http://www.leonics.com/support/article2_13j/articles2_13j_en.

php

Theory and construction

From a solar cell to a PV system

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-
film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the
back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules
are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. The cells must be
connected electrically in series, one to another. Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4
connectors type to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Modules electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the
modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals.
Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to
maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such
as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

PARTS
SOLAR PANEL OR PV MODULE MOUNTING SYSTEMS

Solar panel mounting systems include hardware to permanently affix the array to either a roof, a pole,
or the ground. These systems are typically made of aluminum and are selected based on the specific
model and number of modules in the array as well as the desired physical configuration. Solar
Panels work best at cooler temperatures, and proper mounting allows for cooling airflow around the
modules. For all locations, wind loading is an installation factor, and it is extremely important to design
and pour the cement foundation properly for any pole mount. are a pole mount option to increase
energy production by moving the array to face it into the sunlight as the sun moves across the sky. A
solar array on a tracker will produce more energy than a fixed array. Trackers are often used in water
pumping applications. The cost of a tracker can be significant, and due to the possibility of breakdown,
they are best recommended to the mechanically inclined. The cost of a mounting system varies based
on the number of modules and type of mount. The average cost is between $250 and $1,000 for a
fixed array and $2,000 and up for a solar tracker. Another cost-estimating factor for mounting racks is
$0.50 to $1.00 per rated array Watt.
The Panels
PV (photovoltaic) panels are the most common type of panel, especially for
residential installations. They are made from three layers:

*The N-Layer silicon that is mixed with phosphorus

*The P/N Junction pure silicon

*The P-Layer silicon that is mixed with boron

When sunlight strikes the N-Layer, it knocks electrons loose. These

electrons pass through the P/N junction (which is a one-way junction) into
the P-Layer. This creates an electrical field that then drives the electrons
that have been knocked off from the silicon, creating an electric current.

The Inverter
Electric current that is generated in this way is direct current (DC), which is
like the electricity stored in batteries. However, mains electricity is
alternating current (AC) where the flow of electricity changes direction 50
times a second. To make the electricity supplied by solar power suitable for
use in domestic homes, a device is needed that converts DC current to AC
current, and this device is called an inverter.

An inverter works in a very simple way, using a series of switches which are
known as solid state switches that flips the DC current backwards and
forwards 50 times a second, to create the AC current.

The Battery

Not all solar power

systems have a battery, but some systems that produce more electricity
than is needed for the building they are powering have a battery connected
to store this excess energy. The stored energy can then be used when the
solar panels are not providing enough energy, such as dark and rainy days.

The Distributor
The distributor is the device that distributes the AC power created by the
inverter to the grid, and sometimes to both the home in which the solar
power system has been installed and the grid. The output from the inverter
is fed to a dedicated breaker in your house's electric panel, and then
through to your home. If you are creating more power then you are using,
then some of the power flows backwards and into the grid, and you receive
a credit from your utilities company. If your system is not supplying enough
energy for your home, then the shortfall is made up as usual by your utilities
company.
 These are the basic
components of any solar energy system and as you can see, solar power is
not a complex energy system the cells create DC current, the inverter
changes it to AC current, and the distributor controls the way in which
power is distributed between your home and your utilities supplier.

Materials Used in Solar Panels

Solar power, along with wind, wave, and geothermal energy sources, is seeing
accelerating interest in renewable energy research. Once installed, solar panels
produce zero emissions as they convert sunlight directly into energy via the
photovoltaic effect, bypassing the turbine system found in every other commercial
energy source.

The Photovoltaic Effect

Light is converted into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. When light is incident to
the cell, the absorbed energy excites bound electrons. This allows them to jump their
atomic bonds and become free. The free electrons travel through the material, and
the resulting current is harnessed when conductors are attached to either side of the
cell. Because there are no moving parts, including turbines, maintenance fees are
lower and there is zero fuel use.

The photovoltaic effect requires a material that is light sensitive. Over the last 175
years, researchers have noted the photovoltaic properties of several different
materials. The first solar cells of 1880 were just one percent efficient - revolutionary
for the time. These first efforts were constructed with gold-coated selenium.

Progress stalled at that mark for decades. Albert Einstein's accurate description of
the photovoltaic effect in 1905 was a major benchmark in solar power development,
but it took until the 1950s for an actual improvement to be seen in solar panels. In
1956, Gordon Pearson, Darryl Chapin, and Cal Fuller first used silicon to produce a
solar cell, achieving a much-improved efficiency of 4% and introducing silicon as a
key material in solar energy production.
Silicon in Solar Cells

The silicon that you'll now find in a solar cell is highly processed. The material is
sourced in silica mines, which are often found in regions with heavy quartz
concentrations. The silica is refined to reach metallurgical grade. This process takes
place in an electric arc furnace, where carbon is used to release the oxygen in the
silica quartzite, resulting in a more consistent silica makeup. However, metallurgical
purity doesn't cut it for a photovoltaic cell.

High efficiency rates will boost the amount of energy released by the cell, so the
purity of the photovoltaic-capable material is of utmost importance. The metallurgical
grade silicon is exposed to hydrochloric acid and copper, which produce
trichlorosilane gas. Hydrogen is then used to reduce this gas to silane gas, which is
in turn heated to make molten silicon.

Pure silicon is crystalline - a structure necessary for photovoltaic cells. The purity
level of silicon at this state is anywhere from 99.99999% to 99.9999999% pure.
Silicon can be arranged into either a monocrystalline structure, which boasts the
highest efficiency rates as well as the highest cost, or a polycrystalline shell.

Processing Crystalline Silicon for Solar Cells

Polycrystalline shells are made by melting various silicon crystals together, making
them cheaper than monocrystalline setups. Polycrystalline cells are also far less
energy intensive to produce a positive for those who decide to go solar for
environmental reasons.

Once the silicon (both monocrystalline and polycrystalline) has been properly
prepared, it is treated, or 'doped', with phosphorous and boron to form a
semiconductor. Semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity in radios,
computers, televisions, and other everyday devices. Their conductivity lies between
that of a conductor and an insulator.

After this stage, the basic properties of the solar panel are present. However, before
the panel can be installed, several further procedures are completed. First, the
semiconducting silicon disks are coated with titanium dioxide. This makes them less
reflective, limiting risks for aircraft.
The silicon discs are then arranged in a frame, which is often made of aluminum.
Aluminums low weight allows for easy installation, and increases the number of
structures that can easily support solar panels. Each cell is protected by either silicon
rubber or butyryl plastic. Glass then covers the cell, unless it will be used in space on
a satellite, in which case, plastic is chosen instead.

Processing Solar Cells - Environmental and Health Concerns

When assesing solar panels as a key energy resource, it is important to weigh up

any concerns. One of the issues confronting the solar industry is that many of the
materials used to produce solar panels can be hazardous. Some potential issues
include:

Sawing silicon into discs for use creates silicon dust called kerf, with up to 50%
waste. Kerf can be inhaled by workers, causing severe respiratory problems.

Silica gas is highly explosive, and has been known to spontaneously combust.

Silicon production reactors are cleaned with sulfur hexafluoride, which is the most
potent greenhouse gas per molecule according to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. It also can react with other chemicals to produce sulfur dioxide,
which is responsible for acid rain.

The Future of Solar Cells

Recent research has been aimed at increasing the efficiency rate of photovoltaic cells
and solar arrays. While many strides have been made since the first solar cell was
built back in 1880, average efficiencies still lie well below 30 percent, with many cells
barely topping 10 percent efficiency. If solar power is to take off in the coming
century, serious improvements in their efficiency need to be realized.

Perovskites in Solar Cells

Recent research from has led to a cheap way to augment the photovoltaic properties
of silicon. This method calls on the use of perovskites. Perovskites can be made of
several different materials, but lead is a popular choice. They have a particular
crystalline structure similar to that of calcium titanate.
In one study by researchers at Stanford, solar cell efficiency was boosted from 11.4
percent to 17 percent by adding a perovskite cell. That's an increase of over fifty
percent. However, when they added the same structure to a silicon cell with an
efficiency of 17 percent, results were far less drastic: an increase of 0.9 percent
efficiency. Perovskites will continue to be the focus of much future research into solar
cells.

References

Solar Cells - Chemistry Explained

A Solar Future - Vox

Solar Cells - Madehow

Hazardous Materials in Silicon Cell Production - Solar Industry

Perovskites in Solar Cells - Technology Review

What are Solar Panels Made of? - Solar Power World

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel

Types

Types of PV Systems
Photovoltaic-based systems are generally classified according to their functional and operational
requirements, their component configuration, and how the equipment is connected to the other power
sources and electrical loads (appliances). The two principle classifications are Grid-Connected and Stand
Alone Systems.

Grid Connected
Grid-connected or utility-intertie PV systems are designed to operate in parallel with and interconnected
with the electric utility grid. The primary component is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU). The
inverter converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent with the voltage and
power quality required by the utility grid. The inverter automatically stops supplying power to the grid
when the utility grid is not energized. A bi-directional interface is made between the PV system AC
output circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-site distribution panel or service
entrance. This allows the power produced by the PV system to either supply on-site electrical loads, or to
back feed the grid when the PV system output is greater than the on-site load demand. During periods
when the electrical demand is greater than the PV system output (night-time), the balance of power
required is received from the electric utility This safety feature
is required in all grid-connected PV systems, it also ensures that
the PV system will not continue to operate and feed back onto
the utility grid when the grid is down for service or repair.

Stand Alone System

Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate independent of
the electric utility grid, and are generally designed and sized to
supply certain DC and/or AC electrical loads. Stand-alone
systems may be powered by a PV array only, or may use wind,
an engine-generator or utility power as a backup power source
in what is called a PV-hybrid system. The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled
system, where the DC output of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load.

Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only operates
during sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common applications such as ventilation fans,
water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating systems. Matching the
impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the PV array is a critical part of
designing well-performing direct-coupled system. For certain loads such as positive-displacement water
pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used
between the array and load to help better utilize the available array maximum power output.

In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage. Below is a diagram of a typical
stand-alone PV system with battery storage powering DC and AC loads.

Below is a diagram of a Photovoltaic Hybrid System with battery storage powering DC and AC loads and
using a using a backup power source (wind, engine-generator or utility power)