Amber Fang

Pd. 2
09/29/16

Bernier, Ulrich R., Daniel L. Kline, Carl E. Schreck, Richard A. Yost, and Donald R. Barnard.
"CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF HUMAN SKIN EMANATIONS: COMPARISON OF
VOLATILES FROM HUMANS THAT DIFFER IN ATTRACTION OF AEDES
AEGYPTI (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE)." Journal of American Mosquito Control
Association 195th ser. 18(3).186 (2002): n. pag. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.

Mosquitoes respond to human emanations with varying degrees of attraction, based on

factors related to mosquito behavior and emanations produced by the host. The variation in

human attraction of mosquitoes indicates that mosquito behavior varies over time and that a

relative difference exists in the ability of people over time to attract mosquitoes. The work done

by the authors consists of studies that compare emanations from different humans, and variation

of emanations from a single human on consecutive days for which the difference in attraction in

laboratory bioassays was the greatest. Some of the candidate attractants identified by these

studies were screened in an olfactometer, and a few of these compounds were found to be weak

attractants for A. aegypti.

This paper is very useful for scientists in the field studying human skin emanations and A.

aegypti. It describes the results of an experiment examining the change of emanation and

mosquito behavior over time, which provides a long range attraction. The paper is very

organized and easy to read. It includes an introduction, materials and methods, figures and tables,

and results and discussion.

Bernier, Ulrich R., Daniel L. Kline, Kenneth H. Posey, Matthew M. Booth, Richard A. Yost, and
Donald R. Barnard. "Synergistic Attraction of Aedes Aegypti (L.) to Binary Blends of
L-Lactic Acid and Acetone, Dichloromethane, or Dimethyl Disulfide." J Med Entomol.
Entomological Society of America, 11 Mar. 2003. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
<http://m.jme.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/5/653.full>.

Kairomones produced by humans provide female anthropophilic mosquitoes with vital

cues used in host-seeking for a blood meal. They are emanated primarily by the skin and provide

the mosquitoes with a means to orient themselves to humans at a relatively close range. Doing a

chemical study of these emanations have provided new ideas for the formation of attractant

blends. The authors reported mosquito attraction responses for three binary blends and their

separate components, which comprised of L-lactic acid plus either acetone, dichloromethane, or

dimethyl disulfide. They were then able to determine that CO2 is not a necessary component for

yielding high levels of attraction with these blends.

This article is useful for scientists attempting to discover certain attractants or emanations

that lead to olfactory cues in mosquitoes. It is well organized, with an introduction, methods and

materials, figures, and results and discussion. This paper will also contribute to increased

amounts of research being done about olfactory cues used by mosquitoes, especially the

A.aegypti, in terms of arboviruses such as ZIKV, DENV, and malaria.

Bogoch, Isaac I., Oliver J. Brady, Moritz U G Kraemer, Matthew German, Marisa I. Creatore,
Manisha A. Kulkarni, John S. Brownstein, Sumiko R. Mekaru, Simon I. Hay, Emily
Groot, Alexander Watts, and Kamran Khan. "Anticipating the International Spread of
Zika Virus from Brazil." Europe PMC. Europe PMC, 23 Jan. 2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4873159>.

The presence of Aedes mosquitoes across Latin America, coupled with suitable climatic

conditions, have triggered a Zika virus epidemic in Brazil. The authors of this paper sought to
identify high-risk international pathways for the dispersion of Zika virus and global geographies

conducive to autochthonous transmission. They created a global Zika virus spread model,

adapting a seasonal model for dengue. This model integrates global ecological niche data for

Aedes aegypti and albopictus and worldwide temperature profiles. They identified airports within

50 km of sreas conducive to year-round zika transmission. The final destinations of international

travellers departing from these airports from September 2014 to August 2015 were mapped.

Through this they were able to use LandScan, a gridded global population dataset, to estimate the

numbers of people living in geographies at risk for autochthonous ZIKV transmission. 9.9

million travellers departed from the identified Brazilian airports for international destinations,

with 65% to the Americas, 27% to Europe and 5% to Asia.Through this data they were able to

predict that Mexico, Colombia, and the US have an estimated 30-5, 23-2, and 22-7 million

people, respectively, living in areas conducive to year-round transmission.

This data is very useful to other scientists in the field. It presents a clear set of data that

shows areas where it is more likely for there to be ZIKV transmission. The data in this article,

although not an experiment, is very well laid-out and organized. It is done so in a manner that

makes it very easy for the reader to understand, and allows other scientists to use the data to

apply it to their experiments and predictions for the virus.

Butch, Rachel. "Scientists Screen Existing Drugs in Hopes of Fast-tracking Zika Treatment." The
Hub. Johns Hopkins University, 29 Aug. 2016. Web. 22 Sept. 2016.
<http://hub.jhu.edu/2016/08/29/zika-treament-drug-screening/>.

The current outbreak of Zika, which began in South America, is known to cause

microcephaly in unborn infants. Normal new drug development takes years upon years, and the

sudden and current outbreak has created a need for a cure now. Scientists are attempting to
fast-track the treatment process by testing current existing drugs to see if they can find one that

works. Investigators have already screened over 6,000 existing compounds currently in late-stage

clinical trials or are already approved for human use for other conditions. The screening process

identified several compounds that have the ability to halt or hinder the virus in lab grown neural

cells. Zika mainly targets specialized stem cells that give rise to neurons in the brain's outer

layer, or cortex. In the study, researchers exposed similar cell cultures to the zika virus and the

drugs one at a time, measuring for things like cell death and ATP, whose presence is indicative

of cell vitality.The damage done to neural cells after infection is usually dramatic and

irreversible, but further study of the screening showed that there are two classes of promising

drugs: neuroprotective drugs, which prevent the activation of mechanisms that cause cell death,

and antiviral drugs, which which slow or stop viral infection or replication. Overall there were

three drugs that were robust enough to warrant further study - PHA-690509, emricasan, and

niclosamide.

This research is conducted by a collaboration between Johns Hopkins School of

Medicine, NIH, and Florida State University. Because it normally takes so long to develop, test

and then release a drug to the public, screening existing drugs that could lead to a treatment is the

quickest way to possibly go towards a cure. This research is well laid-out and organized, and the

results are very clear-cut. This is very helpful for other research groups that are also looking into

drug development for treatments, because it provides basic guidelines for types of drugs that will

be effective in treating the virus.

Enfissi, Antoine, John Codrington, Jimmy Roosblad, Mirdad Kazanji, and Dominique Rousset.
"Zika Virus Genome from the Americas." The Lancet. The Lancet, 7 Jan. 2016. Web. 10
Oct. 2016.
<http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)00003-9/fulltext>.

Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 in Uganda and originally thought to cause benign

human infections in Africa and Asia. However, in 2007, there was a documented outbreak on

Yap Island, Micronesia, and in 2013-14 there was a large epidemic in French Polynesia before it

spread throughout the Pacific. The most recent circulation of ZIKV was found in the Americas,

in northeast Brazil in 2015, and Colombia followed by Suriname, in 2016. In the cases detected

in Suriname, viral sequencing was done directly from the sera of four of the patients, and

complete coding of the ZIKV sequence was obtained for one patient and envelope protein coding

sequences for the other three. There are very few complete genomes available for ZIKV, and

until this analysis, none in the Americas. The Suriname strains belong to the Asian genotype and

are more closely related to the strain that was circulating in French Polynesia.

This research is very useful for looking and phylogenetic connections between the strains

of ZIKV. It allows the reader to make connections between the past strains in an attempt to

prevent future strains and epidemics from occurring. The paper is well organised and formatted

in a very orderly manner that allows the reader to travel from one thought process to another. It

also provides a phylogenetic tree of all known sequences of ZIKV to date which is very helpful

in making historical connections.

Fauci, Anthony S., and David M. Morens. "Zika Virus in the Americas - Yet Another Arbovirus

Threat." New England Journal of Medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 28 Feb.
2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmp1600297#t=article>.

This article provides a broad spectrum view and background of Zika virus. It describes

how Zika fits in with other arboviruses (predominantly RNA viruses transmitted by arthropods)

and how it has evolved from the mimld disease it was in the past to the large epidemic of the

present. Because zika, dengue, and chikungunya have such similar clinical pictures, it confounds

clinical diagnosis. The article discusses the lack of vaccines for Zika, and how development of a

vaccine would face a lot of similar problems to vaccines for other arboviruses such as

chikungunya, West Nile, and St. Louis, encephalitis, which is that epidemics appear sporadically

and unpredictably. This makes preemptive vaccinations very difficult and expensive. The article

discusses the importance of researching other arbovirus groups that are currently relatively

unimportant.

This article is good for helping people who are not experts in the field and who have

lesser knowledge and experience on this topic to better understand what ZIKV is and how it

affects people. It helps to describe in detail the connection between zika and other arboviruses.

The article is well organized, and it flows very well from topic to topic. This really makes people

think about the other kinds of arboviruses and whether researching them, especially some of the

more unimportant ones, will help to accelerate the search for a cure to zika.

Fauci, Anthony S. Personal or phone interview.

Anthony Fauci is the director of NIAID, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious

Diseases, which is part of the NIH. The NIAID is currently working on the frontiers of
developing a vaccine candidate for ZIKV. They are using an approach to ZIKV that is similar to

that used for another investigational vaccine developed by NIAID for West Nile virus.

Interviewing him on what NIAID is working on in terms of a vaccine, and the research and

experiments being done there will help me identify the most important aspects of the virus that

scientists are currently focusing on when searching for treatment, and how they are breaking

down this huge disease.

"Female Mosquitoes Can Transmit Zika Virus to Their Eggs, Offspring." ScienceDaily.
ScienceDaily, 30 Aug. 2016. Web. 14 Oct. 2016.
<https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160830091524.htm>.

This article discusses the new research that as done at the University of Texas Medical

Branch that shows that female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes can pass the zika virus to their eggs and

offspring. It discussed how most of the current research has focused on the virus and its effects

on humans, but there is far less research on the virus in the mosquito host. Researchers injected

laboratory-reared A. aegypti with the virus. The mosquitoes were fed and laying eggs within the

next week. The researchers collected and incubated the eggs and reared the hatched larvae until

adult mosquitoes emerged. They cultured the adults and found the virus in one of every 290

mosquitoes tested. When considering this holistically in terms of a tropical urban community, it

is likely that that ratio is high enough to allow the virus to persist, even when infected adult

mosquitoes are killed. The paper also discussed some other viruses such as West Nile and St.

Louis encephalitis that have mosquitoes known to pass the viruses onto their offspring.

This research is very useful for people in the field who re studying the transmission on

the virus. It takes care to make its implications on viral control very clear. It writes in an
organized fashion, and does a good job going over the experiment that was performed, and how

it affects the rest of the field. It also helps to shift the focus of research more towards the

mosquito host, rather than focusing all resources on the virus and its effect on humans.

Geier, Martin, Hinrich Sass, and Jurgen Boeckh. Olfaction in Mosquito-Host Interactions. N.p.:
CIBA Foundation Symposium, n.d. Print.

This book explores the relevant components of human odour, and the olfactory

mechanisms for host recognition and orientation that are not completely understood. The

olfaction of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti was investigated extensively due to its

quick response to host stimuli. The authors were trying to identify the components odour that

play a role in identification of host location. A bioassay was conducted to identify attractive

components of the huamn extract, comparing the attractiveness of extracts to those of the natural

host odour in a behavioural test using a Y-tube wind tunnel. It was discovered that CO2

increases flight activity and is an attractant, and L-lactic acid alone is only a mild attractant, if at

all. However, when combined with CO2, L-lactic acid does act as a synergistic attractant,

although these two stimulants only partially explain the attractiveness of human host odour.

This book is very helpful for other experts and scientists working in the field. It discusses

the attractants of human body odor, and how L-lactic acid affects odour and attractiveness. It is

very organized, with an introduction, materials and methods, diagrams of the experiments

performed, results, and discussion. The experiment showed that Aedes aegypti found the natural

scent source of a human hand attractive, and that the mosquitoes can orient themselves well

towards these odor sources. However, the results regarding attractiveness of such odour sources

were not conclusive. Even though this is the case, other scientists in the field can look at this
research, and research done on other scent sources including sweat, urine and blood to develop

new tests to explore and better understand this very important area of study. Understanding the

attractants of body odor is important in developing some sort of bait for these mosquitoes that

can help reduce mosquito-transmitted diseases such as zika, dengue, and malaria.

Geier, Martin, Oliver J. Bosch, and Jrgen Boeckh. "Ammonia as an Attractive Component of
Host Odour for the Yellow Fever Mosquito, Aedes Aegypti." Chem. Senses. Oxford
University Press, 14 June 1999. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
<http://m.chemse.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/6/647.full>.

Olfactory cues are widely used by bloodsucking insects to detect and find their sources

for blood meals. Almost all mosquito species use carbon dioxide as an alerting and attractive

signal, and L-lactic acid, a major component in breath and on human skin, attracts A. aegypti in

that it acts as an essential synergist when combined with CO2 as well as with volatiles from the

skin. Previous studies with A. aegypti have revealed that other components besides lactic acid

contribute to the high attractiveness of human skin residues, although the other components were

only attractive in combination with lactic acid. Ammonia is a promising candidate of such an

attractant.The authors of this paper decided to test ammonia in combination with lactic acid. The

data presented clearly demonstrates an attractive effect of ammonia of A. aegypti in

concentration ranges which exist around or downwind from human hosts.

This paper is very useful for other scientists in this field and doing research in this area of

study. It concludes that A. aegypti are sensitive to ammonia at the levels which are given off by

humans with their breath as well as from their skin. It also provides a reference point for future

experiments and research that will be done in this field, and provides an explanation for the

results of previous tests that could not find behavioural responses to ammonia stimuli because
they did not test it together with lactic acid. The paper is very well organized, with an

introduction, materials and methods, figures, results, and discussion.

Haddow, Andrew D., Amy J. Schuh, Chadwick Y. Yasuda, Matthew R. Kasper, Vireak Heang,
Rekol Huy, Hilda Guzman, Robert B. Hesh, and Scott C. Weaver. "Genetic
Characterization of Zika Virus Strains: Geographic Expansion of the Asian Lineage."
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases:. PLOS, 28 Feb. 2012. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0001477>.

Previously, little was known about genetic relationships between ZIKV strains collected

in Africa and those collected in Asia. This research indicates that there are two geographically

distinct lineages of ZIKV, African and Asian. The virus has circulated in Southeast Asia for at

least 50 years, where it was introduced to Yap Island resulting in an epidemic in 2007. The

scientists sequenced five strains obtained from the world reference Center for Emerging Viruses

and Arboviruses at the University of Texas Medical Branch. The paper describes the methods

and results of their experiment, and analyses it and discusses it. The results strengthen previous

epidemiologic evidence that the Yap Island strain originated in Southeast Asia.

The research being done is very useful for making historical connections between past

emergent strains of ZIKV and the current one. The paper is very well formatted, with the

introduction, methods, results, discussion, and summary very well laid out. The research clearly

presents the connection between the Yap Island strain and other strains originating from Asia. It

is very useful for trying to figure out how the Asian lineage of ZIKV has spread, versus how the

African lineage has.

Hayes, Edward B. "Zika Virus Outside Africa." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Sept. 2009. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/9/09-0442_article>.

This articles dives into area that zika virus affects outside of Africa. It discusses many

aspects of zika, including how it was discovered, the dynamics of transmission, virology and

pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and public health implications. It discussions

research done by other scientists. For example, it talks about the research of Boorman and

Porterfield, which demonstrated transmission of ZIKV to mice and monkeys by Ae. aegypti in a

laboratory. It also discusses possible ways that ZIKV can infect human cells, and the illness and

effects of acquiring ZIKV illness.

This article is a good resource to generate historical pathways of the virus, and to

generate possible pathways forward. It is well organized, and is able to cover a wide variety of

issues to be dealt with. The article can prove to be very helpful to people who are not experts in

the field but are interested in learning more about the different aspects of the topic.

Jolly, Jennifer. "High Tech Hope for Repelling Mosquitoes." The New York Times. The New
York
Times, 11 Aug. 2015. Web. 1 Nov. 2016.
<http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/high-tech-hope-for-repelling-mosquitoes/?_r
=0>.

This article discusses the effectiveness of various mosquito repellents in a field trial she

did in Alaska. The author first tried an array of kid-safe bands doused in natural plant oils such

as citronella, geranium oil, rosemary, lemongrass, and mint. She also tried a slap-on bracelet

called Buglet, a plastic wearable called Bugband and a Velcro version called Parakito. She

discovered that they didnt keep mosquitoes away for very long. They didnt land directly on the
bands, but they would bite a few inches away. She also used something called an Off Clip On,

which is a cellphone size fan that attaches to the top of pants or a pocket and circulates an

odorless repellent made with metofluthrin when a switch is flipped.While it was more effective

than the bands, it is more suited for sitting relatively still. Then she tried soaking her clothing in

permethrin a synthetic chemical that acts like the natural extracts from the chrysanthemum

flower and kills insects when they puncture it. It worked well, but didnt protect bits of bare skin.

The best results were discovered when she used bug spray with DEET. She then visited Kite,

where they are currently developing the Kite Patch, a patch that provides full body protection

from mosquitoes. There, she tested the effectiveness of the patch by first placing her untreated

arm inside a fish-tank-like test box filled with mosquitoes, then using an array of products

including bands, clothing and spray, then using the patch. What she discovered was that when

she wore the patch, no mosquitoes landed anywhere near her arm. It works by confusing the

mosquitoes senses hindering its ability to target us based on the carbon dioxide we exhale, and

confounding its capacity to locate us up close.

I thought this article was very interesting, because of the way the patch she discusses

works. She was unable to discover what the exact blend in the patch is, but she did find out that it

confused mosquitoes senses. I thought this was interesting because many of the other research

papers I have read were inconclusive in the discussions of their results. There is the possibility

that the patch protects the upper body such as the arms, but not the lower body such as the legs.

More research and field tests will need to be done on the patch before it can be released in 2017.

However, once more tests have been done, looking at the blend in the patch will be very helpful
for determining the best combination of attractants to confuse the olfactory responses of the A.

aegypti.

Lanciotti, Robert S., Olga L. Kosoy, Janeen J. Laven, Jason O. Velez, Amy J. Lambert, Alison J.
Johnson, Stephanie M. Stanfield, and Mark R. Duffy. "Genetic and Serologic Properties
of Zika Virus Associated with an Epidemic, Yap State, Micronesia, 2007."Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 13 July
2010. Web. 10 Oct. 2016. <http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/8/08-0287_article>.

This report looks at the serologic parameters of the immune response among

ZIKV-infected humans. Historically, ZIKV has rarely been associated with human disease.

However, they report that ZIKV epidemics besides the one in Yap State may have occurred but

been misdiagnosed as dengue because of similar clinical symptoms and serologic cross-reactivity

with DENV. The serologic data derived from this experiment indicates that ZIKV infected

patients can be positive in an IgM(Immunoglobulin M) assay for DENVs, especially if ZIKV is a

secondary flavivirus infection. If it is the first flavivirus encountered, the data indicates that

cross-reactivity is minimal. When ZIKV infection occurs after a flavivirus infection, the extent

of the cross-reactivity in the IgM assay is greater. Therefore, if ZIKV infections occur in a

population with DENV or other flavivirus background immunity, the data suggests that extensive

cross-reactivity in the dengue IgM assay will occur, which could lead to the erroneous

conclusion that dengue caused the epidemic.

This research is very good for examining possibilities for why ZIKV has transformed

from a benign disease with rare cases of human infections to the large epidemic it is now in the

Americas. The data is very well presented and organized in a way that is very easy for the reader

to understand where the results come from and how it relates to the discussion occurring. The

paper includes the introduction, methods, results, and discussion. It takes the data that was
collected and analyze it to connect it to the current strain, and discusses its relationship with

DENV. This is very useful for other researchers in the field to re-examine previous cases of

dengue epidemics to see if it had any connections or cases of zika virus.

Lyons, Saralyn. "Zika Virus: Expert Discusses Its Evolution and the Challenges of Developing
Effective Treatments." The Hub. Johns Hopkins University, 04 Feb. 2016. Web. 22 Sept.
2016. <http://hub.jhu.edu/2016/02/04/sexually-transmitted-zika-virus/>.

This article is an interview with molecular biologist Andrew Pekosz, director of the

Center For Emerging Viruses and Infectious Diseases at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of

Public Health. He discusses how viruses like Zika evolve, where he says that there are many

viruses like the Zika virus that spread in limited fashion in those areas, and every once in a while

is makes a large jump in terms of penetrating and expanding. He discusses how the primary

factors driving the expansion of this virus is still unknown, and if this strain has the same

sequence it did 20 years ago. There is also the possibility that the virus could have changed its

mode of transmission, which is not unusual for these types of viruses. He talks about the

challenges that scientists face coming into this situation. The immune response needed to prevent

infection is still unknown, and what it takes to protect someone from Zika is also unknown. The

immune response in humans is the most important area that needs to be explored first. This could

take a very long time, which is why it is important to devise strategies to protect certain groups

of people that are at a particular risk of being infected.

This article goes very in-depth with an expert to discuss several different aspects of the

virus. The questions are very important in allowing the reader to develop a fundamental

understanding of the virus and how it operates. The article is very well formatted and is

organized in a way that makes it very easy for the reader to understand. This is very helpful for
people to get firsthand the knowledge and insight of an expert on the complicated issues that

surround this virus.

McMeniman, Conor. Personal or phone interview.

Conor McMeniman is an assistant professor at the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research

Institute at the Bloomberg School. Him and his team were awarded grants by the USAID in

August for research that will focus on what parts of the human scent are attractive to Aedes

aegypti, with the goal of mimicking the scent of humans to develop a powerful lure that can be

used as bait in mosquito traps. This is very similar to the research that I have recently been doing

about mosquitoes and their behavioral responses to certain scents. Interviewing him about the

research his team is doing on the human scent and mosquitoes will help me to identify which

chemicals of the human scent is most prominent in activating the olfactory centers of the

mosquito brain, and how they can use this information to create the best chemical lure.

Mlakar, Jernej, Misa Korva, Nataa Tul, Mara Popovi, Mateja Poljak-Prijatelj, Jerica Mraz,
Marko Kolenc, Katarina Resman Rus, Tina Vesnaver Vipotnik, Vesna Fabjan Voduek,
Alenka Vizjak, Joe Piem, Miroslav Petrovec, and Tatjana Avi upanc. "Zika Virus
Associated with Microcephaly NEJM." New England Journal of Medicine. New
England Journal of Medicine, 10 Mar. 2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1600651#t=article>.

This article is a case report on the connection between ZIKV and microcephaly. It

examines cases of pregnant women infected with zika, and the development of their fetuses. It

examines a case of a healthy European woman who had become pregnant at the end of February

2015, and during the 13th week of gestation, she was infected with ZIKV. Ultrasonography

performed at 14 and 20 weeks of gestation showed normal fetal growth and anatomy.
Ultrasonographic examination performed at 29 weeks of gestation showed the first signs of fetal

anomalies, and around that time the patient also noticed reduced fetal movements. At 32 weeks

of gestation, ultrasonography confirmed intrauterine growth retardation with normal amniotic

fluid, a head circumference below the second percentile for gestation (microcephaly), a

transcerebellar diameter below the second percentile, blurred brain structures, and numerous

calcifications in various parts of the brain. This raised suspicion of fetal viral infection. The

pregnancy was terminated at 32 weeks of gestation, where at the delivery, the only morphologic

anomaly was the prominent microcephaly. The research showed that the association between

ZIKV infection and fetal brain anomalies were consistent with findings of ZIKV detection in the

fetal brain. Further research is needed to better understand the potential implications of these

observations.

The research done in this case study shows a very strong connection between ZIKV

infections in pregnant women and microcephaly. It shows how the amount of fetal damage

changes based on how long it has developed before being infected. The paper is very well

formatted, with the research being written out in a way that is easy for the reader to understand

and make connections. It includes the introduction, case study, methods, results, and discussion.

The paper takes the results and the study and uses it to analyze and make connections between

ZIKV infection of pregnant women and fetal microcephaly.

Musso, Didier, Claudine Roche, Emilie Robin, Tuxuan Nhan, Anita Teissier, and Van-Mai
Cao-Lormeau. "Potential Sexual Transmission of Zika Virus." (n.d.): n. pag. Center for
Disease Control. Center for Disease Control, Feb. 2015. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/41450281/Musso_D_et_al__fev_20
15_-_Potential_Sexual_Transmission_of_Zika_Virus.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56
TQJRTWSMTNPEA&Expires=1476421275&Signature=1hHwKGpkLV6A%2BliV6vfta
a6vWhs%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DPotential_Sexu
al_Transmission_of_Zika_Vi.pdf>.

This paper describes the study done on a 44-year-old man in Tahiti who contracted

ZIKV. After returning to his home in the US, he began to experience common symptoms of

ZIKV infection and symptoms of prostatitis. Four days later he observed signs of

hematospermia, and on the same day, his wife who had not traveled out of the country during the

previous year also had symptoms of ZIKV infection. Because of this, transmission by semen was

suggested. ZIKV infection of the patient and his wife was confirmed by serologic testing. The

authors of this paper conducted an experiment using the mans semen samples, and detected high

ZIKV RNA load and replicative ZIKV. The detection of ZIKV in both the urine and the semen

was consistent with the results obtained in a Japanese study pertaining to boars. The authors

concluded that their findings supported the hypothesis that ZIKV can be transmitted by sexual

intercourse.

This research is very useful for researchers in the field who are looking into different

ways the virus can be transmitted. The case study and examinations are very clearly laid out and

well organized. The paper is written in a way that allows the reader to follow along, even if they

are not experts in the field. It also makes several connections between the transmission of ZIKV

and other flaviviruses.

Musso, Didier, Tuxuan Nhan, Emilie Robin, Claudine Roche, Damien Bierlaire, Karen Zisou,
Aurore Shan Yan, Van-Mai Cao-Lormeau, and Julien Broult. "Potential for Zika Virus
Transmission through Blood Transfusion Demonstrated during an Outbreak in French
Polynesia, November 2013 to February 2014." (n.d.): n. pag. Euro Surveill. Euro
Surveill, 10 Apr. 2014. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
<http://insanemedicine.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Potential-for-Zika-virus-transm
ission-through-blood-tranfusion-in-French-Polynesia.pdf>.

This paper was on an experiment meant to test whether ZIKV could be transmitted

through blood transfusion. It was examining samples from the French Polynesia outbreak. It

discusses the main challenge in the prevention of arbovirus transfusion-derived transmission,

which is the high rate of asymptomatic infections. Because French Polynesia is in such a

geographically isolated location, it was impossible to import fresh blood products to be used

from blood bank centers. During this experiment, they were looking at the sequencing analysis of

the RT-PCR assay of a ZIKV NAT. They detected an unexpectedly high number of positive

asymptomatic blood donors. To date, no post-transfusion ZIKV infection has been reported in

recipients of ZIKV positive blood in French Polynesia, but studies are still ongoing. The findings

of the study suggest that ZIKA NAT should be used to prevent blood transfusion-transmitted

ZIKV.

This research is very useful for other researchers in the field who want to learn more

about how this virus spreads, and the different ways that it can be transmitted from person to

person. The paper is very well organised, with an introduction, background, sample collection,

results/analysis, and discussion. The paper is also very helpful in providing a jump-off place for

other researchers to start testing and hopefully achieving more grounded quantitative results.
Park, Alice. "Zika Virus Reduces Male Fertility In Mice." Time. Time, 31 Oct. 2016. Web. 01
Nov. 2016. <http://time.com/4550172/zika-virus-male-fertility/>.

This article discusses new and recent evidence suggesting that zika virus could interfere

with the male reproductive tract and male fertility. It discusses the results of the studies done by

Dr. Michael Diamond, professor of medicine, molecular biology, pathology, and immunology at

Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, and his team.They reported in a paper

published in Nature that ZIKV may cause more extensive danger to fertility than previously

thought. Their extensive studies discovered that the effect of ZIKV on male mice is two-fold:

first on the architecture, including the early sperm cells and the Sertoli cells in the testes as well

as the seminiferous tubules, which interferes with the development of sperm released, and affect

the sperm stem cells, producing fewer sperm. It is still unclear whether similar damage is being

done in the testes of men infected with ZIKV; more research is needed to better understand this

process.

The research done by Diamond is very important for other scientists currently doing

similar research in this field. This evidence is very recent, and its implication are still unclear. It

raises concerns for the need to study men alongside women and babies infected with the virus. It

may be that we will need to start treating men much more aggressively than originally thought.

Until now, management of ZIKV in men has focused primarily on preventing transmission,

especially sexual transmission, of the virus. Another issue that needs to be solved is why related

viruses like West Nile or dengue do not seem to cause the same damage to the testes in the mice

that were tested as Zika.

"Prevention of Sexual Transmission of Zika Virus." World Health Organization. World Health
Organization, 6 Sept. 2016. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/zika/sexual-transmission-prevention/en/>
.
This is an interim guidance update created by the World Health Organization to inform

and provide advice to people on the prevention of sexual transmission of Zika virus. The review

consists of recent evidence on sexual transmission of Zika virus, which includes sexual

transmission from asymptomatic males to their female partners, symptomatic females to their

male partners, and longer shedding of Zika virus in semen. It discusses several reports on the

sexual transmission of Zika virus, including seven studies on symptomatic male to female

transmission, one study on male to male transmission, one study on female to male transmission,

two studies on asymptomatic male to female transmission, four case-reports reported by the

International Health Regulations National Focal Points, two case-reports described through

government/news media, and eight studies published on the presence of Zika virus in semen. It

goes on to describe each case in detail, discussing the modes of sexual transmission and the

presence of the virus in semen.

This review is intended to inform the general public about Zika virus its modes of sexual

transmission, and to be used by healthcare workers and policy makers to provide guidance on

appropriate sexual practices in the context of Zika virus. It is helpful for men and women

travelling from areas of active Zika transmission, or who have sexual partners who have recently

travelled from areas of active Zika transmission. The end of the review provides

recommendations from the WHO about things health programmes should ensure, and things the

general public should be aware of in terms of Zika virus.

Staff, Hub. "Zika Virus: Questions Remain about Transmission, Prevention." The Hub. Johns
Hopkins University, 25 Feb. 2016. Web. 22 Sept. 2016.
<http://hub.jhu.edu/2016/02/25/zika-virus-whats-next/>.

This article is a closer look at what experts in the field had to say about the virus when

they gathered together at a Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health symposium to

discuss the different aspects of the virus. They discussed how to develop and effective vaccine, a

question that Steve Whitehead, from the Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, presented about. He

presented the standard pathway for vaccine development, which includes animal test models,

preparing materials, and conducting three phases of human trials to ensure safety and efficacy. A

vaccine following this pathway could take at least 5 years. Jeanne Sheffield, director of Division

of Maternal-Fetal Medicine presented on how long women should wait to get pregnant after

being infected, which is as now now over four weeks. Experts discussed the rates and routes of

infection, which included discussion of the possibility of sexually transmitting the disease, how

often pregnant women pass the disease to their fetus, and the likelihood that a zika-infected fetus

will develop microcephaly. There was also a discussion on where the virus is present in the body

and the routes it could take to infect others. Finally, the scientists discussed the ethical

implications of this Zika outbreak.

This article is very useful for learning more about the basics of how the virus operates

and background on why it is so important to find a cure. It is very well laid-out and organized,

and it allows people who do not have as much understanding of the topic to learn from experts in

this field of science. There are many things about the Zika virus that are very elusive and

unclear, so the more knowledge that can be obtained from people working in the frontier of the

field, the better people understand.

Staff / Published Sept 27, 2016, Hub. "Four Johns Hopkins Research Teams Win Funding to
Combat Zika Virus." The Hub. Johns Hopkins University, 10 Aug. 2016. Web. 22 Sept.
2016. <http://hub.jhu.edu/2016/08/10/usaid-zika-challenge-grants/>.

Four research teams at Johns Hopkins University were awarded grants from the US

Agency for International Developments Combating Zika and Future Threats Grand Challenge.

The research of Conor McMeniman, and assistant professor at the Johns Hopkins Malaria

Research Institute at Bloomberg School will focus on what parts of the human scent are

attractive to Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that carries the Zika virus. The goal is to mimic the

scent of humans to develop a powerful lure that can be used as bait in mosquito traps.

McMeniman and his team will use two-photon microscopy to see which of the chemicals of

human scent activate the olfactory centers of the mosquito brain. The second grant was awarded

to George Dimopoulos, a professor at the Malaria Institute. His team has identified a new

bacterium, Chromobacterium Csp_P, which can kill larvae and adults of various species of

mosquito that transmit several viruses. His goal is to develop the bacteria into a mosquito control

biopesticide. The third grant will go to Bloomberg School's Center for Communication

Programs where they will study the effects of changing household and community behaviors on

the spreading of the virus. The final project is lef by Soumyadipta Acharya, an assistant

professor in JHUs Department of Biomedical Engineering, who proposed a modified trap that

would have the ability to provide real time data to health administrators, community health

workers, etc.

This article is good for letting people learn what is going on in the community right now,

and the possible routes that scientists are planning to take on their search for a cure. The types of

projects proposed by each team is vastly different in the area of the virus it is studying, which
shows that there is no singular path that scientists take to find a cure. The article is organized in a

way that lays out the four teams, their projects, and their goals. This is very helpful for trying to

figure out possible projects and paths to take, and provides a lot of possible mentors to choose

from.

"Surveillance and Control of Aedes Aegypti and Aedes Albopictus in the United States."
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 36.47 (1987): 769-73. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. US Department of Health and Human Services, 30 Aug. 2016.
Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/pdfs/surveillance-and-control-of-aedes-aegypti-and-ae
des-albopictus-us.pdf>.

This article is about how arboviruses in general are distributed, how to prevent and

control them, vector surveillance, mosquito surveillance, and vector control. It discusses how

people are the primary vertebrate hosts, and the life cycle and estimated range of the A. aegypti

and A. albopictus. It also discusses how developing detailed maps to track larval sites if they are

detected in an area and monitoring the effectiveness of vector control effort is important in

prevention and control. In terms of vector surveillance and control recommendations, it discusses

what to do before mosquito season(conduct surveys, campaigns focusing on reducing or

elimination larval habitats for A. aegypti and A. albopictus vectors, etc.), at the beginning of

mosquito season(continue campaigns, etc), during a single or several cases(begin public

mosquito containment education campaign), and what to do during an outbreak(identify and

treat, modify, or remove mosquito-producing containers, etc.). Then it discusses mosquito-based

surveillance indicators such as larval surveys, pupal surveys, etc. Finally, it discusses vector

control, and control of immature stages, commonly used control methods such as environmental

sanitation and larvicides, and biological control.

 This article was intended for vector control professionals, but it also provides a great

in-depth understanding of how to prevent and track the spreading of mosquitoes related to

arboviruses. It allows people living in an area with an outbreak of arboviruses to understand how

to better control and prevent these diseases from occurring, and how to track them so as to

minimize their impacts. The article is very organized, with a table of contents, an overview, and

multiple picture and graphs to help the reader comprehend and understand what they are reading.

Takken, Williem. "The Role of Olfaction in Host-Seeking of Mosquitoes: A Review |

International Journal of Tropical Insect Science | Cambridge Core." Cambridge Core.
International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 19 Sept. 2011. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
<https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-tropical-insect-scienc
e/article/the-role-of-olfaction-in-host-seeking-of-mosquitoes-a-review/3B111178C42BF
D66A2F09E77B2DB2AA5>.

This review focuses on air-borne chemical cues that blood seeking mosquitoes use to

locate a host. A distinction is made between short and long range attraction, in which CO2 is

involved in both processes; it activates and attracts mosquitoes. The review discusses the three

groups that bodily emanations from the host that contain olfactory cues can be divided into - skin

emanations, exhaled air, and urine. Although each one is attractive to mosquitoes, there is little

knowledge about the chemical compounds that cause the attraction. Chemical identification and

subsequent confirmation of attractiveness for mosquitoes has not been reported.

This review is very helpful in contributing to the general discussion and research being

done in this field right now. Very little is known about the chemical compounds and specific

attractants from the body that contain olfactory cues. The review discusses at the end that host

preference in mosquitoes is species-specific, and varies from highly specific to opportunistic.

More research on this area of olfaction in host seeking mosquitoes needs to be done before

solutions for arboviruses can start being proposed.

University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. "UTMB Scientists Find Link between Aedes
Aegypti Mosquito and Zika Virus Transmission." News-Medical.net. AZO Network, 22
July 2016. Web. 20 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.news-medical.net/news/20160722/UTMB-scientists-find-link-between-Aed
es-aegypti-mosquito-and-Zika-virus-transmission.aspx>.

University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, along with colleagues from Mexico

were the first to directly connect the Aedes aegypti with Zika transmission in the Americas.

When the ZIKV outburst first began, scientists suspected that other types of mosquitoes such as

the Culex quinquefasciatus could be involved.So to further investigate, researchers from the

Mexican National Institute of Public Health completed a house-to-house survey to identify

patients who met the World Health Organization case definition of a zika virus infection. They

collected 119 blood samples with permission from people suspected of zika vireus infection. It

was confirmed in 21 percent of the samples tested. They then gatheredadult mposquitoes in and

around 69 homes of suspected zika patients. The virus was indentified in serveral A. aegypti

samples but not in other mosquitoes species.

This article is very helpful for other scientists in the field and who are studying ZIKV or

other similar arboviruses. It allows them to narrow their field of search and focus solely on the A.

aegypti, increasing the efficiency in this search for a cure. It has eliminated the possibility of the

C. quinquefasciatus carrying ZIKV, which was another possible zika vector. It also describes the

research done by the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston and the Mexico National
Institute of Public Health. It gives a brief overview of the methods and results of the research,

which can be used by other scientists to replicate the experiment.

Williams, Shawna. "Sophisticated 'mini-brains' Add to Evidence of Zika's Toll on Fetal Cortex."
The Hub. Johns Hopkins University, 22 Apr. 2016. Web. 22 Sept. 2016.
<http://hub.jhu.edu/2016/04/22/zika-mini-brains-cortex-3d-print-bioreactor/>.

Johns Hopkins researchers have identified a key process by which zika virus causes

microcephaly and other damage in fetal brains. The researchers used mini-brains in their

experiments which they claim are truer to life and more cost-effective than similar research

models. With these mini brains, scientists have been able to confirm that zika infects specialized

stem cells in the brain's cortex. Hongjun Song and his partner Guo-li Ming have used a new

bioreactor using 3-D printing, Spin, to make three types of mini-brains mimicking the front,

middle and back of a human brain. The mini-brain is very useful because it allows scientists to

model the effect of zika virus exposure during different stages of pregnancy. They discovered

that if the infection occurred very early in development, the effects were very severe. After a

while, the mini brain would stop growing and disintegrate. If infection occurred at a later stage, it

caused growth to be slower and the cortex to be thinner.

This research, done by Hongjun Song and Guo-li Ming has the ability to have hundreds

of different scientific applications. The relativity of the mini-brain model allows for scientists to

get a better grasp of what is occurring in which parts of the brain. The increased accuracy of the

mini-brain also allows for more research application of other kinds, not just in dealing with Zika.
World Health Organization. "Zika Virus." World Health Organization. World Health
Organization, 6 Sept. 2016. Web. 20 Oct. 2016.
<http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/zika/en/>.

This is a background fact sheet created by the World Health Organization. It discusses

several key aspects of ZIKV, including signs and symptoms, complications, transmission,

diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. For ZIKV, the incubation period(time between contraction

and symptoms) is not very clear, but the symptoms are similar to those of other arboviruses such

as dengue, fever, skin rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise, and headache; mild,

and lasting from 2 - 7 days. Intensive efforts are currently underway to determine the link

between ZIKV and other neurological disorders such as microcephaly and Guillain-Barre

syndrome. This article also discusses how symptoms and travel history are a large part of

diagnosis, and how there are no treatments currently available. It also discusses how to prevent

ZIKV by protecting oneself from mosquito bites, and avoiding sexual intercourse for a period of

six months for men and women who are returning from areas of active transmission.

This article is very useful for people who want to learn more about ZIKV across the

globe. It discusses the key facts about zika, and provides important information about prevention

of the virus. The World Health Organization is a group that works with offices and governments

across the globe in an effort to combat diseases. This article is useful background for all

scientists or people interested in this topic. It also helps bring awareness to people of what to

look for when infection is suspected, and the dangers of this virus. At the end of the article, it

discusses the WHO response, and the actions the WHO are taking to support countries to control

Zika virus disease.

(www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. "Vietnam Reports First Microcephaly Case Probably Linked to
Zika Virus | News | DW.COM | 30.10.2016." DW.COM. Deutsche Welle, 30 Oct. 2016.
Web. 03 Nov. 2016.
<http://www.dw.com/en/vietnam-reports-first-microcephaly-case-probably-linked-to-zika
-virus/a-36202777>.

The first case of microcephaly has been reported by Vietnam, where a 4-month old girl

born with an unusually small brain was reported to have symptoms in line with zika virus. The

General Department of Preventive Medicine reported that antibodies specific to Zika were later

reported in both the child and the mother, who was diagnosed while pregnant. Vietnam now

joins neighbor Thailand, where two cases of microcephaly were reported in September. Vietnam

has nine confirmed cases of ZIKV, with more expected. Earlier this month, the country raised the

threat level for Zika and increased monitoring of pregnant women after detecting more cases

amid growing outbreaks in nearby regions.

This article is helpful in keeping up to date with ZIKV and its spread. The main focus and

buzz surrounding Zika currently is in the Americas, but this article shows that the virus is

spreading very quickly, and preventative measures need to be taken to ensure that epidemic

outbreaks dont occur throughout other regions as well. It is interesting to see articles about the

spread of ZIKV into other regions when there is currently a large emphasis being placed on

health officials to educate the general public on preventing its spread. Discovering why it has

spread can perhaps help to increase or change the way preventative measures are being

introduced and implemented in countries where it is imminent.

"Zika in Texas." Zika in Texas. Texas Department of State Health Services, n.d. Web. 20 Oct.
2016. <http://www.texaszika.org/transmission.htm>.

This article discusses multiple aspects of zika virus. It discusses the means of

transmission, which include mosquito bites, mother to child transmission, blood transfusion and

sexual contact. It delves deeper in the possibilities of the virus spreading through sexual contact

and blood transfusion, explaining that the virus persists longer in semen than in blood, although

the duration of persistence is yet to be determined, and although there have been no confirmed

cases of blood transfusion transmission cases to date, blood donors at risk for zika virus are

advised by the FDA to postpone blood donations for four weeks. It also discusses how the virus

is contracted, through the A. aegypti, and the areas in Texas it can be found in. Lastly, it

discusses how it can be spread to mosquitoes through humans, and how it can cause birth

defects.

This article is very helpful for people who live in areas where the virus is starting to

spread, especially Texans. It discusses all aspects of ZIKV, from contraction/transmission to

symptoms and disorders. It includes lots of advice from the CDC and FDA, which are helpful,

reliable sources for people looking to learn more about the virus. It also cites many other sites

that include helpful information about ZIKV, so it is a very useful resource for people to find

other sources and materials if they want to do more research.

Carey, Allison F., and John R. Carlson. "Insect Olfaction from Model Systems to Disease
Control." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America. National Academy of Sciences, 09 Aug. 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2017.
<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3156210/>.
 This paper looks into the mechanisms of insect olfaction. It discusses the many olfactory

organs within insects, including antennae and sensilla. It discusses ORNs and odor receptors, and

how odorants reach these receptors, usually through an aqueous lymph. Odor coding, how odor

identity is encoded by a repertoire of neurons and proteins is also important, along with central

processing of olfactory signals and the link between stimulus and behavior. Finally, it discusses

the olfaction in various insects, including the A. aegypti, before giving various perspectives on

the science and technology involved with olfaction and vector insects.

This is helpful for scientists because it allows them to get a closer look at specific

olfactory functions within the bodies of insects. While certain things about these olfactory senses

are still unknown, this is an excellent starting place. Learning the basic mechanisms involved

with insect olfaction may lead to means of disrupting host-seeking and other olfactory behaviors,

thereby reducing the transmission of deadly diseases. This paper is also very well organized, and

separates out the different mechanisms within different insect species.

Bohbot, Jonathan D., Nicolas F. Durand, Bryan T. Vinyard, and Joseph7 C. Dickens. "Functional
Development of the Octenol Response in Aedes Aegypti." Frontiers in Physiology.
Frontiers Media S.A., 7 Mar. 2013. Web. 02 Jan. 2017.
<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3590643/>.

This paper discusses how the olfactory system of insects is divided into olfactory receptor

neurons(ORNs), which constitute the peripheral olfactory system, and higher brain centers which

receie messages from the ORNs. It also talks about various olfactory mechamnisms including

club-shaped basionic sensilla that house specific ORNs that detect the attractants octenol and

CO2. It discusees several studies that show neural coexpression from the C cell. The authors

performed an experiment where they recorded the electrical activity of the C neuron. The
simple analysis did not identify a significant difference between the two age groups. But

additional simulations showed that the CO2+ octenol was more attractive than CO2 alone in 6

days old animals.

This article is useful because it discusses several chemical compounds discussed in other

prominent papers, such as CO2, lactic acid, and ammonia, but it also focuses heavily on the

insect's physiological state. It focuses mainly on females, and is very well organized, being

comprised of an introduction and background, materials and methods, results, and discussion.

For other scientists in the field looking to act in a more efficient manner in the fight against

diseases spread by the A. aegypti, this paper is a very good start to better finding solutions to

vector control through improved understanding of the A. aegypti olfactory system and odorants.

Matthews, Benjamin J., Carolyn Sarah Mcbride, Matthew DeGennaro, and Leslie B. Vosshall.
"The Neurotranscriptome of the Aedes Aegypti Mosquito (PDF Download Available)."
ResearchGate. BMC Genomics, 4 Feb. 2016. Web. 02 Jan. 2017.
<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289587025_The_neurotranscriptome_of_the_
Aedes_aegypti_mosquito>.

This research paper is looking into the complex genome and gene expression of adult A.

aegypti. The authors look at the neurotranscriptome of brain and peripheral nervous system

tissues in emaland male A. aegypti mosquitoes. The gathered data that presents a comprehensive

view of protein coding gene expression, whcih allowed them to examine the expression pattern

of genes derived from unassembled regions of the genome. It is understood that the effects of

blood-feeding on gene expression are broad. The authors attempted to identify gene expression

changes correlated with blood-feeding to gain insight into mechanisms of how a blood-meal may

influence behavior.
 This paper is very useful for other scientists in the field. The study is a valuable dataset of

gene expression in adult tissues, although the authors do admit that it remains incomplete. It is a

very organized paper, with background, results, discussion, conclusions, and methods. While

many papers and research at the moment focuses on the specific olfactory mechanisms of

mosquitoes, this paper focuses broadly on adult A. aegypti gene expression and the mechanisms

used to influence behavior based on a blood-meal in general. This provides a very good first step

for many scientists who want to step back and take a look at the bigger picture involved in

mosquito anatomy.