Realism (arts)

Not to be confused with Realism (art movement).

See also: Realism (disambiguation)
Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject

Realist or illusionistic detail of the convex mirror in the Arnolni

Portrait by Jan van Eyck, 1434

sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism.

Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet, 1854. A Realist painting by
Gustave Courbet
matter truthfully, without articiality and avoiding artis-
tic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural ele-
ments.
Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods,
and is in large part a matter of technique and training,
and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, il-
lusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms,
perspective, and the details of light and colour. Realist
works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid,
such as works of social realism, regionalism, or kitchen
sink realism.
There have been various realism movements in the arts,
such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism,
theatrical realism and Italian neorealist cinema. The
realism art movement in painting began in France in the
1850s, after the 1848 Revolution.[1] The realist painters
rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate
French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th cen-
tury.
Realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large
part a matter of technique and training, and the avoid-
ance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in Eu-
ropean painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan
van Eyck and other artists in the 15th century. However
such realism is often used to depict, for example, an-
gels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever
seen in real life. Equally, 19th-century Realism art move-
ment painters such as Gustave Courbet are by no means
especially noted for precise and careful depiction of vi-
sual appearances; in Courbets time that was more often
a characteristic of academic painting, which very often
depicted with great skill and care scenes that were con-
trived and articial, or imagined historical scenes. It is
the choice and treatment of subject matter that denes
Realism as a movement in painting, rather than the care-
ful attention to visual appearances. Other terms such as
naturalism, naturalistic and veristic do not escape the
same ambiguity, though the distinction between realis-
tic (usually related to visual appearance) and realist is
often useful, as is the term illusionistic for the accurate
rendering of visual appearances.[2][3]

1.1 Illusionistic realism

1 Visual arts
The development of increasingly accurate representation
Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representa- of the visual appearances of things has a long history in
tion in art of the visual appearance of scenes and objects art. It includes elements such as the accurate depiction
i.e., it is drawn in photographic precision. Realism in this of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective

1
2 1
Lord Leighton's Cimabues Celebrated Madonna of 1853-55 is
at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not
Realist in the sense of Courbets work of the same period.
and eects of distance, and of detailed eects of light
and colour. The Art of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe
achieved remarkably lifelike depictions of animals, and
Ancient Egyptian art developed conventions involving
both stylization and idealization that nevertheless allowed
very eective depictions to be produced very widely and
consistently. Ancient Greek art is commonly recognised
as having made great progress in the representation of
anatomy, and has remained an inuential model ever
since. No original works on panels or walls by the great
Greek painters survive, but from literary accounts, and
the surviving corpus of derivative works (mostly Graeco-
Roman works in mosaic) it is clear that illusionism was
highly valued in painting. Pliny the Elder's famous story
of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th
century BC may well be a legend, but indicates the aspi-
ration of Greek painting. As well as accuracy in shape,
light and colour, Roman paintings show an unscientic
but eective knowledge of representing distant objects
smaller than closer ones, and representing regular geo-
metric forms such as the roof and walls of a room with
perspective. This progress in illusionistic eects in no 1.2
way meant a rejection of idealism; statues of Greek gods
and heroes attempt to represent with accuracy idealized
and beautiful forms, though other works, such as heads
of the famously ugly Socrates, were allowed to fall below
these ideal standards of beauty. Roman portraiture, when
not under too much Greek inuence, shows a greater
commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects.
Bas-de-page of the Baptism of Christ, Hand G (Jan van
Eyck?), Turin-Milan Hours. An advanced illusionistic work for
c. 1425, with the dove of the Holy Ghost in the sky.
The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism
for expressive force, a change already well underway by
the time Christianity began to aect the art of the elite. In
the West classical standards of illusionism did not begin
VISUAL ARTS
to be reached again until the Late medieval or Early Re-
naissance period, and were helped by the development of
new techniques of oil painting which allowed very subtle
and precise eects of light to be painted using very small
brushes and several layers of paint and glaze. Scientic
methods of representing perspective were developed in
Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in
anatomy rediscovered under the inuence of classical art.
As in classical times, idealism remained the norm.
The accurate depiction of landscape in painting had also
been developing in Early Netherlandish and Renaissance
painting, and was then brought to a very high level in
17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting, with very sub-
tle techniques for depicting a range of weather conditions
and degrees of natural light. After being another devel-
opment of Early Netherlandish painting, by 1600 Euro-
pean portraiture could give a very good likeness in both
painting and sculpture, though the subjects were often
idealized by smoothing features or giving them an arti-
cial pose. Still life paintings, and still life elements in
other works, played a considerable role in developing il-
lusionistic painting, though in the Netherlandish tradition
of ower painting they long lacked realism, in that ow-
ers from all seasons were typically used, either from the
habit of assembling compositions from individual draw-
ings, or as a deliberate convention; the large displays of
bouquets in vases, though close to modern displays of cut
owers that they have inuenced, were entirely atypical
of 17th-century habits, where owers were displayed one
at a time. Intriguingly, having led the development of il-
lusionic painting, still life was to be equally signicant in
its abandonment in Cubism.
Realism or naturalism as the depiction
of ordinary, everyday subjects
Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months by
Simon Bening, c. 1550
The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also
has a long history, though it was often squeezed into the
edges of compositions, or shown at a smaller scale. This
was partly because art was expensive, and usually com-
missioned for specic religious, political or personal rea-
sons, that allowed only a relatively small amount of space
1.2 Realism or naturalism as the depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects
or eort to be devoted to such scenes. Drolleries in the
margins of medieval illuminated manuscripts sometimes
contain small scenes of everyday life, and the develop-
ment of perspective created large background areas in
many scenes set outdoors that could be made more in-
teresting by including small gures going about their ev-
eryday lives. Medieval and Early Renaissance art by con-
vention usually showed non-sacred gures in contempo-
rary dress, so no adjustment was needed for this even in
religious or historical scenes set in ancient times.
Early Netherlandish painting brought the painting of por-
traits as low down the social scale as the prosperous mer-
chants of Flanders, and in some of these, notably the
Arnolni Portrait by Jan van Eyck (1434), and more often
in religious scenes such as the Merode Altarpiece include
very detailed depictions of middle-class interiors full of
lovingly depicted objects. However these objects are at
least largely there because they carry layers of complex
signicance and symbolism that undercut any commit-
ment to realism for its own sake. Cycles of the Labours
of the Months in late medieval art, of which many exam-
ples survive from books of hours, concentrate on peasants
labouring on dierent tasks through the seasons, often in
a rich landscape background, and were signicant both
in developing landscape art and the depiction of every-
day working-class people.
Annibale Carracci, The Butchers Shop, early 1580s
In the 16th century there was a fashion for the depic-
tion in large paintings of scenes of people working, es-
pecially in food markets and kitchens: in many the food
is given as much prominence as the workers. Artists in-
cluded Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beucke-
laer in the Netherlands, working in an essentially Man-
nerist style, and in Italy the young Annibale Carracci
in the 1580s, using a very down to earth unpolished
style, with Bartolomeo Passerotti somewhere between the
two. Pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic
scenes of peasant life. Such scenes acted as a prelude
for the popularity of scenes of work in genre paint-
ing in the 17th century, which appeared all over Eu-
rope, with Dutch Golden Age painting sprouting sev-
eral dierent subgenres of such scenes, the Bamboccianti
(though mostly from the Low Countries) in Italy, and in
3
Spain the genre of bodegones, and the introduction of
unidealized peasants into history paintings by Jusepe de
Ribera and Velzquez. The Le Nain brothers in France
and many Flemish artists including Adriaen Brouwer and
David Teniers the Elder and Younger painted peasants,
but rarely townsfolk. In the 18th century small paintings
of working people working remained popular, mostly
drawing on the Dutch tradition, and especially featuring
women.
Much art depicting ordinary people, especially in the
form of prints, was comic and moralistic, but the mere
poverty of the subjects seems relatively rarely have been
part of the moral message. From the mid-19th century
onwards this changed, and the diculties of life for the
poor were emphasized. Despite this trend coinciding with
large-scale migration from the countryside to cities in
most of Europe, painters still tended to paint poor rural
people, largely leaving illustrators such as Gustave Dor
to show the horrors of city slums. Crowded city street
scenes were popular with the Impressionists and related
painters, especially ones showing Paris.
Medieval manuscript illuminators were often asked to il-
lustrate technology, but after the Renaissance such im-
ages continued in book illustration and prints, but with
the exception of marine painting largely disappeared in
ne art until the early Industrial Revolution, scenes from
which were painted by a few painters such as Joseph
Wright of Derby and Philip James de Loutherbourg.
Such subjects probably failed to sell very well, and there is
a noticeable absence of industry, other than a few railway
scenes, in painting until the later 19th century, when
works began to be commissioned, typically by industrial-
ists or for institutions in industrial cities, often on a large
scale, and sometimes given a quasi-heroic treatment.
American realism, a movement of the early 20th century,
is one of many modern movements to use realism in this
sense.
Diego
Velzquez, The Farmers Lunch, c. 1620
4 1 VISUAL ARTS

Adriaen
Brouwer, Interior of a Tavern, c. 1630

Jean-Baptiste
Greuze, The Laundress, 1761

Quiringh
van Brekelenkam, Interior of a Tailors Shop, 1653 Sir Luke
Fildes, The Widower, 1876

Giacomo
Ceruti, Women Working on Pillow Lace, 1720s William Bell
Scott Iron and Coal, 185560

1.3 Realist movement

Main article: Realism (art movement)

The Realist movement began in the mid-19th century as

a reaction to Romanticism and History painting. In fa-
vor of depictions of 'real' life, the Realist painters used
common laborers, and ordinary people in ordinary sur-
roundings engaged in real activities as subjects for their
works. Its chief exponents were Gustave Courbet, Jean-
Franois Millet, Honor Daumier, and Jean-Baptiste-
Jean-Baptiste- Camille Corot.[5][6][7] According to Ross Finocchio, for-
Simon Chardin, Woman Cleaning Turnips, c. merly of the Department of European Paintings at the
1738, Alte Pinakothek.[4] Metropolitan Museum of Art, Realists used unprettied
detail depicting the existence of ordinary contemporary
1.3 Realist movement 5

life, coinciding in the contemporaneous naturalist liter-

ature of mile Zola, Honor de Balzac, and Gustave
Flaubert.[8]

Jules
Gustave Bastien-Lepage, October, 1878, National Gallery of
Courbet, Stone-Breakers, 1849. Victoria

The French Realist movement had equivalents in all other

Western countries, developing somewhat later. In partic-
ular the Peredvizhniki or Wanderers group in Russia who
formed in the 1860s and organized exhibitions from 1871
included many realists such as Ilya Repin, Vasily Perov,
and Ivan Shishkin, and had a great inuence on Russian
art. In Britain artists such as Hubert von Herkomer and
Luke Fildes had great success with realist paintings deal-
ing with social issues.

Jean-
Franois Millet, The Gleaners, 1857

Vasily Perov,
The Drowned, 1867

Honor
Daumier,Les Joueurs d'checs (The chess players),
1863

Vladimir
Makovsky, Philanthropists, 1874

Jean-
Baptiste-Camille Corot, Young Girl Reading, Ilya Repin,
1868 Religious Procession in Kursk Province, 188083
6 1 VISUAL ARTS

Hubert von
Herkomer, Hard Times 1885
Eilif Peterssen, The Salmon Fisher, 1889.

1.4 Realism or naturalism as resisting ide- that Christ had undergone on his behalf. These were es-
alization pecially found in Germany and Central Europe. After
abating in the Renaissance, similar works re-appeared in
the Baroque, especially in Spanish sculpture.
Renaissance theorists opened a debate, which was to last
several centuries, as to the correct balance between draw-
ing art from the observation of nature and from ideal-
ized forms, typically those found in classical models, or
the work of other artists generally. All admitted the im-
portance of the natural, but many believed it should be
idealized to various degrees to include only the beauti-
ful. Leonardo da Vinci was one who championed the
pure study of nature, and wished to depict the whole
range of individual varieties of forms in the human g-
ure and other things.[9] Leon Battista Alberti was an early
idealizer, stressing the typical,[10] with others such as
Michelangelo supporting selection of the most beautiful
- he refused to make portraits for that reason.[11]
Francisco Goya, Charles IV of Spain and His Family, 1800-01

Realism or naturalism as a style meaning the honest,

unidealizing depiction of the subject, can of course be
used in depicting any type of subject, without any com-
mitment to treating the typical or everyday. Despite the
general idealism of classical art, this too had classical
precedents, which came in useful when defending such
treatments in the Renaissance and Baroque. Demetrius
of Alopece was a 4th-century BCE sculptor whose work
(all now lost) was said to prefer realism over ideal beauty,
and during the Ancient Roman Republic even politicians
preferred a truthful depiction in portraits, though the early
emperors favoured Greek idealism. Goya's portraits of
the Spanish royal family represent a sort of peak in the
honest and downright unattering portrayal of important
persons.
A recurring trend in Christian art was realism that
emphasized the humanity of religious gures, above all
Christ and his physical suerings in his Passion. Follow-
ing trends in devotional literature, this developed in the
Late Middle Ages, where some painted wooden sculp-
tures in particular strayed into the grotesque in portray-
ing Christ covered in wounds and blood, with the inten- Henri Biva, c. 1905-06, Matin Villeneuve (From Waters
tion of stimulating the viewer to meditate on the suering Edge), oil on canvas, 151.1 x 125.1 cm.
 7

In the 17th century the debate continued, in Italy usually

centred on the contrast between the relative classical-
idealism of the Carracci and the naturalist style of the
Caravaggisti, or followers of Caravaggio, who painted re-
ligious scenes as though set in the back streets of con-
temporary Italian cities, and used naturalist as a self-
description. Bellori, writing some decades after Caravag-
gios early death, and no supporter of his style, refers to
Those who glory in the name of naturalists (natural-
isti).[12]
In the 19th century Naturalism or the "Naturalist Jean-
school" was somewhat articially erected as a term rep- Franois Raalli, Outskirts of Paris, 1880s
resenting a breakaway sub-movement of Realism, that
attempted (not wholly successfully) to distinguish itself
from its parent by its avoidance of politics and social is-
sues, and liked to proclaim a quasi-scientic basis, play-
ing on the sense of naturalist as a student of Natural
history, as the biological sciences were then generally
known. The originator of the term was the French art
critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary, who in 1863 announced
that: The naturalist school declares that art is the ex-
pression of life under all phases and on all levels, and that William
its sole aim is to reproduce nature by carrying it to its Bliss Baker, American Naturalist painter, Fallen
maximum power and intensity: it is truth balanced with Monarchs, 1886
science.[13] mile Zola adopted the term with a similar
scientic emphasis for his aims in the novel. Much Nat-
uralist painting covered a similar range of subject mat-
ter as that of Impressionism, but using tighter, more tra-
ditional brushwork styles, and in landscapes often with
more gloomy weather.[13]
The term continued to be used indiscriminately for var-
ious kinds of realism for several decades, often as a
catch-all term for art that was outside Impressionism
and later movements of Modernism and also was not
Academic art. The later periods of the French Barbizon
School and the Dsseldorf school of painting, with its stu- Pekka Halo-
dents from many countries, and in 20th-century Ameri- nen, Finnish Naturalist, Pioneers in Karelia, 1900
can Regionalism are movements which are often also de-
scribed as Naturalist, although the term is rarely used
of British painting. Some recent art historians have deep-
ened the confusion by claiming either Courbet or the Im- 2 Literature
pressionists for the label.[13]
Main article: Literary realism

Broadly dened as the faithful representation of

reality,[14] Realism as a literary movement was based
on "objective reality. It focused on showing every-
day activities and life, primarily among the middle or
lower class society, without romantic idealization or
dramatization.[15] It may be regarded as the general at-
tempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in
third person objective reality, without embellishment or
interpretation and in accordance with secular, empirical
rules.[16] As such, the approach inherently implies a be-
Late Gothic Piet from lief that such reality is ontologically independent of hu-
Lubi in Lower Silesia, Poland, now in National man kinds conceptual schemes, linguistic practices and
Museum in Warsaw beliefs, and thus can be known (or knowable) to the artist,
8 7 NOTES

who can in turn represent this 'reality' faithfully. As Ian Puccini. They sought to bring the naturalism of inu-
Watt states, modern realism begins from the position ential late 19th-century writers such as mile Zola and
that truth can be discovered by the individual through the Henrik Ibsen into opera. The style began in 1890 with
senses and as such it has its origins in Descartes and the rst performance of Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana,
Locke, and received its rst full formulation by Thomas peaked in the early 1900s.[23]
Reid in the middle of the eighteenth century.[17]
While the preceding Romantic era was also a reaction
against the values of the Industrial Revolution, realism 6 See also
was in its turn a reaction to romanticism, and for this rea-
son it is also commonly derogatorily referred as tradi- Aesthetic Realism
tional bourgeois realism.[18] Some writers of Victorian
literature produced works of realism.[19] The rigidities, American realism
conventions, and other limitations of bourgeois real-
Ashcan School
ism, prompted in their turn the revolt later labeled as
modernism; starting around 1900, the driving motive of Aspectism
modernist literature was the criticism of the 19th-century
bourgeois social order and world view, which was coun- Capitalist realism
tered with an antirationalist, antirealist and antibourgeois
program.[18][20][21] Contemporary realism

Chanson raliste (realist song), a style of music per-

formed in France primarily from the 1880s until the
3 Theatre end of World War II

Hyperrealism (visual arts)

Main article: Theatrical realism
Magic realism
The achievement of realism in the theatre was to direct Nouveau ralisme
attention to the social and psychological problems of or-
dinary life. In its dramas, people emerge as victims of Photorealism
forces larger than themselves, as individuals confronted
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
with a rapidly accelerating world.[22] These pioneering
playwrights were unafraid to present their characters as Pseudorealism
ordinary, impotent, and unable to arrive at answers to
their predicaments. This type of art represents what we Romantic realism
see with our human eyes.
Social realism

4 Cinema 7 Notes
See also: Neorealism (art), Poetic realism, and Socialist [1] Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metmuseum.org. 2014-
realism 06-02. Retrieved 2014-07-15.

[2] Stremmel, Kerstin, Realism, pp. 6-9, 2004, Taschen,

Italian Neorealism was a cinematic movement incorpo-
rating elements of realism that developed in post-WWII
Italy. Notable Neorealists included Vittorio De Sica,
Luchino Visconti, and Roberto Rossellini.
ISBN 3822829420, 9783822829424
[3] Finocchio, Ross. Nineteenth-Century French Realism.
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. online (October
2004)

5 Opera [4] Chardin served as a forerunner to the Realist movement

Main article: Verismo
Verismo was a post-Romantic operatic tradition asso-
ciated with Italian composers such as Pietro Mascagni,
Ruggero Leoncavallo, Umberto Giordano and Giacomo
in French painting. Without realizing he was doing it, he
rejected his own time and opened the door to modernity.
Rosenberg, cited by Wilkin, Karen, The Splendid Chardin,
New Criterion. Requires subscription. Retrieved 15 Oc-
tober 2008.
[5] NGA Realism movement. Nga.gov. 1941-01-06. Re-
trieved 2014-07-15.

[6] National Gallery glossary, Realism movement. Nation-
algallery.org.uk. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
[7] Philosophy of Realism. Impressionist1877.tripod.com.
Retrieved 2014-07-15.
[8] Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay |
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan
Museum of Art. Metmuseum.org. 2014-06-02. Re-
trieved 2014-07-15.
[9] Blunt, 30-32, and the whole short chapter on Leonardo
[10] Blunt, 14-20
[11] Blunt, 59-64
[12] Quelle che si gloriamo del nome de naturalisti, quoted
in Raben, 134, note 31
[13] Needham
[14] Donna M. Campbell. Realism in American Literature.
Wsu.edu. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
[15] Realism denition of Realism in the Free Online En-
cyclopedia. Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Re-
trieved 2014-07-15.
[16] in so far as such subjects are explicable in terms of nat-
ural causation without resort to supernatural or divine in-
tervention Morris, 2003. p. 5
[17] Watt, 1957, p.12
[18] John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later
republished in The Friday Book' '(1984).
[19] Victorian Literature. The Literature Network. Re-
trieved 7 October 2013.
[20] Gerald Gra (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Con-
text of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No.
33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307-37; reprinted in Putz and
Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.
[21] Gerald Gra (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Break-
through, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383-417; rept in
The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fic-
tion Malcolm Bradbury, ed., (London: Fontana, 1977);
reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Kryty-
czne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism
in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred
Putz and Peter Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag,
1984), 58-81.
[22] Simard, Rodney. Postmodern Drama: Contemporary
Playwrights in America and Britain. New York: UP of
America, 1984.
[23] Verismo in Stanley Sadie (ed.) The New Grove Dic-
tionary of Music & Musicians, London: Macmillan/New
York: Grove, 1980, vol 19 p.670, ISBN 1-56159-174-2
9
8 References
Baron, Christine; Engel, Manfred, eds. (2010).
Realism/Anti-Realism in 20th-Century Literature.
NL: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-3115-9.
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1600,
1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504
Morris, Pam (2003). Realism. London: Routledge.
ISBN 0415229383.
Needham, Gerald, Naturalism. Grove Art Online.
Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, ac-
cessed February 23, 2013, subscriber link
Raben, Hans, Belloris Art: The Taste and Distaste
of a Seventeenth-Century Art Critic in Rome, Simi-
olus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art,
Vol. 32, No. 2/3 (2006), pp. 126146, Sticht-
ing voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties,
JSTOR
Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in
Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press.
West, Shearer (1996). The Bullnch Guide to Art.
UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. ISBN 0-8212-
2137-X.
9 Further reading
Dahlhaus, Carl (1985). Realism in Nineteenth-
Century Music. Translated by Mary Whittall. Cam-
bridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Mel-
bourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-26115-9. ISBN 978-0-521-27841-6
(pbk).
Dahlhaus, Carl (1989). Nineteenth-Century Mu-
sic. Translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley,
Los Angeles, and London: University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.
Frisch, Walter (2005). German Modernism: Music
and the Arts. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London:
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-
25148-9.
10 External links
Article on American literary realism at the Literary
Movements site
10 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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thns, Mandarax, Sparkit, Mentality, Ligulem, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Planetneutral, Roboto de Ajvol, RussBot, Bhny, Stephenb, Tene-
brae, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, ML, NawlinWiki, Clashfrankcastle, BlackAndy, Thiseye, Alarichall, Semperf, Gadget850,
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body, Warchef, MartinBot, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Hlaufman, Samson801, Johnbod, Gurchzilla, Doomsday28, JeersonM, Prhartcom,
Cometstyles, LHBarker, CWii, Je G., Oshwah, Steven J. Anderson, Sesshomaru, AlleborgoBot, Tvinh, Mbluth, Tresiden, RJaguar3,
Triwbe, Antonio Lopez, Harry-, Yone Fernandes, Coldcreation, Aaronv26, Martarius, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Rumping, The
Thing That Should Not Be, DionysosProteus, Parkjunwung, AmishSexy, Bluago, Excirial, Tyler, Maniago, SchreiberBike, Zombie Hunter
Smurf, Mifter, Marchije, Iranway, CalumH93, Addbot, Betterusername, Albamhandae, SunDragon34, Yobmod, Fieldday-sunday, MrOl-
lie, Glane23, Wings Upon My Feet, Tide rolls, Cherrysunset, MuZemike, Beacon2020, Fraggle81, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Citation bot,
Mechamind90, Klassikkomies~enwiki, ArthurBot, Capricorn42, Termininja, DSisyphBot, Mattis, FrescoBot, Empeejay9, Skull33, MJ94,
Lotje, Vrenator, Raidon Kane, Tony419c, Nick Moyes, Look2See1, Ando444, NORPpA, PlanetSSI, Dcirovic, Werieth, Leningradartist,
Wayne Slam, Maliepa, Jay-Sebastos, Alborzagros, Philafrenzy, Donner60, DennisIsMe, EdoBot, Spicemix, ClueBot NG, Mcgee123, An-
gelandknife, Widr, Reify-tech, Jhf44, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ghainmem, Indah blestari, Mark Arsten, Gorthian, Yashovardhan
Dhanania, Alexsmith000, I1990k, The Illusive Man, Khazar2, Adseal09, Pirhayati, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Lugia2453, Telfordbuck,
Svnti fav, Nancyinthehouse, EPICMOB, YiFeiBot, UY Scuti, Sensitino87, Waggie, Chicowales, Pishcal, GoldCoastPrior, NNemetz,
Timothyjosephwood, CAPTAIN RAJU, DACC23, Shurayt, A.aldweib, NutBuster13369 and Anonymous: 294

11.2 Images
File:Annibale_Carracci_-_Butcher{}s_Shop_-_WGA04409.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
e/ec/Annibale_Carracci_-_Butcher%27s_Shop_-_WGA04409.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery
of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/c/carracci/annibale/1/butchers.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/c/carracci/annibale/1/butchers.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Annibale Carracci
File:Brouwer,_Adriaen_-_Interior_of_a_Tavern_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d9/Brouwer%2C_Adriaen_-_Interior_of_a_Tavern_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
FAGWzfbwaLG1rA at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Adriaen Brouwer
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Eilif_Peterssen-Laksefiskeren_(1889).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Eilif_
Peterssen-Laksefiskeren_%281889%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Eilif Peterssen
File:El_almuerzo,_by_Diego_Velzquez.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/El_almuerzo%2C_by_
Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://picasaweb.google.com/EnrikeCdC/VelazquezObraCompleta#
5295180914093305042 Original artist: Diego Velzquez
File:Eyckbaptism.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Eyckbaptism.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawing in a manuscript Original artist: Jan van Eyck
File:Fallen_Monarchs_1886_by_William_Bliss_Baker.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Fallen_
Monarchs_1886_by_William_Bliss_Baker.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Brigham Young University Museum of Art Origi-
nal artist: William Bliss Baker
File:Frederic_Leighton_-_Cimabue{}s_Madonna_Carried_in_Procession_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Frederic_Leighton_-_Cimabue%27s_Madonna_Carried_in_Procession_-_
Google_Art_Project_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: FwF9Je8oYAHRPw at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum
Original artist: Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton
File:Giacomo_Ceruti_-_Women_Working_on_Pillow_Lace_(The_Sewing_School)_-_WGA4672.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Giacomo_Ceruti_-_Women_Working_on_Pillow_Lace_%28The_Sewing_School%29_-_
WGA4672.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/c/ceruti/pillow.jpg' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.
svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.
png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60'
data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/c/ceruti/pillow.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
11.2 Images 11

width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_

icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Giacomo Ceruti
File:Gustave_Courbet_010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_
Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ocial gallery link Original artist: Gustave
Courbet
File:Gustave_Courbet_018.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Gustave_Courbet_018.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Gustave Courbet
File:Henri_BIVA,_ca_1905-06,_Matin__Villeneuve,_Salon_1906_postcard_-_original_painting,_oil_on_canvas,_151.1_x_
125.1_cm,_private_collection.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Henri_BIVA%2C_ca_1905-06%
2C_Matin_%C3%A0_Villeneuve%2C_Salon_1906_postcard_-_original_painting%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_151.1_x_125.1_cm%2C_
private_collection.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Heritage Auctions Original artist: Henri Biva
File:Honor_Daumier_032.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_032.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis-
tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Honor Daumier
File:Hubert_von_Herkomer_-_Hard_Times.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Hubert_von_
Herkomer_-_Hard_Times.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: scan of painting Original artist: Hubert von Herkomer
File:Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_(French_-_The_Laundress_(La_Blanchisseuse)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_%28French_-_The_Laundress_%28La_Blanchisseuse%
29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: dwEAmPVCM4QzMQ at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom
level Original artist: Jean-Baptiste Greuze (French, 1725 - 1805) (1725 - 1805) artist (French)
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:Jean-Baptiste_Simon_Chardin_017.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Jean-Baptiste_Sim%
C3%A9on_Chardin_017.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM,
2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Jean-Baptiste-Simon Chardin
File:Jean-Franois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/
Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: GgHsT2RumWxbtw at
Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Jean-Franois Millet
File:Jules_Bastien-Lepage_-_October_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/
Jules_Bastien-Lepage_-_October_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: VAFOaKWN47q0pA at Google Cul-
tural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Jules Bastien-Lepage
File:Kurskaya_korennaya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Kurskaya_korennaya.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: http://lj.rossia.org/users/john_petrov/471393.html Original artist: Ilya Repin
File:La_familia_de_Carlos_IV.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/La_familia_de_Carlos_IV.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Museo del Prado Original artist: Francisco de Goya
File:Pekka_Halonen_-_Tienraivaajia_Karjalassa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Pekka_
Halonen_-_Tienraivaajia_Karjalassa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: PaintingDb, Object 7187 Original artist: Pekka Halonen
File:Pieta_z_Lubiaza.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Pieta_z_Lubiaza.jpg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: This <a href='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Pieta_z_Lubiaza.jpg'
class='internal' title='Pieta z Lubiaza.jpg'>image</a>/photo was taken by Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons user <a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Schneider_Ludwig' title='User:Schneider Ludwig'>Ludwig Schneider</a>.
File:Quiringh_van_Brekelenkam_-_Interior_of_a_Tailor{}s_Shop_-_WGA03175.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Quiringh_van_Brekelenkam_-_Interior_of_a_Tailor%27s_Shop_-_WGA03175.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/b/brekelen/taylor_s.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/b/brekelen/taylor_s.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Quirijn van Brekelenkam
File:Raffaelli_Pariser_Vorstadt.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Raffaelli_Pariser_Vorstadt.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: Hajotthu at de.wikipedia Original artist: Jean-Franois Raalli
File:Simon_Bening_(Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/46/Simon_Bening_%28Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
RwGj7CvT1G3c6Q at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Simon Bening (Flemish, about 1483 - 1561) (1483
- 1561) illuminator (Flemish)
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:Sir_Luke_Fildes_-_The_widower_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/
Sir_Luke_Fildes_-_The_widower_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.google.com/culturalinstitute :
Home : Info Original artist: Luke Fildes
File:The_Arnolfini_Portrait,_dtail_(2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/The_Arnolfini_
Portrait%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%282%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:Jan van Eyck 001.jpg Original artist: Jan van
Eyck
12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wassilij_Grigorjewitsch_Perow_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Wassilij_

Grigorjewitsch_Perow_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM,
2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Vasily Perov
File:William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/William_Bell_Scott_
-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
originally uploaded on en.wikipedia by Alcinoe at 27 October 2005, 00:25. Filename was William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg. Orig-
inal artist: en:William Bell Scott
File:Wladimir_Jegorowitsch_Makowskij_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Wladimir_
Jegorowitsch_Makowskij_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Vladimir Makovsky
File:Young_Girl_Reading_by_Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_c1868.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
8/82/Young_Girl_Reading_by_Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_c1868.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Gallery of Art
Original artist: Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot

11.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0