BIRTH OF THE

RENAISSANCE
C.1300 1430 THE RISE OF NATURALISM

The Lamentation The Renaissance (meaning rebirth) was

of Christ
Giotto di Bondone c.130306
Arena Chapel, Padua, Italy an intellectual and artistic movement that
One of the most celebrated of
Giottos Arena Chapel frescoes began in Italy in the 14th century, inspired
depicts the crucified Christ, cradled
in his grieving mothers arms.
Dramatic gestures and the diagonal by a revival of classical learning. In the visual
of the stone ridge lead the eye to
the emotional core of the scene, arts, the work of the Florentine master Giotto
where Mary stares in mournful
intensity at her dead son. di Bondone has long been regarded as a
turning point that heralded the emergence
of the Renaissance. Giottos paintings, such
as the frescoes in the Arena Chapel (left),
mark a departure from the stylized, otherworldly images of Byzantine art. They
introduced emotional drama, a naturalism then associated with ancient Roman
art, and a convincing sense of three-dimensional space. Although Giottos
art inuenced Florentine painters of the next generation, its full impact came
later. Distinctively different styles developed in 14th-century Italy, notably in
the city-state of Siena through artists including Duccio and Simone Martini.
An elegant, courtly style known as International Gothic also ourished. It was
more than a century after Giotto created his groundbreaking paintings that his
true artistic heir emergedanother great Florentine master, Masaccio.
 BIRTH OF THE RENAISSANCE 079

CONTEXT Europe during the birth

of the Renaissance

A new humanity 1301 Halleys Comet makes one of its

In the 14th century, Italy did not exist as a
unied country. To the south was the Kingdom
of Naples, while the Papal States around Rome
were nominally under the Popes rule, although
the papal court had transferred to Avignon,
France, in 1309. In central and northern Italy,
commerce had enriched and empowered cities
such as Florence, Siena, Venice, and Milan,
which grew into self-governing city-states. It
was in this political climate of proud city-states
vying with each other for power and prestige
that the Italian Renaissance was born.
With the growth of banking, textiles, and trade,
Italy had become more urbanized than the rest
of Europe, and artists were commissioned to
provide paintings for specic churches and
civic buildings. Some of these secular
commissions were highly ambitious works,
A driving force of the Renaissance was the
revival of interest in the literature and art of
ancient Rome. Italys classical past was visible
in ruins and ancient artifacts, and the classical
revival had a major inuence on pictorial
naturalism. Interest in the classical past was
also linked with the rise of humanism, a
philosophy that emphasized the individual
achievements of man in this life rather than
the next, and marked a signicant move away
from the spirit of medieval Christianity.
Another important change in religious
sensibility was triggered by the 13th-century
friar St. Francis of Assisi and his followers,
whose preaching stressed Christs suffering
and humanity. The combination of the classical
revival and this new style of Christianity
provided the foundation for a new type of art
rare appearances. Many saw it as a bad
omen, but Giotto incorporated the
comet into the Adoration of the Magi
fresco in the Arena Chapel. Instead of
the traditional star of Bethlehem, he
depicts a aming comet.
1308 Dante, Italys most celebrated
writer, begins his famous poem The
Divine Comedy. In it, he expresses keen
admiration of Giottos naturalism.
1309 The Papacy moves from Rome
to Avignon. The Sienese painter Simone
Martini works at the papal court there
from about 1335 until his death.
1348 The Black Death devastates
Europe. About half the inhabitants
of Florence and Siena are killed by
the plague, possibly including the
Lorenzetti brothers (see p.83).
1427 Florence imposes a new tax
system on its citizens to raise money

such as Ambrogio Lorenzettis Allegory of Good
and Bad Government frescoes (see p.83)
painted for Sienas Palazzo Pubblico (town hall).
However, the majority of paintings commissioned
in the early Renaissance were Christian images.
KEY EVENTS
for the war against its powerful rival,
one that not only looked more realistic, but that Milan. Masaccios Tribute Money may
also inspired sympathy for the real, human be an allusion to this.
qualities of Christ, rather than creating a sense
of awe and mystery, which was the function of
the stylized Byzantine images of God.

GIOTTO TRANSLATED
THE ART OF PAINTING
FROM GREEK INTO
LATIN AND MADE
IT MODERN
c.1400 | Cennino Cennini
Florentine painter and writer

A patchwork of city-states
The Tuscan city of Siena is dominated
by the bell tower (campanile) of the
Palazzo Pubblico, which housed the
citys republican government. City-states
like Siena were characterized by intense
civic pride (campanilismo), and were
often at war with each other.
080 RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

BEGINNINGS
THE CHRISTIAN STORY
One of the dening characteristics of Renaissance painting was
a drive toward realism. Artists moved away from the at, linear style
of Byzantine art, creating more realistic, sculpturally rounded forms
and gures that appeared to exist in real space. The Christian imagery
of Byzantine art was intentionally mysterious and distanced from the
real world of humankind, but Giotto, Duccio, and their followers began
to tell the Christian story in real, human terms. In narrative scenes,
the increasingly realistic portrayal of the physical world was paralleled
by a new sense of emotional and dramatic realism.

ARTISTIC INFLUENCES

Numerous factors inuenced the Arena Chapel frescoes. Giottos dramatic

storytelling style was inuenced by Franciscan preaching and miracle plays, as well
as by earlier contemporary artists and classical art. The powerful simplicity of his
monumental realism is partly a function of the fresco technique, which involved
working methodically and rapidly on sections of wall prepared daily with wet plaster.

The teachings of St. Francis (c.1182

St. Francis and
1226) and his Order had a humanizing Angels, detail,
inuence on Italian painting: Christ was c.12501300, from the
portrayed as a suffering man rather than town of Franciss birth.
a triumphant, distant deity. St. Francis was S. Maria degli Angeli,
Assisi, Italy
also a subject for Italian Renaissance art.

The paintings of Cimabue (Cenni di Peppi),

Madonna and Child
who may have been Giottos teacher, display Enthroned, c.128090,
a softening of the rigidity of Byzantine art. by Cimabue was painted
The gures have gentler expressions and for the altar of S. Trinit
more natural gestures, and the curved throne in Florence. Ufzi,
conveys volume and receding space. Florence, Italy

Pietro Cavallini was inspired by classical

The Last Judgment,
Roman art to develop a more naturalistic detail, 1290s, Cavallini,
style. His innovative way of painting the portrays Christ with weighty
human gure with solidity and humanity three-dimensionality.
inuenced artists including Giotto, who S. Cecilia in Trastevere,
Rome, Italy
would have seen his work in Rome.

Nicola and Giovanni Pisano were almost

The Crucixion,
as signicant in sculpture as Giotto was in detail, 126568, from a
painting. Inspired by antique art, father and carved pulpit relief by Nicola
son imparted a powerful sense of emotional Pisano, shows drama and
drama into crowded narrative scenes, which expressive emotion.
show strong links with Giottos frescoes. Siena Cathedral, Italy
 BIRTH OF THE RENAISSANCE 081

TURNING POINT

The Betrayal of Christ

Giotto di Bondone c.130306
Arena Chapel, Padua, Italy

This intensely dramatic scene from Giottos

Arena Chapel frescoes illustrates the
moment when Judas Iscariot betrays Jesus
by identifying him with a kiss of greeting.
As the treacherous disciple envelops Christ
in his cloak, the focus of the scene is on
their contrasting faces, pressed dramatically
together against a bristling backdrop of
weapons. There is an intense psychological
force in Christs uninching gaze as he stares
calmly into Judass tense face. Renowned
for their revolutionary naturalism, monumental
grandeur, powerful storytelling, and emotional
impact, the Arena Chapel frescoes were
recognized even by Giottos contemporaries
as ushering in a new artistic era.

Giotto di Bondone
born Colle di Vespignano?, nr. Florence, Italy
c.1270; died Florence, January 8, 1337

Giotto was the rst artist

since antiquity to
become a famous
name. Major gures
of the timeincluding
Dante, Boccaccio,
and Petrarchpraised
him, and he was in
demand all over Italy. He
is thought to have trained
with Cimabue. There is often dispute about
the attribution of his work, but the frescoes in
the Arena Chapel, Padua, and the Bardi and
Peruzzi Chapels in S. Croce, Florence, are
certainly by his hand. He may have been
involved with the fresco cycles at San
Francesco in Assisi. Several altarpieces bear
BIOGRAPHY

his signature, but may be by his workshop.

Although unsigned, the Ognissanti Madonna
has a similar solemn grandeur and humanity
to the Arena Chapel frescoes, and is
universally considered to be by Giotto himself.
082 RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

TIMELINE
Italian painting in the 14th and early 15th century
was not marked by one single style. Compared to the
weighty naturalism of the Florentine tradition, Duccio
and other Sienese artists developed a more decorative
style. But both schools continued to move away from
the aloofness and rigidity of Byzantine art and toward
a greater naturalism, expressiveness, and humanity.
At the end of the 14th century, as communication
between European courts improved, a new courtly
style emerged known as International Gothic.

Simones first work

Scrovegni
commissions Giotto
In an attempt to expiate
his fathers crimes
of usury, in around
1303 Enrico Scrovegni
commissions Giotto to
paint the narrative cycle
of frescoes in the Arena
Chapel, Padua.
Simone Martini paints his earliest known
work in 1315, a fresco of the Maest in
Siena Town Hall, combining Byzantine
aloofness with the grace of Gothic art.
Sienese procession
On June 9, 1311, Duccios
spectacular altarpiece, the
Maest, is carried in triumphal
procession to the sound of
church bells from the artists
workshop to Siena Cathedral.

1300 1305 1310 1315 1320 1325 1330

The Annunciation
Simone Martini 1333 Uffizi, Florence, Italy
Exquisite craftsmanship and expressive, graceful
contours characterize this Sienese altarpiece,
which Simone Martini created in collaboration with
his brother-in-law, Lippo Memmi. The Virgin
shrinks from the Angel Gabriel as he tells her she
is to be the mother of Jesus.

Noli Me Tangere
Duccio di Buoninsegna 130811
Museo dellOpera del Duomo, Siena, Italy
This panel, from Duccios magnificent altarpiece
the Maest, shows the risen Christ telling Mary
Magdalene not to touch him. Like Giotto, the influential
Sienese master Duccio introduced a new sense of
human feeling into his depiction of biblical stories.

1335
Giotto appointed
architect
In 1334 Giotto is
appointed city architect
in Florence, and begins
work on the campanile
(bell tower) for
Florence Cathedral.
The Baptistery doors
Sculptor Andrea Pisano
completes the bronze doors
for the Florence Baptistery
in 1336. His relief scenes
from the life of John the
Baptist show the influence
of Giottos painting.
DUCCIO...TRIED SUCCESSFULLY...
TO BREATHE NEW LIFE INTO OLD
BYZANTINE FORMS INSTEAD OF
DISCARDING THEM ALTOGETHER
1950 | EH Gombrich
Austrian-born British art historian
BIRTH OF THE RENAISSANCE 083
The Effect of Good
Government in the City The Lorenzetti brothers
Ambrogio Lorenzetti 1338 active Siena, Italy 132045 (Pietro); 131948 (Ambrogio)
Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy
This detail from Lorenzettis fresco Sienese brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti were
BIOGRAPHY
in Sienas town hall presents a major painters, but little is known of their lives. They
remarkably naturalistic view of the collaborated on at least one fresco cycle, but mainly
bustling city and its inhabitants. It worked independently. Their naturalism is closer in
forms part of his celebrated Allegory spirit to Giotto than to their Sienese contemporary,
of Good and Bad Government. Simone Martini. Both may have died in the Black Death.
Triumph of Death
Andrea Orcagno 134445 S. Croce, Florence, Italy
Painted by one of an important family of Florentine artists, this
fresco fragment is part of a trilogy that originally included the
Last Judgment and Hell. The powerfully dramatic scene features
grotesque, vividly imagined demons.
The Black Death
In 1348 one of the most
devastating pandemics in
history, the Black Death
(bubonic plague) swept
through Europe. It had
a profound effect on
European history
millions died, and the
population took 150
years to recover.
1340 1345 1350 1355 1360
Crucixion With
Eight Saints
Bernardo Daddi 1348 Portrait of a Dominican Friar
Courtauld Gallery,
London, UK
Tomaso da Modena 1352
Chapter House of S. Niccol, Treviso, Italy
Possibly Giottos pupil, Daddi
ran a busy and influential
This beautifully observed portrait by one of the
leading artists in northern Italy is one of a series
workshop in Florence after of signed and dated frescoes of celebrated
Giottos death. This polyptych
(multi-paneled painting) is his
members of the Dominican order, showing the
friars reading, writing, and meditating.
last-known work. It exemplifies
his sweet, lyrical style.
084 RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

Coronation of Alexander III

Spinello Aretino 140810
Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy
Spinello was the first non-Sienese painter
The Great Schism to provide paintings for Sienas Palazzo
In 1378 the Western Pubblico, where this fresco forms part of
Church is divided when a cycle dedicated to Pope Alexander III.
two rival lines of popes Spinello probably trained in Florence
are elected, one based his voluminous figures and powerful
in Rome, and one in outlines owe much to Giotto.
Avignon, France. This
The Church Militant and division, known as
The Church Triumphant the Great Schism,
Andrea da Firenze 136668 continues until 1417.
S. Maria Novella, Florence, Italy
This is a detail from Andreas most famous
work, a cycle of frescoes glorifying the
Dominican order. The pack of dogs
protecting the Christian flock is a pun
on Dominicans (the Latin domini canes
means "dogs of the Lord").
Anonymous
masterpiece
As the International
Gothic style emerges
in Europe, the Wilton
Diptych (see pp.7475)
is created around 1395
by an unknown artist.
Experts cannot agree
on the artist's country
of origin, testifying to
the truly international
nature of the style.

1370 1380 1390 1400 1410 1420

The Crucixion
Altichiero c.137679 Madonna of the Quail
S. Antonio, Padua, Italy
Pisanello c.1420
This detail from a fresco of the Crucifixion Castelvecchio, Verona, Italy
characterizes Altichiero's style. Inspired by
Giotto and Roman relief sculpture, the
Coronation of the Virgin Thought to be an early work by
Lorenzo Monaco 1414 Pisanello (the little Pisan), this
colorful narrative combines grandeur with Uffizi, Florence, Italy unusual Madonna is a lovely
lively incident and closely observed details. This altarpiece was painted for the Florentine example of the International Gothic
monastery where Lorenzo took his vows (Lorenzo style. The sensuous lines and
Monaco is Italian for Laurence the Monk). With its decorative use of naturalistic details
brilliant colors and sinuous lines, it represents the of birds and fruit add to the
pinnacle of Late Gothic art in Florence. small paintings charm.

Adoration of the Magi
Gentile da Fabriano 1423 Uffizi, Florence, Italy
Painted for one of the wealthiest citizens in Florence, Palla Strozzi, this spectacular
altarpiece is a masterpiece of the International Gothic style. It displays a courtly
elegance designed to underline Strozzis own wealth and rank. Set in a
magnificently ornate frame, the painting blends natural-looking and decorative
detail, and shows the Magi dressed in splendidly luxurious garments. The natural
treatment of lighting, especially in the night scene of the predella (the small
BIOGRAPHY
images beneath the main panel), is remarkable.
BIRTH OF THE RENAISSANCE 085
1430
Gentile da Fabriano
born Fabriano, Italy, 1385?; died Rome, Italy, before October 14, 1427
The consummate master of the International Gothic style, Gentile da
Fabriano is named after his birthplace, Fabriano, a town in the Marches
region of central Italy. Throughout the two decades of his career, he worked
in major Italian art centers including Venice, where he painted for the Doges
Palace, and in Rome, Siena, Orvieto, and Florence, where he painted the
Adoration of the Magi. Renowned for its decorative beauty, narrative detail,
and natural treatment of light and shade, his work inuenced artists
including Pisanello, Jacopo Bellini, Masolino, and Fra Angelico.
086 RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

he is now known, may be translated as Sloppy Tomhe is said to

MASTERWORK
The Tribute Money
Masaccio c.142628
Brancacci Chapel, S. Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy
In his short life, Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Mone Cassai (140128)
became one of the most important artists of his time, and was a
founding father of Renaissance art. His nickname Masaccio, by which
have earned the name because he was so absorbed by his art that he
had no time for worldly matters, such as looking after his appearance.
This magnicent fresco is one of his most famous works. It is part of
a cycle painted for the Brancacci Chapel in Florence by Masaccio and
his colleague Masolino di Panicale. The fresco depicts a rarely painted
biblical story that Masaccio portrays with great clarity, dividing the
narrative into three sections. In the center, Christ and his disciples
stand outside a town, indicated by contemporary architecture.
Confronted by a tax collector demanding a toll, Christ tells Peter to go
to the lake, where he will nd a sh containing a coin. On the left, Peter
nds the coin; on the right he pays the tax collector the tribute money.
 BIRTH OF THE RENAISSANCE 087

The solemn, unadorned grandeur of Masaccios monumental style

differs from the ornate elegance of contemporary painters, such as
Lorenzo Monaco or Gentile da Fabriano. Instead, it shows a profound GIOTTO BORN AGAIN, STARTING
debt to the paintings of Giotto from more than a century earlier. WHERE DEATH HAD CUT SHORT
However, where Giottos depiction of three-dimensional space was
largely intuitive, Masaccio constructs his pictorial space in accordance HIS ADVANCE
with the scientic laws of perspective, as developed by contemporaries
Leon Battista Alberti and Filippo Brunelleschi. The gures in the painting 1896 | Bernard Berenson
American art historian, on Masaccio
also show links with the Florentine Renaissance sculptor Donatello,
and with antique art. A single, unifying light source helps to create a
convincing sense of volume and space as light falls and shadows are
formed on the draped gures, the building, and the barren landscape.