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CHAPTER 1

HARMONICS AND LOADS

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1. HARMONICS AND LOADS

This chapter deals with the concepts of harmonics and loads. It mainly covers the basic idea
about harmonics, how they are produced and measured, the effect of these harmonics and the
purpose for measuring harmonics. Apart from this we have also touched upon the types of
loads. In this project we have used only domestic loads or household loads so that we can
analyze the impact of harmonics on the distribution system.

1.1 HARMONICS

1.1.1 What is harmonics?

A harmonic is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integral (whole-number) multiple of


the frequency of some reference signal or wave. The term can also refer to the ratio of the
frequency of such a signal or wave to the frequency of the reference signal or wave. For a
signal whose fundamental frequency is f , the second harmonic has a frequency 2 f , the third
harmonic has a frequency of 3 f , and so on. Let w represent the wavelength of the signal or
wave in a specified medium. The second harmonic has a wavelength of w /2, the third
harmonic has a wavelength of w /3, and so on. Signals occurring at frequencies of 2 f , 4 f ,
6 f , etc. are called even harmonics, the signals at frequencies of 3 f , 5 f , 7 f , etc. are called
odd harmonics. A signal can, in theory, have infinitely many harmonics.

1.1.2 How are harmonics produced and why?

Harmonics provides a mathematical analysis of distortions to a current or voltage waveform.


Based on Fourier series, harmonics can describe any periodic wave as a summation of simple
sinusoidal waves which are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Harmonics are
steady-state distortions to current and voltage waves and repeat every cycle. They are
different from transient distortions to power systems such as spikes, dips and impulses. There
can be two types of harmonics such as:

1.1.3 Current Harmonics

In a normal alternating current power system, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific
frequency, usually 50 or 60 hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it

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draws a sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage (though usually not
in phase with the voltage).

Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a rectifier,
is connected to the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily sinusoidal. The current
waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of load and its interaction with
other components of the system. Regardless of how complex the current waveform becomes,
as described through Fourier series analysis, it is possible to deconstruct it into a series of
simple sinusoids, which start at the power system fundamental frequency and occur at integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency.

1.1.4 Voltage Harmonics

Voltage harmonics are mostly caused by current harmonics. The voltage provided by the
voltage source will be distorted by current harmonics due to source impedance. If the source
impedance of the voltage source is small, current harmonics will cause only small voltage
harmonics. It is typically the case that voltage harmonics are indeed small compared to
current harmonics.

For that reason, the voltage waveform can usually be approximated by the fundamental
frequency of voltage. If this approximation is used, current harmonics produce no effect on
the real power transferred to the load. An intuitive way to see this comes from sketching the
voltage wave at fundamental frequency and overlaying a current harmonic with no phase
shift (in order to more easily observe the following phenomenon). What can be observed is
that for every period of voltage, there is equal area above the horizontal axis and below the
current harmonic wave as there is below the axis and above the current harmonic wave. This
means that the average real power contributed by current harmonics is equal to zero.
However, if higher harmonics of voltage are considered, then current harmonics do make a
contribution to the real power transferred to the load.

1.2 EFFECT OF HARMONICS

One of the major effects of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the system.
This is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp increase in the zero
sequence current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral conductor. This effect can
require special consideration in the design of an electric system to serve non-linear loads.In
addition to the increased line current, different pieces of electrical equipment can suffer
effects from harmonics on the power system.
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Electric motors experience losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents set up in the iron core
of the motor. These are proportional to the frequency of the current. Since the harmonics are
at higher frequencies, they produce higher core losses in a motor than the power frequency
would. This results in increased heating of the motor core, which (if excessive) can shorten
the life of the motor. The 5th harmonic causes a CEMF (counter electromotive force) in large
motors which acts in the opposite direction of rotation. The CEMF is not large enough to
counteract the rotation, however it does play a small role in the resulting rotating speed of the
motor.

1.3 PURPOSE OF MEASURING HARMONICS

To obtain an overall idea on distribution-network status (network mapping),


In view of corrective action, to determine the origin of a disturbance and determine
the solutions required to eliminate it,
To check the validity of a solution (following modifications in the distribution
network to check the reduction of harmonic disturbances)

1.4 BASIC TERMINOLOGY USED IN THE REPORT


1. THD:

THD stands for total harmonic distortion. THD is a common measurement of the level of
harmonic distortion present in power systems. THD can be related to either current harmonics
or voltage harmonics, and it is defined as the ratio of total harmonics to the value at
fundamental frequency times 100%.

Where "In" is the RMS current of the "n"th harmonic, and n = 1 is the fundamental frequency.

2. Power Factor:

The ratio of Productive Power (kW) to Total Power (kVA) is called the Power Factor (PF =
kW / kVA). It is a measure of the systems electrical efficiency in an alternating current circuit
and is represented as a % or a decimal.

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1.5 TYPES OF LOADS

1.5.1 LINEAR LOADS

A load where the wave shape of the steady-state current will follow the wave shape of the
applied voltage is called a linear load.
Example: Power Factor Improvement Capacitors, Incandescent Lamps, Heaters.

Characteristics of Linear Loads:

In AC circuits, linear loads voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal, so the
current at any time is proportional to voltage and these loads does not change the shape of the
waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and
current.

Linear loads impedance remains fixed with changing the applied voltage. The fixed
impedance means that the current drawn by the linear load will be sinusoidal as like the
voltage and the current at any time will be proportional to voltage.

Linear loads dont produce any new frequency (harmonics) or change the applied
frequency.

Figure 1: Characteristics of Linear loads

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1.5.2 NON LINEAR LOADS

Nonlinear Electrical Load is a load where the wave shape of the steady-state current does not
follow the wave shape of the applied voltage.

Example: Electronic equipment, electronic/electric-discharge lighting, adjustable-speed drive


systems, and similar equipment, domestic loads such as refrigerators, television etc.

Characteristics of Non-Linear Loads:

Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some
other form.

Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental


frequency) AC current causing distortion of the current waveform leads to distortion of the
voltage waveform. Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no longer proportional to
the current.

Non-linear loads impedance changes with the applied voltage. The changing
impedance means that the current drawn by the non-linear load will not be sinusoidal even
when it is connected to a sinusoidal voltage. These non-sinusoidal currents contain harmonic
currents that interact with the impedance of the power distribution system to create voltage
distortion that can affect both the distribution system equipment and the loads connected to
it.

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Figure 2: Characteristics of Non Linear Loads

Loads used in this project are:

Refrigerators
Washing machines
Televisions
Personal computers/ Laptops

Loads not analysed due to less number of survey points are:

Air conditioners
Inverters
Ovens
Supply Mains

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CHAPTER 2

POWER QUALITY ANALYSER

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2. POWER QUALITY ANALYSER (PQA)

In this chapter we will be discussing about the basic components used in the survey. The
most important equipment for the survey is the Power Quality Analyser. Yokogawa CW240
model Power Quality Analyser has been used. The overview of PQA and a general Gang box
has been discussed.

2.1 OVERVIEW OF PQA

Figure 3: Power Quality Analyser Equipment

This power quality analyzer (Yokogawa CW240 model) is a multi-function power


analyser device that measures precisely direct current, alternating current, AC-voltage, DC-
voltage the intensity of DC or AC, phase rotation and idle, apparent and effective power.

The reading of AC power is considered the real value and has a maximum range of
6000 Watts.

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It is also called power meter or wattmeter

It can run on ac power/batteries

2.1.1 ACCESSORIES

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2.1.2 OVERVIEW OF PQA

Figure 4: Overview of PQA

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2.1.3 CHANNELS OF PQA

Figure 5: Channels of PQA

2.1.4 SIDE VIEW OF PQA

Figure 6: Side View of PQA

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2.1.5 WIRING SYSTEM

(a) Single Phase Two Wire system

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(b) Single Phase Three Wire System

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c. Three Phase System

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2.1.6 CURRENT PROBES

For the various equipments, there are various ran ges of probes in PQA. But we have used
Model 96036 2A probe and model 96033 50A probe.

Figure 7: Current probes of PQA

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2.2 GANG BOX

Figure 8: 16A Gang Box designed for safety purpose

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Definition:

The term gang refers to a group of tools or items. The gang box is a toolbox or workbox to
which multiple components can be connected.

Necessity:

A separate Gang box is made for the measurement of current and voltages using the
Power Quality analyser.
It is made to ensure safety of the people conducting the experiment as well as safety
of the equipment to be tested and the Power Quality Analyser.

Operation:

The gang box is connected to the 230V supply at the socket in the house.
The equipment to be tested (TV, Washing Machine, etc.) is plugged into one of the
sockets of the Gang box.
NOTE: For light loads like refrigerators, washing machines, Televisions, a 6A gang box is
connected while for heavy loads like supply mains and air conditioners a 16A gang box is
connected.
In the second socket, voltage measurement probes plug is connected.
The current measurement probes of the power quality analyser are connected to the
phase wire of the gang box, according to the equipment, as shown below.

Figure 9: Connecting a probe across a cable

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2.3 VOLTAGE PROBES

Figure 10: Connectors to measure voltage

For safety purpose, we made a voltage probe with a plug which can be connected into
the gang box socket.
Three wires are connected to a plug and the ends are put into the PQA to measure the
voltage.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY USED

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3. METHODOLOGY USED

In order to study the harmonics of domestic loads, the survey methodology was used. Under
this methodology we conducted the experiment in various houses in the Visakhapatnam
district. Permission was taken from each house for the survey and it took nearly 40minutes
for a detailed survey in one house. This chapter covers the details of the survey form used in
the process, the procedure to conduct the experiment and the various challenges faced by us
in the process.

3.1 SURVEY FORM AND ITS EXPLAINATION:


The below mentioned survey form was given at each house for the basic information and the
readings were noted down from the power quality analyser.

3.1.1 SURVEY FORM:

1. Date: Page no:

2. Name:

3. Contact No:

4. Designation:

5. Type of Supply:

6. Average Monthly Consumption:

7. Locality:

8. Appliances:

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1. Fridge: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Current Voltage P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single/ Measur Measur
-g Details Manu Double -ed -ed
f- door)
acture

2. AC: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Current Voltage P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single/ Measur Measur
-g Details Manu Double -ed -ed
f- door)
acture

3. Washing Machine: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Current Voltage P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single/ Measur Measur
-g Details Manu Double -ed -ed
f- door)
acture

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4. Telivision: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Current Voltage P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single/ Measur Measur
-g Details Manu Double -ed -ed
f- door)
acture

5. Personal Computer: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Curren Voltag P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single Measu t e
-g Details Manu /Doubl r-ed Measu
f- e door) r-ed
acture

6. Mains: Time:

Make Capacit Star Name Year Type THD Current Voltage P.F. Energy
y Ratin plate of (Single/ Measur Measur
-g Details Manu Double -ed -ed
f- door)
acture

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4.1.2 EXPLAINATION OF SURVEY FORM:

AVERAGE MONTHLY CONSUMPTION:


Noting the average monthly consumption is a part of the survey form. This is noted in order
to check whether the consumption readings from the mains through the power quality
analyzer is matching the total consumption or not. If the consumption readings had a
variation, in what percentage the readings varied can be known. This shows how the power
supply to that particular domestic load had effect on the electricity distribution.

APPLIANCES:
The appliances used are those which are equipped with power electronic devices. In this
experiment, the equipments used are
Fridge
Air conditioner
Washing machine
Television
Laptop or PC
Mains
Inverter
Oven
The appliances selected must have power electronic devices in order to measure the effect of
harmonics due to that equipment.

MAKE:
The make of the appliance is nothing but the name of the manufacturer. This is noted in order
to consolidate the power consumption of the appliance on the basis of manufacturer name and
type.
CAPACITY:
Based on the capacity of the appliance, the input specifications and power consumption
varies. This is noted in order to know how the appliances have the power consumption and
effect of harmonics doe to the different capacity.

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STAR RATING:
If the star rating is high, the consumption of power is low and vice-versa. This is noted in the
form to check how the appliances of different star ratings vary in terms of power
consumption.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:


Name plate details of the appliances are matched with the readings of power quality analyzer
to check whether there is any variation in the actual consumption through the appliance.

YEAR OF MANUFACTURE:
Year of manufacture is to check the power quality of the appliance on the basis of age of
appliance.

TYPE OF THE APPLIANCE:


Type of the appliance is taken into consideration in order to check how the power quality is
on the basis of type. For example, a refrigerator has different types based on number of doors.
To check the consumption variation based on single door or double door fridge, type of the
appliance is used.

3.2 PROCEDURE:
1. Check the type of the appliance i.e, whether the appliance is suitable for the
conduction of the survey or not.

2. Now check the input current rating of the appliance such that the gang box which is in
accordance with the current rating of the appliance is to be used.

3. Connect the plug of appliance to the gang box socket.

4. Switch on the supply through the extension box.


5. Probe of the power quality analyzer should be connected to the phase wire of the input
of extension box.
6. Proper settings should be made in the power quality analyzer and time should be set
for required intervals.
7. When the set time is reached, the readings will be taken by power quality analyzer
automatically.
8. While the readings are in measurement, note those readings in the survey form.

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9. Thus, during the time intervals of measurent of readings, note down the details in
survey form.
10. At the end of intervals, the THD values and all other parameter values for each interval
are measured and will be saved in excel sheet format in the memory card of the power quality
analyzer.
11. After completion of measurement for an appliance, connect the next appliance and
note down the readings.
12. Thus, all the readings of the appliances are saved in the memory card with their
respective given names.
13. Connect this memory card to PC and the fetch the required readings of the appliances.
14. Now consolidate the readings for all the appliances in an excel sheet.
15. From the above excel sheet compare the energy consumption according to the
parameters of evaluation.
16. Thus summarize all the readings according to the parameters of evaluation and make
the required conclusions for all the appliances used in the survey.

3.3 CHALLENGES FACED DURING THE SURVEY:


The challenges faced while conducting the survey are as follows
Closed Mains
Inaccessible inverters
Difficulty in getting permission for survey
No load issues in Washing Machines
Travel Time
Name plate details not accessible
AC socket pins

4.2.1 CLOSED MAINS:


The main problem faced with mains is that in many homes, the mains are in closed box type
connection. In such cases the readings from mains are not taken. Mostly such type of
connections are seen in homes with single phase supply.

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4.2.2 INACCESSIBLE INVERTERS:
Many homes have their inverters placed in upper shelves of their cupboards. In such cases
those inverters cannot be accessed to make connections with the power quality analyzer in
order to take readings. Such inverters are left without taking readings.

4.2.3 DIFFICULTY IN GETTING PERMISSION FOR SURVEY:


Getting permission for the survey is the main step involved in the survey. But many
people are not accepting for conducting the survey at their homes. And hence survey is
conducted in only those homes who permitted to conduct the survey.

4.2.4 NO LOAD ISSUES IN WASHING MACHINES:


Most of the washing machines used in this survey are with zero number of clothes i.e, with
no load. This doesnt gives the actual values of harmonic distortion because we expected to
take the readings from washing machine while it is in use.

4.2.5 TRAVEL TIME:


The homes among which the survey is done are located at distant places. Hence the
connections made are to be disconnected at the end of every such home and need to be make
all the connections again at the next home. This making connections and settings eat much of
the time.

4.2.6 NAME PLATE DETAILS ARE NOT ACCESSIBLE:


Generally name plate details of any appliance are noted at the back side of the appliance.
Many appliances located in homes are placed such that name plate details are cannot be
accessed. If we access name plate details of those appliances, there will be a disturbance
created which is not permitted.

4.2.7 TYPE OF SOCKET PINS USED FOR ACS:


In general, the socket pins used for acs are of 16 amperes. There are different types of 16
ampere socket pins. The pins which are using in many homes were cannot be accessed
through the type of pin used in 16 ampere gang box which we used. Hence many acs are not
gone through this experiment.

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CHAPTER 4

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

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4. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS
Based on the survey methodology mentioned in chapter 4, a door to door survey was
conducted. In this process a total of 49 houses were covered and the various equipments
which were covered are mentioned in chapter 1 under section 1.5 (Types of loads loads
used in the survey).Analysis was done only for those equipments which were available in
more number of houses. The consolidated excel sheets for the equipments have been attached
at the end of the chapter for reference. Peculiar case indicates the equipments for which one
of the measured parameters is highly abnormal (extremely high or low).

4.1 TELEVISIONS
The total number of televisions covered in the survey is 47 and each of them is of different
make and type. The Total Harmonic Distortion, Voltage and current have been noted down
using a Power Quality Analyser. The broad varieties of televisions covered are LED, LCD
and Box/CRT type.

4.1.1 Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source
of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means
to accelerate and deflect the electron beam onto the screen to create the images. The images
may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer
monitor), radar targets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large,
deep (i.e. long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a
matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-
resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer
product.

4.1.2 Plasma

A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays 30
inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called "plasma" displays because the technology utilizes
small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers
more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.

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4.1.3 LCD and LED

Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are television sets that use LCD display
technology to produce images. LCD televisions are much thinner and lighter than cathode ray
tube (CRTs) of similar display size, and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90 inch
diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical
for television receivers. LCD's come in two types: those using cold cathode fluorescent
lamps, simply called LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as LEDs.

4.1.4 Analysis

The LCD TVs in the survey are manufactured after 2008 and the %THD is almost around
2.5. IGO Flatmagic TV with a %THD of 2.93 has a comparatively higher %THD than other
companies. The current ranges between 19mA to 21mA.

1. Samsung LED TVs have higher %THD. It is above 3.8%.

2. Samsung box type televisions also have THD around 3%.

3. Sony Televisions have a THD around 2% and current between 19mA to 22mA.

4. Panasonic Televisions have THD around 2.5%. However for a Panasonic TV bought
in 2001 the THD is 3.01% - which is a good performance for an old TV

5. There are 2 LED type TVs of LG. They have THD of 4.2% and 7.84% respectively,
which is beyond the acceptable limits. Other than these TVs the average %THD for LG LED
type TVs is 2.27.

6. All other companies also have THD between 2.36% and 4.14%.

7. All LED TVs are manufactured after 2010 and the THD lies mostly between 1% and
4%

8. %THD for LED TVs is more than %THD for LCD TVs.

9. Best performance:

10. LG Flatron LED TV purchased in 2015 has a THD of 1.1% and draws a current of
only 20mA.

11. Least current of 13mA is drawn by LG, LED TV (TV3). Its THD 3.266%

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12. Peculiar cases:

13. A Samsung Euro Multisim Box type TV manufactured in 2001 draws a current of
61mA and has a THD of 3.2667%. (TV30)

14. LG LED TV manufactured in 2016 has a THD of 7.84% and draws 21mA current.
(TV21)

4.2 REFRIGERATORS
A total of 42 refrigerators were covered in the survey. The analysis is based on the type of
fridge single door/ double door/ triple door, its year of manufacture and the star rating of
the refrigerator. The total harmonic distortion variation by considering these parameters gives
gives conclusions as below:

1. 11 refrigerators have %THD above 5 which is not in the limits. The companies to
which these belong are LG, Samsung, Whirlpool, Godrej, Kelvinator and Videocon.
2. Godrej Refrigerators covered in the survey are all manufactured after 2009 and have
either 4 or 5 star rating. The THD values for this specification are less than 3.15%.
3. Godrej Edge has a comparatively higher THD in spite of being a 5 star rating
refrigerator. The two Godrej Edge fridges surveyed have 4.1% and 5.5% THD
respectively.
4. The current drawn by Godrej Pentacool and Godrej edge are comparatively higher
within the Godrej make.
5. One Kelvinator refrigerator of 2001 year of manufacture has a THD of 5.2%
6. Whirlpool refrigerators have THD between 0.71% and 5.78%. It can be observed that
poltroon whirlpool has a comparatively higher %THD.
7. Best performance:
a. Whirlpool, single door refrigerator manufactured in 2015 has a 5 star rating
and a THD of 0.71%. It draws a current of 25mA only.
b. Least current of 4.5mA is drawn by Samsung, Single door, 5 star refrigerator
manufactured in 2004.
8. Worst performance:
a. By THD: Samsung, Single door, 2 star refrigerator manufactured in 2009 has a
THD of 8.7%
b. Maximum current of 63mA is drawn by LG, single door refrigerator
manufactured in 2012
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9. Peculiar cases:
a. 1998 manufactured voltas refrigerator draws a current of 36mA and has a
THD of 4.11%.
b. Refrigerator 7 is another peculiar case where the make is LG, current 19mA
but THD is 6.7%, double door 2016 manufactured.
10. Single Door refrigerators with 5 star rating and year of manufacture is on or before
2011 also show %THD greater than 5.

4.3 WASHING MACHINES


Overall 14 washing machines were covered in the survey results. They range in various
companies and capacities. They are of top load, front load, fully automatic type and semi
automatic type. In each of these, the analysis has been done based on the make, capacity, and
type of washing machine. The conclusions drawn from the analysis are:

1. Among semi automated washing machines of capacity 6KG, the current drawn is
between 19-28mA and the THD is between 2.34% and 4.3%. In this category, the washing
machines of LG company have a lower THD than Videocon.

2. 5.5kg semi automated washing machine of LG has a 29mA current and 6% THD

3. A washing machine of Videocon manufactured in 1998 and having a capacity of 3kg


draws only 22mA current and has a THD of 4.2% which is within the standard limits.

4. Washing Machines manufactured in 2000 or before have a THD greater than 4%. So,
it is advisable to replace them.

5. %THD is comparatively less for front load washing machines.

6. Best performance :

By THD: IFB fuzzy manufactured in 2010 is a fully automatic top load


Washing Machine of 6kg capacity. It draws 28mA current and has a THD of
1.3%. Similarly, LG motion DD also has a THD of 1.3% and draws 34mA
current. It was manufactured in 2016 and has a capacity of 6.2kg

7. Worst performance:

LG semi automated machine manufactures in 2013 with capacity 5.5kg, and


current 29mA has a THD of 5.5%

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4.4 LAPTOPS AND PERSONAL COMPUTERS
A total of 13 laptops and personal computers together were covered in the survey. A THD%
variation has been found between laptops and PCs. Similarly based on the year of the
manufacture and the make also, a few differences have been analyses. They are:

1. PCs have more THD than Laptops

2. Laptops or PCs manufactured before 2010 have THD>4%

3. Current ranges from 18-40mA

4. Most laptops have THDs around 1.5%

5. THD for PCs are around 2%

6. Best performance : APPLE laptop manufactured in 2011 has a THD of 1.1% and
draws 19mA current.

7. Worst performance: Lenovo laptop manufactured in 2000 draws a current of 29mA


and has a THD of 7.44%

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