Technocrat Notes Originals Chemistry Edexcel A Paper 1 As Level Inorganic and Physical Chemistry

Technocrat Notes Originals
AS Level Chemistry
Paper 1 - Physical and Inorganic
By The Technocrat Team
Edexcel
A
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CONTENTS
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OUR MISSION4
HOW TO USE OUR GUIDES.4
Topic 1: Atomic Structure and the Periodic
Topic 2: Bonding and Structure
Topic 3: Redox I
Topic 4: Inorganic Chemistry and the Periodic Table
Topic 5: Formulae, Equations and Amounts of Substance
BREAKDOWN OF EXAMINATION.36
THE KEY TO DOING WELL.36

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Notes BREAKDOWN OF EXAMINATION

+
Add General Exam Advice
Here What's assessed?
Relevant Physical chemistry topics (sections

3.1.1 to 3.1.4, 3.1.6 and 3.1.7) Inorganic
chemistry (Section 3.2.1 to 3.2.3) Relevant
practical skills
Assessed
Written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
80 marks
50% of AS
Questions
Questions 65 marks of short and long answer

questions 15 marks of multiple choice questions
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Topic 1: Atomic Structure and the
Periodic
Atoms

Notes Made up of 3 subatomic particles - electrons, neutrons and

protons
Electrons
- Subatomic particle
- Charge of -1
- Arranged in orbitals
- Relative mass of 0.0005 - negligible
Nucleus
- Where most of the mass of the atom is contained
- Made up of protons and neutrons
- Diameter is much smaller than that of whole atom
Neutrons
- No charge
- Relative mass of 1
- Contained in nucleus
- Dictates the isotope of an element that an atom is; not all
atoms of the same element have the same number of
neutrons
Protons
- Charge of +1
- Relative mass of 1
- Contained in nucleus
- Dictates the type of element that an atom is; all atoms of the
same element have the same number of protons
Ions
- Ions are charged atoms; positive ions have more protons
than electrons, and vice versa for negative ions
- Ions have different numbers of electrons to their parent
elements'
- e.g. Li has only 2 electrons, whereas Li has 3
- e.g. F has 9 electrons, F has 10
Isotopes
- Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons.
- Are atoms of the same element but different masses.
- E.g. Cl has 18 neutrons and Cl has 20
- Number and arrangement of electrons dictate the chemical
properties of an element, so all isotopes of an element have
the same properties
- However isotopes of the same element can have different
physical properties such as density and diffusion rates

Notes Relative atomic mass

The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean mass of an
atom of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Can be worked out from Isotopic Abundances - Multiple the

isotopic mass of each isotope by its % abundance, add them
up then divide the total by 100
Relative isotopic mass
The mass of an atom of an isotope of an element compared
with 1/12th if the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Relative molecular mass
The average mass of a molecule compared to the mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Mass Spectrometry
Can be used to work out the relative atomic mass. Particles
measured with a mass spectrometer must be charged, so they
are often bombarded with electrons in order to remove one,
giving a charge of +1
1. Multiple each relative isotopic mass by its relative isotopic

abundance, and add up the results
2. Divide by the sum of the isotopic abundances
Calculating Isotopic Masses from Relative atomic mass

Need: Relative mass of element and all but one of the
abundances and isotopic masses of its isotopes
1. Find abundance of last isotope - percentage abundances so
do 100-(sum of known% abundances)

Notes 2. Put into equation for finding the relative atomic mass and
rearrange for the unknown value
Predicting mass spectra for diatomic molecules (E.g. Cl)
1. Express each % as a decimal (e.g. 75%0.75 and
25%0.25)
2. Make a table showing all the different Cl molecules. For
each, multiply the abundances of each isotope to get the
relative abundance of each molecule.
3. Look for any values in the table that are the same and add
up their abundances
4. Divide all the relative abundances by the smallest relative
abundance to get the smallest whole number ratio. And by
working out the relative molecular mass of each molecule,
you can predict the mass spectra
5. Plot the mass spectra with the relative abundances you
worked out on the y-axis and the relative molecular masses
(m/z) on the x-axis
Identifying compounds using mass spectrometry
1. Molecules in a sample are bombarded with electrons to
remove an electron and form a molecular ion, M
2. The molecular mass is shown by the molecular ion peak -
the peak with the highest m/z value, not including any M+1
peaks caused by presence of carbon-13
Electron Shells
- Made up of subshells and orbitals
- Electrons move around the nucleus in quantum shells (aka
energy levels)
- Shells further from the nucleus have a greater energy level
than those closer to the nucleus
- Shells contain different types of subshell, each of which
have different numbers of orbitals which can each hold 2
electrons
Subshells
This table shows the subshells and how many electrons can
be contained in each

Notes
Orbitals
- Orbitals within the same subshell have the same energy
- s-orbitals are spherical
- p-orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. There are 3 p-orbitals and
they are at right angles to each other
Electronic configuration
- Electrons fill up the lowest energy subshells first
- Electrons fill orbitals singly before they start pairing up
- Exceptions: Chromium and Copper - donate a 4s electron to
the 3d subshell because they are more stable with a full or
half-full d-subshell
Periodic table electron configuration blocks
- s-block elements have an outer shell electronic
configuration of s or s
- p-block elements have an outer shell electronic
configuration of sp to sp
Atomic emission spectra - electron excitement

- Electrons release energy in fixed amounts
- In their ground state, atoms have their electrons in their
lowest possible energy levels

Notes - If an atom's electrons take in energy from their

surroundings, they can move up energy levels, getting further
from the nucleus. These are known as excited electrons
- Excited electrons release energy by dropping from a higher
energy level down to a lower one. The energy levels all have
fixed value - they are discrete
- An emission spectrum shows the frequency of light emitted
when electrons drop down from a higher energy level to a
lower one. These frequencies appear as coloured lines on a
dark background
- Each element has a different electron arrangement, so the
frequencies of radiation absorbed and released are emitted.
This causes the spectrum for each element to be unique
Atomic emission spectra
- Each set of lines represents electrons moving to a different
energy level
- One set of lines produced when electrons fall to the n=1
(ground state) level, another when they fall to n=2, etc.
- When they drop to n=1, the series of lines is produced in
the ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum
- n=2 produces lines in the visible part of the spectrum
- n=3 produces in the infrared part of the spectrum
Emission Spectra support the idea of Quantum shells
- Emission spectra show clear lines for different energy
levels - supports idea that energy levels are discrete;
electrons jump between levels with no in-between stage.
Ionisation
The removal of one or more electrons
First Ionisation Energy
The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove 1
electron from each atom in 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form
1 mole of gaseous ions with a charge of +1.
It is an endothermic process
Factors affecting ionisation energy
- Nuclear charge: more protons; more positively charged
nucleus; stronger attraction for electrons
- Electron shell: attraction falls of rapidly with distance; an
electron in a shell close to the nucleus is much more strongly
attracted than one in a shell further away
- Shielding: as the number of electrons between the outer
electrons and the nucleus increases, the outer electrons feel
less attraction towards the nuclear charge. This lessening of
the pull of the nucleus by inner shells of electrons is called
shielding.

Notes First ionisation energies decrease down a group

As you go down the group in the periodic table, ionisation
energies generally fall, i.e. it gets easier to remove outer
electrons.
This happens because further down the group have extra
shells, so the atomic radius is larger, so the outer electrons
are further away, which greatly reduces.
Successive ionisation energies
- You can remove all the electrons from an atom, leaving just
the nucleus
- Each time an electron is removed, there's a successive
ionisation energy which is greater than the previous
ionisation energy
- n'th ionisation energy can be written as:
X()(g) X(g) + e
Ionisation Energies show Shell structure
- Within each cell, successive ionisation energies increase;
less repulsion from other electrons each time, so stronger
attraction to nucleus
- Big jumps occur between shells; an electron is being
removed from a shell closer to the nucleus
- This type of graph can tell you which group an element
belongs to; count how many electrons are removed before
the first big jump
Modern period table organises elements by Proton Number

- Dmitri Mendeleev created base for modern periodic table in
1869
Electronic configuration decides the chemical properties of
an element

Notes - s-block elements (Groups 1 and 2) have 1 or 2 outer shell

electrons, which are easily lost to form positive ions with the
electron configuration of an inert gas e.g. Na: 1s 2s 2p 3s
Na: 1s 2s 2p (electron configuration of Neon)
- p-block elements (Groups 5,6,7) can gain 1,2 or 3 electrons
to form negative ions with an inert gas configuration e.g. O:
1s 2s 2p O: 1s 2s 2p
- groups 4-7 can also share electrons when they form
covalent bonds
- Group 0 (inert gases) have completely filled s and p
subshells and don't need to gain, lose or share electrons; their
full subshells are what make them inert
- d-block elements (transition metals) tend to lose s and d
electrons to form positive ions
Atomic Radius decreases across a period
This is because:
- As the number of protons increases, the positive charge on
the nucleus also increases, causing electrons to be pulled
closer to the nucleus.
- The extra electrons that the elements gain across a period
are added to the outer energy level so they don't provide any
extra shielding.
Ionisation energy increases across a period
This is due to:
- number of protons increasing; stronger nuclear attraction
- All extra electrons are at roughly the same energy level,
even if the outer electrons are in different orbital types
- Generally little extra shielding or extra distance to lessen
nuclear attraction
Drop in ionisation energy between groups 2 and 3
This is because group 3 elements have their outermost
electron in a p orbital rather than an s orbital; the outermost
electron therefore is further away from the nucleus, this, and
the shielding provided by the s orbital below the p orbital is
enough to override the effect of the increased nuclear
attraction
Drop in ionisation energy between groups 5 and 6
- Elements with filled singly filled or full subshells are more
stable than those with partially filled shells, hence they have
higher first ionisation energies
- e.g Sulphur 1s2s2p3s3p (1IE: 1000kJmol)nand
Phosphorus 1s2s2p3s3p (1IE: 1012kJmol)
- shielding is identical in both, and electron being removed
from same orbital
- In P, electron is being removed from a singly-occupied
orbital, in S its being removed from an orbital containing 2

Notes electrons
- The repulsion between two electrons in an orbital means
that electrons are easier to remove from a shared orbital
Atomic Number
Is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that
element (Z)
Avogadro Constant
Is the number of atoms of Carbon-12 in exactly 12g of
carbon-12
Avogadro's law
States that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules
Electronic Configuration
An atom shows the number of electrons in each sublevel in
each energy level of the atom
Hurd's Rule
States that electrons will occupy the orbitals singly before
pairing takes place
Mass Number
The sum of the number of protons and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus of that atom
Orbital
Is a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons
with opposite spins
Pauli Exclusive Principle
States that two electrons cannot occupy the same orbitals
unless they have opposite spins. Electron spin is usually
shown by the use of upward and downward arrows
Periodicity
Is a rugularly repeating pattern of atomic, physical and
chemical properties with increasing atomic number
Quantum Shell
Defines the energy level of an electron
Relative Atomic Mass
It is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element
compared to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

Notes Relative Isotopic Mass

The mass of an individual atom of a particular isotope
relative to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Second Ionisation Energy
It is the energy required to remove an electron from each
singly charged positive ion in one mole of positive ions in
the gaseous state

How are ions formed?
Ions are charged particles and can be charged positively or
negatively. This means that when an atom loses an electron,
it becones a positive ion and when it gains an electron, it
becomes a negatively charged ion.
What proof is there that the ionic model exists?
In an electrolysis reaction, the ions migrate. Cations to the
Cathode and Anions to the Anode. Reduction occurs at the
cathode, so this means that the ions migrate to the electrodes
of opposite charge.
Electron density maps of compounds produced from X Ray

diffraction patterns show 0 electron density between ions-
meaning complete ionic transfer.
High melting temperatures show strong forces of attraction

in ionic compounds. Also, the fact they can conduct when
molten/in a solution.
What is ionic bonding?
The strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
How to draw electronic configuration of cations and anions
using dot-and-cross diagrams.
?
What is a covalent bond?

The strong electrostatic attraction between two nuclei and the
shared pair of electrons between them.
What is the shape of a simple molecule or ion determined
by?

Notes The repulsion between the electron pairs that surround a

central atom.
What is electronegativity?
The ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a
covalent bond.
Relationship between bond length and bond strength in
covalent bonds
The stronger the bond, the shorter they are.
Bond angles and shape for 2 BP, 0 LP
Linear Shape,
180 degree angles
Bond angles and shape for 3BP, 0LP

Trigonal Planar Shape,
120 degree angles

Bent/V Shape,
118 degree angle

Tetrahedral Shape,
109.5 degree angles

Trigonal Pyramid Shape,
107 degree angle

Bent/V Shape,
104.5 degree angle

Notes Bond angles and shape for 5BP, 0LP

Trigonal Bipyramid Shape,
120 and 90 degree angles
4BP, 1LP
119 and 89 degree angles
Alternate way of drawing 4BP, 1LP
3BP, 2LP
Trigonal planar shape
Alternate way of drawing 3BP, 2LP

T-Shape

Octahedral Shape,
90 degree angles

Square Pyramid Shape,
89 degree angles

Square Planar Shape,
90 degree angles
What is the effect of ionic charge in ionic bonds?

In an ionic lattice the bonds are electrostatic attraction
between the positive and negative ions, the higher the ionic

Notes charges the greater the electrostatic attraction so the stronger

the bond
What is the effect of ionic radius in ionic bonds?
The smaller the ionic radius the stronger the bond
What happens to atomic radii down a group?
It increases due to every time the period changes then it
means that another shell has been occupied and as shells fill
away from the nucleus then that means the distance from the
nucleus to the valent electron increases
Can two different ions have the same ionic radius/electron
configuration?
Yes they can be isoelectronic (same number of electrons)
without being the same element as one or both could be ions,
e.g. O and F+ are isoelectronic so have the same electron
configuration and ionic radius
What is a dot and cross diagram?
An image that shows normally just the valent electrons of
atoms during bonding using dots and crosses to represent the
different electrons for each atom
What does a single covalent bond look like in dot and cross
form?
A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons
What does a double covalent bond look like in dot and cross
form?
A double covalent bond is two shared pairs
What does a triple covalent bond look like in dot and cross
form?
A triple covalent bond is three shared pairs
What is a dative covalent bond?

It is a covalent bond, a shared pair of electrons, where both
electrons come from the same atom

Notes What does a dative covalent bond look like as a dot and cross
diagram?
Are all molecules with polar bonds, polar molecules?

Not in every instance.
Can hydrocarbons be polar?
No
What is step one of determining polarity?
1. Draw the Lewis structure of it. EG, PCl3
What is step two of determining polarity?

Find the shape of the molecule. If it is non-symmetrical, it is
polar. If it is symmetrical, more work is required.
What are the symmetrical shapes?
The symmetric shapes are linear, trigonal planar, and
tetrahedral.
What are the non-symmetrical shapes?
The unsymmetric shapes are bent and trigonal pyramidal.
What is step 3 of determining polarity?
If the shape is symmetrical, determine if all the outside atoms
are the same. If yes, it is non-polar. If no, it is polar.
Are molecule shapes the same?
No
What controls the shape of molecules?
The repulsion by the bonding and lone pairs
what controls bonding angles in molecules?
the number of bonding and lone pairs being repulsed and the
fact that a lone pair has a stronger repulsion then a bonding
due to them being there permanently
E.g how many bonding and lone pairs does BeCl2 have?
two bonding pairs and no lone pairs
E.g how many bonding and lone pairs does BCl3 have?
there bonding pairs and no lone pairs

Notes How many bonding pairs does NH4+ have?

N has 5 valent electrons and the four H have one each
therefore nine valent electrons however because the
ammonia molecule has + charge then there's eight valent
electrons leading to 4 bonding pairs
are ionic and covalent bonding to different and distinct
different forms of bonding?
no they are the extremes of a continuum of bonding types
(their characteristics can overlap)
what can lead to bond polarity in molecules and bonds?
differences in electron negativity
what is hydrogen bonding?
when hydrogen bonds with a particularly electronegative
atom then it becomes delta positive, if the electronegative
atom has a lone pair then a delta positive hydrogen from a
different molecule becomes attracted to the highly
electronegative lone pair increasing the attraction between
the two molecules
Why does hydrogen bonding occur in water?
Because not only does oxygen have two lone pairs but also a
single molecule of water can form four hydrogen bonds (one
from each hydrogen atom and one from each lone pair)
What limits the amount of hydrogen bonding in ammonia?
nitrogen only has one lone pair therefore not as many
hydrogen bonds can be formed
What limits the amount of hydrogen bonding in hydrogen
fluroride?
A lack of hydrogen atoms to bond with the number of lone
pairs
Why is water the best conditions for hydrogen bonding?
There are the same number of hydrogen atoms as lone pairs
What is the trend of boiling points of alkanes with increasing
chain length?
The boiling point increases along with the chain length due
to there being a higher molecular mass and more energy
being needed
How does branched chain compounds boiling points
compare to the straight chained equivalents?
They have a lower boiling point because when they are
branched they become more compact decreasing the surface

Notes area leading to weaker forces as some intermolecular forces

rely on surface area
Why are alcohols less volatile than alkanes?
Due to the OH group in the alcohol which can form a
hydrogen with other molecules which requires more energy
to break then just the intermolecular forces that hold alkanes
together
What is the trend in the boiling point of hydrogen halides?
(In red) The general trend is that the boiling point increases
as the molecular weight increases with the exception of HF
(the least dense) which has the highest boiling point
Why does the least dense hydrogen halide have the highest
boiling point?
Because it has hydrogen bonding
What types of bonding can giant lattices be formed?
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
What is an example of a giant ionic lattice?
Most ionic solids
What is an example of a giant covalently bonded lattice?
Diamond, graphite etc...
What is an example of a giant metallic lattice?
All metal solids
What is the order of bonding strongest to weakest?
Covalent, ionic, metallic
Why does the general boiling point increase for hydrogen
halides?
Because down a group the atomic radius increases increasing
the surface area leading to stronger London forces
Topic 3: Redox I
What is an oxidation number?
The charge that an atom in a compound would have if the
compound consisted only of separate ions
What oxidation number does an element on its own have?

Notes 0
What oxidation number do hydrogen ions almost always
have?
+1
What is the exception of the oxidation number of hydrogen
ions and when does it occur?
In NaH (sodium hydride) the H ions are -1
What oxidation number do oxygen ions almost always have?
-2
What is the exception of the oxidation number of oxygen
In H2O2 the O ions are -1
What oxidation number do chlorine ions almost always
have?
-1
What is the exception of the oxidation number of chlorine
Cl changes oxidation number with oxygen, e.g. Cl2O7: +6,
ClO: +2
What is the sum of the oxidation states in a compound?
Zero
What is the sum of the oxidation numbers equal to on a
complex ion?
The complex ion's charge
Is reduction loss or gain of electrons?
Gain of electrons
Is reduction loss or addition of hydrogen?
Addition of hydrogen
Is reduction loss or gain of oxygen?
Loss of oxygen
Is oxidation loss or gain of electrons?
Loss of electrons
Is oxidation loss or addition of hydrogen?
Loss of hydrogen
Is oxidation loss or gain of oxygen?

Notes Addition of oxygen

What do the roman numerals after an element in a compound
show?
The oxidation state of that element
Are halogens oxidising or reducing agents?
Oxidising agents
Does the oxidising power of halogens decrease or increase
down the group?
Decreases down the group
What causes the trend in oxidising down group 7?
The increasing nuclear charge down the group is offset by
increasing shielding and increasing atomic radius, resulting
What are halides?
Salts formed from halogens
What does a disproportionation reaction involve?
An element in a single species being simultaneously oxidised
and reduced
In general, what sort of ions do metals form?
Positive ions by loss of electrons with an increase in
oxidation number
In general, what sort of ions do non-metals form?
Negative ions by gain of electrons with a decrease in
oxidation number
Topic 4: Inorganic chemistry and the

periodic table
ionisation energy down group 2
Decreases as atomic radii increases
Reactivity down group 2
Increases as outer electron is further from the nucleus
2M + O2 -> 2MO
Group two reaction with oxygen
M + Cl2 -> MCl2
Group two reaction with chlorine
M + 2H2O -> M(OH)2 + H2

Notes Group two reaction with water

Mg + H2O -> MgO + H2
Magnesium and steam
MO + H2O -> M(OH)2
Group two oxide reaction with water
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 -> CaCO3 + H2O
Testing for carbon dioxide
Mg(OH)2 +2HCl -> MgCl2 + 2H20
Milk of magnesia and stomach acid
Hydrochloric acid and Barium Chloride
Test for sulfate ions with white precipitate
With low charge and big atomic radius
Thermal stability of nitrates and carbonates increases..
metal nitrite + oxygen
Lesser decomposition of group 2 nitrates
metal oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
Greater decomposition of group 2 nitrates
MCO3 -> MO + CO2
Decomposition of group 2 carbonates
Red
Lithium flame test
Orange
Sodium flame test
Lilac
Potassium flame test
Red/Purple
Rubidium flame test
Blue/Violet
Caesium flame test
No colour
Beryllium flame test
No colour

Notes Magnesium flame test

Brick red
Calcium flame test
Crimson
Strontium flame test
Apple Green
Barium flame test
Warm with sodium hydroxide and use damp red litmus
Test for ammonium ions
More electrons for London forces
Reason for increasing melting and boiling point down group
7
Fluorine
Highest oxidising power
astatide
Highest reducing power
HCl
Products of NaCl and sulfuric acid
HBr + Bromide + Sulfur Dioxide
Products of NaBr and sulfuric acid
HI + Iodine + Sulfur Dioxide + Sulfur + Hydrogen Sulfide
Products of NaI and sulfuric
Nitric acid + Silver nitrate
Test for halide ions
Add dilute aqueous ammonia
Further proof for chloride (will dissolve)

BREAKDOWN OF EXAMINATION
Notes
What's assessed?
Topic 1: Atomic Structure and the Periodic

Topic 3: Redox I
Topic 4: Inorganic Chemistry and the Periodic
Table
Topic 5: Formulae, Equations and Amounts of
Substance
Assessed
Written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
80 marks
50% of AS
Questions
Questions 65 marks of short and long answer

questions 15 marks of multiple choice questions
What Youre Up Against

Remember doing well in youre A-Levels is the basis for
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songs that will distract you. When you hear a song that
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make these songs their alarm so it reminds them to get
up to study.

Notes
The End Goal

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Notes from Text book/

Effective Personalised Notes

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Text book/Revision Guide

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Silly mistakes, omitted terminology and incorrect definitions are

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Notes BREAKDOWN OF EXAMINATION

Relevant Physical chemistry topics (sections

Questions 65 marks of short and long answer

THE KEY TO DOING WELL

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Notes Made up of 3 subatomic particles - electrons, neutrons and

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Notes Relative atomic mass

Can be worked out from Isotopic Abundances - Multiple the

1. Multiple each relative isotopic mass by its relative isotopic

Calculating Isotopic Masses from Relative atomic mass

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Atomic emission spectra - electron excitement

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Notes - If an atom's electrons take in energy from their

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Notes First ionisation energies decrease down a group

Modern period table organises elements by Proton Number

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Notes - s-block elements (Groups 1 and 2) have 1 or 2 outer shell

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Notes Relative Isotopic Mass

Topic 2: Bonding and Structure

Electron density maps of compounds produced from X Ray

High melting temperatures show strong forces of attraction

What is a covalent bond?

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Notes The repulsion between the electron pairs that surround a

Bond angles and shape for 3BP, 0LP

Bond angles and shape for 2BP, 1LP

Bond angles and shape for 4BP, 0LP

Bond angles and shape for 3BP, 1LP

Bond angles and shape for 2BP, 2LP

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Notes Bond angles and shape for 5BP, 0LP

Alternate way of drawing 4BP, 1LP

Alternate way of drawing 3BP, 2LP

Bond angles and shape for 6BP, 0LP

Bond angles and shape for 5BP, 1LP

Bond angles and shape for 4BP, 2LP

What is the effect of ionic charge in ionic bonds?

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Notes charges the greater the electrostatic attraction so the stronger

What is a dative covalent bond?

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Are all molecules with polar bonds, polar molecules?

What is step two of determining polarity?

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Notes How many bonding pairs does NH4+ have?

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