INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENT

Assignment -01

1. What are the ecological pyramids? Explain their working and

significance.

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Ans:-There is some sort of relationship between the numbers, biomass and

energy content of the primary producers, consumers of the first and second
orders and so on to top carnivores in any ecosystem. These relationships
may be represented in diagrammatic ways and are referred to as ecological
pyramids.
The ecological pyramids are categorized as follow
a) Of number
b) Of biomass
c) Of energy
d) Of productivity.
The shape of the first two may be upright pyramidal, inverted pyramidal or
any other shape but the third is always upright pyramidal or triangle shaped.
Pyramids of numbers and biomass
This deals with the relationship between the numbers of primary producers
and consumers of different order. A base of such pyramid always represents
primary producers and the subsequent structures on this base are represented
by the numbers of consumers at successive levels.
The grass weeds or the crop plants are in very large number or organisms
forming a food chain. But there may be instances where the trend of
decreasing numbers may not be true.
The number of herbivore birds feeding upon the trees fruits. The number of
parasites like bugs and lice living and feeding upon the birds, body is still
higher. Thus depending upon the size and biomass the pyramid of numbers
may not be always pyramidal, it may even be completely inverted in shape.
The pyramid of biomass therefore becomes upright or it becomes inverted if
the numbers were considered.
Pyramids of energy and productivity
The pyramid of energy represents the total quantity of energy unutilized by
different trophic level organisms of an ecosystem per unit area over a set
period of time. Pyramid of energy in grassland and aquatic ecosystem. The
cumulative energy contents utilized by primary producer are always higher
as compared to energy utilization by successive trophic level, over a period
of time in given area.
In the pyramid of energy a very important factor, has been introduced and
that is the rate. The rate of energy trapping by green plants governs the rate
of production of organic material from simple inorganic substances, in a
given area over a given period of time. This rate of energy conversion or
increase in organic biomass produced is called primary productivity. The
total production as a result of photo or chemosynthesis is called gross
primary productivity. Primary productivity refers to total increase in weight

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in all the parts – roots , stems, leaves fruits, etc. as against agricultural
productivity which refers to useful parts as grains or fodder parts.
Ecosystems efficiency greatly depends upon the production rates of primary
producers.

2. What is the third world political ecology? Discuss its scope and important
features.

Ans:-Third – world political ecology may be defined as the attempt to

understand the political sources, conditions and ramifications of
environmental change. Secondly, economic reductionism neglects other
sources of environmental change .By equating social action with capitalist
development; it not only neglects ecological factors, but also devalues the
role and importance of state and interstate forces. Hence, if together, but in
differentiated and often contradictory ways, relate to and are affected by
environmental change.
Third world political ecology is understood as inclusive, premised on the
view that it must be sensitive to the interplay of diverse socio-political
forces, and the relationship of those forces to environmental interaction,
consequently, its approach aims to unify through and appreciation of
plurality of purpose as flexibility in explanation.
No doubt, the agenda for third world political ecology is both complex and
challenging, requiring analytical refinement as well as empirical exploration.
Third world political ecology does indeed constitute an emerging research
agenda.
As this agenda emerges, new issues will need to be addressed the role of
ideology and culture in environmental change seems particularly important.
How the environment and environmental change are perceived, and related
to different aspects of human development, influences the nature and extend
of such change. Political ecology must be situated in the broader context of
Third world studies. Such integration will benefit the latter while promoting
more rigorous development of the former. Third World political ecology
might be enriched by recent work in contiguous and often overlapping
research agendas: and power analysis, household and gender studies and the
literature on the politics of hunting and conservation. As these agendas are
refined their findings and implications need to be systematically

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incorporated into Third world Political ecology, with particular reference to

conflict over access and the political ramifications of environmental change.

3. What are the broad categories of aquatic ecosystems? Describe pond

ecosystem.

Ans:-There are two types of ecosystems which are a) Aquatic b) Terrestrial.

The aquatic ecosystems can distinguish as fresh water, estuarine and marine.

The broad categories of aquatic ecosystem – freshwater, marine, estuarine

are distinguished on the basis of differences in their salt content. Composing
more than 70 percent of the earth’s surface, aquatic ecosystems are not only
the dominant feature of earth but are also very diverse in species and
complexity of interaction among their physical, chemical and biological
components.
Freshwater ecosystems are characterized as having running water or still
water.
Pond Ecosystem is a part of aquatic ecosystem. . The ponds, lake pools etc.
come under stagnant water ecosystems or otherwise called as Lentic
ecosystems while the rivers, streams, spring etc. are classified under the
Lotic ecosystems.
The pond or a lake generally distinguished as (1) Littoral zone, which is a
shallow water region (2) limnetic zone, an open water zone to the depth
where the light can penetrate (3) profoundal zone, the bottom and deep water
area, beyond the depth of effective light penetration. This zone generally is
not seen as lakes or ponds are usually shallow.
The pond ecosystem is a dynamic ecosystem since the boundaries are
limited. The water is retained in a trough and lined by terrestrial region. The
entry of nutrients, sediments through the surface run-offs enter and remain in
the system causing fluctuations in the physico-chemical characteristics of
pond.
The organisms are subjected to pressure, changes in quality of water and are
adapted top such changes. The organisms like phytoplankton in the surface
water will perform photosynthesis and through the food chain and food webs
the energy transfers to higher trophic levels .The daily alternation of light
and darkness forms a rhythm in the activities of many aquatic organisms.
The plants require light for the photosynthesis to prepare carbohydrates,

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proteins etc. from the natural substances. The light penetration depends
much on the turbidity of water caused by suspended particulate matter .The
extent up to which the light penetration in the water is called ‘Euphotic
zone’ and the dark area below that zone is called ‘Alphotic zones’.

4. Describe different divisions of marine ecosystem and their structure and

composition.

Ans:-Marine ecosystem is one part of the broad categories of aquatic

systems.
It is well known that marine covering more than 70 percent of the Earth’s
surface and with an average depth of 3750 m and with a salinity averaging
3.5 percent, marine ecosystems are of singular ecological significance. The
marine eco-systems comprise an area of nearly 361 million square
kilometers, divided into the major ocean area. They are contiguous,
interrelated spatially and also functionally. The functional continuity being
established by the surface currents, upwelling, seasonal turnover in the upper
waters, waves, and tidal action. In waves, water oscillates back and forth
without actually changing position. In the absence of vertical mixing, the
deep waters, which constitute 60 percent of the ocean, stay permanently near
3 degree centigrade. The concentration of nutrients in the ocean is, low
Nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients are measured in parts per billion in
contrast to salts, such as sodium chloride, which are measured in parts per
billion in contrast to salts, such as sodium chloride, which are measured in
parts per thousand. Even though there is continuity of the oceans, there exist
effective barriers like differences in the intensity of temperature, pressure
and light which interfere with free distribution of organisms. Besides these
factors, the topographical features of the ocean-floor like ridges, mounts,
canyons and trenches function as physical barriers in the distribution of
organisms.
Profile of the sea-floor: The sea-floor is divided into three distinct regions,
the continental shelf, the continental slope and the deep ocean basin.
Ecological sub-division of the Marine Environment: The Marine
environment is divisible into two major divisions, the benthic and the
pelagic; the benthic divisions comprise the sea-shore and the entire sea-
bottom.

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The Benthic Division: It consists of three major zones, the littoral, the sub-
littoral and the deep-sea zone. The uppermost part of the benthic division is
the littoral zone. The littoral zone is the shoreline between land and open
sea. It is subject to the physical violence of waves and tides and to
fluctuations, sometimes extreme, of temperature, moisture, and light
intensity.
The Pelagic Division: The pelagic division comprises all the waters of the
ocean covering the benthic division. It is divided into a ‘neritic zone’ and an
open sea.

5. What is the importance of evolutionary ecology? Explain in brief different

theories of ecological evolution.

Ans:-Evolutionary ecology, deals with this line of biological studies.

Evolutionary ecology is concerned not only with speciation and its
accompaniments in niche segregation but also with the manner in which all
structures and functions evolved. Part of this evolution is biological in that
species characteristic are transmitted genetically by means of chromosomes
and genes and part of it is cultural in those behaviors and social systems or
ethics are transmitted through the training and learning experience of the
young. Human culture, including ethics and religion has its evolutionary
roots in the behaviors and social systems of lower animals. Natural selection
affects behaviors and social patterns just as it does structure and function , to
render the organism more fit and able to survive in specific environment and
to live together in particular relations with one another.
Time and space do not permit adequate attention to the evolution of
territorial and colonial nesting, time of breeding, sex ratios, mating systems
and any number of other behavioral and social phenomena. For example ,
the symposium on behavioral evolution as it relates to birds nests, spider
webs, caddisworm cases , termite shelters, and eel nest – cells , co-evolution
of adaptations in insects and squirrels and in the seeds on which they feed,
the interrelationship between mortality and natality and the evolution of
parental care Natural selection affects behaviors and social pattern as it does
structure and function, to render the organism more fit and able to survive in
specific environments and to live together in particular relations one with
another . We will consider ecological niches and taxonomic species, how
they have evolved together to give structure to the community, and how
behavioral interrelationship between individuals have evolved social
patterns, ethics and culture, culminating with man.

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Predominance is characteristic of the taxonomic structure of communities

that a few species furnish the greatest bulk of the population entirely out of
proportion to the rest of the species.
Succession is the process whereby a series of communities and habitats
replace one another, beginning in an extreme habitat and ending in a mature
climax ecosystem.
Speciation is the process of evolutionary differentiation population, which
may result in one older species becoming split into two or more new ones.
Taxonomy is a functional science concerned with the identification,
nomenclature and classification of different kids of plants all over the world
identifications consists in determining that a particular plant is similar to
some other known individual.
Species term used by taxonomists a population is a local aggregation of
individuals that differs slightly, but characteristically from other local
aggregations of the same species.

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