Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.18 (Aircraft D

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)
Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.18
DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY

TECHNIQUES
ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/04 Rev. 00
7.18 Mar 2014
PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Contents
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
TYPES OF DEFECTS ............................................................... 1
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES ..................................... 10
CORROSION REMOVAL, ASSESSMENT AND
REPROTECTION .................................................................... 14
GENERAL REPAIR METHODS .............................................. 19
STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUAL (SRM) ............................... 23
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING/INSPECTION (NDT/NDI)
TECHNIQUES ......................................................................... 25
REMOTE VIEWING INSTRUMENTS ...................................... 27
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD) ................................ 31
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION (UFD) .............................. 32
EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION (ECFD)....................... 39
RADIOGRAPHIC FLAW DETECTION (RFD) .......................... 42
DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES ............ 44
TROUBLESHOOTING ............................................................. 51

7.18 i Mar 2014
INTRODUCTION TYPES OF DEFECTS
Preventative maintenance is concerned with the early detection An operational aircraft can suffer from many defects and these
of defects (using whatever inspection techniques are specified can be defined as any event or occurrence, which reduces the
by the aircraft or component manufacturers) and the repair or serviceability of the aircraft below 100%.
modification of the defective parts.
The manufacturer should specify the inspection areas and the
The inspection techniques may call for the disassembly of faults, which are expected to be found. In most instances the
components (before or after cleaning) so that more detailed inspector is looking for indications of abnormality in the item
inspections can be done. being inspected. Typical examples are:
Assessment, of the effect of the defect on the continued Metal Parts: as applicable to all metal parts, bodies or casings
integrity of the part, will also be required and, following the of units in systems and in electrical, instrument and radio
repair, modification or rejection of the part, re-assembly installations, metal pipes, ducting, tubes, rods and levers. These
techniques will be used to restore the aircraft to the appropriate would be inspected for:
level of serviceability. Cleanliness and external evidence of damage
Leaks and discharge
Troubleshooting techniques are used in the process of Overheating
identifying the cause of a fault, eliminating the fault and Fluid ingress
returning the aircraft to service. Obstruction of drainage or vent holes or overflow pipe
orifices
Correct seating of panels and fairings and serviceability
of fasteners
Distortion, dents, scores, and chafing
Pulled or missing fasteners, rivets, bolts or screws
Evidence of cracks or wear
Separation of adhesive bonding
Failures of welds or spot welds
Deterioration of protective treatment and corrosion
Security of attachments, fasteners, connections, locking
and bonding.
7.18 1 Mar 2014
Rubber, Fabric, Glass Fibre and Plastic Parts: such as Electrical Components: actuators, alternators and
coverings, ducting, flexible mountings, seals, insulation generators, motors, relays, solenoids and contactors.
of electrical cables, windows. These parts would, Such items would be inspected for:
typically, be inspected for:
Cleanliness, obvious damage
Cleanliness Evidence of overheating
Cracks, cuts, chafing, kinking, twisting, Corrosion and security of attachments and
crushing, contraction sufficient free length connections
Deterioration, crazing, loss of flexibility Cleanliness, scoring and worn brushes,
Overheating adequate spring tension after removal of
Fluid soakage protective covers
Security of attachment, correct connections Overheating and fluid ingress
and locking. Cleanliness, burning and pitting of contacts
Evidence of overheating and security of
Control System Components: cables, chains, pulleys, rods contacts after removal of protective covers
and tubes would be inspected for:
External Damage
Correct alignment no fouling
Free movement, distortion, evidence of Damage to the outside of the airframe can occur by interference
bowing between moving parts such as flying controls and flaps,
Scores, chafing, fraying, kinking although this is quite rare. The most common reasons for
Evidence of wear, flattening airframe damage is by being struck by ground equipment or
Cracks, loose rivets, deterioration of severe hail in flight.
protective treatment and corrosion
Electrical bonding correctly positioned, During ground servicing many vehicles need to be manoeuvred
undamaged and secure close to the airframe and some have to be in light contact with it
Attachments, end connections and locking to work properly. Contact with the airframe by any of these
secure. vehicles can cause dents or puncturing of the pressure hull,
resulting in a time-consuming repair.

7.18 2 Mar 2014
Inlets and Exhausts
External leaks of oil and fuel systems are normally easy to
Any inlet or exhaust can be a potential nest site for wildlife. The locate. The rectification of an external leak is usually achieved
damage done by these birds, rodents and insects can be very by simply replacing the component, seal or pipe work at fault,
expensive to rectify. Other items that have been known to block and completing any tests required by the AMM.
access holes include branches, leaves and polythene bags.
If the leak is internal, then a much more thorough inspection of
A careful check of all inlets and exhausts, during inspections, the component must be made, as the problem is more difficult
must be made, to ensure that there is nothing blocking them. A to find. The symptoms are usually signalled by a slower
blocked duct can result in the overheating of equipment, or movement of the services or by the erratic operation of services,
major damage to the internal working parts of the engine. due to the return line being pressurised.
Liquid Systems Some hydraulic oils, especially the phosphate ester based
fluids, are very toxic and require personnel protection when
Liquid systems usually have gauges to ascertain the quantity in working on and replenishing their systems. Some oils used are
that particular system. A physical quantity check is often done in slightly toxic so care must be taken if there is a large leak.
addition to using the gauges, as the gauges are not always
reliable. Potable water tanks are often permanently pressurised, so that
a leak that starts somewhere between the tank and the services
These systems usually include oil tanks for the engine, APU will continue, even if the aircraft is not flying. Once the pressure
and Integrated Drive Generators (IDG), and also the hydraulics, is removed, the leak can be investigated, cured and the tank re-
fuel and potable water tanks. filled.
The cause of a lower-than-expected level should be The physical signs of water inside the aircraft or dripping from
immediately investigated, bearing in mind, that some systems the hull should be the signs of a leak that requires investigation.
consume specific amounts of fluids during normal operation. The unpredictable passenger consumption of water means that
The consumption rate must be calculated before instigating any the tank level is no indication of a leak in the system.
trouble-shooting. A low hydraulic system should not be
replenished without first investigating the cause of the leak.

7.18 3 Mar 2014
Windscreen de-icers are usually in the form of a pressurised Pneumatic systems contain high-pressure air of a stated
container, which supplies fluid on demand to the spray nozzles. pressure, and should have the same pressure at the end of the
If the fluid leaks onto the flight deck it will give off a distinctive flight as at the start. If the pressure is low at the end of the flight,
odour in the enclosed space. As the containers are replaced then the compressor could be suspected.
when low, it is more likely that the pipe work will be the likely
cause of the leak. If the pressure falls between flights, it is probably due to a slow
leak in the storage system, and this can be investigated using
Gaseous Systems leak-detecting fluids.
These include gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and air. If the

gas is to be used from a system during flight, a leak will be very
hard to confirm unless a physical check is carried out using a
leak detector such as Snoop or Sherlock.
A leak from an oxygen system is extremely dangerous, due to

the chances of an explosion, if it comes into contact with oil or
grease. Once the leak has been cured, the system can be re-
charged and leak tested.
Nitrogen, used in hydraulic accumulators, can leak into the

liquid part of the hydraulic system. This will make the hydraulic
system feel spongy and reduce the response of the operating
actuators.
If the gas leaks into the atmosphere, the system will not function
correctly and the efficiency of the system may be reduced. The
main cause of accumulators leaking externally is due to faulty
seals or gauges.
Accumulators assist the hydraulic system as an emergency

backup, which only works correctly if it is charged to the correct
pressure.
7.18 4 Mar 2014
Dimensions
Creep is the movement of a cover around the rim, in very small
There are a number of places where checking the measurement movements, due to heavy braking action. This movement is
of a component can establish its serviceability. Landing gear dangerous if the tyre is fitted with a tube, as the movement can
oleo shock struts can be checked for correct inflation, by tear the charging valve out of the tube, causing a rapid loss of
measuring their extension. If the dimension is less than quoted pressure.
in the manual, then it may be low on pressure and further
checks will be required. These checks are usually only done To provide an indicator, small white marks are painted across
during line maintenance, with checking of the pressure being the wheel rim and the tyre side wall cover so, if creep takes
required for trouble shooting or hangar maintenance. place, the marks will split in half and indicate clearly that the tyre
cover has moved in relation to the wheel rim.
Combined hydraulic and spring dampers, fitted to some landing
gears, often have one or more engraved lines on the sliding The installation of tubeless covers has reduced the problem of
portion of the unit. This can indicate whether the hydraulic pre- creep, as the valve is permanently fitted to the wheel. It is still
charge is correct or requires replenishment. possible for tyres to creep a small amount, but the air remains in
the tyre as the seal remains secure.
Tyres
Tyre-inflation devices usually consist of high-pressure bottles
Tyres have their serviceability indicated by the depth of the fitted with a pressure-reducing valve or a simple air compressor.
groove in the tyre tread. The AMM gives information of what The pressure a tyre should be inflated to depends on various
constitutes a worn or damaged tyre. factors such as the weight of the aircraft.
Apart from normal wear, other defects, that can affect a tyre, are The correct pressure for a specific aircraft is given in the
cuts, blisters, creep and low pressure. relevant AMM for the aircraft in question. It is possible for a tyre
to lose a small amount of pressure overnight. A pressure drop
Most tyres can be re-treaded a number of times after they have of less than 10% of the recommended pressure is not unusual,
reached their wear limits, but the retread can only be completed but the exact figures are given in the AMM.
if the complete tyre has not been damaged badly.

7.18 5 Mar 2014
If a tyre is completely deflated with the weight of the aircraft on Wear results in the total thickness of the brake pack being
it, or is one of a pair on a single landing gear leg, which has run reduced, which means that by measuring either the thickness of
without pressure, all the tyres concerned must be replaced due the pack, the amount of wear can be monitored. Once the
to the possible, unseen damage within the cover. Again the amount of wear reaches a set figure, the brake pack will be
AMM will dictate the conditions. overhauled.
If the pads are breaking up there will be signs of debris,

Wheels excessive amounts of powder and, in extreme cases, scoring of
the discs. This will require immediate replacement of the
Defects to aircraft wheels are usually due to impact damage complete brake unit.
from heavy landings or from items on the runway hitting the
wheel rim. Other problems can arise from corrosion starting as A rejected take-off at maximum weight will produce the
a result of the impact damage and the shearing of wheel bolts, maximum possible amount of heat and wear. It is usual to
which hold the two halves of a split wheel together. Wheels are replace all brake units and main wheels after this has
usually inspected thoroughly during tyre replacement and it is happened, but again the AMM will give the required information
very unusual for serious defects to be found during normal on what must be changed and when.
inspections of a wheel.
Brakes
Brake units are normally attached onto the axle of an

undercarriage leg, and located inside the well of the main
wheels. During braking operation they absorb large amounts of
energy as heat. This results in the brake rotors and stators
wearing away and, if they become too hot, the stator material
may break up.
Inspection of brake units between flights is essential, to check

for signs of excessive heating and to ensure that they have not
worn beyond their limits.

7.18 6 Mar 2014
Landing Gear Locks
These items are normally fitted to the aircrafts undercarriage as

a safety device to prevent them inadvertently collapsing. They
are usually fitted when the aircraft is to stay on the ground for
some time, and removed before the next flight. The most likely
defects will be damage to the locking pin ball bearing device or
the loss of the high visibility warning flags. These flags will,
hopefully, attract attention to themselves to ensure that they are
not left in position when the aircraft next goes flying.
Indicators
Gas Bottle and Pressure
The most common type of indicator is the blow-out disc used in Relief Valve
fire extinguishing and oxygen systems. This shows that a high-
pressure gas bottle has discharged its contents overboard,
blowing the disc from its flush housing in the aircrafts skin.
The reason for the ruptured disc (refer Fig. 1) could be due to a Retaining Ring
fire extinguisher having been operated or the extinguishant
having been discharged due to an excessive pressure being
reached.
Frangible Disc
Gas Bottle Bursting Disc

ISO9001:2008Certified Fig. 1 For Training Purpose Only
7.18 7 Mar 2014
External Probes
There are several different types of probe, projecting into the Most fasteners have a positive form of closing or locking, whilst
airflow, to send information to the flight deck. These can include the more important installations use an indication system (such
the pitot/static probes and the angle-of attack (AOA) probes. as painted lines and flush fitting catches) to ensure correct
closure. These must be regularly checked and, when found
To prevent these from freezing they have electrical heating worn, they should be repaired or replaced. Losing a panel in
elements built into them and, occasionally, they can become flight is dangerous enough, but may be more so if it is drawn
overheated. Usually this is when they are left switched on on into one of the engines, and causes its destruction.
the ground with a faulty weigh-on-wheels (WOW) switch.
Panels and Doors
This switch is designed to reduce or remove power to the
probes when on the ground, and to increase or restore it in These items can be of any size and can be faulty for several
flight. On smaller aircraft there is no WOW switch and it is up to reasons. They can be damaged by excessive use and their
the pilot to turn them off after landing. If the elements overheat frames can become damaged where items have to be passed
they can burn out and the probes will show this by discoloration. through them (such as with baggage hold doors).
Probes are designed to project out from the aircraft skin, and If the latches are poorly designed or badly adjusted, they may
this makes them vulnerable to physical damage. Probes need to have been operated with incorrect tools during service and may
be regularly inspected for signs of physical damage or have been damaged.
discoloration.
Handles and Latches
Handles and latches usually wear through constant use. The

handles and latches of cargo bays and baggage holds, which
are operated every time the aircraft lands, are particularly prone
to wear. Technicians have to be aware that all panel fasteners
will wear slowly and these panels must be secured in flight.

7.18 8 Mar 2014
Emergency System Indication Light Bulbs
Some systems use protective covers, to prevent inadvertent These have to be checked regularly, to ensure they remain
operation of a switch. These covers are usually held closed by serviceable at all times. Most bulbs with important functions like
some form of frangible device that will indicate the system has fire warning lights and undercarriage indication will be
been operated when it is broken. Thin copper wire is, duplicated. This can be achieved either by using two separate
sometimes, used to hold the protective cover closed on fire bulbs or by a single, twin-filament type. The bulb covers can
extinguisher switches. A broken wire will indicate that the cover also be damaged, leading to broken glass or plastic on the flight
has been lifted and the system may have been operated. Any deck, with its subsequent foreign object damage (FOD) hazard.
indication like this must be thoroughly investigated.
Permitted Defects
Lifed Items
All aircraft have a list of permitted defects that do not have to be
There are a number of items on the aircraft that have a specific immediately corrected. These defects can be left outstanding by
length of time in service (known as a life). They would be major the operator until a more convenient time can be found to rectify
airframe and engine components with finite fatigue lives. The them.
company technical department monitors these and they will be
replaced during major servicing.
The components which can become unserviceable due to life

expiry may include, engine fire bottles, cabin fire extinguishers,
first aid kits, portable oxygen bottles and emergency oxygen
generators.

7.18 9 Mar 2014
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
Often the first stage in the examination of a component is visual

inspection. Examination by naked eye will only reveal relatively
large defects, which break the surface, but the effectiveness of
visual inspection for external surfaces can be improved
considerably through use of a hand lens or stereoscopic
microscope. Generally, high magnifications are not necessary
for this type of inspection. Optical inspection probes, both rigid
and flexible, which can be inserted into cavities, ducts and
pipes, have been developed for the inspection of internal
surfaces. An optical inspection probe comprises an objective
lens system at the working end and a viewing eyepiece at the
other end, with a fibre optic coherent image guide linking the
two.
Illuminating light is conveyed to the working end of the probe

through an (Figure A) optical fiber light guide, and both the
optical and illumination systems are contained within either a
stainless steel tube, for rigid probes, or a flexible plastic or
braided metal sheathing in the case of flexible probes.
Inspection probes are made in many sizes with, for rigid probes,
diameters ranging from about 2 mm up to about 20 mm. The
minimum diameter for flexible probes is about 4 mm. Probe
lengths may vary considerably also, and the maximum working
length for a 2 mm probe is about 150 mm. The maximum
permissible working length increases as probe diameter
increases and may be up to 5 m for a 20 mm diameter probe.
Inspection probes can be designed to give either direct viewing
ahead of the probe end, or to give a view at some angle to the
line of the probe. It is possible to mount a miniature TV camera
in place of the normal eyepiece lens system and display an Figure A
image on a monitor screen.

7.18 10 Mar 2014
Locations of corrosion in aircraft
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive
others. The rate of deterioration varies widely with aircraft environment, to obstructions and crevices in the path of cooling
design, build, operational use and environment. External air. These must be treated, as soon as is practical.
surfaces are open to inspection and are usually protected by
paint. Magnesium and aluminium alloy surfaces are particularly Landing Gear
susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners,
faying surfaces and where protective coatings have been Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water
damaged or neglected. and gravel, and require frequent cleaning and touching-up.
Careful inspection should be made of crevices, ribs and lower-
Exhaust Areas skin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear assemblies
should be examined, paying particular attention to magnesium
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine alloy wheels, paint-work, bearings, exposed switches and
and piston engines, are subject to highly corrosive influences. electrical equipment.
This is particularly so where exhaust deposits may be trapped in
fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such deposits are difficult Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication
to remove by ordinary cleaning methods. will be required, whilst ensuring that bearings are not
contaminated, either with the cleaning water or with the water-
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be dispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
removed for cleaning and examination. All fairings, in other
exhaust areas, should also be thoroughly cleaned and
inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied
to critical areas, to facilitate easier removal of deposits at a later
date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits.
Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents
The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by

dust and eroded by rain. Heat-exchanger cores and cooling fins
may also be vulnerable to corrosion.

7.18 11 Mar 2014
Bilge and Water Entrapment Areas Magnesium Alloy Skins
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to These, give little trouble, providing the protective surface
collect, these drains can become blocked by debris, such as finishes are undamaged and well maintained. Following
sealant or grease. Inspection of these drains must be frequent. maintenance work, such as riveting and drilling, it is impossible
Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms must be very to completely protect the skin to the original specification. All
carefully inspected for corrosion, as these are usually the worst magnesium alloy skin areas must be thoroughly and regularly
places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion. The inspected, with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners
protection in these areas must also be carefully inspected and and paint finishes.
renewed if necessary.
Aluminium Alloy Skins
Recesses in Flaps and Hinges
The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally
Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed brake machined, usually in main-plane structures. Due to the alloys
recesses, where water and dirt may collect and go unnoticed, and to the manufacturing processes used, they can be
because the moveable parts are normally in the closed susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion.
position. If these items are left open, when the aircraft is
parked, they may collect salt, from the atmosphere, or debris, Small bumps or raised areas under the paint sometimes
which may be blowing about on the airfield. Thorough indicate exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires
inspection of the components and their associated stowage removal of all exfoliated metal followed by blending and
bays, is required at regular intervals. restoration of the finish.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar

metal corrosion, between the steel pins and the aluminium
tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the hinges of access doors
and panels that are seldom used.

7.18 12 Mar 2014
Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions
Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should
layers of spot-welded skins and moisture, entering the seams, result in a thorough inspection of the internal strands and, if any
may set up electrolytic corrosion that eventually corrodes the damage is found, the cable should be rejected.
spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally, spot-welding
is not considered good practice on aircraft structures. Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bell-
cranks, sheaves and in other places where the cables flex as
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb there is more chance of corrosion getting inside the cables
sandwich panels should be sealed to exclude water or dirt. when the strands are moving around (or being moved by) these
Water should not be permitted to accumulate in the structure items.
adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb
sandwich panels and box structures is difficult and generally
requires that the structure be dismantled.
Electrical Equipment
Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the

corrosion in battery compartments. Spray, from electrolyte,
spreads to adjacent cavities and causes rapid attack on
unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended to all
vent systems associated with battery bays.
Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive

to the effects of corrosion and need close inspection.
Control Cables
Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can,

over a period of time, lead to mechanical problems and system
failure. Corrosion-resistant cables, can also be affected by
corrosive, marine environments.
7.18 13 Mar 2014
CORROSION REMOVAL, ASSESSMENT AND General treatments for corrosion removal include:
REPROTECTION
Cleaning and stripping of the protective coating in the
Due to the high cost of modern aircraft, operators are expecting corroded area
them to last much longer than perhaps even the manufacturer Removal of as much of the corrosion products as
anticipated. As a result, the manufacturers have taken more possible
care in the design of the aircraft, to improve the corrosion- Neutralisation of the remaining residue
resistance of aircraft. This improvement includes the use of new Checking if damage is within limits
materials and improved surface treatments and protective Restoration of protective surface films
finishes. The use of preventative maintenance has also been Application of temporary or permanent coatings or paint
emphasised more than previously. finishes.
Preventative maintenance, relative to corrosion control, should Cleaning and Paint Removal
include the:
It is essential that the complete suspect area be cleaned of all
Adequate and regular cleaning of the aircraft grease, dirt or preservatives. This will aid in determining the
Periodic lubrication (often after the cleaning) of moving extent of corrosive spread. The selection of cleaning materials
parts will depend on the type of matter to be removed.
Regular and detailed inspection for corrosion and failure
of protective treatments Solvents such as trichloroethane (trade name Genklene) may
Prompt treatment of corrosion and touch-up of damaged be used for oil, grease or soft compounds, while heavy-duty
paint removal of thick or dried compounds may need
Keeping of drain holes clear solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
Draining of fuel cell sumps
Daily wiping down of most critical areas General-purpose, water-removable stripper is recommended for
Sealing of aircraft during foul weather and ventilation on most paint stripping. Adequate ventilation should be provided
sunny days and synthetic rubber surfaces such as tyres, fabrics and acrylics
Use of protective covers and blanks. should be protected (remover will also soften sealants).
Rubber gloves, acid-repellent aprons and goggles, should be
worn by personnel involved with paint removal operations. The
following represents a typical paint stripping procedure:

7.18 14 Mar 2014
Brush the area with stripper, to a depth of approximately Abrasive papers, power buffers, steel wool and wire brushes
0.8 mm 1.6 mm (0.03 in 0.06 in). Ensure that the are all acceptable methods of removing rust on lightly stressed
brush is only used for paint stripping areas. Residual rust usually remains in pits and crevices. Some
Allow the stripper to remain on the surface long enough (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to neutralise
for the paint to wrinkle. This may take from 10 minutes to oxidation and to convert active rust to phosphates, but they are
several hours not particularly effective on installed components.
Re-apply the stripper to those areas which have not
stripped. Non-metallic scrapers may be used to assist the Corrosion on high-stressed steel components may be
stripping action dangerous and should be removed carefully with mild abrasive
Remove the loosened paint and residual stripper by papers or fine buffing compounds. Care should be taken not to
washing and scrubbing the surface with water and a overheat parts during corrosion removal. Protective finishes
broom or brush. Water spray may assist, or the use of should be re-applied immediately.
steam cleaning equipment may be necessary.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Note: Strippers can damage composite resins and plastics, so
every effort should be made to 'mask' these vulnerable areas. Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious
indications, since the products are white and voluminous. Even
Ferrous Metals in its early stages, aluminium corrosion is evident as general
etching, pitting or roughness.
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous
oxide (rust) to be deposited. Some metal oxides protect the Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which
underlying base metal, but rust promotes additional attack by provides a hard shell, that, in turn, may form a barrier to
attracting moisture and must be removed. corrosive elements. This must not be confused with the more
serious forms of corrosion.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any unprotected hardware.
Its presence is not immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in
need for maintenance and will suggest possible further the presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can take
corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most practical place before serious loss of strength occurs. Three forms of
means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete attack, which are particularly serious, are:
removal of corrosion products by mechanical means.

7.18 15 Mar 2014
Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate
Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress remover (usually a phosphoric acid-based fluid) applied,
Intergranular attack ,characteristic of certain improperly normally with the use of a stiff (nylon) bristled brush, to the
heat treated alloys. corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been
removed. Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be
Treatment involves mechanical or chemical removal of as much used to flood the area and remove all traces of the acid, then
of the corrosion products as possible and the inhibition of the surface should be dried thoroughly.
residual materials by chemical means.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium
This, again, should be followed by restoration of permanent coating remains intact is by the application of one drop of
surface coatings. diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. If the alclad has been
removed, the aluminium alloy core will show as a black stain,
Alclad whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a
white stain.
WARNING: USE ONLY APPROVED PAINT STRIPPERS IN
THE VICINITY OF REDUX BONDED JOINTS. CERTAIN The acid must be neutralised and the area thoroughly washed
PAINT STRIPPERS WILL ATTACK AND DEGRADE RESINS. and dried before a protective coating (usually Alocrom 1200 or
USE ADEQUATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT similar) is applied to the surface.
WHEN WORKING WITH CHEMICALS. USE ONLY THE
APPROVED FLUIDS FOR REMOVING CORROSION Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable
PRODUCTS. INCORRECT COMPOUNDS WILL CAUSE primer, followed by the approved top coat of paint.
SERIOUS DAMAGE TO METALS. Magnesium Alloys
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by
the protective aluminium layer by mechanical methods, as the the use of chromic/sulphuric acid solutions (not the phosphoric
core alloy metal may be exposed, therefore, where heavy acid types), brushed well into the affected areas. Clean, cold
corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it must be removed water is employed to flush the solution away and the dried area
by chemical methods wherever possible. can, again, be protected, by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a
similar, approved, compound.

7.18 16 Mar 2014
Acid Spillage Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus
paper), to check if acid has been cleaned up
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe
damage. Acids will corrode most metals used in the Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs
construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most of damaged paint or plated finish and signs of corrosion,
other fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be especially where the paint may have been damaged.
followed when working with such spillages.
Remove corrosion, repair the damage and restore the
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and surface protection as appropriate.
battery bays should be well ventilated, while surfaces in the
area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required
of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as Alkali Spillage
early as possible) the signs of acid spillage. The correct
procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium
follows: (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe) type of batteries, containing an
electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate).
Mop up as much of the spilled acid, using wet rags or
paper wipes. Try not to spread the acid The compartments of these batteries should also be painted
with anti-corrosive paint and adequate ventilation is as
If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health
water, taking care that electrical equipment is suitably and Safety procedures are, again, imperative.
protected from the water
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective
If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% treatment, follows the same basic steps as outlined in acid
(by weight) solution of bicarbonate of soda (sodium spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a
bicarbonate) with water solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.
Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold
water

7.18 17 Mar 2014
Mercury Spillage and the area repaired in accordance with manufacturers
instructions.
WARNING: MERCURY (AND ITS VAPOUR) IS EXTREMELY
TOXIC. INSTANCES OF MERCURY POISONING MUST, BY Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times
LAW, BE REPORTED TO THE HEALTH AND SAFETY during the following operations:
EXECUTIVE. ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS RELATING TO
THE SAFE HANDLING OF MERCURY MUST BE STRICTLY Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may
FOLLOWED. prevent spreading.
Remove spillage carefully by one of the following
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the mechanical methods:
battery spillages and prompt action is required to ensure the Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre
integrity of the aircraft structure. brushes).
Heavy-duty vacuum cleaner with collector trap.
While contamination from mercury is extremely rare on Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick
passenger aircraft, sources of mercury spillage result from the them up
breakage of (or leakage from) containers, instruments, switches Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto
and certain test equipment. The spilled mercury can, quickly, globules).
separate into small globules, which have the capability of Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail
flowing (hence its name Quick Silver) into the tiniest of the use of:
crevices, to create damage.
Calcium polysulphide paste
Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an
amalgam with metals), causing intergranular penetration and
embrittlement which can start cracks and accelerate powder
propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening of Neutralise the spillage area, using Flowers of Sulphur
the aircraft structure. Try to remove evidence of corrosion
The area should be further checked, using radiography,
Signs of mercury attack on aluminium alloys are greyish to establish that all globules have been removed and to
powder, whiskery growths, or fuzzy deposits. If mercury check extent of corrosion damage
corrosion is found, or suspected, then it must be assumed that Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts
intergranular penetration has occurred and the structural found contaminated should be removed and replaced.
strength is impaired. The metal in that area should be removed
7.18 18 Mar 2014
Note 1: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted (3) Category C Repair: A time-limited repair which must be
panels, in an attempt to clean contaminated surfaces) must be replaced or reworked within a specified time limit. Also
discarded after use. supplemental inspections can be necessary at a specified
Note 2: Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be threshold and repeat interval.
necessary on any airframe that has suffered mercury
contamination. The definitions of the different types of repairs that have
not been evaluated and analyzed for damage tolerance are
GENERAL REPAIR METHODS as follows:
There are two classifications of repairs in this SRM: (1) Permanent Repair: A repair where no action is necessary,
except the operators normal maintenance.
(1) Repairs that have been evaluated and analyzed for damage
tolerance capability and are classified as Category A, B, or C (2) Interim Repair: A repair that has the necessary structural
repairs. strength and could stay on the airplane indefinitely. The repair
must be inspected at specified intervals and replaced if
(2) Repairs that have not been evaluated and analyzed for deterioration is detected or damage is found.
damage tolerance capability and are classified as Permanent,
Interim or Time-Limited Repairs. (3) Time-Limited Repair: A repair that has the necessary
NOTE: If a repair is not identified as an interim or time-limited structural strength but does not have sufficient durability. This
repair, it is a permanent repair. repair must be replaced after a specified time, usually given as
a number of flight cycles, flight hours or a calendar time.
The definitions of the different categories of damage
tolerant repairs are as follows: The definitions of the terms as they apply to the repairs are
as follows:
(1) Category A Repair: A permanent repair for which the
inspections given in the Baseline Zonal Inspection (BZI) are (1) Baseline Zonal Inspection (BZI): A set of typical
sufficient and no other actions are necessary. maintenance inspection intervals that are assumed to be
performed by most operators, and defined in the Repair
(2) Category B Repair: A permanent repair for which Assessment Guidelines document. BZI was the basis for the
supplemental inspections are necessary at the specified creation of a list of structural areas or types of repairs that would
threshold and repeat intervals. not require supplemental inspection. The type of inspection
associated with the BZI is:
7.18 19 Mar 2014
General Visual Inspection of all visible structure in the area of For Category B repairs, the threshold starts from the time the
being inspected. repair was installed if the repair fasteners in the critical rows
have been installed in new fastener holes or existing fastener
Some SRM repairs were chosen to be Category A or B
comparing their inspection requirements with the baseline zonal holes that have been zero-timed. If the repair fasteners are
inspection intervals for the areas repaired. If the BZI interval installed in existing fastener holes that have not been zero-
was adequate to maintain damage tolerance, the repair was timed, the inspection threshold will start from the time the
labeled Category A. If not, the repair was labeled Category B. airplane was delivered.
Operators must be aware that if their current inspection intervals
exceed the BZI intervals, the repair categories may not apply. (7) Time-Limit: The maximum period in flight cycles, flight hours
or calendar time that is permitted until it is necessary to replace
See the Repair Assessment or rework a time-limited repair.
Guidelines document (D6-38669) for complete information.
(2) Damage Tolerance: The ability of structure to sustain (8) Zero-Timing: The process used to improve the repair
anticipated loads in the presence of damage, such as fatigue durability in order to make the inspection threshold start from
cracks until it is detected through inspection or malfunction, and the time the repair is installed. This involves the removal of
repaired. small cracks and fatigue damaged material by over sizing the
existing fastener holes before the repair is installed as given in
(3) Damage Tolerant Repair: A repair that meets the necessary GENERAL. Zero-timing must only be used where specifically
damage tolerance conditions. permitted in an SRM chapter-section-repair. Also zero-timing
must not cause short edge margin and fastener spacing, and
(4) Repeat Intervals: The period in flight cycles, flight hours or knife-edging on the repair fasteners.
calendar time that occurs between the necessary inspections.
(9) Critical Fastener Row: Fastener row to be inspected to meet
(5) Supplemental Inspections: Special inspections of the damage tolerance requirements.
repaired structure that are done in addition to an operators
normal maintenance inspections.
(6) Threshold: The period in flight cycles, flight hours or

calendar time from the time an airplane is delivered or a repair
is made until the first supplemental inspection is necessary.

7.18 20 Mar 2014
Damage Tolerance Assessment of Repaired Structure
(2) Detailed Inspection (DET): An intensive examination of a
(1) The damage tolerance assessment of a repair is done to specific item, installation or assembly to detect damage, failure
determine the effect that the repair has on the damage or irregularity. Available lighting is normally supplemented with a
tolerance capability, and inspect ability, of the initial structure. direct source of good lighting at an intensity deemed
This assessment is also used to identify the inspections that are appropriate by the inspector. Inspection aids such as mirrors,
necessary to keep the repaired structure in an airworthy magnifying lenses, etc., may be used. Surface cleaning and
condition. The SRM will provide the inspection requirements for elaborate access procedures may be required.
fuselage pressure boundary repairs that are published in the
SRM. However, fuselage pressure-boundary repairs developed (3) Special Detailed (Non-Destructive Testing) Inspection (SDI):
by the operators will need to be assessed using the Repair An intensive examination of a specific item(s), installation, or an
Assessment Guidelines document. Damage tolerance assembly to detect damage, failure or irregularity.
assessment of the repaired structure can be completed after an
airplane is returned to service.
The examination is likely to make extensive use of specialized
Types of inspections that are used to detect damage in inspection techniques and/or equipment. Intricate cleaning and
structure are as follows: substantial access or disassembly procedure may be required.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) inspections are used to examine
(1) General Visual (Surveillance) Inspection (GVI): A visual all subsurface damage and most small cracks. NDT is also used
examination of an interior or exterior area, installation or in areas where a visual inspection is not sufficient to find the
assembly to detect obvious damage, failure or dimensions of damage. NDT procedures recommended for use
irregularity. This level of inspection is made from within in the SRM are as follows:
touching distance unless otherwise specified. A mirror
may be necessary to enhance visual access to all (a) Eddy Current: An NDT procedure that uses eddy
exposed surfaces in the inspection area. This level of currents to find damage in metals that have good
inspection is made under normally available lighting conductivity properties. The Eddy Current inspection is
conditions such as daylight, hangar lighting, flashlight or the preferred NDT procedure used to find most damage
drop-light and may require removal or opening of on metal parts.
access panels or doors. Stands, ladders or platforms
may be required to gain proximity to the area being
checked.

7.18 21 Mar 2014
1) The three types of Eddy Current inspections used in the SRM (e) Magnetic Particle: An NDT procedure that applies a
are as follows: magnetic field to a ferro-magnetic part that has fine magnetic
particles on the surface. The magnetic field causes the
i) High Frequency Eddy Current (HFEC) Inspection: Used magnetic particles to group together in areas that have cracks
to find surface cracks, porosity, and corrosion. on or near the surface.
ii) Medium Frequency Eddy Current (MFEC): Used to find (f) Penetrant: Penetrant examination uses the property of a
subsurface cracks in the first layer that start and grow along the liquid to go into a defect that is open at the surface of the part.
faying surface. It also will detect surface cracks. The liquid is applied to the surface and permitted to soak in.
A developer is applied to pull the liquid out of the defect so it
iii) Low Frequency Eddy Current (LFEC) Inspection: Used can be seen. Visible penetrants are examined under white light.
to find subsurface cracks and corrosion. Fluorescent penetrants are examined under ultraviolet light.
(b) Ultrasonic: An NDT procedure that uses sound waves to find

surface and subsurface damage; for example, cracks, porosity,
delamination, or disbonds, on metal and composite materials
that have good permeability properties.
(c) Resonance Frequency: A tap test NDT procedure that can

be used to find delaminations and interply disbonds in
composite, honeycomb or bonded structures that have thin skin.
(d) X-Ray: An NDT procedure that uses radiography to find

cracks and damage; for example, disbonds, in metallic and
composite structures which cannot be accessed for visual
inspection. X-Rays can identify if fluids are inside honeycomb
parts and can be used to identify the dimensions of the damage.
Refer to NDT Part 2, for the X-Ray inspection procedures.

7.18 22 Mar 2014
STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUAL (SRM) CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMES
The structural repair manual is developed by the These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the
manufacturers engineering department to be used as a component, as distinct from coatings, which may be renewed as
guideline to assist in the repair of common damage to a specific a routine servicing operation.
aircraft structure. It provides information for acceptable repairs
of specific sections of the aircraft. They give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive
attack better than the metal to which they are applied.
Electro-Plating
There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of:
Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the

coating is anodic and so, if base metal is exposed, the
coating will corrode in preference to the base metal.
Commonly called sacrificial protection, an example is
found in the cadmium (or zinc) plating of steel.
Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or chromium on steel)
than the base metal. The nobler metals do not corrode
easily in air or water and are resistant to acid attack. If,
however, the basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally
through electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting
corrosion of the base metal or the corrosion may spread
beneath the coating.

7.18 23 Mar 2014
Sprayed Metal Coatings
Most metal coatings can be applied by spraying, but only Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special
aluminium and zinc are used on aircraft. Aluminium, sprayed on purposes, notably the phosphating of steel. There are numerous
steel, is frequently used for high-temperature areas. The proprietary processes, each known by its trade name (e.g.
process (aluminising), produces a film about 0.1 mm (0.004 in) Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).
thick, which prevents oxidation of the underlying metal.
Cladding
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad)

has already been discussed, as has the problem associated
with the cladding becoming damaged, exposing the core, and
the resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
Surface Conversion Coatings
These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes

the immediate surface layer into a film of metal oxide, which has
better corrosion resistance than the metal. Among those widely
used on aircraft are:
Anodising of aluminium alloys, by an electrolytic process,

which thickens the natural, oxide film on the aluminium. The
film is hard and inert
Chromating of magnesium alloys, to produce a brown to
black surface film of chromates, which form a protective
layer
Passivation of zinc and cadmium by immersion in a
chromate solution.

7.18 24 Mar 2014
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING/INSPECTION (NDT/NDI) It is incumbent on all aircraft servicing technicians, regardless of
TECHNIQUES trade or level of certification, to be constantly vigilant and to use
their eyes to detect the slightest imperfection in and around the
Among the many inspection tasks, done by aircraft serving areas of aircraft or component parts on which they are working.
technicians, are those involving Scheduled Maintenance
Inspections (SMIs). When approaching an aircraft, a perfunctory glance may reveal
the fact that one wing is lower than the other, which could
SMI's are special inspections, detailed by the manufacturer, to indicate a difference in the fluid levels of the respective landing
be done at a specified time period. When doing these gear struts, different tyre pressures or, perhaps, a deflated tyre.
inspections the ultimate aim is to ensure that the aircraft (or
part) being inspected, remains in a safe condition or that it Missing or badly secured panels have often been discovered by
complies with the original design specification. such alert observations, as have potentially catastrophic
structural failures, and the student is urged to adopt this vigilant
The common factor, in all the inspection/test procedures is that attitude as quickly as possible to ensure the safety of all aircraft
they entail techniques that do not affect the continued and the people that fly in them.
serviceability of the components under inspection. They are, in
fact, non-destructive testing/inspection techniques. While all aircraft servicing technicians can, therefore, do visual
and assisted visual inspections, only those who have received
Non-destructive testing (NDT) or, in America, Non-destructive appropriate training will be authorised to do certain PFD
inspection (NDI) techniques, involve the use of such methods techniques. The more sophisticated MPFD, ECFD, UFD, and
as: RFD techniques will be done by specially trained and approved
NDT (NDI) technicians.
Visual and Assisted Visual Inspections
Remote Viewing Instruments
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection (MPFD)
Eddy Current Flaw Detection (ECFD)
Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UFD)
Radiographic Flaw Detection (RFD).

7.18 25 Mar 2014
Visual/Assisted Visual Inspections
The appropriate visual or assisted visual inspection techniques It should be stressed here that, whenever a visual inspection is
will be detailed in the relevant servicing manuals but, generally, being done, there must be adequate illumination of the
they will depend on such factors as: inspection site, to ensure that small defects are able to be
detected.
The nature of the item being inspected (i.e. the material
from which it is made): It may be metallic, plastic, rubber Some visual inspections may dictate that a specific amount of
or any other type of material illumination (in a stated number of lux) be available during the
The purpose of the inspection: It may be to establish inspection.
whether the item is suffering from a known fault or to
confirm the integrity of a previous repair To assist in visual inspections, use is frequently made of such
The location of the item to be inspected: It may be aids as:
installed in an aircraft or removed from an aircraft. In
most cases the maintenance schedule will specify that Inspection Mirrors
an item is always inspected without removal from the Magnifying Glasses.
aircraft. The term in-situ has previously been used to
describe this instance Inspection mirrors enable the technician to see the remote
The inspection surface: Whether it is an internal or an surface of components and into places that normal vision is
external surface. The normal convention is that restricted. Selections of inspection mirrors are available,
inspections are external unless otherwise stated mounted on the end of a handle or rod. Such mirrors should be
The time available for the inspection: This is often mounted by means of a universal joint so that they can be
dictated by circumstances, in that, if a tyre needs to be positioned at various angles.
inspected for wear, it should be able to be checked in a
few minutes. A major aircraft inspection, on a large A development of this device has the ability to change the angle
aircraft, is however, normally planned to take many days of the mirror by remote control. A rack and pinion mechanism
The degree or depth of the inspection: Depending on the passes through the stem and is controlled by a knob on the
criticality of the component, or its adjacent structure, to handle.
the safety of the aircraft.

7.18 26 Mar 2014
This permits a range of angles to be obtained, after insertion of REMOTE VIEWING INSTRUMENTS
the instrument into the structure. Some instruments come
equipped with integral non-dazzle illumination. These instruments have a variety of different names, although
they all, basically, operate on similar principles. Whether they
Magnifying glasses are most useful instruments, to assist with are called borescopes or fibrescopes, (or, collectively,
the close inspection of an airframe. They are capable of introscopes), they are optical instruments used for the
clarifying details, when normal visual inspection only produces a inspection of the remote areas of structures, components or
suspicion of a crack or corrosion. Magnifying glasses vary in engines, which would be, otherwise, not directly viewable.
design from the pocket type, with a magnification factor of times
two (x2), to the stereoscopic type with a magnification of up to Note: A detailed knowledge of the internal structure of the
x32. component under inspection is essential, and proper training in
their use should be obtained, before inspections involving
The magnification factor relates to the size of an object, seen remote viewing instruments are attempted.
through the magnifying lens, compared with the size of the
object, viewed with the naked eye, at a distance of 250 mm (10 Borescopes consist of ostensibly rigid tubes of nickel-plated
in). brass or of stainless steel. The outer diameters of the tubes
may range from approximately 5.5 mm (0.22 in) to 11 mm (0.43
For day-to-day inspection of structures, a hand instrument with in) with lengths from 230 mm (9 in) to 1 750 mm (69 in).
a x8 magnification and integral illumination could be used.
Magnification above this value should not be used unless While they do possess a degree of rigidity, they can be very
specified, because the limited area of observation does not easily bent if too much sideways force is applied to them, so
reveal the surrounding area. A higher magnification lens can be great care must be taken in their use.
used, once the lower powered lens has identified a problem.
Inside the thin metal tube is a complex series of precision
Note: Magnifying glasses and similar inspection instruments will optical lenses and mirrors, surrounded by a bundle of very fine
provide the best results only when the area under inspection is glass fibre filaments, which guide light to the viewing end of the
well illuminated. tube.

7.18 27 Mar 2014
The light is provided by a box, containing an electrical The image is viewed through a bundle of fibre optic strands,
transformer, a high-intensity, light bulb of quartz-iodine, Xenon while the object is illuminated by light transmitted through
or something similar (which is mounted in front of a reflector), another surrounding bundle of fibre optic strands. Diameters
and a cooling fan. and lengths of fibrescopes are similar to those of rigid
borescopes and they are also provided with the various viewing
The light source box is usually connected to a mains outlet and ends and focussing arrangements.
the powerful light is transmitted to the borescope by means of a
connecting flexible cable which also contains a guide bundle of Some fibrescopes have a controllable distal viewing end, to
glass fibres. allow articulation through almost 360 on both an X and Y lateral
axis. These (refer to Fig. 2) are most often used (in addition to
In this way cold yet brilliant light is provided at the viewing borescopes) to inspect the inside of gas turbine engines, but
area, to give the necessary high quality illumination without the can also be used for many other inspections such as; loose
hazards associated with heat and any flammable fluids which article checks, fuel leaks etc.
may be present in the viewing area.
The images, presented by borescopes and fibrescopes, may be
Rigid borescopes are provided with several versions of viewing viewed directly through an eyepiece, as stated, or they may be
ends, which allow either a forward view, a lateral view (normal displayed on a TV screen via a video camera, which can be
to the longitudinal axis of the tube), a forward oblique or a attached to the eyepiece.
retrograde (reverse) view of the inspection area.
The results of the inspection can also be recorded, by means of
With the exception of those with a forward view end, all the a video tape, and retained, for future comparisons of possible
other borescopes may also have the capability of rotating the deterioration of the inspection area.
tube around the longitudinal axis, so that a full 360 internal
view of the area is possible. They also have adjustable focus of
the eyepiece, to minimise eye strain on the viewer and to
accommodate the various levels of acuity of the inspectors
eyesight.
Fibrescopes are flexible and, probably because of this, they are

extremely prone to abuse and damage. As the name implies,
they rely on fibre optic cables rather than a rigid tube and
lenses/mirrors to provide the image of the inspection area.
7.18 28 Mar 2014

7.18 29 Mar 2014
Borescopes and Fibrescopes may be used for the inspection of Wherever they are used, there are certain difficulties involved
gas turbine engine: with the interpretation of what is seen through the instruments.
Compressors: for damage to Fans, FOD, Interference When using remote viewing instruments, it is recommended that
between Rotors and Stators, Surge damage, and the inspecting technician should:
Bearing Oil Leakage
Combustion Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracking, Be fully trained in the use (and care) of the instruments
Distortion, and Carbon Build-up being used
Turbine Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracks, Dents, Be familiar with the layout of the structure or component
Deposits of Melted Metals and Nicks. under inspection
If possible, have a spare or an example of the part near
Note: When using remote viewing instruments for engine at hand with which to compare the images from the
inspections it must be ensured that: inspection area
Use the experience of other inspectors where doubt
The engine must be allowed to cool down before exists (or consult previous video recordings etc.)
inserting the scopes Refer to the appropriate servicing manual for guidance
Windmilling (or inadvertent Starting) of the engine must whenever necessary.
be prevented by gagging or removing the appropriate
fuses/circuit breakers and placing warning placards on
the flight deck
Contamination of the instruments, by Fuel, Grease and
Oil, must be avoided
Borescopes do not get bent and Fibrescopes do not get
kinked nor crushed.
Remote viewing instruments may also be used to inspect many

other areas of an aircraft. Typical areas would include:
Electrical Components
Electrical Looms
Enclosed Structural Parts
Fuel System Components
Hydraulic System Components.
7.18 30 Mar 2014
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD) Inhalation: face masks should be worn where
concentrations of fumes or particles are high and there
Before discussing the application of PFD techniques it is must always be adequate ventilation. Victims who
necessary to highlight the health hazards associated with become nauseous, dizzy or drowsy should be moved to
working with PFD materials and to consider the recommended fresh air and medical advice sought. Resuscitation
First Aid treatments and the Safety Precautions, which need to methods should be used where asphyxiation occurs and
be observed, during their use. The hazards include: breathing has stopped and the Emergency Services
summoned.
Contact with the eyes: to prevent the possibility, Fire: all the necessary fire precautions must be observed
chemical proof goggles should be worn. If, despite this, (CO2 , Foam and Dry Powder extinguishers are the
eye contamination occurs, then the eyes must initially be recommended types) and, in the event of a fire, any
irrigated with copious amounts of water and proper ventilation should be switched off first
medical assistance sought Storage: PFD chemicals should be stored in a dry area,
Contact with the skin: due to the de-fatting action of the away from heat and direct sunlight
chemicals, barrier cream should be applied to the hands Spillage: any spillages should be soaked up with
before work commences and, where prolonged contact absorbent materials
is probable, protective PVC-type gloves should be worn. Transport: appropriate precautions, depending on the
Contaminated skin should be thoroughly washed with flash point of the particular chemicals should be
warm soap and water and, after drying, a lanolin-based observed
cream applied. If irritation persists then medical attention Disposal: materials should be treated as oily waste and,
is needed where large quantities are involved, must not be
Ingestion: food must not be consumed while doing PFD discharged into public sewers or waterways.
procedures and hands should be carefully washed
before eating. If chemicals are ingested then medical Penetrant flaw detection may be used to detect surface-
help must be sought. VOMITING SHOULD NOT BE breaking discontinuities in any non-porous materials, including
INDUCED ceramics metals, and plastics. It may also be used to detect
porosity in those materials that should not be porous, leaks in
tanks and cracking of internal bores.

7.18 31 Mar 2014
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION (UFD)
This form of Non-destructive Testing is done by specially Sound is caused by the sinusoidal oscillations of the particles in
trained, and approved, technicians, so only brief details of the a medium and the speed of sound is fixed in different materials,
background and the procedures are given in this course. The depending on their elasticity and density. Table 1 shows the
student is, however, required to have a basic knowledge of the speed of sound through some common materials.
principles of the techniques involved in Ultrasonic Flaw
Detection (UFD). Table 1
SOUND VELOCITIES IN COMMON MATERIALS
UFD methods may be used to detect sub-surface defects in the
majority of solid materials. Ultrasonics can also be used to: Material m/sec ft/sec
Air (at 20C) 343 1,125
Measure the thickness of materials when it is only possible Water (at 20C) 1,480 4,854
to get access to one side of the component Perspex 2,680 8,793
Test for the delamination (de-bonding) of composite Pyrex Glass 5,640 18,500
structures Steel 5,900 19,351
Monitor real time cracking in spars and struts via Acoustic Aluminium 6,350 20,827
Emission methods.
Low-frequency sound travels outwards, from its source, and
The term, ultrasonic, describes sound oscillations at goes in all directions, whereas the higher the frequency, the
frequencies too high to be detected by the human ear. Normal, more the sound becomes unidirectional until, at the extremely
healthy adults are, usually, able to detect sound frequencies in high frequencies employed in UFD, the sound can be
the range between 20 Hz 20 kHz. For example, the lowest considered to be similar to a very narrow beam of light.
note of a typical, full-size, piano vibrates at approximately 27.5
Hz, while the highest note is in the region of 3.52 kHz. UFD The principle of UFD is that a narrow beam of sound is
procedures use sound frequencies ranging from as much as introduced into a material and the effects on that beam can
500 kHz to 25 MHz (and, sometimes, more). indicate the structural state of the material.

7.18 32 Mar 2014
The sound beams, used in UFD, are produced (and detected) At the same time a pulse is generated across the time base of
by means of a piezoelectric transducer (i.e. a device which the oscilloscope. The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is set so
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice that the time base of the oscilloscope appears as a straight line.
versa).
When the transducer, mounted in a device known as the probe
A piezoelectric crystal (formerly quartz but, more commonly, (refer to Fig. 4), is applied to a material, the vibrations cause a
man-made ceramics such as barium titanate or lead zirconate narrow beam of ultrasonic waves to be transmitted through the
titanate) is made to vibrate when stimulated by electrical energy material.
from the pulse generator of a cathode ray tube (CRT)
oscilloscope. Back
Initial Wall Pulse
Pulse Echo Generator
Time Base Probe

Controller Controller
X-plate
Amplifier
Y-plate Probe Couplant between
Back Wall Probe and
Inspection Surface
Component
under
Sound Beam
Inspection
and
Echo
Simplified UFD System

Fig. 4
7.18 33 Mar 2014
In a similar manner to radar waves in air (and sonar waves in Because the transducer crystal is vibrating against the casing of
water) the sound waves travel through the material until they the probe, a great deal of sound is initially reflected within the
meet an interface with a medium which has a different acoustic probe. This is referred to as the initial pulse (Americans refer to
impedance. The acoustic impedance of a material is a function it as the main bang) and it is usually placed at the extreme left
of the density of, and the velocity of sound in, the material. of the time base, to act as the surface reference, and is not
considered as part of the search beam.
At the interface of different acoustic impedances the sound will
be reflected (as with the radar and sonar echoes) in proportion The face of the probe also creates an interface with the surface
to their differences. It is usual for the majority of sound to be of the material under test, due to the microscopic particles of air
reflected from an interface and the interface can be caused by: between them.
The far face (also called the back wall), of the Because of the vast difference in the acoustic impedance of air
component under inspection, with the air on the other compared to other materials, most of the sound would not enter
side the material, unless a medium, with a closer acoustic
impedance to the probe and the material under test, is
A crack or a void within the material (which will contain interposed between them to act as a couplant. Typical
air or another gas) couplants used are fluids in the form of glycerine, silicon grease,
petroleum jelly or medium-viscosity oils.
An inclusion of a foreign body within the material (such
as occurs in welds). With this pulse/echo method, the location of a discontinuity in a
component can be quite accurately calculated. Unlike the PFD
The reflected sound (or echo) returns to the transducer probe, method, it is not only able to detect subsurface flaws but also
where the energy is converted into an electrical pulse, which is tight surface flaws which may be filled with oil, grease, paint,
fed (via an amplifier) to the oscilloscope. The amplified pulse rubber or any other contaminants which would create difficulties
causes a peak on the time-base, which is calibrated so that the for the PFD methods.
position of the peak represents the distance the reflected sound
has travelled in the material under inspection. UFD has a greater versatility in that different modes of sound
waves are utilised to locate discontinuities occurring in various
planes relative to the inspection surface. Those modes of sound
include:

7.18 34 Mar 2014
Longitudinal or Compressional waves (also called
Straight Beam testing)
Transverse or Shear waves (also called Angle Beam
testing)
Surface or Rayleigh waves.
Because the narrow beams of sound obey some of the

physical laws applicable to light, with regard to reflection and
refraction, it is necessary to employ Longitudinal sound
waves to locate discontinuities which are approximately
parallel to the surface which is being scanned by the probe
(refer to Fig. 5).

7.18 35 Mar 2014
Compressional Wave
Initial Back Wall
P b
P l E h
(a)
(a) (b) (c)

Echo from Flaw
Reduction of
(b)
Total Reflection
from Flaw
(c)
with loss of
Using Longitudinal Sound Waves
(Straight Beam Testing)

7.18 36 Mar 2014
Considering the light law, which states that, the angle of Again considering the laws associated with light, the crystal is
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection it can be seen that angled in such a manner that the Longitudinal waves are
the incident sound will be reflected back to the probe when the refracted out of the material under inspection, leaving only
maximum dimension of the flaw is in a plane parallel to the scan Transverse waves for the search.
surface.
Note: By fixing the transducer to a more acute angle, it is
In instances where flaws are oriented at angles which are either also possible to refract the waves in such a way that they
oblique or normal to the scan surface, the sound would not be travel along the surface of the material. In this way Surface
reflected directly back to the probe and the flaws would be or Rayleigh waves may be generated, and used, to detect
extremely difficult (if not impossible) to detect. flaws which are in, but which are normal to, the scan
surface.
For the detection of these types of flaws it will be necessary to
use Transverse sound waves, to enable the sound beam to be In very acoustic absorptive materials it may be necessary to
reflected back to the transducer crystal (refer to Fig. 6). resort to Through Transmission or Pitch and Catch
methods (refer to Fig. 7) where two probes are used, with
one being a Transmitter (Tx) and another a Receiver (Rx).
Shear Wave
Tx
Probe T R
Using Transverse Sound Waves Rx

(Angle Beam Testing)
Fig. 6 (a) (b
)
Through Transmission or Pitch and Catch
Methods (Fig. 7)

7.18 37 Mar 2014
Using the Through Transmission methods will ensure that This technique uses the fact that a material will vibrate at its
enough sound energy is received to provide useful search maximum amplitude when the sound is at the resonant
information in materials which tend to absorb great amounts frequency for a given thickness of that material. Thus a
of sound. certain thickness of properly bonded structure will vibrate at
maximum amplitude at a specific frequency when an
In Fig. 7 (a), it can be seen that two Compressional wave ultrasonic transducer is applied to its surface.
probes are being used, where access to two opposite
surfaces is possible, while Fig. 7 (b) shows two Transverse The amplitude and frequency of the sound can be displayed
wave probes being used, where access is only available to on an oscilloscope and, when the transducer passes over a
one surface. de-bonded area, the loss of adhesion will be detected as a
change in thickness of the material. This results in a change
The disadvantage of the method, however, is that, while the of amplitude and a shift in the frequency range on the
existence of the flaw can be detected (by the loss of the oscilloscope, such that the de-bonded area can be quite
signal to the Receiver probe), unlike the pulse echo method, easily located.
the actual location of the flaw cannot be determined,
because there will be no peak on the time base to indicate Acoustic Emission techniques involve the placing of
its position. piezoelectric transducers at critical positions on spars or
struts and the monitoring of the sounds being given out as a
As previously stated, UFD techniques can also be used to crack propagates through the metal.
measure the thickness (or the loss of thickness in the event
of corrosion) of metals and most other materials. The information is electronically processed and, through
appropriate circuitry, can be linked to recording devices or
The de-bonding or delamination of composite structures can real time warning lamps to indicate the progress and
be achieved by either the Through Transmission method severity of the cracking or wear in the particular structure.
(already described) or by means of the Resonance
technique.

7.18 38 Mar 2014
EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION (ECFD)
ECFD procedures are, normally, restricted to specially trained The basic principle is that a probe (refer to Fig. 8), consisting of
and approved personnel but there may be instances where (in a small coil, which is tightly wound around a ferrite core and
aircraft wheel servicing bays for example) locally trained supplied with alternating current (ac), is held in contact with (or
technicians are approved either to do limited and uncomplicated in close proximity to) the surface of the component under
procedures or to monitor automated ECFD equipment. For inspection.
these reasons it is necessary for the student to understand the
fundamentals of ECFD and the techniques involved in its
application.
ac Supply Ferrite Core
Flaw detection procedures, utilising eddy currents, are
employed on electrically conductive materials (metals) and are
capable of detecting:
Alternating Magnetic
Surface and (to a limited degree) subsurface cracks: Field around Coil
which may be closed by metal flow, oil, paint, rubber or
other contaminants
Variations in the thickness of metal skins: due to internal Conductive Material
corrosion of closed areas, to which normal access is under Inspection Induced Alternating
difficult (or impossible) due to time/expense constraints
Electrical Currents
Changes in the electrical conductivity of metals: through
incorrect heat-treatments or fire damage
Cracking emanating from rivet and bolt holes in aircraft
skins and structures.
Principles of ECFD
Eddy currents are alternating electrical currents, which are
induced, into a conductive material, by an alternating magnetic Fi 8
field. They circulate in the material in a plane normal to the field,
which produces them.

7.18 39 Mar 2014
Any factors, which alter the value of the induced eddy Incidentally, an increase in conductivity, or permeability, will
currents in the inspection area, will result in an indication on also result in a decrease in the depth of penetration, of the eddy
the meter. currents, in the material under inspection.
Factors, which affect eddy currents in a metal (and require

careful interpretation), include:
Conductivity
Permeability
Frequency
Proximity
Probe Handling
Discontinuities.
A change in the conductivity and the magnetic permeability of

the metal will obviously influence the induced current flow and
subsequent magnetic fields.
The frequency, at which the driving current of the probe coil

alternates, will govern the quality of the induced current and
influences the depth of penetration of the eddy currents into the
material.
The higher the frequency of the coil current, then the closer to
the surface of the material the eddy currents remain. This is
referred to as the skin effect.
High frequencies of ac are used to drive the coils when

searching for fine fatigue cracks in the surface of metals, while
low frequencies are employed for the coils of the probes used to
detect sub-surface defects.

7.18 40 Mar 2014
The proximity of the probe to the surface affects the induced
currents and this phenomenon can be used to provide a
coating thickness measurement.
With the probe placed on a bare metal test specimen, the

inspection meter indicator is set at zero. Known thicknesses of
plastic films are then gradually interposed between the probe
and the metal.
As the thicknesses increase, the amount of lift off will be

indicated on the meter and these indications can be used to
compare with readings, obtained when the probe is positioned
on a painted surface of similar metal, to provide a measurement
of the coating thickness.
Probe handling is also very important and the probe should be

maintained at a constant angle to the search surface (preferably
normal to the surface). To ensure this, probes are often
mounted in purpose-made shoes, which conform to the surface
under inspection (particularly in wheel flanges and bead seat
areas) to maintain the correct angle of the probe with the
surface.
Discontinuities will, of course, cause a change in the induced

eddy currents but the type (and severity) of flaws cannot be
deduced unless the equipment is properly calibrated before
(and during) the inspection procedure. In order to calibrate the
equipment, standard reference pieces, manufactured from a
material similar to that being tested, are necessary.

7.18 41 Mar 2014
RADIOGRAPHIC FLAW DETECTION (RFD)
Because the misuse of radiographic equipment could result in The main sources of ionising radiation, used in aerospace RFD
the release of physically harmful (ionising) radiation, operators procedures, involve the use of either X- or Gamma-ray emitters.
must be trained and aware of the many safety regulations and Both rays have the ability to penetrate materials, which cannot
codes of practice associated with these procedures. be penetrated by visible light and are identical forms of energy
in the electromagnetic spectrum (refer to Fig. 17).
Aircraft RFD inspections are, therefore, only done by qualified
NDT personnel from organisations approved under BCAR A8, Their difference lies only in the way in which they are generated
and who are nationally registered as radiation workers. These and the names given them by the scientists who discovered
workers are subject to frequent medical checks and wear them.
sensitive film badges to detect any radiation dosage to which
they may become exposed. Should the dosage exceed
stringent limits, then the worker is withdrawn from tasks
involving ionising radiation.
Interpretation of radiographic images is also very important, as

incorrect conclusions could result in the acceptance of
unserviceable structures or, conversely, in the scrapping of safe
structures.
Students are, however, required to have knowledge of the

fundamental principles of RFD and its applications in aerospace
inspections.
Due to the hazards of radiation, it will be necessary to isolate

the aircraft and to keep personnel at a safe distance from the
inspection area. The area should be roped off, with radiation
warning signs (a black trefoil against a yellow background),
clearly shown. Flashing lights and horns (or klaxons) are also
employed to signify that ionising radiation sources are in use in
the area and that unauthorised personnel should keep away.
7.18 42 Mar 2014
Radar Infra-red UV Rays
Radio Rays Typical aerospace RFD procedures use machines generating
White
TV Light X-rays in the range of 10kV to 250kV, depending on the
penetrative power required.
X & Gamma Cosmic

Rays Rays
1m 0.01 m 100 m 1 m 10 nm 0.1 nm 10 -3 nm 10 -5 nm 10 -7 nm
10 m 0.1m 0.001 m 10 m 100 nm 1nm 0.01 nm 10 -4 nm 10 -6 nm
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fi 17
X-rays are electrically produced in a cathode ray tube, (refer to

Fig. 18) which accelerates electrons, released at the cathode,
towards a dense metal (tungsten) target which is embedded in
the anode.
The amount of electrons, freed at the cathode, is controlled by

adjustment of the tube current, which is measured in milliamps
(mA). The force of the collisions and, hence, the penetrating
power of the X-rays, is controlled by the potential difference
between the cathode and the anode. The tube voltage is
measured in kilovolts (kV).

7.18 43 Mar 2014
DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Disassembly and re-assembly, in the terms of aircraft, can
cover a range of activities from complete airframes down to
component maintenance, with several steps in between. The
reasons for dismantling and re-assembly may include:
Complete airframe disassembly for road/air shipment

Replacement of major components/modules
Replacement of minor components/modules
Disassembly & re-assembly of major components
Disassembly & re-assembly of minor components
Complete Airframes
It may be necessary to dismantle a complete aircraft for the

purpose of transportation by road or by air. This could be for
recovery from an accident site, remote from the airfield or for
movement of the aircraft when it is totally non-airworthy, due
perhaps to severe corrosion or an unknown maintenance
history.
Because many larger, modern aircraft are manufactured at

several different locations, the completed modules are
assembled in the final build hall of the primary manufacturer.
The joining points are often known as transportation joints,
and, in extreme instances, can be the points where the aircraft
may be dismantled again to allow transportation (refer to Fig.
20).
Typical Manufacturers Joining Points
Fig. 20

7.18 44 Mar 2014
The instructions for the dismantling operation will be found Whilst the manufacturers instructions will give the details for a
either in the aircrafts Maintenance Manual or in a special specific aircraft, the following sequence of dismantling gives an
dismantling procedure, issued by the manufacturer. During the idea of the correct order of disassembly:
dismantling operation, precautions must be taken to prevent
injury and damage. Main planes
Tail unit
General precautions would include such items as: Undercarriage units
The aircraft should, if at all possible, be dismantled Centre section

within a hangar. If this is not possible, then level and firm Fuselage.
ground will suffice
Sufficient clearance in the hangar must be available, Re-assembly is in the reverse order of disassembly, and all
both to clear the airframe when on jacks, and to allow parts must be cleaned, protected and serviceable, prior to their
heavy lifting cranes enough room to manoeuvre over the installation.
aircraft
All precautions, in accordance with the manufacturers Replacement of Major Components/Modules
instructions, must be taken prior to the aircraft entering
the hangar; such as de-fuelling and the removal of This type of operation will normally be completed at a large
devices such as emergency oxygen canisters maintenance base, where all the required equipment is
When the aircraft is jacked-up, all trestles must also be available. An example could be the replacement of a wing that
placed in position. This allows the aircraft to be climbed has suffered major damage.
upon and, later, ensures that it will not overbalance when
a major part (such as a wing), is removed. Other types of similar work might be the replacement of
damaged wing tips, empennage surfaces and nose cones. If the
aircraft is at an outstation when the damage occurs,
confirmation should be sought as to whether the aircraft can be
flown back to base for repair, or repaired where it is.

7.18 45 Mar 2014
Replacement of Minor Components/Modules
Some components have to be repaired by replacement. Repairs The full procedure for this type of work will be carried out in
to flying control surfaces, for example, are often done in a repair accordance with the CMM. This book will give all the operations
bay. The component may be replaced on the aircraft by a required to dismantle the component and will advise what to
serviceable item, or reinstalled once the repair in the bay has look for whilst the item is undergoing maintenance. It will also
been completed. state the re-assembly method, including the fitting of new parts
such as seals, gaskets, oil and other consumables that have to
Other components, which are replaced first and repaired later, be replaced, during overhaul.
might include some structural items such as doors of all types,
and most fairings and cowlings. Most of these tasks are simple Disassembly and Re-assembly of Minor Components
removal and replacement operations that are covered in the
AMM. A typical passenger aircraft can contain hundreds of small
components that work together as parts of a larger system. This
Disassembly and Re-assembly of Major Components can include a wide range of hydraulic and pneumatic
components that can be mechanical, electromechanical or
Most of the work done, during this phase of maintenance, is electrical in operation.
scheduled in with normal aircraft maintenance. The components
may not only be removed and reinstalled at different times Other components might include those installed into fuel, air
during the maintenance, but work will also be done on the items conditioning, pressurisation, electrical and electronic systems.
whilst they are removed. They may also be removed to allow These components have their own CMM to allow maintenance
access to other parts of the airframe during the maintenance. and trouble-shooting to be done. Some components are only
removed once they fail (On-Condition), while others receive
Items such as engines, propellers, landing gears and wheels regular maintenance.
require some form of maintenance. This may include a simple
condition check, or a full overhaul of its component parts,
allowing checks on internal component parts for wear, damage
and corrosion.

7.18 46 Mar 2014
Instruments, electric and electronic components can be Other locking devices include items such as single tab washers,
dismantled and serviced by the aircraft operator. It normally shake-proof washers, circlips and locking rings. Some can only
requires the use of a dedicated overhaul facility, which can be used once only whilst others are re-used provided they are
provide the correct environmental conditions and is equipped still serviceable.
with the special test equipment required to carry out
maintenance and repair. The replacement of spring washers is advised during overhaul
and repair, especially on engines and pumps. Other devices
Operators of smaller aircraft, or those who operate only a few used for locking or holding fasteners in position, such as multi-
aircraft, will usually send components requiring repair or tab washers and locking plates can normally be reused.
maintenance to a third party maintenance organisation. This
company will have the special facilities, equipment and Stiff nuts with fibre or nylon inserts can be checked to ascertain
personnel, to complete the required work on components from a if a certain degree of stiffness is still available. If the nut can be
number of different customers. run along a thread by hand it should be replaced. They should
not be used in high temperature areas.
Basic Disassembly and Re-assembly Techniques
In all matters relating to aircraft, the manufacturer has the final
All of the previously mentioned procedures require the use of say on which fasteners can be reused and which must be
the correct techniques over a wide range of working practices. replaced.
These techniques will ensure that the components are removed,
dismantled, re-assembled and re-installed in accordance with Because friction is essential to keep the fasteners secure,
both the relevant manuals and using the correct standard sometimes it is necessary to do a torque check on the bolt/nut
practices. combination, in order to confirm their continuing serviceability.
This is especially true of all metal fasteners that can normally be
An AMM and CMM dictate the correct type and size of locking re-used.
wire or split pin to be used during overhaul or maintenance of a
component. These publications also stipulate exact detail of
items such as the lock wire angle of approach and the correct
positioning of a split pin. AMM chapters 20 and 70 list the
standard practices that should be used during overhaul.

7.18 47 Mar 2014
The majority of nuts, bolts and set-screws, on an aircraft, are Small Part and Component Identification
subject to a standard torque value. This depends on their
material, finish, lubrication, thread type and size, although the When disassembling or removing any component, it is vital that
manufacturers torque value will be the correct one to use. all small items such as bolts, screws, nuts, washers and shims
are clearly identified.
The correct torque loadings are normally applied using a torque
wrench that has been previously calibrated to the correct value. This involves not only identifying the items by part number, but
In some special instances, pre-load indicating (PLI) washers also recording their correct location and which aircraft they have
may be specified. been removed from as, in some hangars, more than one aircraft
may be in a state of disassembly at any one time.
When assembling any component or major airframe part, the
manufacturer will specify whether the torque value is lubricated Some items may simply be attached to the major assembly
or dry. Lubricated values are measured with the threads and all using many small tie on bags with identification labels. If a
mating surfaces lightly lubricated with oil, sealant or anti-seize number of different sized fasteners are removed from a
compound as appropriate. component such as a windscreen, they can be located in a
locally-made holding jig which keeps the different parts in their
When assembling some components, it may be vital that certain same relative position to the original item. This should allow all
alignments, dimensions or profiles are achieved. During initial the screws to be returned to their original locations when the
production, most of the airframe and many of the components screen is reinstalled.
are assembled in a jig.
Any part which is removed must have its identity and location
A jig is device that allows the manufacture, repair or rigging of retained until it is reinstalled.
components to a high dimensional accuracy. This guarantees
consistency over a number of components. The jig holds all of Discarding of Parts
the items securely, so that, when assembled, the whole
component is exactly the shape that the designer has A number of items, when they are removed from their original
stipulated. position, have to be discarded. The once only policy is a
combination of the manufacturers recommendations together
Jigs are used to build fuselage and wing sections in the factory. with normal engineering practice.
They are also used to ensure that small actuators are pre-set to
the exact length, to assist in rigging the controls containing the Items that are usually discarded at removal are filters, sealing
actuator. rings, desiccants, fuels and oils of all types.
7.18 48 Mar 2014
There are many other items that have a given life. This may be that only the correct tools are used for each and every
counted in flying hours, calendar time or operating cycles, which maintenance task.
will mean that items have to be replaced throughout the life of
the aircraft. When, for example, using a cross point screwdriver, it is
possible to find at least six different types of screw bits, each of
If aircraft, or major components of them, have been which only fits its own respective screw head slot.
disassembled, it may be policy to replace components with
zero life items prior to re-assembly. This will allow the aircraft The removal of nuts from bolts is normally accomplished using
to fly for considerable time before any parts become due for a socket and wrench set and these sockets can be of the
replacement. twelve-point or six- point type. When spanners need to be used,
preference should be given to a ring spanner rather than an
Freeing Seized Components open-ended spanner. Adjustable spanners or mole grips
should never be used on aircraft.
When dismantling any part of an aircraft, it is not unusual for the
technician to encounter a seized fastener. Depending upon its
location, the AMM may recommend a range of actions to assist
in the removal of the item(s).
These actions may involve use of penetrating oil, which works

its way down through the seized threads, providing both an anti-
corrosion action and lubrication for the threads. Other actions
may involve the application of heat or cold to a specific part, so
that their relative diameters change, thus lowering the friction
between the parts.
Use of Correct Tools
It is normal for technicians to own a comprehensive tool kit,

containing tools recommended for the work planned and which
are of the highest quality. In a number of situations, it may be
possible for a technician to use an incorrect tool that may
appear to be the correct one for the task. It is most important
7.18 49 Mar 2014
The manufacturer of the aircraft often specifies special tools,
when standard tools are unable to complete the task. Unless
approved to do so, the technician should never substitute
conventional tools for the special tools that are called for in the
manual. Damage to the part being worked upon will almost
always result from the use of incorrect tools.
Murphys Law
This law states that:
If a part or component can be installed incorrectly, someone,

somewhere will install it that way.
There are numerous solutions in the fight against this problem.

For example, when pair of pipes or hoses are to be joined, there
is the risk of the two pairs of couplings being cross connected.
This could result in serious damage if the pipes carried fuel and
hydraulic oil.
To prevent this happening, pipes and couplings usually have

different diameters. Alternatively, the two sets of couplings
would be located at different places, so the pipes could not be
wrongly connected under any circumstances.
The same logic is applied to control cables that, of course, must

also never be cross-connected. In this instance, the turnbuckles
are located at slightly different locations at each cable break,
again making it impossible to connect the wrong pair of cables
together.

7.18 50 Mar 2014
TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to Troubleshooting is the process of isolating the specific cause or
repair failed products or processes. It is a logical, systematic causes of the symptom. Frequently the symptom is a failure of
search for the source of a problem so that it can be solved, and the product or process to produce any results. (Nothing was
so the product or process can be made operational again. printed, for example).
Troubleshooting is needed to develop and maintain complex
systems where the symptoms of a problem can have many The methods of forensic engineering are especially useful in
possible causes. Troubleshooting is used in many fields such tracing problems in products or processes, and a wide range of
as engineering, system, administration, electronics, automotive analytical techniques are available to determine the cause or
repair, and diagnostic medicine. Troubleshooting requires causes of specific failures. Corrective action can then be taken
identification of the malfunction(s) or symptoms within a system. to prevent further failures of a similar kind. Preventative action is
Then, experience is commonly used to generate possible possible using failure mode and effects analysis
causes of the symptoms. Determining the most likely cause is (FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA) before full scale
a process of elimination - eliminating potential causes of a production, and these methods can also be used for failure
problem. Finally, troubleshooting requires confirmation that the analysis.
solution restores the product or process to its working state.
In general, troubleshooting is the identification of,

or diagnosis of "trouble" in the management flow of a
corporation or a system caused by a failure of some kind. The
problem is initially described as symptoms of malfunction, and
troubleshooting is the process of determining and remedying
the causes of these symptoms.
A system can be described in terms of its expected, desired or

intended behavior (usually, for artificial systems, its purpose).
Events or inputs to the system are expected to generate specific
results or outputs. (For example selecting the "print" option from
various computer applications is intended to result in
a hardcopy emerging from some specific device). Any
unexpected or undesirable behavior is a symptom.
7.18 51 Mar 2014
Flight line aircraft maintainers have an excellent record of Terminology
identifying and correcting causes of system and subsystem
failures and keeping highly complex, aging aircraft flying. For this effort, the AMIT Team defined troubleshooting as "a
These technicians continue to troubleshoot an aircraft until the process that includes all activities related to determining the
problem is isolated; sometimes aided and sometimes hindered correct repair action." This included all activities from problem
by current maintenance and logistics processes and procedures notification through repair verification; understanding the current
or even the maintenance environment itself. It takes little discrepancy, technical data research, historical maintenance
analysis to determine that the success or failure of the data research, determining aircraft condition, and
troubleshooting process hinges on the technician. communication.
The AF has placed great emphasis on enterprise process Efficiency and inefficiency are inverse indicators of a
improvements and cost reduction programs. However, it has technician's troubleshooting proficiency, where proficiency is a
placed less emphasis on the processes and systems supporting vectored quantity (i.e., a mathematical representation of a
the technician in making effective troubleshooting decisions at physical phenomenon where direction is as important as the
the task level. Thus, while the current troubleshooting value; "velocity" and "force" are two such physical phenomena).
environment is functional, it is often inefficient. The AMIT In other words, proficiency is a combination of the time it takes
program's purpose was to identify the factors (especially human (troubleshooting time) to make the right decision
factors) that contribute to inefficiency in troubleshooting (troubleshooting accuracy).
intensive portions of the maintenance process, and devise
proven (i.e., field tested) means to improve efficiency. If those The AMIT program did not measure AF technicians'
means are demonstrated to be statistically significant, their troubleshooting proficiency quotients or even attempt to develop
introduction into the AF maintenance environment should have a method for doing so. Had that been done, however, an
a meaningful, positive impact on aircraft availability. efficiency distribution with an upper bound of some practicable
state of proficiency and a lower bound of an acceptable state of
sufficiency would result as shown in Figure 1 (Gott, S. P. 1998).

7.18 52 Mar 2014

7.18 53 Mar 2014
A statistical analysis of this theoretical efficiency distribution System knowledge is the knowledge of a specific type of
would yield a dividing line. Those troubleshooters with system, or set of interrelated functional components on the
proficiency quotients to the right of the line would be considered aircraft, including design-specific interactions and interfaces
Experts (i.e., proficient) and those to the left would be with other systems. System knowledge in the Novice is minimal,
considered Novices (i.e., sufficient) for the purposes of the but grows with on-the-job exposure to a myriad of details and
AMIT program. (NOTE: In the AMIT program, an individual situations. Experiential increases in process and system
technician's proficiency quotient is neither a reflection of his or knowledge result in a more mature level of strategic knowledge
her fitness for the job nor a measure of their personal (i.e., mental database) or reference model of facts and
performance. The AMIT program simply used this theoretical experiences that support better decision making. The relative
construct of proficiency quotients to describe two classes of test size of the spheres in Figure 1 depicts the development of the
subjects, "Novices" and "Experts".) troubleshooter's process, system, and strategic knowledge over
time.
As illustrated in Figure 1, the troubleshooting process entails
three domains of cognition: process knowledge, strategic At this point, the troubleshooter's personality, training, innate
knowledge, and system knowledge. A troubleshooter leaves abilities, and on-aircraft experience bring process, system, and
technical school with relatively more process than system or strategic knowledge into balance and heighten the technician's
strategic knowledge. ability to synthesize information, reducing task time. The
technician's proficiency quotient is now to the right of the
Process knowledge is general in nature. The troubleshooter average and he or she can be acknowledged as an expert.
knows the theory and operation of the major components and Unfortunately, this corporate knowledge will soon be lost due to
subsystems on an aircraft (e.g., jet engines, landing gear advancement, retirement, or separation, until another
actuators, etc.), how to find and use the technical troubleshooter completes his or her pilgrimage to proficiency.
documentation, test equipment, and fault isolation procedures.
The availability of accurate, current information is critical in this
cognitive domain (Gott S. P.1989).

7.18 54 Mar 2014
Theory Since increased aircraft availability was the desired outcome,
and the AF has long established data collection mechanisms
The AMIT program's strategic goal was to identify a set of and defined formulae for calculating aircraft operational
changes to the current AF maintenance environment that would availability (Ao), the AMIT team considered using those
improve troubleshooters' overall proficiency, thereby increasing measurement systems and metrics as a barometer for the AMIT
aircraft availability. The team's first challenge was to identify a solution's success. However, a review of the existing AF Ao
set of metrics that establish a baseline, against which metrics revealed that, for the purposes of this experiment, such
improvement could be measured. It was evident from the an analysis would include such a large number of variables the
program's outset that the metrics collected during the field program would have to extend much beyond the contract's
demonstration test (FDT) were vital to the program's credibility period of performance, while also confounding the experimental
in the scientific community and critical to a business case for findings.
transitioning the solution into the field if the solution were
successful. Those metrics and the practicability of their A third approach considered was to measure the solution's
collection would be considerations in both the design of the impact on recurring or intermittent problems. If the solution
solution as well as the design of the FDT. caused significant improvements in task accuracy, then the
number of problem reports closed with a Can Not Duplicate
Troubleshooting proficiency, a function of both task accuracy (CND) entry, and those determined to be repeats (same
and task time, would be an ideal metric. Plotting the average problem on the next flight) or recurs (same problem on the
troubleshooters' proficiency quotients over time would yield a subsequent four or five flights, depending upon aircraft type)
trend line's direction and indicate whether or not changes in the should decrease noticeably. Here again, deriving a viable test
AF's maintenance environment were beneficial or detrimental. that involved flying the same aircraft four or five times under
In addition, its slope would indicate the rate of change. A controlled conditions was not practical.
positive and large slope would indicate that the changes were
increasing proficiency; aircraft availability trend analyses should The AMIT team finally settled on a 3 x 3 x 2 mixed factorial
show a corresponding improvement. Since the AF does not experimental design that would yield empirical, objective results.
presently derive such a metric, developing and validating a The test was designed to include three (3) groups of test
methodology for doing so was outside the spirit, scope, and subjects: system specific Novices, system specific Experts, and
resources of the AMIT program. The team had to identify other a non-system specific Experts (referred to as "Novice," "Expert,"
practicable metrics to quantitatively demonstrate any and "Crew Chief," respectively, throughout the remainder of this
performance improvements afforded by the solution. document). These groups completed maintenance tasks of
three (x 3) degrees of difficulty:

7.18 55 Mar 2014
Simple, Moderate, and Complex, to be accomplished With or Extent of Theory
Without (x 2) the AMIT solution.
A by-product of the AMIT program was the documented
Task Time and Task Accuracy measurements would be paradigm of the AF flight maintenance environment shown in
collected and the troubleshooting proficiencies of the test Figure 2. The paradigm provided a working framework within
groups would be compared and contrasted. Any improvements which the Team could rate and prioritize all change
in proficiency would become the basis for predicting the opportunities for their potential impact.
improvements of larger population groups. (See CDRL A008,
"Demonstration Test Plan") The three dimensions illustrate the three facets of on-aircraft
maintenance believed to hold the greatest improvement
During test planning and preparation, SMEs pointed out two potential. The x-axis represents the daily operational
separate, but equally effective, approaches to troubleshooting: environment for a maintainer, predominately a time-based
1) hard failures of discrete components, which lend themselves sequence of prescribed procedures and practices. If it can be
to a procedurally oriented fault isolation tree approach, and 2) assumed that all flightlines comply with Air Force Instruction
repeat and recur problems that indicate soft or intermittent (AFI) 21-101, "Aircraft and Equipment Maintenance
failures, which favor a divide-and-conquer signal tracing Management," then, arguably, any improvement(s) made by the
approach. In order to gauge the applicability of the AMIT AMIT solution along this dimension are extensible across the
solution to both troubleshooting approaches, the test included entire AF.
two different subsystems, one favoring each troubleshooting
approach. The y-axis depicts the event-based nature of each maintenance
scenario. Random failures occurring on an aircraft trigger and
gauge the series of actions along the x-axis. Since random
failures are the result of inherent characteristics in electrical,
electronic, and mechanical devices and are not typically
affected by human performance, the AMIT team left this area to
those involved with the practical applications of probability
theory.

7.18 56 Mar 2014

7.18 57 Mar 2014
Assumptions / Constraints
The z-axis represents the cognitive dimension of maintenance.
Troubleshooters synthesize data and information into Because no initial constraints were imposed on either the
knowledge, and make intuitive leaps from symptoms to problem or solution space, the AMIT Team had complete total
solutions in this dimension. Cyclically, novices mature to experts freedom of thought about what the problems might be, what
as they gain wisdom and that wisdom or corporate knowledge their underlying causes might be, and what solutions might
erodes away as the experts move on with their lives and affect positive changes. This mental freedom allowed the team
careers. to "think outside the box" regarding investigatory techniques,
analytical approaches, and technologies.
Thus, the AMIT program's problem/solution space
encompassed the entire AF maintenance paradigm: doctrine, The program's "freedom-of-thought" environment was nurtured
organization, training and education, materiel, leadership, by the initial operating assumptions stated at the AMIT
personnel, and facilities; the physical work and information program's outset:
processing environments; the maintainer's psychological
makeup, including the way they learn and think; their decision Any aspect of the current AF maintenance environment could
making skills and habits; and their character traits. All were be changed if the objective evidence provided confidence in the
considered to be within scope during the program's formative change's positive impact on human performance and the return
period. on investment justified the resource expenditures.
This assumption gave the team the freedom to delve into any
and every aspect of the current maintenance environment for its
improvement potential.
The AMIT program's efforts will result in the transition of one or

more improved troubleshooting capabilities into the AF's System
Development and Demonstration acquisition process and/or
one or more changes to the current maintenance environment.
This assumption not only bred an expectation of success, but it
kept the team focused on deriving benefit to the troubleshooter.
Moreover, this expectation established the need for efforts
targeted toward successfully transitioning the AMIT solution
from the program's outset. Other potential improvements in the
7.18 58 Mar 2014
maintenance process were identified, but if they did not directly than any single technique. All three were conducted
benefit the troubleshooter, they were excluded from further concurrently, because each targeted a different outcome:
consideration. Literature Reviews to determine the state of knowledge and the
state of technology as it pertained to the problem; Process
No radical or disruptive changes will occur within the Interviews towards discovering the current maintenance
maintenance environment before the AMIT solution is fully process; and Cognitive Task Analyses to determine how Novice
developed and fielded. If such a change occurs, the cost and Expert maintainers mentally approached troubleshooting
analysis contained in this document would need to be tasks.
reevaluated in light of the changed environment.
Literature Review
Purpose - Program Goals
A Literature Review (Lit Review) was performed to identify and
In keeping with the restrictions upon 6.3 (Advanced Research) scientifically qualify current and prototype technologies and
funds and the DoD 5000 series guidelines for technology research endeavors that might support the AMIT solution.
development, the purpose was to identify an affordable Through this Lit Review, the AMIT team established user-based
increment of militarily-useful capability, to demonstrate that constraints, targeted key research findings for application, and
capability in a relevant environment, and describe how a system identified additional research opportunities for future
can be developed for production within a short timeframe improvements to the maintenance environment.
(normally less than 5 years) (DoDI 5000.2, 3.6.7). In other
words, the AMIT program had to design and develop a Lit Reviews were conducted in two parts. Initially, the Team
capability sufficient for a field demonstration, without ftilly reviewed AFRL program reports in conjunction with Process
developing the final fieldable solution. Interview and Cognitive Task Analysis results to establish the
Core Topic Areas listed in Table 1. An extended Lit Review then
sought and analyzed Department of Defense (DoD) and
Defining Customer Needs and Processes academic works in the Defense Technical Information Center
(DTIC) and the Ohio Library and Information Network
Literature Reviews, Process Interviews, and Cognitive Task (OhioLINK) relevant to the Core Topic Areas.
Analyses were chosen for the unique areas of insight they
provided. The AMIT team believed that such a combination
would paint a more accurate picture of the maintainers' thought
processes, the maintenance environment, and the requirements
for any solution intended to increase a maintainer's proficiency
7.18 59 Mar 2014

7.18 60 Mar 2014
Documents chosen for both reviews were analyzed and
reduced to brief statements, or findings, with each expressing a
single thought. The 830 statements, virtually verbatim extracts,
were categorized and summarized into the 63 potential AMIT
requirements shown in Figure 3.
A full description of the methods used to build the complete

AMIT requirements traceability matrix was provided in CDRL
A017, "Systems Specification."

7.18 61 Mar 2014

7.18 62 Mar 2014
Process Interviews Cognitive Task Analysis
In order to ensure that the AMIT solution would be "an In order to understand the "intuitive" nature of troubleshooters,
increment of militarily useful capability," the Team conducted a Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) interviews were conducted to
series of process interviews to determine whether organizations capture the thought processes that occur during aircraft system
and practices were indeed uniform across the AF. In all, 27 troubleshooting activities. The CTA focused on both Novice and
Process Interviews with subjects from ten different weapon Expert troubleshooter thought processes and information needs
systems, seven technical specialties, and two major commands for cognitively difficult or complex maintenance tasks.
demonstrated that the maintenance organization structures and
processes were consistent across different AF wings, with very Task Diagrams and Knowledge Audit techniques were used as
minor exceptions. The minor exceptions were due to the the primary CTA instruments for this task. Task Diagrams
numbers of assigned maintainers and the type of aircraft, not to yielded a procedural perspective on maintainer decision-
different maintenance philosophies, approaches, making, while Knowledge Audits provided insight into Expert
methodologies, or practices. The interviews uncovered some troubleshooting strategies and techniques. (See CDRL 017,
recurring themes that are indicative of problem areas for "System Specification," for specifics on the AMIT CTA.)
maintainers. Furthermore, it was determined that on-aircraft
maintenance has not radically changed over the past 50 years Figure 4 depicts the similarities and differences between Novice
and does not appear likely to change in the next 5 years. All and Expert AF on aircraft maintainers' thought processes and
process interview results were considered when the AMIT awareness and usage trends of knowledge stores.
requirements were defined (See CDRL AO 17, "System
Specification").

7.18 63 Mar 2014

7.18 64 Mar 2014
An analysis was completed after each set of CTA interviews,
and again when all sets were completed. High-level themes
within and across interviews were identified using a Card Sort
method. The findings were consistent with, and expanded upon,
those from the Process Interviews. The CTA also identified
three areas in the maintenance process that were most
problematic, especially for Novice troubleshooters. These were
debrief, problem duplication, and troubleshooting. As with the
Process Interviews, the CTA contributed to the requirements for
the AMIT solution (See CDRL AO017, "System Specification").

7.18 65 Mar 2014

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PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)

Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

These include gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and air. If the

A leak from an oxygen system is extremely dangerous, due to

Nitrogen, used in hydraulic accumulators, can leak into the

Accumulators assist the hydraulic system as an emergency

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

If the pads are breaking up there will be signs of debris,

Brake units are normally attached onto the axle of an

Inspection of brake units between flights is essential, to check

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

These items are normally fitted to the aircrafts undercarriage as

Gas Bottle Bursting Disc

Handles and Latches

Handles and latches usually wear through constant use. The

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The components which can become unserviceable due to life

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

Often the first stage in the examination of a component is visual

Illuminating light is conveyed to the working end of the probe

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Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents

The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the

Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive

Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can,

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ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

(6) Threshold: The period in flight cycles, flight hours or

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ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

(b) Ultrasonic: An NDT procedure that uses sound waves to find

(c) Resonance Frequency: A tap test NDT procedure that can

(d) X-Ray: An NDT procedure that uses radiography to find

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of:

Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad)

Surface Conversion Coatings

These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes

Anodising of aluminium alloys, by an electrolytic process,

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ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

Fibrescopes are flexible and, probably because of this, they are

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Remote viewing instruments may also be used to inspect many

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ISO9001:2008Certified For Training Purpose Only

Time Base Probe

Simplified UFD System