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Interphase
G1: cell grows
S: copies DNA
G2: preps for division
Mitosis
Prophase
chromosomes are supercoiling
microtubules are growing from centrosomes to form early mitotic spndle
Prometaphase
nuclear membrane breaks apart
identical chromatids attached with centromere
kinetichore microtubules attach to chromosomes
nonkinetichore microtubules attach to each other
Metaphase
nuclear envelope is gone
microtubules attached to centromeres of chromosomes
chromosmes line up at metaphase plate
centrosomes are at opposite poles
Anaphase
microtubules pull chromosomes towards opposite poles
cell elongates
chromatids have split apart and are now chromosomes
Telophase
chromosomes are at opposite poles, microtubules break down, nuclear
membranes begin to form
Cytokenesis
Animal: cleavage furrow forms and pinches cell into two
Plant: vesicles carry wall materials to form cell plate
cell plate grows until it fuses with the plasma membrane to form cell wall
Genetic Variation
1. random orientation in metaphase 1
2. crossing over during prophase 1
3. fertilization - fusion of gametes = random
Non-disjunction
in meiosis, chroosomes that sould move to opposite ends move to same end
gametes w/ 1 chromosome dies
gametes w/ 3 chromosomes = trisomy
ex: down syndrome
Meiosis
prophase 1
homologous chromosomes pair up (each chromosome has 2 chromatids)
spindle microtubules grow
metaphase 1
microtubules attach to different chromsoomes in each pair
chromosomes line up on equator
anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite ends
each chromosome has 2 chromatids
prophase 2
cell has divided (plasma membrane pushed together) to make 2 haploid cells
microtubules growing again
anaphase 2
Greenhouse Effect
sun emits shoe wave radiation
earth emits long wave radiation that is trapped by greenhouse gases -> warming
Digestion of Starch
starch is made up of amylose + amylopectins
- amylase turns amylose into maltose and amylopectins into dextrins
- membranes of microvilli secrete maltase + dextrinase -> glucose
Cardiac Cycle
1) blood enters atrium
2) walls of atria contract
3) blood goes through open atrioventricular valves
4) ventricle fills with blood
5) ventricle contracts -> increased pressure
6) Atrioventricular valves close + semilunar valves open
8) blood pumped into arteries
9) ventricle pressure decreases -> sc valves close and av valves open
Blood Clotting
1) reactiosn by clotting factors/damadged cells/platelets
2) prothrombin -> thrombin
3) fbrinogen -> fibrin
4) fibrin creates mesh of fibers
Antibody Production
1) antigen enters body
2) antigen bnds to cell surface of a type of lyphocyte
3) lymphocyte activates and makes plasma cells through mitosis
4) plasma cells produce antibodies
5) infection is cleared
6) memory cells are left
Inhaling
Between synapses
1) action potential depolarizes membrane
2) vehicles of neurotransmitters fuse w/ membrane
3) neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft
4) neurotransmitters bind to post synaptic membrane receptors
5) depolarization of post synaptic membrane -> passing on action potential +
neurotransmitters
Action Potential
Action potential
depolarization + repolarization of a neuron
depolarization - sodium channels open and sodium diffuses out, making neuron positive
repolarization - potassium channels open and potassium diffuses out, making neuron
negative again
Insulin
secreted by beta cells in pancreas when blood glucose is high, stimulates liver cells
to absorb glucose and turn it into glycogen + use glucose in cellular respiration
instead of fat
Glucagon
Secreted by alpha cells in pancreas when blood glucose is low, stimulates liver cells
to break down glycogen and release glucose
Thyroxin
secreted by thyroid gland in the neck
decrease in body temperature leads to increase in thyroxin leads to increase in
metabolic rate leads to increase in body temperature
Leptin
Melatonin
secreted by pineal gland
controls circadian rhytm
ganglion cells in retina detect if light or dark -> send these impulses to SCN in
hypothalamus which controls secretion of melatonin
In Vitro Fertilization
1) woman takes drug to stop FSH + LH production
2) give woman large doses of FSH + LH -> superovulation where lots of follicles develop
3) stimulate folliles, make them develop
4) retrieve eggs + mix them w/ sperm and incubate
5) put thezygote back in the uterus _ progesterone injections for uterus lining
Hershey and Chase
radioactive sulfr (incorporated into protein) or radioactive phosphorous (incorporated into DNA)
mixed bacteriophages with bacteria and separated them - bacteria was only radioactive when
racioactive phsphorous was used -> only DNA enters the cell -> DNA is the genetic material
DNA REPLICATION
1) DNA GYRASE moves ahead of helicase and reliees srain on DNA + prevents supercoiling
2) HELICASE uncoils DNA and split it into two template strands
3) SINGLE STRAND BINDING PROTEINS keep strands from binding back together
4) DNA POLYMERASE III adds nuecleotides from 5 to 3 direction on leading strand
5) DNA PRIMASE adds short legnth of RNA (primer) to lagging strand
6) DNA POLYMERASE III adds nucleotides starting at primer - moving away from replication
fork but 5-3
7) Okazaki framents
8) DNA POLYMERASE I removes primer and replaces it w/ DNA
9) DNA LIGASE seals it up
TRANSCRIPTION
Promoter
Base sequence close to start of gene - controls whether gene is transcribed
noncoding DNA
Transcription factors
proteins that bind to promoter, allowiing RNA polymerase to bind and begin ranscription
Initiation of Translation
1) small subunit binds to mRNA start codon
2) tRNA with anticodon opposite to start codon binds
3) large subunit of ribosome binds to small subunit - initiator tRNA is in P site
4) tRNA binds to A site
5) peptide bond forms between amino acids in P and A sites
Elongation in Translation
1) ribsome moves 3 bases along mRNA towards 3' end -> A site becomes vacant
2) tRNA in E site detatches
3) tRNA binds to A site
4) formation of peptide bond
repeat
Termination of Translation
1) ribosome reaches stop codon
2) release factors bind tto A site -> release of polypeptide from P SITE
3) tRNA, mRNA, everything detaches