8.2.

1: The Chemical Earth - Mixtures

w8.2 The Chemical Earth: Mixtures

8.2.1 The living and non-living components of the
Earth contain mixtures
8.2.1-LT2:Identify the difference between elements, compounds and
mixtures in terms of particle theory
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 1-6

Particle theory (introduction and revision)

At its essence, chemistry is the study of matter (composition, structure, properties
and reactions)
Matter is (commonly) characterised into three states: (1) solid, (2) liquid and (3) gas

Table 1: Properties of solids, liquids and gases

(from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 5)

Figure 1: Arrangement of particles in solids,

liquids and gases (from Chemistry Contexts 1,
p. 6)

The classification of matter: elements, compounds and mixtures

Matter is classified to aid study:
Solid/liquid/gas at room temperature (ref.: particle theory)
Pure /impure
Chemistry definitions:
Homogenous: uniform composition throughout
e.g.: pure water, sugar, aluminium, petrol and whisky
Heterogeneous: non-uniform composition
i.e.: parts of the substance are different from other parts
Pure substances: a substance with a fixed composition and properties
CANNOT be decomposed by physical separation techniques
include elements and compounds
Impure substances: AKA mixtures
variable composition and properties
one substance is contaminated with small amounts of one or

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more other substances
CAN be separated by physical separation techniques

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8.2.1: The Chemical Earth - Mixtures

Physical properties: the properties characteristic of a chemical substance,

which includes melting and boiling points, colour, density and
conductivity
The physical properties of impure substances vary depend on the
proportion of components present

Table 2: Differences between mixtures and pure substances (from Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 6)

Particle models
Models are required (and used) to
visualise the relationship between
particles

Figure 2: Visual summary of the particle model

(from Chemistry 1, p. 5)

Molecules: when atoms of the same or different elements interact with one another
to form more complex particles
The composition of molecules indicates the number (shown in subscript) and
type of element present (chemical symbol)
E.g. N2 = 2 atoms of nitrogen

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Elements: molecules composed of a single type of atom
most simple; a pure substance
cannot be separated further into simpler substances
the single type of atom may be lone or bound in multiple numbers:
Monatomic molecules: single atoms, e.g. He (helium)
Diatomic molecules: a pair of atoms, e.g. O2 (oxygen)
Tetratomic molecules: a quartet of atoms, e.g. P4 (phosphorus)
Compounds: composed to 2 elements that are CHEMICALLY BOUND
proportions are FIXED
CAN be separated into component elements or simpler compounds (NOT
by physical separation techniques)
e.g.: Ammonia (NH3)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Water (H2O)
NOTE: compounds have different properties to the from the elements they
contains
Mixtures: 2 pure substances that are mixed, but NOT chemically bound
they have variable particle types and compositions
classified into 2 categories:
Homogenous mixtures: particles are uniformly distributed
e.g. a sugar water mixture
Heterogeneous mixture: particles are NOT uniformly distributed
e.g. muddy water

Figure 3: The classification of matter (from Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 8)

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8.2.1: The Chemical Earth - Mixtures
8.2.1-LT4:Identify and describe procedures that can be used to
separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
- solids of different sizes
- solids and liquids
- dissolved solids in liquids
- liquids
- gases
8.2.1-LT5:Assess separation techniques for their suitability in
separating examples of earth materials, identifying the
differences in properties which enable these separations
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 12-20

Physical separation techniques (introduction)

Physical separation techniques are methods that do not interfere with the chemical
structure of components of a mixture
These techniques rely on the physical properties of an element for separation,
which include:
o Melting and boiling points o Lustre
o Solubility o Conductivity (thermal and
o Hardness electrical)
o The separation of mixtures is an essential process as most elements are in
mixtures
(i.e. not in their pure state)
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the lithosphere, but only became
available for use when a economical separation method was devised (the Hall-
Heroult process)

o Separating solids

o Sieving
o Relies of differences in size of solid particles
o Used in the mining industry to obtain useful minerals
An ore body is ground before sieving to separate minerals from the gangue
(DEF.: non-valuable material present in the ore body)

o Sedimentation and decantation

o Relies on the differences in weight of solids
o This process occurs when an insoluble solid is allowed to settle within a
liquid (often water) of air solution
o Examples include:
o Panning: a solid mixture is mixed with water, which is
swirled using a pan
heaver grains (e.g. gold) remain in the pan
lighter material is washed from the pan (along with the water)

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o Gravity separation: finely ground ore is mixed with water
to form a slurry
gravity causes the heavier unwanted particles (gangue) to
sediment
lighter useful material are directed to floatation tanks
o Sedimentation occurs hand in with decantation, which is the process
where the liquid (or gas) above a sediment is poured off.
o Froth floatation
o Ground minerals are mixed with water, detergents and collectors (oily
chemicals)
o Air is bubbled through the mixture to create froth
o Mineral grains adhere to the froth, which floats and is collected for further
processing
The collected material is known as the concentrate
The gangue does not float

o
o Figure 4: Froth floatation (from Chemistry 1, p. 13)

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o Magnetic separation
o Used to separate magnetic o Figure 5: Magnetic separation
solids from non-magnetic
solids
o Crushed rock mixture is
transported on a conveyor
belt, which runs between at
least one magnetic roller
Magnetic rocks maintain on the
conveyor belt; are eventually
removed using a scraper
Non-magnetic rocks fall off they
conveyor belt
o Usefully for the separation
of iron mineral grains, e.g.
magnetite (Fe3O4)
o

o Separating solids and liquids

Filtration
Can be used for the separation of Filtrate: the clear solution that
soluble from insoluble solids passes through the filter,
containing the soluble solid
Can also be used to separate a
dissolved particles are small
liquid or gas from an insoluble
enough to pass through the
solid
pores of the filter
Relies on passing a mixture through a
porous filter, which collects the solid
Residue: the insoluble solid that is
retained by the filter
particles are too large to
pass through the pores of
the filter

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Figure 6: Filtration (from Conquering Chemistry
Prelim, p. 12)

This technique is often the first step used in the purification of water
Following filtration, the filtrate is subjected to further purification techniques
Additional examples includes:remove solids from petrol used in car engines
vacuum cleaners

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Solution
The process to separate soluble and insoluble solids
Process: a mixture of soluble and insoluble solids is placed in a solvent that
dissolved the soluble solid
the insoluble solid is subject to further separation techniques for removal
This process is often used in conjunction with addition separation techniques,
including: filtration, evaporation or crystallisation (see: Separating dissolved solids
and liquids)

Figure 7: Separation based on solubility, and additional processes (from Conquering Chemistry Prelim,
p. 16)

Centrifugation
Centrifugation utilises centrifugal force to separate particles based on their size and
weight
A suspension is spun at high speeds (generates centrifugal force), which results in the
sedimentation of solids based on their size and weight in layers
Larger particles sediment at lower levels that smaller particles
Can also be used to separate insoluble solids from liquids, in a process akin to
sedimentation, but uses centrifugal force to accelerate the sedimentation process
Common examples: separation of cream from milk
separation of plasma from blood

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Separating dissolved solids and liquids

Evaporation
Evaporation relies on differences in the Figure 8: Evaporation (from Conquering
Chemistry Prelim, p. 12)
boiling point of solute and solvent (i.e.
differences in volatilities) E.g.: separation of salt crystals from
Solute: the dissolved salt water
substance BP: H2O - 100C
Solvent: the liquid in which a NaCl - 1465C
substance is dissolved
Volatility: the measure of the
tendency of a
substance to become
vapour
A solution is heated, resulting in the
vaporisation of the low boiling point
solvent, leaving the high boiling point
solute as a residue

Crystallisation
Often utilised to separate impure salts from solution
Relies on the differences in solubility of dissolved substances in selected liquids
Process: impure salt is dissolved in water at high temperatures to create a
concentrated solution
the solution is cooled resulting in the crystallisation of the salt
impurity remains in solution, as it is more soluble, so is removed with the
evaporation of water
Can be used for the separation of soluble substances, with different solubilities
E.g.: baking soda (low solubility in cool water) and salt (soluble in cool water)
Also used in the derivation of sugar from sugar cane and sugar beet

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Separating liquids
Miscible liquids: liquids that mix, forming a single phase
e.g. water and ethanol
Immiscible liquids do not mix, so distinct phases are observed

Separating funnel
For use separating immiscible liquids
Distinct layers are observed
based on differences in density
The less dense liquid sits atop its
more dense counterpart
Process:
Immiscible mixture is placed into
a separating funnel
A tap at the bottom of the funnel
is opened, allowing the denser
liquid to be eluted into a new
vessel
The tap is closed once all the
bottom later has been eluted
Figure 9: Separation of salt water and an
iodine solution (from Chemistry 1, p. 16)

Distillation
The basis of separation is difference in boiling points of a miscible liquid mixture
A liquid is vapourised before being condensed back into a liquid
Process:
A miscible liquid mixture is heated in a distillation apparatus
The liquid with the lower boiling point vapourises (def.: converted from liquid to
gas), while the higher boiling point liquid remains in the original vessel
The vapourised liquid cools as it travels through the apparatus, eventually
condensing before elution
Distillate: the liquid that condenses (i.e. has a lower boiling point)
can be describe as being volatile (def.: substance that readily vapourises)
Can be used to separate a solvent from a solute (e.g. purification of salt water)
Simple distillation: only useful when the boiling points of the liquids is
significantly different
Fractional distillation: used when boiling points are similar
process involves several vapourisation-condensation steps
Within the fractionating column, multiple
vaporisation/condensation event occur, allowing liquids with
similar boiling points to separate
The fractionating column may be a coil (as seen in Figure 12) or filled with glass
beads (not shown)
Industrial processes:
o Separation of commercial products from crude oil
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o Separation of ethanol from fermented solutions
o Production of liquid nitrogen (SEE: Cryogenic air separation)

Figure 10: Distillation apparatuses - (a) simple and (b) fractional (from Chemistry Contexts, p. 19)

Chromatography
This process is useful when the components of a mixture are present in limited
quantities
Generally process: the mixture is passed over an unreactive matrix (substance
that does not interact chemically)
the components of the mixture adsorb/cling to the matrix with
different strengths
There are several types:
Column chromatography (matrix:
alumina)
Paper chromatography (matrix:
special filter paper)
Thin layer chromatography
(matrix: glass or plastic plate
coated with a thin layer of a fine
power, e.g. aluminium oxide)
Gas chromatography (matrix:
tube containing a particular solid,
e.g. carbon or silica)

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Figure 11: Column chromatography (from
Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 21)

Separating gases

Zeolite sieves
Zeolite crystals are aluminium silicate
Crystals act as a molecular sieve
Structured to contain many channels and internal structures
Selectively adsorb (def.: adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules of gas, liquid or
dissolved solid to a surface)
Used to purify oxygen (O) from air
Nitrogen (N) and CO2 are adsorbed onto zeolite crystals
This process is called pressure swing adsorption (PSA)

Cryogenic air separation

Cryogenic: processes and application performed at very low temperatures
Required for the separation of gases in air:
Used to obtain high purity oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and argon (Ar) gases
Preparation:
Gas mixtures are filtered to remove large particulates before being compressed to 6 bar at
cooled
Water (condensation) and CO2 (zeolite adsorption) is removed at this point
Process:
The gas mixture is cooled to cryogenic
temperatures (-200C) until
liquefied
Distillation columns are then used
to separate components based on
their boiling points

Figure 12: Fractional distillation of air (from

Chemistry 1, p. 18)

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8.2.1-LT6:Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies

useful data for chemists and other scientists
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 21-24

Gravimetric analysis
Chemical analysis: the process of
determining
what is present
in a particular
chemical
sample
May be quantitative or
qualitative

Figure 13: Chemical analysis (from Chemistry

Contexts 1, p. 23)

Gravimetric analysis: process by which components of a mixture are separated, and

determining their mass accurately; this allows the percentage
composition of the starting material to be determined
Percentage composition: the mass percentage of different element present in a
compound
Specifies the percentage by mass of each of the difference elements present
Uses:
Composition of a mixture processed using physical separation techniques
Composition of a compound processed using a combination of physical and
chemical separation techniques
Significant use in the mining industry to determine if it is economically viable to mine
an ore body
Mining lead minimum percentage of Pb is 2% w/w
lead can be extracted as a pure metal or pure compounds to
quantitation
Other uses:
Determine percentage weight of ingredients in food
Purity and composition of alloys used in construction
Extent of heavy metal pollution in river water and food
Percentage composition of new compounds produced via research
Determine the suitability of an area to grow crops (based on the composition of
soil)
Compare commercially produced mixtures to identify similarities or differences
between manufacturers
Worked examples can be found in Chemistry 1, p. 22:

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Figure 1423): Worked gravimetric analysis (from Chemistry Contexts 1, p.

8.2.1-LT3:Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 6-11

Spheres of the Earth (introduction)

Video: Everything you need to know about the planet Earth by Kurzgesagt
http://youtu.be/JGXi_9A__Vc
Geologist believe the Earth has a layer structure
Elements contained with each layer were arrange by density
i.e. denser elements are largely found in the core, while less dense elements
accumulated on the surface
Layers of the earth:
Dense core of mostly iron and
nickel Table 3: Elements on Earth (from
Thick homogenous mantle of Chemistry 1, p.8)
mainly magnesium and silicon
oxides, and magnesium and iron
silicates
Thin heterogeneous crust
consisting of O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na,
K, Mg and <1% other elements

The composition of the atmosphere has not remained fixed, but changed over
time as gases have escaped into space, and in response to the activities of
Earths inhabitants
The spheres of the Earth are:
Asthenosphere (not required in syllabus)
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere

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Figure 15: The layers of the Earth 1

(from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 11)

Figure 16: Layers of the Earth 2 (from

Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 9)

Figure 17: The spheres of the Earth (from Chemistry 1, p. 7)

Lithosphere (lithos Ancient Greek meaning rocky)

Consists of Earths outer crust and upper mantle
Mixtures of the lithosphere:
Rocks mixture of various silicates (compounds of Si, O and other metals)
Sand mainly SiO2 with variable amounts of ground shells and dirt
Soils mixture of various aluminosilicates (compounds containing Al, Si, O and
metals)
Mineral ores SEE BELOW FOR COMMON COMPOSITIONS
Coal, oil and natural gas mixtures of carbon compounds
Various kinds of minerals are present in the lithosphere
Mineral: a naturally occurring crystalline solid with a fixed
chemical composition OR composition that varies in narrow limits
may be pure elements often chemical compounds
e.g.: quartz (compounds of Si and O
feldspars (groups of compounds containing combinations of
Na, K, Ca, Al, Si and O)
calcite (containing Ca, C and O)

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Common minerals of the

lithosphere:
Silicates (silicon containing)
Oxides (oxygen containing)
Carbonates (carbonate
containing)
Sulphides (sulphur containing)
Table 4: Common minerals (from
Chemistry 1, p. 8)

Minerals are mined to make metals and alloys (a metal-containing mixture)

Minerals mined in this process are often metal oxides or sulfides
The pure metal requires separation from unwanted minerals
Few minerals are un-combined in the lithosphere
Gold, sulfur and carbon and exceptions
The most abundant elements on
Earths crust are oxygen (O) and
silicon (Si)
Si is present is rarely found as a
free element, and is found in
various mixtures and compounds

Table 5: Elements within the crust (from

Chemistry 1, p.8)

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Hydrosphere (hydro Ancient Greek meaning water)

Consists of the bodies of water on Earths surface, which includes oceans, rivers, lakes
and glacial water
Can extend: up into the atmosphere
down into the lithosphere
Water (H2O)is the most abundant compound in this sphere
Thus, hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are the most abundant elements
Contains small amounts of dissolved elements (e.g. O and N) and compounds
(e.g. CO2, NaCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2, and sulfates)

Location % of Earths
H2O

Oceans 97.2

Polar ice and 2.20

glaciers

Lithosphere 0.600

Atmosphere 0.001
Table 6: Distribution of Earth's water

Sea water is a mixture 3.5% w/w of

which are dissolved minerals (can be
obtained via evaporation), which
include:
Largely NaCl (sodium chloride)
MgCl2 (magnesium chloride)
CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
Na2SO4 (sodium sulfate)
Table 7: Elements in sea water (from Chemistry
1, p. 9)

8.2.1 Mixtures 18
Atmosphere (atmos Ancient Greek meaning vapour)
The atmosphere is largely a mixture of lighter elements (i.e. gases) (composition and
proportions listed in Table 6)
The elemental composition of the atmosphere varies at different locations and
climates

Table 8: Abundance of gases in the (lowest layer) of the atmosphere (from Chemistry 1, p. 9)

Table 6 illustrates the atmosphere being composed of molecules and compounds

Biosphere
The region in which living organisms are found, which can extend into and include:
The lithosphere
o Organisms found within the hot crust and near volcanic vents
The hydrosphere aquatic organisms
The atmosphere microscopic life at high levels within the atmosphere
The chemical components defined by the substances found in living organisms

In living organisms Elements

Cells Contain large amounts of H2O

Accounts for the abundance of oxygen (O)
and hydrogen (H)

Compounds essential for Carbon (C)

life
(Carbohydrates, fats,
proteins and nucleic
acids)

Proteins and nucleic Nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S)

acids

Structure Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P)

Table 9: Chemical components of living organisms
Elements found in the biosphere are obtained from the compounds living organisms
consume supplied by the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere

Table 10: Abundance of elements in living organisms (from Chemistry 1, p. 10)

Content covered throughout the Preliminary Chemistry

Course
8.2.1-LT1:Construct word and balanced formulae equations of
chemical reactions as they are encountered
8.2.1-LT7:Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they
are introduced in the laboratory
8.2.1-LT8:Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are
encountered