TDR Fault Locating Techniques

Abstract

When underground cables fail, it can be a very difficult, time consuming, and expensive process to
repair or replace the cable. This paper discusses how Time Domain Reflection (TDR) can help speed
up location time, and reduce costs when replacing underground cable. TDR fault locating uses radar
technology to help locate failures or imperfections in underground cable systems. This technology is
based on calculations of velocity of propagation and reflection coefficients characterized by a simple
RLC network. Failures in underground cable can be caused by water, change in insulation, and
concentric neutral corrosion. By using the three stake method and a TDR, users can typically
determine the location of the fault within 1% accuracy of the total cable length.

General

The TDR method can be compared to RADAR. Suitably shaped electrical pulses are transmitted
through the cable under test, and imperfections in the cable then cause reflections. By examining the
shape, size and time delay of these reflections, it's possible to determine the nature and location of an
imperfection, which may have been caused by a splice, cable transition, transformer, short, open, fault,
etc.

Transmit Pulse

The size and shape of waveforms are described as pulse width and amplitude. Pulses used in TDRs are very
narrow and most systems start as low as 50ns for short lengths, and up to 5 or 10s for longer lengths. Internal
pulse amplitudes normally ranges from 15V to 20V; this minimal amount of energy poses no danger to the
operator and does not cause any damage to the cable under test.

Characteristic Impedance

Cable impedance designs can be described as a distributed parameter of an electric network. The
network design of a power cable is shown in Fig 1.

L= Series inductance of stored energy in the magnetic field per unit length
C= Shunt capacitance of stored energy in the electric field per unit length
R= Series resistance per unit length
G= Losses in the dielectric by the shunt resistance per unit length
Z0= Combined parameter characteristic impedance
*Z0 for power cables has a value between 1075.

FIG. 1 - DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER ELECTRIC NETWORK

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Terms used in TDR Fault Locating

Zero Point, The zero point is taken at the end of the TDR or HV Coupler test lead. After this point is determined,
the TDR will automatically deduct the length of the test leads from the distance measured to the fault.

Memory, The TDR has a set number of memory locations that allow waveforms to be saved for future reference.
When selecting the appropriate memory location, the waveform and corresponding settings will be saved.

Downloading, The TDR software package allows stored waveforms to be downloaded to a PC for archiving and
future analysis.

Range or Pulse Width, When using a TDR, it is important to be as accurate as possible. Once the test location
has been chosen, a suitable range or pulse width should be selected on the TDR.

Balance, Most TDR's have balance controls, which are used to matchi the impedance of the TDR to the cable
under test. An impedance mismatch could cause a reflection pulse to be displayed inaccurately, such as at the
beginning of the TDR trace.

Gain, The gain on the TDR should be adjusted so that the fault pulse can be clearly seen, but not so much that
saturation occurs. Ideally it should be about halfway, to three-quarters of the way up on the display.
Velocity Factor (VFR), The VFR, or velocity propagation value, should be set according to the cable under test.
If the exact value is unknown, a value can be chosen from values supplied by the TDR manufacturer.

Cursor, A cursor is positioned on the fault pulse at the point where a curve begins to form. This point represents
the measurement that should be used to calculate the distance from the TDR to the cable fault.

Fault Types and Reflections

Pulses generated by the TDR will be transmitted through the cable at a particular speed known as the
velocity of propagation. Each type of cable carries a different propagation velocity value. If there are no
changes to the integrity of the cable, such as faults or splices, the pulse will continue down the cable
with gradual attenuation. If an irregularity does exist, it will cause a reflection to appear on the TDR
screen as the pulse travels down the cable. If an open or short is detected within the cable, 100% of the
pulse will be deflected back to the TDR at that point. An open will cause a 100% positive reflection,
while a short will cause a 100% negative reflection to occur.

Pulses

*Other variations on these pulses are displayed in Fig. 3 - 5

FIG. 2 - TDR PULSE REFLECTIONS FOR OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS.

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FIG. 3 - TYPICAL TDR PULSES FOUND FROM UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEMS

FIG. 4 - OTHER TYPICAL TDR PULSES

FIG. 5 - TDR PULSES WITH PROBLEMATIC UNDERGROUND CABLE

Velocity of Propagation
Depending on the type of cable under test, the TDR pulse will travel down the cable at a different
speed. For accurate distance measurements, it's important to know the propagation velocity value for
each particular type of cable See Table 1 on next page).

Rather than expressing the Velocity of Propagation(Vp ) in miles per hour, it is typically expressed in feet, yards, or
meters per microsecond (s). This Velocity of Propagation value varies from one type of cable to another and
remains fairly constant for any one type of cable. This value of V p for any particular cable depends on the
dielectric constant of the insulating material used.

In TDR measurements, distance calculations are determined using Vp/2. This is due to the fact that the pulse
must travel down to the fault, and then back to the TDR; giving a result of twice the distance we are seeking. So,
using Vp/2 instead of Vp will provide the most accurate distance to the fault.
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Typical velocity of propagation values

kV class msec Cable Size Type Description Vp/2
15 175 #1CU XLPE 277
15 175 #2AL XLPE 248
15 175 #2CU XLPE 257
15 175 #4CU XLPE 258
15 175 1/O XLPE 261
15 175 1/O TRXLPE 255
15 175 2/O XLPE 243
15 175 4/O XLPE 236
15 175 500MCM XLPE 263
15 175 750MCM XLPE 268
15 175 1000MCM TRXLPE 215
15 175 #2AL EPR 272
15 175 1/O EPR 254
15 175 4/O EPR 286
15 220 1/OAL TRXLPE 275
25 260 1/OAL TRXLPE 270
25 260 1/OAL TRXLPE CU Ribbon 285
35 345 1/O XLPE 283
-- 2/O Mining Trailing 215
4/OMPF 270
2/OMPF 260
2/O GGC Round 250
#2 GGC Round 270
#4-4/c W Round 265
Pilot Wire Avg. 300

*When sectionalizing cable, values will vary depending on the number of transformers and splices
**An average Vp/2 value used for power cables is between 250s and 260s.

TABLE 1 TYPICAL VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION (VP) VALUES FOR VARIOUS CABLE TYPES

Reflection Coefficient
The magnitude of the pulse reflections depend on how severely the fault impedance (Z) differs from the
characteristic impedance (Z0). The reflection can be calculated using the following equation:

EQUATION 1 - REFLECTION

For a short circuit, Z = 0 and the r r = -1 This means that 100% of the pulse was reflected in the form of a negative
pulse. If the fault impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance, Z = Z 0, then r = 0 This occurs frequently
on cables with lead sheath and oil impregnated paper insulation. Burning of the cable may have lowered the fault
impedance such that Z = Z 0, and no reflection exists. For an open circuit, Z is infinite and r = +1, meaning that
100% of the pulse was reflected in the form of a positive pulse.
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Applications
When working with buried cables in field conditions, TDR reflection patterns are not always as well
defined and easily recognizable as shown on idealized graphs. Most runs of cable will show multiple
reflections due to impedance changes along the cable. These changes generally occur due to splices
and transformers, as well as on lines where more than one type of cable exists. Accurate interpretation
of these reflections requires training and experience, as well as knowledge of the cable network and
mapping. In most cases, the low voltage TDR technology is combined with a high energy pulse (Arc
Reflect) for distance measurements to the cable fault.

Highly Resistive Faults

A TDR responds to changes of impedance caused by irregularities or faults, and will indicate the
difference between actual impedance and the characteristic impedance value for that type of cable. It
should be noted that resistance and impedance are different values. An insulation resistance tester or
ohmmeter will only measure resistance; whereas impedance measurements require the reactive
components to also be accounted for. In this case, the reactive components include the capacitive and
inductive elements of the cable design.

Resistive faults can be regarded as being in parallel to the characteristic cable impedance. The
reflection coefficient derives from the equation:

EQUATION 2 - REFLECTION

If the cable's characteristic impedance is Z0 = 30, but its resistive reading is 100k. The reflection
would be calculated as:

EQUATION 3 - REFLECTION

A reflection this small cannot be seen by a TDR because other naturally occurring irregularities are
considerably larger.

High resistance faults on solid dielectric cable cannot be seen with the low energy TDR alone.
Comparison of an Arc Reflective pulse to the TDR pulse is done to give a distance reference to the
fault. Arc Reflection TDR is used with a High Energy Capacitor Discharge system, which is needed in
order to break down the fault Resistive Fault.
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Wet Sections of Cable

When insulation resistance tests are performed on wet cable, the resistance readings are generally
very high. This type of measurement often indicates a good cable. To a TDR, wet cable sections look
very different compared to the dry sections; wet sections are frequency dependent. This means that
the higher frequencies in the transmitted pulse of a TDR are affected much more than the lower
frequencies of DC. Fig. 6 shows a wet section of the cable that is marked.

FIG. 6 W ET SECTION OF CABLE

Water and dissolved chemicals will change the dielectric properties and propagation velocity of a cable.
While the beginning of the wet section may show fairly normal readings, the end will not. To get the
most accurate measurement you should take a reading from the both ends of the cable.

TDR Measurement Accuracy

Most TDRs on the market today specify measurement accuracy of 1%. This is to be understood as
1% of the total cable length seen by the TDR. For example, with 200ft of cable, the accuracy will be
2ft. whereas with 20,000ft of cable the accuracy would be 200ft.

Unfortunately, there are other factors that contribute to the overall measurement error of TDR
technology. Even if the distance to the fault could be determined with great accuracy, the task of
physically measuring that distance with the same accuracy becomes impossible. This is due to such
variables as hidden service loops, snake factor, jumping and skipping measuring wheel, etc.

Several techniques exist which can help to locate faults fairly precisely using a TDR even when the
total lengths of the cable and/or the propagation velocity are not known. These techniques are as
follows.
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Three Stake Method

This method is an excellent technique to locate severed or blown apart cable, and bolted faults which
don't create an audible "thump" when combined with a high energy capacitive discharge unit.. When
using a TDR for measurement, it's not always required to know the total length or the propagation of
the cable. With this method the location of the buried cable will need to be marked.

Procedure:

1. Estimate the value of Vp/2 to be 250ft/s. This a good average for most URD installation cable.
2. Adjust the TDR to this value.
3. Using the TDR, measure the distance to the fault from one end of the cable, D 1, and drive a
stake (Stake 1) into the ground at that measured point.
4. From the opposite end of the cable, use the TDR to measure the distance, D2, to the fault and
drive a stake (Stake 2) in the ground at that measured point.
5. Find the distance, R, between Stakes 1 & 2.
6. Use the value of R in Equations 4-5 to determine the location of the third and final stake (Stake
3). This will be the approximate location of the cable fault. (See Fig. 7 and Equations 4-5 below
for examples.)

FIG. 7 - THREE STAKE METHOD

EQUATION 4 - THREE STAKE METHOD (STAKE 1 - STAKE 3)

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EQUATION 5 - THREE STAKE METHOD (STAKE 2 - STAKE 3)

Conclusion
The three stake method and TDR technology are a easy ways to locate and determine what type of
fault that may be present in an underground cable system. This can help the user save time and
money. For more information on cable fault locating and using TDR technology please contact
Hipotronics.

sales@hipotronics.com
+1 845-279-3644