
most interestnig palynofloristically. It is characterized by an abundance
of typically Carboniferous genera. The Cathaysian province was a refugee
(relict flora) area during the Lower and Middle Permian Period, where the
carboniferous flora temporarily survived into the Permian Period, due to
some unknown palaeobiogeographic factor.
Permian Palynofloras (Temporal Distribution)
The generalized stratigraphic distribution of each miospore species
for each continent has been plotted on range charts and analyzed in terms
of the classical Permian geographic areas of Gondwanaland and Laurasia
(Hart, 1965). Each of these palaeogeographic areas shows distinct
palynologic characteristics that allow them to be separated. A better
understanding of Laurasian Permian palynofloras can be derived by
considering each of the Laurasian palaeobotanic provinces ofEurameria,
Angara, and Cathaysia separately. Typical Gondwanian Palynofloras have
been described by many authors. Essentially the complex is characterized
by the presence of Protohaploxypins, Cordaitina, Striatopodocarpites,
198 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
\
\
~ " r
"
~ 0
,I
'
","
"
t' P
\'.
.'\
' ~ -,.,,:,:!;
,\I
I)
~0
~. =1=1
=1
,~
=,
-;,~*:~
~i
~.
M~
B
Q b
"
~
.~.
~ =0
=" =.
"
M@)
.. -.1.-.
,',-(
c~ :~I
=(iJ
r ..",
l. }-'
;~
I
=0
=~
?\"\
: ,;..-)
~,
Y1'
,:!~
=.
;G
=@:-
:
;~,
e(?3
~)
1ft
.,.,....
:
'--:'!I
~.
:
'~\
~
\........
"\
~
'
.-.' \.:...;......
,,~
Fig, 46. Major miospore characterstics of the Permian florizones from the
Great Karroo basin, South AfriC!l (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
length and position on the central body of the sacci roots. In the
Monosaccites the degree of saccus development is expressed by a
proximal, distal, or proximal and distal attachment of the saccus to the
central body and by the general symmetry of the saccus. The disaccate
Striatiti, in which the thickened proximal cap is sculptured by longitudinal
ribs and striae, are typical and usually abundant in the Permian complexes,
and in terms of its microspore components the Permian Period may be
characterized as the Striatiti complex. Although the saccate miospores
are usually the most important pollenite forms, they do not form the total
complex. Finally, in the Pollenites part of the Permian complex are
miospores belonging to the Aletes. The other major anteturma of
204 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
10
13
Precambrian Microfossils
The phyletic-progression chart represents a schematic interpretation
of the historical relationships in organic evolution. See Fig. 51. Some of
the major distinctions with the organic world are suggested by this figure.
Later results from organic geochemistry may at least serve to defme the
stages based on derivatives of a few metabolic products. Probably
206 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
70
220
PaleoZOIC
570
Sinian
1200
Early
ProteroZOIc
1900
Archean
2700
Catarchean
Protool,ll1etary
staQe of :he
edrth's
de.... elopment
7000
10"
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 53. Kakabekia umbellata Barghoom (After Barghoom and Tyler, 1965).
210 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
(a) ( b)
O
;~
.' .
r~'
..... "(-
(c) (d)
5"
~I .~.
(e)
Fig. 54. Huroniospora and Eoastrion (After Barghoom and lYler, 1965).
upper Precambrian rocks at Bitter Springs, Australia. They have small
septate filaments, and large septate filaments, including 14 species
as members of the Oscillatoriaceae and Chroococcaceae. A modem type
of filamentous algal assemblage had appeared 800 to 1000 million years
ago.
The spore-like, or cystose, structures represent fossils that indicate
the existence of abundant plant life in the Precambrian. Membranous
forms are more common than thick-walled forms. Many of the fossils
are small and lack very definitive features. Most distinctions are based
on differences of surface ornamentation and texture. Precambrian
microfossils assemblages have been reported by Pflug (1966) from
the Belt Series in Montana. Many fossils consists of tiny, short,
multicellular filaments. Many of the cells appear to contain a darkened
residue, possibly consisting of altered protoplasmic material. Isotopic
determinations from related beds within the Belt Series suggest an
Fundamentals of Palynology 211
}\ '1~1 J,'
~
~J
rl
~ I \ 11
~ ~. ~~
l
lo/ r
~
~
)
I:
CJ
~ .'.
~
. ,
0)
\\'\. ,.'\
,..
~.l
"
' ,
It
(e)
lOu
'-
j' . o"'.:-C
0,'.-/
, 'b \:
(M) (h) (i)
(q)
20p
1-.-- - - - - .- ~
Inht'..., -.per....., _
Ho_
,., ,.,
A_8ft JuI... I"CI
., "
A~. an .."", '"C)
, CoIOIr W..,....
}
" _. . _ l f F I
--'-'*'-prwtet\t
-1151-~~ Cvtd.r WIII',",
)
,
..
~ll!'fI1pr'''lu..,'CI
,. I
(~
WU.m
.-
--
.~
I
I eo--
a- ,,-
,
-........ T-Pne....ifn
\
\
--- ,
r---
\
Fig. 57. Summary of inferred climate changes ofthe Quaternary and late
Pliocene (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Polar axis
Equatorial axis
Proximal view
SpOre
Radial
Proximal pol. ,.--, ~
Proximal
surface
Contact
are. ~nterradlal
Trilete
Equatorial axis spore
Distal
surface Laesura
Proximal polar View
Distal pole
~I~ SUICU'~
~-~ Monosulcate
pollen
Polar Ixis
T ricolporate
pollen
Polar View
Equatorial view
Bl5accate
pollen
Q ~.0
Monosulcate
(9
Svnco1pate Oleotpate
(d @]
Tncolpate
PV Tncolpate
EV
~V "~
I,
"
:'
I!
Ste~anocolpora.e
(]) Perlporate
000 Dlporate Trlporate Stephanoporate
PV
,C
-~'"
'--"
. rro
, . - ,
~::.-- --,/
m
;-~>..'
.' ~. ,r
I, ' ..
"
.f ' _': ::
Category Suffix
21. Subclassis
l-phYdda. = alga.
-mycetidae fungi
=
-idae = cormophytes
I-PhYC... =alga.
22. Classis -mycetes = fungi
opsida = cormophytes
(Cont.)
230 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Category SuffIX
{-myCOtina ~ fungi
23. Subdivisio -phytina = algae and
cormophytes
{ -myeota ~ fungi
24. Divisio (Phylwn) -phyta = algae and
cormophytes
25. Subregnum
26. Regnum vegetabile
Fundamentals of Palynology 231
Triassic Spores and Pollen
Plants growing in or close to an environment in which deposition is
occurring will have a greater probability of representation than those in
more remote habitats. Large pants with robust leaves and stems will be
favoured over smaller and more perishable ones. The preservation of
fossils spores involves a different series of events and thus of factors
governing the "bias" of representation. The recognition of what parent
plants are represented by successive fossil-spore assemblages is
obviously of first importance in understanding their ecological and
evolutionary meaning. In the Quaternary, and to a lesser extent in the
Tertiary, similarity of fossil spores with living genera is significant enough
that many can be assigned at least to living genera with some degree of
confidence. The only reliable basis for attempting to interpret the earlier
spore assemblages in terms of the parent flora is a study of spores in
situ in more or less contemporaneous fossil plants. Few spore-bearing
lycopod fructifications are known from the Triassic. The spores are
probably giving a fuller picture of the diversity of the group than the
sparse macrofossil record. Some of the genera of spores and pollen that
occur in Triassic rocks have been selected either because of their common
occurrence in the Triassic or because of their particular stratigraphic or
biological significance. The ranges of these genera are shown in Fig. 62.
The approximate equivalence of the stratigraphic units from different parts
of the world is shown in Fig. 63. The stratigraphic equivalence of any
unit is normally that proposed or favoured by the author of the relevant
palynological work. A considerable number of smooth, triradiate
miospores have been reported from the Triassic. Triassic triradiate,
smooth miospores of subtriangular amb, with concave to slightly convex
interradial margins may be properly included in Deltoidospora. Numerous
sculptured, triradiate, azonate spores occur in the Triassic, although
generally they are less abundant ):han in the Carboniferous and Jurassic.
A genus of triradiate, sculptured spores that appears to have a more
limited range is Conbaculatisporites. This includes spores of sub triangular
amb with baculate ornament and is a characteristics Triassic form. Similar
genera of longer range include Baculatispoties with a circular amb which
has fewer and relatively larger sculptural elements. See Fig. 64.
Kraeuselipporites is a common and characteristic genus for triradiate
miospores with a rounded-triangular amb, a broad zona, and a coarse
232 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
VUMACOJuponlt!J
AlIIporltu
Cymdopllts
Lrudaponlts
lJuosporlrt!$
S'r'tUrlt$
y"rtisporltn
Grwlacawpoiknj,eJ:.
Lultdbltldupof'tl
AIlIlIlIupora
Poly"u.lllt1 tlspomtJ
COIINCllk,uporiUJ
lJuplexlspontes
Ze/muponta
1----1--.--1-4- H.lio"""" ..
1----1--- -I-- I--'R'::.="::IskA=_=-,,-..---l
EucommiJ(/lft$
-- COn"d"po"t"
- I-f-
Rlwwtipollu
Fig. 62. Stratigraphic ranges of selected Triassic genera (After Tschudy and
Scott, \969).
'"'"
C'I
AlpIne
FIICIIU I
I Gel/tid'"''
Fd(..e\
US~a USA tdn"Uot
Ellesmere
Island At~U"'
w...,,"
Austr.lI.
South and
East Australl.
Tas",.,1I1 AntatctlCol I ~\IIICI'
T T
I
leigh Buean
I
I'I
5 8, 17 Creek Group
I _
t
124, 25 31 Cool lin ""II
Ij
Rhaetian'
("RhiletlC
Syst.m"}
Up,*"
Keuper"
Df 50,.,. Chinle
Mlalurn
1-
_I
,...
- TImber
'~
I
9, 40, 52
,,
~
;::.
c
' R~':':OS ISilo
Group 'C
5 NUfhl1l Formation
f-o,...:...
z
~
Keuper 1.11
_~ ___ -7-~
G,plkeupet
Bllndamba'
Group /\1 11)0\
:> !Middl. ..c1.O
f--
Keuper
uf lome
11,/
/Mooroo....
.........
- 0\
authorsl I . o "
V" FortNIttOn tnt::
!i 26 \ ;4.~; ,3:5 \
'3
oc: 0
<)
5nl I
C.nfl,,,n
\ 'in rJ)
, ! I
\
\ :~ 11
1--+---. - - - - - - -----<
i-I
~ ~ '2 / / V/"
H
! 'i'l L.d1l111O !a-.fi
~~ l ,~~
/
~
~
~
i c I
MuSCNlkllk :...---~ 1----- V
I
/
/Tlngllpl
IFurmlt'on
HawkesburV
13
Form.tlon
41
upper
Sak.mena
formilion
'" ...
tl~
'0<
~'-'
~ Amslan rood I Forrnltlon
"0- .:i Formation 1-- ....
.... /
II)
~
21 ~,I,-
WoU., .... ..... ~
1-----1-
~
--/--
<'-/--
Sandltonel-- 1 - -
18 ~
1.0
I ~I
Ole".k
~ ."
~g ~f
Bunter
15. 45. 46.
41,57
Grlyllng
FOf'r"IUon
21
B,o,,,.
Formation
36
Kocka.".
Shale
I
Nan,beln
Group
'9
ROil
FortNItlon
41
Middle
Slk.menl
Formltlon
,~
~
-''::1 ~~
~ Ind
~
6. 2B. 33, 49. 3.4. 29. 10. 14 14 16, 22, 23
50, 53, 54, 58 34, 35, 56
234 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Introduction
Diversity is the rule of the nature. There exista wide array of species
of micro-organisms, plants and animals which differ with each other in
structure, function and behaviour and which have' occupied almost all
ecological niches existing on the planet earth (viz., in its annosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithospere). Out of this preponderant diversity ofliving
beings have emerged two overriding themes or concepts which give unity
to the sciences of life and throw light upon them all. Out of these two
unifying concepts or principles of modem biology, one is the concept of
organization. This tells us that at every level, from the molecule through
the supra-molecular organelle, the cell, the tissue, the organism, the
individual, and upto the population or the society, the properties of life
depend only to a small degree upon the substances of which living matter
is composed. To a much greater degree living things owe their nature to
the way in which the components are organized into orderly patterns,
which are far more permanent than the substances themselves. The other
unifying concept of modem biology is that of the continuity of life
through heredity and evolution. This tells us that organisms resemble
each other because they have received some common ancestor hereditary
elements, chiefly the chromosomes of their nuclei, which are alike both
in respect to the substances which they contain and the way in which
these substances are organized. When related kinds of organisms differ
from each other, this means that in the separate lines of descent from
their common ancestor changes in the hereditary elements have taken
place, and these changes have become established in whole populations.
Fundamentals of Evolution
Evolution is the development of organisms through time. The term
evolution (Latin, evolution - an unfolding or unrolling) means a gradual
orderly change from one condition to another. There are ample geological
evidences which suggest that the planets and stars, the earth's
topography, the chemical compounds of the universe, and even the
chemical elements and their subatomic particles, have undergone gradual,
242 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
orderly changes during the long history of the universe. This kind of
evolution which includes evolution from atoms molecules to simple and
then complex substances, and from these to still more complex ones
capable of self-duplication, has been termed as inorganic or chemical or
molecular evolution. The most significant outcomes of chemical evolution
are the origin of biologically important macromolecules (viz., proteins and
nucleic acids-DNA and RNA), origin of life and an environment to sustain
life on the planent earth. Further, it is biologically evident that all the
various prokarytes and eukaryotes (viz., viruses, bacteria, plants and
animals) existing on the earth at the present time have descended from
other, usually simpler organisms by gradual modification s which have
accumulated in successive generations. This kind of evolution is started
from the culmination point of chemical evolution into the origin of life,
and still is in process and is called biological or organic evolution. Thus,
the concept of organic evolution holds that all the varied kinds of
animals and plants which now known have developed out of earlier
types by completely natural changes during the passage of time.
The branch of biology which incorporates in it, the studies
concerning the problems of chemical evolution and origin of life and
organic evolution and origin of man and other present day organismal
spceies of planent earth is called evolutionary biology.
The concept of evolution is based on detailed comparisons of the
structures of living and fossil forms, on the sequences of appearances
and extinction of species in past ages, on the physiological and
biochemical similarites and differences between species and an analysis
of the genetic constitution of present day plants and animals. It is an
indubitable fact which has been accepted by all but one or two of those
who are accredited experts in the study of biology. Yet as a scientific
theory, evolution cannot really be said to have begun until about 1800,
and it was not definitely established until the decades after 1859, the
year when Charles Darwin published "On the origin ofspecies" a master
work which laid down the principles of evolution in a form which they
are still largely accepted.
Though much knowledge has been gained about the different
evolutionary processes during post-Darwinian phase, yet our knowledge
is far from complete. Much remains to be discovered, much is to be
learned. The applications of new techniques, such as the use of high-
speed digital computers, and the application of comparative biochemistry
Appendix 243
Cenozoic Quaternary Recent End oflast ice age; Decline of woody plants; Age of man
(70) (2) (0.001) climate wanner. rise of herbaceous ones.
Pleisto- Repeated glacia- Great extinction of species. Extinction of
cene tion; four ice ages great mammals;
(2) first human
social life.
TertIary Pliocene Climate wann in Development and spread of Arthropods and Archaic mam-
(6S) (10) the beginnmg but modem flowering plants molluscs most mals declined
Miocene gradually cooling. Rise of grasses and of abundant. Appear- after Eocene.
(25) formation of Alps herbs. ance of modem Modemmam-
Oligocene and Himalayas. invertebrates type. mals evolved
(35) in the latter
Paleocene epochs. Rise
(70) of anthropoids
(Contd.)
Eras
Millums of years ago
PerIOd., Epoch., Geologlcal.feature Plants Invertebrate., Vertebrates ~
(\)
;::I
~
Tnassic Chmate wann : Spread of cycads and coni- Limulus present; First dinosaurs ~.
(230) great desert areas. fers; seeds ferns disappear. Marine inverteb- Mammal-like
rates decline in repitiles.
numbers
PaleozOIc Permam Appalachians and First cycads and conifiels; Last of trilobites; Expansion of
(600) (280) Urals formed. decline of lycopods and expansion of reptiles. mam-
Glaciation and horse tails. ammonites; mal-like rep-
aridity. modem insects tiles arose
arose.
Pennsyl- Mountain build- Great forests of seeds ferns Insect common: First rephles,
vanian ing. Great coal and gymnosperms. first insects spread of ancl-
(320) swamps. fossils. ent amphibians
Mississi- Wann humid cli- Lycopsids, horsetails, and Culmination of Spread of
ppian mate. Shallow seed ferns dominant First crinoids sharks. Rise
(345) island seas. coal deposits. (echinoderms) of amphibians.
Devonian Emergence of First forests, lands plants Brachiopods flou- First mphibi-
(405) land; some and well established, first rishing; decline of aus Rise of
regions and gla- gymnosperms. trilobites. fishes-Iung-
cation. fishes shad< abundant.
Silurian Extensive conti- First definite eVidence of Corals, brachio- Rise of ostra-
(425) nental seas; low- land plants, algae domi- pods, eurypterids. codems (primi-
lands increasingly nant. Marine arachnids tlVe fines)
arid as land rose. dominant; first
(wingless) msects. t-:I
C11
CI:)
(Contd.)
MIllIOns of years ago
Era.' PerIOd. Hpochs GeologIcal jeature Plants Invertebrales Vertebrates
Ordovician Great submerge- Manne alage abundant. Trilobite abund- First verteb-
(500) ence of land; ant; diversified rates armored
warm climates molluscs fishes.
even 10 Arctic.
Canlbrian Lands low, climate Algae, especially manne Tnlobltes, brachio-
(600) mIld; earliest rocks forms. pods dominant;
with abundant all phyla repre-
fossils sented.
Numbers given in parentheses indIcate approxImate time since beginning of era period or epoch.
Appendix 255
All these significant aspects of fossil records substantiate the
Darwins theory of evolution by showing the increasing complexity of
organismal structures with time. Besides many other interesting features,
the fossil record helps in drawing correct conclusions about the possible
origin of certain modern vertebrates (birds and horse).
2. EVIDENCES FROM COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY AND
BIOCHEMISIRY
Basically, evolution is a biochemical phenomenon and it is, therefore,
natural that physiology and biochemistry have given some of the
following most important and dependable evidences to suport the idea
of evolution.
1. Protoplasm Chemistry
Biochemical analysis of the living matter, in the protoplasm which is
considered as "the physical basis oflife", suggests that protoplasm from
a variety of sources (i.e., bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals)
has the same biochemical constitution. It mainly consists of substances
like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, etc. This would suggest that
during evolution the most fundamental property of living things has
remained intact, while variations in certain essential respects produced
the variability according to the needs of differential forms.
2. Chromosome Chemistry
Like protoplasm, another remarkable similarity at the biochemical level
is found in the chemistry of chromosomes. The chromosomes of all living
organisms basically consist of nucleic acids (DNA, and RNA) and
proteins (histones and protarnines). The molecules of these chemical
substances remain arranged in all chromosomes in, a almost identical
fashion. Such a uniformity in the composition of chromosome again
suggests a common origin of most living beings.
3. Enzyme Similarities
A large number of animals and plants contain identical enzymes.
Several enzymes found in the digestive tract are common in a variety of
animals. For example, trypsin and amylase are found from sponges to
mammals. A number of enzymes used in photosynthesis are common in
a variety of green plants. Such common enzymes and consequently a
common mechanism of process of photosynthesis suggest a common
ancestry of green plants.
256 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
4. Hormonal Similarities
Like enzymes, hormonal similarities are also found in all vertebrates.
For example, thyroid hormone is commonly found in all vertebrates and
this hormone from one class of organism can be substituted for that in
another class of organisms. For example, in frogs deficiency of thyroid
hormone can be corrected by feeding them on mammalian thyroid tissues.
Likewise, another commonly occurring hormone of verterbrates is
melanophore expanding hormone. It is concerned with the pigmentation
of the skin to expand, thus, rendering the skin colour dark. This hormone
is found in amphibians and mammals. In the latter it is a vestigial hormone,
but if it is grafted into the amphibian skin, the skin pigmentation expands.
The presence of these hormones in vertebrates is understandable only
on the basis of descent from an ancestor to which these hormones were
useful.
5. Comparative Serology
When a foreign protein is inoculated into the blood of an animal,
the latter produces a complex protein compound against that foreign
protein inoculated. These compounds are familiarly known as anti-bodies
and the foreign inoculated protein is known as antigen. When a reaction
occurs between antibody and antigen, a soft white precipitate will be
formed. The strength of precipitate depends upon the concentration of
antigen. The precipitate is the precipitin and the test is precipitation test.
One of the remarkable features of this test is, that the antibodies formed,
against one antigen, can also react with antigens of other source,
provided the latter is chemically similar to the first antigen. Antibodies
containing serum is known as antiserum. Antiserum of antigen of an
animal can be tested with antigens of other animals in order to show
their relationships. The test can be interpreted that if precipitate results
with more diluted antigen of one animal against the test animal, then the
former is more closely related to the latter; if precipitate results with less
diluted antigen of that animal, then it is distantly related to the test animal.
Such precipitin tests have conducted to resolve the disputed
relationships of organisms, in recent years. Of scores of examples, here
we give two illustrations.
Till recently, it is believed that whales have relationship with fishes.
It is because, almost all of their anatomy are so strongly modified to
aquatic fish-like life. Only few anatomical clues to show their relationships
to other mammals, remained. However comparative serology of whales
with other mammalian groups indicates that their serum proteins are most
Appendix 257
like those of the even-toed hoofed (Order Artiodactyla) mammals. This
might suggest that whales sprang from primitive artiodactyl stock.
Rabbit serum
antiserum containing
antibodies eo_inst
human serum
placed in
each tube
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10
NEARCTIC
1
--~- ...
TrOpic of c.ac.,
1. Cambay 1958
2. Ankleshwar 196>
3. Rudrasagar 196>
4. Kalol 1961
5. Sanand 1962
6. Waval 1962
7. Kosamba 1963
8. Nawagam 1963
9. Olpad 1963
10. Lakwa-Lakhmani 1964
11. Kathana 1965
12. Bakrol 1966
13. Dholka 1966
14. Ahmedabad 1967
15. Allora 1967
16. Manhera Tibba lQ67
53. Heera 1m
54. Jotana 1m
55. Karaikal 1m
56. Padra 1m
57. B-51 1978
58. B-55 1978
59. Dahanu(B - 12) 1978
roo Gajera 1978
61. Matar 1978
62. Sisodra 1978
63. South Tapti 1978
64 Vnaj 1978
65. West Motawan 1978
66. Akhaj 1979
67. R-9 1979
68. Ratna(R-12) 1979
69. An-I 1980
70. Dahej 1980
71. G-l 1980
72. MahiHigh 1980
73. Mid Tapti 1980
74. PY-l 1980
75. R-l 1980
76. Badarpur 1981
77. Charaideo 1981
78. Kudara 1981
79. Langhanaj 1981
80. Lohar 1981
81. Mewad 1981
82. Mukta (B - 57) 1981
268 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
(Colltd.)
276 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
Financial Profile
Rs./Crore
1971-72 49 35 14 2 0 12 0.06
1972-73 51 41 10 3 0 7 0.03
1973-74 82 55 27 2 0 25 0.11
1974-75 144 93 51 2 0 49 0.22
1975-76 169 129 40 2 14 24 0.1
1976-77 203 158 45 8 0 37 0.15
1977-78 298 224 74 15 7 52 0.21
1978-79 383 280 103 21 9 73 0.28
1979-80 436 306 130 23 52 55 0.21
1980-81 452 35~ 94 48 0 46 0.16
1981-82 1348 689 659 86 198 375 1.22
1982-83 2385 1115 1270 87 490 693 2.1
1983-84 3473 1777 1696 88 802 806 2.18
Appendix 277
OIL PRODUCED
:!II
30
25 ---------- - ----_._-
20
I-
:E
:Ii
f5
fO
:.
- 5
~~ .fJ' ~ ~i' ~J!J' ;<'- "i"~ .l' """ .t ,'P'" ~l ~ ~~#<f> ,~#rt#<f> ~l'
Of"", ..
,rt>.I!'~.I!'~~~,~~#,"',"' ....fi,"'~ ,of'~ ~ ,of'
YEA R
278 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
25000 1-------
20000 - - - -
PO
::
::
::15000
10000
5000
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Il' r? .,t> I!.'" .l' ",<" "I"~ 'f~ ,,~#Of-B',<I>/J-,<I>r?',<6'~,<I>1!.'J1'~.l',<f>",'",<f>~~1-1<1>,<f>~lf>
,<I>~.!!' ,#,<1> ~,~ ,~,~,~
YEA R
~r--------------------------------------------~
700 -------- ---
~ 500
::
400 - - - -----.-- - - -
:lOO t------------
200 - - - - - - - - - -
",,,,,,, ?jeJ' ~l ~'" 91"'" ",,,,,, .Y"" 'i"'" """, c!' ",<{}- ?jeJ' !-J<K> ",-P> ...!S' ,f'>'" r!$~ !-J4' I!.!f>
,4' ,4' ,-I' ,,4' ,-I' ,,~ ,,~ ,,"f ,~ # .!/i' ,<If> ,<6' ,<If> ,<11' .&> "of' ,<f> ,of'
YEA R
Appendix 279
18000
18000
1<4000
'"~ 12000
::>
...II!0 10000
'"w 8000 .
~-'1lOOO
<> <4000
:. 2000 .1------------
0
FINANCIAL YEAR
MANPOWER GROWTH
&OOOr------------------------,
45000
40000 - . _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3S000
m
~3oooo
:E
W
15
25000 -=-_...-=--------------
ili20000
CD
::ii
i 15000
10000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------- - - - - - -
5000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- -
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~
"~""~,~,,~,,,,~,,
280 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
APPENDIX-D
IMPORTANT FIGURES AND DATA
INDIA AFTER 60 YEARS
(1947 TO 2007)
1.1. I 218 .
llJ;il+~rDi"l;.#ii':.6M!jJ J4?~ J 58
.....;3,11J . _64.7 (~I~,:mlllI ' III
Bm;i~ 19l~?.il_65,5~?
Q't:l'.mm'lC!
t:g"~lit!tJ#~!Ma ". . ~.03.4 I 5.64 I~..~~
Jugl1u Dhoom-2 ~~
........ ..140..
. 408.7 j 8.~0 klkh
rumL~::&;g!kt1';<h 1
93 \90,000 171
--~_,,,,,I.
14.031<Jkh
" _ __
r:~ ::';"u\',];:'!.:t\ldJWii
?OO 15.641akh
Appendix 281
TOI 27.11.2007
282 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
TOI 35.5.2007
Bare Truth: These two pictures - one taken in 1968 (top) and the other in
2007 - show the retreating Rongbuk Glacier of Mount Everest on the Tibetan
plateau. The rugged Tibet plateau, seen as a sensitive barometer of the impact
of global warming, IS experiencing accelerating glacial melt and other ecological
changes. The mountainous region's glaciers have been melting at an annual average
-------: .-
rate of 131.4 square km over the last 30 years.
r
[
!
",,"
Feeling the Heat: A Nasa Image shows a portion ofCunada's Northwest Passage.
Arctic Ice has shrunk to the lowest level on record and has raised the possibIlIty
of the Northwest Passage becoming an open shipping lane.
Appendix 283
TOI 15.12.2007
Future Tense? Activists hold their noses as they pretend to learn to swim due
to increased sea levels caused by global warming. They were protesting in front
of the venue of the climate change conference in Bali, IndonesIa, on Tuesday. As
the meeting began a hunt for a new global deal to fight global warming by 2009,
it witnessed skIrmishes over how far Chma and India should curb greenhouse
gas emIssions.
284 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
TOI 31.7.2007
Alternative Energy: The world's biggest 40,000 square metre root-based solar
system IS seen In the Southern German town ofBuerstadt. It rains frequently In
Germany. Yet the country has managed to become the worlds leading solar power
generator and 55% of the world's photovoitaic (PV) power is generated on solar
panels. So far 3% of Germany's electricity comes from the sun, but government
wants to false the share of renewables to 27%. It is a thriving mdustry with
booming exports that has created tens of thousands of jobs. There are now more
than 300,000 PV systems In Germany with growing demand from households,
farmers and small bUSInesses, while the nation's energy law had planned fOf
100,000.
Appendix 285
TOI17.8.2007
Oil Imports to Grow 85%: India's dependency on oil imports is likely increase
to about 85% by 2012 from the current level of70%, driven by the rising demand
for energy, industry body Assocham said on Thursday.
This despite "refining capacity in India poised to increase by 58% to touch
235 million tonnes in the next five years... in view of the growing demand for
energy with little resources at its disposal for harnessing alternative sources,"
the chamber said. A chamber paper on 'Future Imperatives of Crude Oil Scenario'
shows that India's dependence on crude oil import would rise, as domestic
discoveries have not been taking place, to touch, to touch the level of 12-13%
compared to 7-8% at present.
TOI 9.8.2007
Largest planet discovered: Astronomers have discovered the largest-known
planet - about 70% larger than Jupiter. Located in the constellation of Hercules,
it circles a star about 1,435 light years away from Earth.
286 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
TOI 18.12.2007
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TOl 19.12.2007
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Appendix 287
TO! 24.12.2007
APPENDIX-E
NEWS IN FOCUS
INDIA TO SOON HAVE A RESEARCH
BASE IN ARCTIC
TOI 2.9.2007
Ny Alesund (Norway): India will soon have a permanent postal
address in the Arctic. Taking advantage of the unique international
Svalbard Treaty signed in 1920, to which it was a signatory, India will be
able to set up a permanent research station at Ny Alesund, on the
Svalbard archipelago which comes under Norwegian sovereignty,
boosting its knowledge of climate change, other critical natural
phenomena and the disturbance humans cause to nature's processes.
Perhaps waking a bit too late in the day, considering India has
already sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and has two permanent bases
there, the research base at 79 degree north will be set up under a five-
year contract with the Norwegian government and Kings Bay, the
Norwegian government-held company that runs the logistics at the
research station.
Melting Point: Ice has fallen below the 2005 record low absolute
mmimum, say experts.
"There may well be an ice-free Arctic by the middle of the century,"
Christopher Rapley, director of the British Antarctic Survey, told the
seminar, accusing the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) of underestimating the melt. The thaw of glaciers that stretch out
to sea around Svalbard has revealed several islands that are not on any
maps.
"Islands are appearing just over the fjord here" as glaciers recede,
said Kim Holmen, research director at the Norwegian Polar Institute,
gesturing out across the bay. "We're already seeing adverse effects on
polar bears and other species."
"I know of two islands that appeared in the north of Svalbard this
summer. They haven't been claimed yet," said Rune Bergstrom,
environmental expert with the Norwegian governor's office on Svalbard.
He said he had seen one of the islands, roughly the size of a basketball
292 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
court. Islands have also appeared in recent years off Greenland and
Canada.
Rapley also said the IPCC was "restrained to the point of being
seriously misleading" in toning down what he said were risks of a melt
of parts of Antarctica, by far the biggest store of ice on the planet that
could raise world sea levels.
Still, in a contrast to the warnings about retreating ice and climate
change, snow was falling in Ny Alesund on Monday, several weeks earlier
than normal in a region still bathed by the midnight sun. About 30 to 130
people live in the fjordside settlement, backed by snow-covered
mountains. Bjoernoy said it was freak storm that did not detract from an
overall warming trend.
TOI 25.7.2007
INDIAN TEAM TO STIIDY ARCTIC GlACIERS
New Delhi: With the government showing keen interest in increasing
the country's scientific understanding of glaciers in the wake of global
warming threats, India will soon send a team of researchers to the Arctic
to study glacial geology and pursue research in other key fields.
While India has sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and made its
presence felt in the polar research fraternity, this will be its first foray
towards the North Pole.
New Venture: This will be India's first foray towards North Pole.
Norway has agreed to host Indian scientists on its base at Svalbard,
an archIpelago halfway between the North Pole and Norway. The Svalbard
research camp of the Norwegian Polar Institute will be used by the Indian
scientists for their research.
Appendix 293
India moved fast to utilise the opportunity when the Norwegian
government offered visiting earth sciences minister Kapil Sibal facilities
at its base in the archipelago for research. The ministry then asked key
scientific institutions to put in proposals for possible studies. Fourteen
proposals were received by the ministry, but after review, only eight were
cleared.
The approved proposals include research into geology. Arctic
microbes and aerosols. While the second area of research, microbes, will
have implications for biotechnology, the other two will add to Indian
scientists' understanding of how the dynamics of climate change work.
"We have already done work on the Antarctic microbes, so this will
be a good follow-up for us," P S Goel, secretary, ministry of earth
sciences, told TOL "Because this is our first foray into the area, our
scientists will get an opportunity to gain basic knowedge on the regionand
build on the knowledge gained in the Antarctic," he added.
The Arctic research programme will be conducted in two phases with
five experiments being carried out by the first contingent of scientists to
go this year, and the rest three to be carried out by a second contingent
in the second half of 2008.
The Norwegian government has offered its base as well as the use
of its equipment but the Indian contingent will have to take along some
equipment with it to carry out the research.
TOI 10.8.2008
TIlE POWER Wl'IlllN
Clean geothermal energy could fuel the world in the future
The ancient Romans drew on hot springs for bathing and heating
homes without having to pay a single coin. That's because a clean, quiet
and virtually inexhaustible source of renewable energy lies literally
beneath our feet. The interior of the earth is hot-up to 6,500 degrees
Celsius at the core and generally cooling off towards the top but still
about 200 degress Celsius three to 10 kilometres below the surface. In
Switzerland, Australia and elsewhere engineers are drilling down to these
depths to tap the heat trapped in hot rocks by injecting cold water into
the shafts and bringing it up again superheated to generate power though
a steam turbine. They feel it could meet the electricity needs of nearly
10,000 households and heat over 2,700 homes.
In India the potential for harnessing geothermal power has been
under investigation since the late 1960s. Currently, an organisation
294 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
incubated in lIT-Bombay is carrying out a year-long survey to assess
the heat trapped beneath the Konkan coastline. Preliminary calculations
indicate this could generate some line. Preliminary calculations indicate
this could generate some 2,000 MW of power, reason enough for the
ministry of non-conventional energy of Maharashtra, a state with a
shortfall of approximately 5,000 MW, to be interested in co-funding the
project. The total stored heat potential in India, however, is believed to
be the equivalent of27.6 billion barrels of petroleum.
At present, geothermal power supplies lees than 0.5 per cent of the
world's energy. But global estimates of exploitable geothermal energy
vary between 65 and 138 Gw. Taking this into account a 2006 MIT report
concluded that extractable resources would be sufficient to provide all
the world's energy needs for several millennia. What's needed is to move
beyond easily developed hydrothermal systems, such as hot springs and
geyers, and begin to tap the earth's deeper, stored heat, which is available
everywhere. The report estimates that a billion dollars of investment in
research and development over the next 15 years would lead to the
enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) that would make this possible.
Since the earth's heat is everywhere, EGS would deliver the ultimate
form of energy security: no more dependence on suppliers of fossil fuels,
or even uranium. And it's one of the cleanest forms of energy available:
greenhouse gas emissions are close to zero. India ought to map its
existing hydrothermal resources in Maharashtra and elsewhere, as well
as collaborate in exciting research projects being undertaken in EGS in
various countries.
TOI 14.92007
'EARI'H MAY SURVIVE SUN'S DEMISE'
Planet will Outlast Apocalypse After 5B Yrs; Venus will be Swallowed:
Scientists
There is new hope that Earth, if not the life on it, might survive an
apocalypse five billion years from now.
That is when, scientists say, the Sun will run out of hydrogen fuel
and swell temporarily more than 100 times in diameter into a so-called
red giant, swallowing Mercury and Venus.
Astronomers are announcing that they have discovered a planet that
seems to have survived the puffing up of its home star, suggesting
there is some hope the Earth could survive the aging and swelling of the
Sun.
Appendix 295
The planet is a gas giant at least three times as massive as Jupiter. It
orbits about 150 million miles from a faint star in Pegasus known as V
391 Pegasi. But before that star blew up as a red giant and lost half its
mass, the planet must have been about as far from its star as Earth is
from the Sun-about 90 million miles-according to calculations by an
international team of astronomers led by Roberto Silvotti of the
Observatorio Astronomico di Capodionte in Naples, Italy.
Ray of Hope
Silvotti said the results showed that a planet at Earth's distance "can
survive" a red giant, and he said he hoped the discovery would prompt
more searches. "With some statistics and new detailed models, we will
be able to say something more even to the destiny of our Earth (which,
as we all know, has much more urgent problems by the way)," he said
via e-maIl. Silvotti and his colleagues reported therr results on Thursday
in Nature.
In an accompanying commentary, Jonathan Fortney of Nasa 's Ames
Research Center in California wrote, "This system allows us to start
examining what will happen to planets around stars such as our own
Sun as they too evolve and grow old."
The star V 391 Pegasi is about 4,500 light years from Earth and is
about half as massive as the Sun, burning helium into carbon. It will
296 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
eventually sigh off another shell of gas and settle into eternal senescence
as a white dwarf.
Meanwhile, the star's pulsations cause it to brighten and dim every
six minutes. After studying the star for seven years. Silvotti and his
colleagues were able to discern subtle modulations in the six-minute cycle,
suggesting that the star was being tugged to and fro over a three-year
period by a massive planet. "Essentially, the observers are using the star
as a clock, as if it were a GPS satellite moving around the planet," said
Fred Rasio of Northwestern University.
This is not the first time that a pulsing star has been used as such a
clock. In 1992, astronomers using the same technique detected a pair of
planets (or their corpses) circling the pulsar PSR 1257+ 12. And only on
Wednesday, X-ray astronomers from the Goddard Space Flight Centre in
Greenbelt, Maryland, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
announced that they had detected the remains of a star that radiation
had whittled down to planetary mass circling a pulsar in the constellation
Sagittarius. Those systems have probably endured supernova explosions.
The Pegasus planet has had to survive less lethal conditions,
although it must have had a bumpy ride over its estimated 10 billion years
of existence. An expert said, "Stellar evolution can be a wild ride for a
planet that is trying to survive, especially inner planets like Earth."
TOI 8-12-2007
GROWING GREEN
Negotiations in Bali for cleaner technology and development
"It cows are causing global warming, and I ate a hamburger, could I
claim carbon credits for helping eliminate a cow?" asks a reader in the
letters coplumn of a US newspaper. Despite George Bush's refusal to
commit the US to any international agreement that would adopt emissions
targets, it is clear that climate change has com to impact people's
consciousness everywhere. At the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Cange meet in Bali, representatives from 190 countries have converged
to compare notes and thrash out agreements on how to tackele the climate
change challenge facing the planet. The US continues to stress the same
points it raised at the last meeting in Montreal in 2005, that it would not
consider any commitment unless India and Cina made similar promises,
since together the three countries are the word's largest polluters.
However, since carbon stocks in the atmosphere - that have triggered
glonal warming - are the result of 300 years of devlopment in
industrialised countries, the rich need to bear higher costs and take more
Appendix 297
Miniature submarines from this Russian research vessel dived into the
Arctic Ocean to plant a flag on the seabed under the North Pole
Billed as the first to reach the ocean floor under the North Pole, the
expedition aims to establish that a section of seabed passing through
the pole, known as the Lomonosov Ridge, is in fact an extension of
Russia's landmass.
"We must determine the border. The most northerly border of the
Russian shelf," Chilingarov said in comments broadcast before the dive
from the Akademik Fyodorov research ship leading the expedition.
The voyage reflects growing international interest in the Arctic partly
due to climate change, which is causing greater melting of the ice and
making the area more accessible for research and economic activity.
Appendix 303
The US Geological Survey, a US government agency, said in a report
earlier that some 25% of world oil reserves are believed to be located
above the Arctic Circle. In 2001 Russia made a submission to a United
Nations commission claiming sub-sea rights stretching to the pole. The
current mission is looking for evidence to back up this claim.
TOI 24.8.2007
TIME BOMB TICKS IN ARCTIC
Race for the seabed could be an environmental disaster
Jeremy Rifkin
If there were any lingering doubts as to how ill-prepared we are to
face up to the reality of climate change, they were laid to rest this month
when two Russian mini submarines dove two miles under the Arctic ice
to the floor of the ocean, and planted a Russian flag made of titanium on
the seabed. This fIrst manned mission to the ocean floor of the Arctic,
which was carefully choreographed for a global television audience, was
the ultimate geopolitical reality TV.
Russian President Vladimir V Putin congratulated the aquanauts while
the Russian government simultaneously announced its claim to nearly
half of the floor of the Arctic Ocean. The Putin government claims that
the seabed under the pole, known as the Lomonosov Ridge, is an
extension of Russia's continental shelf, and therefore Russian territory.
Not to be outdone, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper hurriedly
arranged a three-day visit to the Arctic to stake his country's claim to
the region.
Although in some respects the entire event appeared almost
comical-a kind of late 19th century caricature of a colonial expedition
- the intent was deadly serious. Geologists believe that 25 per cent of
the earth's undiscovered oil and gas may be embedded within the rock
underneath the Arctic Ocean. The oil giants are already scurrying to the
front of the line, seeking contracts to exploit the vast potential of oil
wealth under the Arctic ice. The oil company BP has recently established
a partnership with Rosneft, the Russian state-owned oil company, to
explore the region. Aside from Russia and Canada, three other countries-
Norway, Denmark (Greenland is a Danish possession that reaches into
the Arctic) and the United States-are all claiming the Arctic seabed as
an extension of their continental shelves and, therefore, sovereign
territory.
Under the Law ofthe Sea Treaty, adopted in 1982, signatory nations
can claim exclusive economic zones for commercial exploitation, up to
304 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
200 miles out from their territorial waters. The US has never signed the .
treaty, amidst concerns that other provisions of the treaty would
undermine US sovereignty and political independence. Now, however,
the sudden new interest in Arctic oil and gas has put a fIre under US
legislators to ratify the treaty, lest it is edged out of the Arctic oil rush.
What makes the whole development so utterly depressing is that
the new interest in prospecting the Arctic subsoil and seabed for oil and
gas is only now becoming possible because of climate change. For
thousands of years, the fossil fuel deposits lay locked up under the ice
and inaccessible. Now, global warming is melting away the Arctic ice,
making possible, for the fIrst time, the commercial exploitation of the oil
and gas deposits. Ironically, the very process of burning fossil fuels
releases massive amounts of carbon dioxide and forces an increase in
the earth's temperature, which in turn, melts the Arctic ice, making
available even more oil and gas for energy. The burning of these potential
new oil and gas frods will further increase CO2 emissions in the coming
decades, depleting the Arctic ice even more quickly.
But the story doesn't stop here. There is a far more dangerous
aspect to the unfolding drama in the Arctic. While governments and oil
giants are hoping the Arctic ice will melt quickly to allow them access to
the world's last treasure trove of oil and gas, climatologists are deeply
worried about something else buried under the ice, that if unearthed,
could wreak havoc on the earth's biosphere, with dire consequences for
human life.
Much of the Siberian sub-Arctic region, an area the size of France
and Germany combined, is a vast frozen peat bog. Before the previous
Appendix 305
ice age, the area was mostly grassland, teeming with wildlife. The coming
of the glaciers entombed the organic matter below the permafrost, where
it has remained ever since. While the surface of Siberia is largely barren,
there is as much organic matter buried underneath the permafrost as there
is in all of the world's tropical rainforests.
Now, with the earth's temperature steadily rising because of CO 2
and other global warming gas emissions, the permafrost is melting, both
on land and along the seabeds. If the thawing of the permafrost is in the
presence of oxygen on land, the decomposing of organic matter leads to
the production of CO 2 If the permafrost thaws along lake shelves, in the
absence of oxygen the decomposing matter release methane into the
atmosphere. Methane is the most potent of the greenhouse gases, with
a greenhouse effect that is 23 times greater than that of CO 2.
Researchers are beginning to warn of a tipping point sometime within
this century when the release of carbon dioxide and methane cou' create
an uncontrollable feedback effect, dramatically warming the atmosphere,
which will, in turn, warm the land, lakes and seabed, further melting the
permafrost and releasing more carbon dioxide and methane into the atmc
phere. Once that threshold is reached, there is nothing human beings
can do, of a technological or political nature, to stop the runaway
feedback effect. Scientists suspect that similar events have occurred in
the ancient past, between glacial and interglacial periods.
Katy Walter of the Institute of Arctic Biology at the University of
Alaska in Fairbanks and her research team calls the permafrost melt a
giant "ticking time bomb". A global tragedy monumental proportions is
unfolding at top of the world, and the human race is all oblivious to
what's happening.
The writer is president, The Foundation Economic Trends,
Washington, DC.
TOI 13.9.2007
MlNIICE AGE DIDN'T KILL NEANDERIHALS
They were either Slaughtered by Homo Sapiens or Intermingled with
them: Study
Paris: The great whodunnit of palaeontology has been given a new
twist with findings that the Neanderthals were in all likelihood not killed
off by a mini-Ice Age, as some authorities contend. Neanderthals, smaller
and squatter than Homo sapiens, lived in parts of Europe, Central Asia
and the Middle East for around 170,000 years.
306 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
One theory is that the Neanderthals were wiped out by a sudde~
cold snap. Alone, their numbers depleted, the Neanderthals eked out their
final moments in caves in modem-day Spain and Gibraltar, goes this
hypothesis. One of the problems of exploring the Neanderthal saga is to
get an accurate date for when all this may have happened. The main
dating technique is to test fossils for levels of a background isotope in
the environment, carbon 14.
Researchers led by Polychronis Tzedakis at the University of Leeds
and the University of the Aegean, Greece, sought a different yardstick:
one based on climate rather than chronology. They found one in a
sedimentary core drilled in the seabed of Cariaco Basin, Venezuela, in
which records of past climate events can be related directly to
radiocarbon years.
Outsourcing Centre
. Tata Consultancy Services Ltd is India's top software services fIrm,
followed by Infosys Technologies Ltd and Wipro Technologies Foreign
fIrms such as IBM and Accenture are also expanding in India. Software
and backoffice companies employ around 1.6 million, up from 1.3 million
last year. Indirect employment is estimated at an additional 3 million.
Indian software services companies typically make more than 50%
of their revenue from the United States.
About four-fIfths of the world's 500 largest companies already farm
out some work to India, which churns out about 2.5 million graduates
every year, though only about 15% are suitable for employment in the
sector.
Outsourcing to India can typically generate cost savings of between
35 and 50 % for foreign companies.
Appendix 311
India's back-office services industry, which earned $8.4 billion in
exports in the year up to March, is expected to reach some $10.5 billion
in 2007-08. The United States accounts for more than two-thirds of the
outsourcing market, followed by Europe with 25%.
An average Indian graduate earns rupees 15,000 ($366) a month, but
wages are rising 10-15% a year. As of March 2007, nearly 553,000 people
were employed in more than 400 outsourcing or back-office fIrms in India.
Top outsourcing players include Genpact, WNS Global Services, IBM-
Daksh, TCS BPO, Wipro BPO, Infosys BPO, Citigroup Global Services
and MphasiS BPO.
TOI 28.8.2007
PARTICLES TIlATTRAVELFASIERnIANUGHfFOUND
Hamburg: Two German physicists from the University of Koblenz
claim to have done the impossible by finding photons that have broken
the speed of light.
If their claims are confirmed, they will have proved wrong Albert
Einstein's special theory of relativity which requires an infInite amount
of energy to propel an object at more than 299,337.984 kilometers per
second.
However, Gunter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen say they have
possibly breached a key tenet of that theory. They say they have
conducted an experiment in which microwave photons-energetic
packets of light-travelled <instantaneously' between a pair of prisms
that had been moved from a few millimetres to up to one metre apart.
When the prisms were placed together, photons fIred at one edge
passed straight through them, as expected. After they were moved apart,
most of the photons reflected off the first prism they encountered
and were picked up by a detector. But a few photons appeared to
<tunnel' through the gap separating them as if the prisms were still held
together.
Although these photons had travelled further, they arrived at their
detector at exactly the same time as the reflected photons. In effect, they
had travelled faster than light.
The duo said being able to travel faster than light would lead to a
wide variety of bizarre consequences. For instance, an astronaut moving
faster than light would theoretically arrive at a destination before leaving,
they said.
312 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
T0I4.9.2007
The policy to promote ethanol usage in India has been
lagging way behind.
A 10 PER CENT SOLUTION
Ethanol can help India secure its energy future
With international crude oil prices ruling at over $70 a barrel, the
recommendation by a group of ministers that 10 per cent ethanol blending
be made mandatory across the country couldn't have come at a more
appropriate time. Such a step would help the country reduce its
dependence on oil imports and move towards greater use of renewable
resources. There's also an environmental benefit: ethanol reduces the
emission of greenhouse gases. India is one of the top 10 oil-consuming
countries in the world. The domestic production of crude oil is only 32
million tonnes as against the demand for more than 110 million tonnes.
Naturally, oil imports have a major bearing on India's trade deficit. The
expenditure on crude oil purchase is nearly Rs 1,600 billion and is only
increasing every year. Ethanol blending would help not only in alleviating
the pressure on the national exchequer, but also in lessening our
dependence on politically unstable countries in West Asia and Africa.
By blending 10 per cent ethanol, India stands to save 80 million litres of
petrol annually.
With the global sugar industry grappling with the crisis of surplus
production, and the rising output of Indian sugar contributing further to
holding the prices at record low levels, the Indian government can easily
use this opportunity to induce sugar producers to divert molasses for
the production of ethanol. The government should provide incentives
like tax breaks for ethanol producers. It could set aside a portion of the
massive oil budget for encouraging production of such renewable energy
sources. By providing such inducements, those in the business could
be persuaded to divert molasses to ethanol production rather than selling
to breweries and distilleries.
However, sugar being a cyclical industry, it is bound to see ups and
downturns. To ensure the availability of ethanol during downturns in
the industry, the government must encourage research in various
feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be made either from
fermentation of sugar or from starches like in the United States. One of
the drawbacks of sugarcane, from which ethanol is made in India, is that
it is water intensive. Hence, alternative feedstock like sweet sorghum
should be promoted for ethanol production.
Appendix 313
Simultaneously, the development of flexible-fuel vehicles must be
put on fast track. If Brazil can have vehicles running on E85 and even on
100 per cent ethanol, there is no reason why India cannot replicate the
same. E1O, nevertheless, is certainly an inspiring beginning.
TOI6.11.2007
From now on, every major public project, every public decision will
be judged on its effect on climate, and on its carbon cost.
ABOMINABLE FOOTPRINTS
We're consuming 40 per cent more than what earth can sustain
The UN's Global Environment Outlook-4 (Geo-4) warns that
consumption levels are fast depleting the world's resources, outpacing
regeneration. Earlier, the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change'S report cautioned that human activity-induced climate change
is causing high global temperatures that would adversely impact
developing countries the most. The UN's Human Development Report
warns that development gains could get reversed because of climate
change, resulting in greater inequities. The Geo-4 warns that ifhumanity's
ecological footprint-land and marine area needed to.regenerate what's
consumed and absorb the waste-at 21.9 hectares per person as against
earth's capacity of 15.7 hectares per person is not curbed, all would be
lost.
Carbon footprints, that measure the amount of carbon dioxide emitted
per person, are just one in India while China's is five and America's, 20.
But all reports carry the same warning: Humanity and other life forms are
at risk because of major (avoidable) environmental threats to the planet.
Geo-4 points out that environmental, developmental and energy crises
are, in fact, one large problem; they are interlinked. Which is why, as
Geo-4 suggests, we need to move the environment from the periphery to
the core of decision-making. That is, environment for development, not
development to the detriment of environment.
Despite a low per capita carbon footprint and a tradition of recycling
and conservation, India is taking small but proactive steps towards
greening production and consumption. A new building code based on a
green rating system for commercial and residential buildings to help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been designed by The Energy
Research Institute and approved by the government. Currently, the rating
system is to be adopted by builders voluntarily. However, with
construction booming, energy-efficient buildings ought to be mandated
314 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
by law, just as quake-resistant buildings are mandated in seismic zones.
The 13th Finance Commission will consider raising user charges for
services including irrigation, as well as tax rebates and larger share of
central resources for states adopting green practices.
However, India needs to deal with growing vehicle numbers, poor
industrial emissions standards and power plants fired by dirty coal.
China's record is worse, with proliferation of dirty power plants and skies
choking with emissions. At the forthcoming UN climate change meet in
Bali, the focus ought to be on how rich countries can reduce their deadly
footprints while transferring clean technology free of cost to countries
like India and China to help them leapfrog to sustainable development
without having to go through the entire cycle of polluting growth that
the West went through.
TOI 18.10.2007
INDIA'S FIRST BIODIESELPLANT TO STARr
OPERATIONS TODAY
Mumbai: On Saturday, India's first biodiesel plant will go on stream
Hyderabad-based Naturol Bioenergy will start production of the "green"
fuel at its factory in Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh.
Clean Fuel
Its entire annual production of 30 million gallons is already tied up
for exports to customers in US and Europe.
With production of biodiesel, India's place as a source of green
energy will get yet another star. Already, Pune-based Suzlon is one of
the leading players in wind energy and Delhi-based Moser Baer is setting
a large facility for making solar panels. Says Rajiv Shukla, Avendus
Advisors who is helping Naturol to raise $100 million for its expansion
Appendix 315
programme: "Though these are early days for alternative energy sources,
there is a huge opportunity in the business."
Though biodiesel fades in comparison to the performance of
gasoline, western countries are increasingly choosing the fuel. In these
days, when crude trades over $80 a barrel, biodiesel is economical.
Secondly, states like California in the US have already begun
incentivising use of alternative fuels that are low in carbon emission.
Says CS Bhaskar, managing director and CEO, Naturol: "Going forward,
we expect new regulations to increase the use of alternative fuels."
Biodiesel, an equivalent to crude derived diesel, is processed from
biological sources. Naturol will make its biodiesel from Jatropha plant
with Belgian technology. The plant derived biodiesel can be used in
normal diesel engine vehicles without modifying them, Biodiesel produces
between 40-60% lesser carbon dioxide emission but emits more smog
forming residues.
Vehicle manufacturers in Europe, who were initially vary ofbiodiesel,
are now more willing. European auto makers like Scania now say that
their vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel. Virgin's Richard Branson who
is testing the use of biodiesel in one of his trains, has planned the first
commercial flight that will be powered with a 60% biofuel-kerosene blend
in 2008.
Globally, biodiesel costs lesser than normal diesel. Its price is
benchmarked to the international prices of crude. In 2006, US and Europe
consumed nearly five million tonne of biodiesel, a negligible quantity
compared to diesel consumption. It is expected to increase to 100 million
tonne by 2016.
TOI 13.10.2007
STRETCHING SEDRCH FOR SIGNS OF LIFE
California Astronomers Planning to Build Mammoth Telescope
Call it a small step for ET, a leap for radio astronomy. Astronomers
in Hat Creek, California, are planning to switch on the first elements of a
giant new array of radio telescopes that they say will greatly extend the
investigation of natural and unnatural phenomena in the universe.
When the Allen Telescope Array, as it is known, is complete, it will
consist of 350 antennas, each 20 feet in diameter. Using the separate
antennas as if they were one giant dish, radio astronomers will be able
to map vast swaths of the sky cheaply and efficiently. T~.e array will
help search for new phenomena like black holes eating each other and
316 Encyclopaedia of Petroleum Science and Engineering
so-called dark galaxies without stars, as well as eftend the search for
extraterrestrial radio signals a thousandfold, to include a million nearby
stars over the next two decades.
Today, 42 of the antennas, mass-produced from molds and
employing inexpensive telecommunications technology, will go into
operation. "It's like cutting the ribbon on the Nina, the Pinta and the
Santa Maria," said Seth Shostak, an astronomer at the Seti Institute, in
Mountain View" California, who. pointed out that this was the ftrst radio
telescope ever designed speciftcally for the extraterrestrial quest. The
telescope, named for Paul G Alien, who provided $25 million in seed
money, is a joint project of the Radio Astronomy Laboratory of the
University of California, Berkeley, and the Seti Institute. "If they do fmd
something, they're going to call me up ftrst and say we have a signal,"
Alien said in an interview, adding, "So far the phone hasn't rung."
Describing himself as "a child of the 50s, the golden age of space
exploration and science ftction," Allen, a founder of Microsoft, said he
fIrst got interested in supporting the search for extraterrestrial intelligence
after a conversation 12 years ago with Carl Sagan, the Cornell astronomer
and exuberant proponent of cosmic wonder.