GM 238 (2013) 51

The products of Hatshepsuts trade mission to Punt:

An alternative translation of the Punt reliefs at Deir el-Bahari.1

David Falk
University of Liverpool

In the famous relief of the Hatshepsuts trade mission to Punt,2 a caption describes the
goods loaded on a ship for the return trip to Egypt, saying:
-
- -
.
The grammatical structure of this sentence is simple; however, there are some
lexicographical problems that remain to be determined. While much could be written
concerning the identities of the products being loaded upon the ship for return to Egypt, this
article will be concerned primarily with the phrase .
Translation of the material, , provides some unique and interesting
challenges. The meaning of is generally uncontested and is translated as "gold." The
normal form of , , consists of a logogram and a determinative. The "gold collar"
logogram (S12 in the Gardiner Sign list) with the biliteral value of is found in a variety of
words that involve precious metals; including, electrum, , and silver, , .
The "particle" determinative (N33 in the Gardiner Sign list) provides a source of confusion.
The problem is that while three particles can be used in place of plural strokes, it can also
retain its meaning as a determinative for metals or minerals; including, gold, , and
copper, , .
In the Hatshepsut inscription, the original signs are written as , which are usually
emended by modern scholars to be interpreted as plural strokes. The two particle
determinatives are offset to the right of the collar logogram. While a scribal error cannot be
ruled out, a possible alternative reading is that this sign is not a scribal error but was an
abbreviation intended to be read in the dual. This rare reading is plausible given that gold is a
metal that appears in the dual in other texts; for example, in the Thuthmose III coronation
inscription on Karnak Pylon VI, we find gold being used in the dual, .3 The tomb of
Kheruef recorded that Amenhotep III gave out ducks and fish made of nbwy-gold, , as

1
I would like to thank Drs. Mark Collier, James Hoffmeier, Ian Shaw, and Kenneth Kitchen who provided
invaluable suggestions towards this article.
2
The Punt Expedition of Hatshepsut was published in transcription in Urk. IV, 319-347. This article focuses on
the section described as "das Beladen der Schiffe" in Urk. IV, 328:15-329:11, Naville (1898), pl. lxxiv. A
casting of the relief is on public display at the Royal Ontario Museum.
3
Brugsch (1862), pl. xxvi.2. Urk. IV 168,9. Urk IV 875,8.
52

awards during his first Heb-Sed festival.4 Faulkner held that this should be read as gold
2/3rds fine;5 however, Harris disagreed with this translation.6 Breasted translated this as
"doubly [refined] gold,"7 and Lucas mentioned that the "gold of two times and gold of three
times... suggests refining."8
Jack Ogden suggested that refining for purity was not used in Egypt prior to the Late
Period based upon a survey of published and his own unpublished alloy analyses.9
Cupellation as a refining technique seems possible given that antimonial litharge (Sb : PbO)
was used in glass making as early as the New Kingdom10 and makes sense of the gold
enrichment scene in the 18th dynasty tomb of Puymire (Theben Tomb 39).11 If the litharge
from cupellation was used in New Kingdom glass-making, then it is possible that cupellation
as a refining technique could have occurred as early as the Middle Kingdom. If the source of
the litharge is cupellation, this process would remove the copper from the precious metals;
however, this would not separate the silver from the gold. Cementation refining would be
necessary to part the silver from the gold.
The evidence at this point is insufficient to state that salt cementation was extant in
Egypt prior to the Late Period. With cementation, gold can easily be purified to 93% on the
first round;12 however, gold with a purity in excess of 90% is rare prior to the Late Period. If
cupellation was used and cementation was absent from the Egyptian metalworking repertoire,
then this could explain the broad range of gold/silver alloy ratios that are found in Egypt that
are low in copper.13 If cementation was not extant, it seems hardly fitting to continue the
interpretation that was presented by Breasted as an assumption since repeated cupellation
would not increase the purity of the alloy in any meaningful way.
P. Harris I has various classifications of gold including "white gold," , which is
probably a high-silver alloy of gold; "fine gold," , which might be a synonym for
electrum; and "gold of two times," .14 If we use this as a range of the kinds of gold
available with "white gold" representing the lightest gold and fine gold/electrum being the
most desired, then "gold of two times" should fall within a range of gold colouration. I
would suggest that the "two times" or "double" in this word represents a logical extreme of
gold colouration, i.e., "dark yellow gold." My reasoning for this comes from the fact that
4
Nims (1980), pl 28. Even though several metal fish pendants are now known, they represent of a variety of
precious metal grades including silver, electrum, and yellow gold and therefore do not contribute to the overall
conversation about nbwy.
5
Faulkner (1962), 209.
6
Harris (1961), 38-39.
7
Breasted (1906), II.65.
8
Lucas (1948), 263.
9
Ogden (2000), 163.
10
Mass, Wypyski, and Stone (2002), 70.
11
Davies (1922), pl. xxviii.
12
Notton (1974), 55.
13
Troalen, Guerra, Tate, and Manley (2009), 18-19.
14
Birch (1876), pl. 13a, pl. 33a, pl. 70a.
 53

there is no word for the colour "yellow" other than "gold." So, in order to describe gold that is
more yellow than another classification of gold, an increase in number must occur, that is, a
"golden" gold. Likewise, this also explains the even rarer usage of gold in the triple form,
, i.e., "rose gold,"15 since the natural occurrence of this copper-rich gold would be
extremely scarce. The reference to gold in the triple is particularly interesting since the
context of the passage is referring to the copper of Atika having the "colour of gold of three
times."16 From this we can infer that this particular gold alloy is copper-rich giving it a
reddish appearance like a newly minted penny. This also excludes the idea that the multiplier
refers to a refining process since refining would, by the extraction of copper, make gold less
red not more red.
Therefore, the multipliers that are used to modify gold are not a standard of purity but
a standard of colour quality. In the same manner, "gold of one time"17 as found on the
Gebeln Quarry Inscription would then be translated as "medium yellow gold."18 And since
these are to a large extent naturally occurring alloys and likely not the result of a cementation
process, the relative values of these alloys during the New Kingdom period would not be
based upon standards of purity as much as desirable traits such as colour, ductility, or tensile
strength, and any standard of assayed purity would only then be coincidental to these
properties.19 This translational solution has the advantage of being consistent with what we
know of metalworking of the period as well as being a very good fit with all the texts where
these rare forms appear without resorting to emending the texts or superimposing
anachronistic technology.
Since the translation of gold seems to be primarily a classification of colour, this then
presents a second problem oriented around the use of the word . Translators in general
accept that is an adjective modifying the preceding noun. Breasted and others
understood the words to mean "green gold."20 This rendering, however, does not make a lot
of sense given that Egyptian metal smiths classified what we would call "green gold" today as
"electrum" ( ),21 which is an alloy of 20-40% silver and gold roughly equating to modern
14kt.22 Balanda tried to make the case that "green gold" is simply a synonym for

15
Examples of copper-alloyed red gold are discussed in Schorsch (2001), 68-69.
16
Birch (1876), pl. 78.
17
Breasted (1906), III.91.
18
From the various readings, the colours of gold alloys from white to rose seem to follow this spectrum: "white
gold" (pale white), "electrum" (light yellow), "gold of one time" (medium yellow), "gold of two times" (dark
yellow), and "gold of three times" (rose gold).
19
Harris (1961), 35-6, notes that during the New Kingdom ordinary gold is twice the value of silver while fine
gold is three times the value of silver, and gold of two times is less valuable than fine gold but more valuable
than white gold. It is important to note that fine gold is probably electrum given the superior colour, working
properties, and general view that Egyptians had towards this alloy.
20
Breasted (1906), II.109. Phillips (1997), 430. Schorsch (2001), 56. Wicker (1998), 157, also interprets it as
"green" but adds "pure" in parentheses. Saleh (1972), 147, interprets it as "fresh, or green gold, or gold-dust."
21
For examples of this nomenclature, see P. Westcar 5.9; Urk. IV 421,11; Urk. IV 1668,1; Sinuhe B252.
22
Lucas (1948), 267-8.
54

"electrum";23 however, this assumes that the emending of the text into an implausible reading
is correct. Moreover, emendations to the text that create hapaxlegomena in translation should
be viewed as suspect when a plausible rendering can be made from the unemended text.
Furthermore, the creation of modern coloured gold alloys is usually done in contrast to other
metals and requires precision refining in order to achieve results that create these subtle
differences in colour, so care must be exercised to avoid ascribing modern technologies in a
way that would be anachronistic. A second possible translation for is as "new" or
"fresh." However, the inevitable question that crops up with this translation is why would it
matter if the gold was new or fresh? Gold was the ultimate recycled good of the ancient
world being melted and reused over and over again; invading armies seldom turned their nose
up at gold that was not new.
As an alternative to these two translations, I propose that here may mean
"malachite." According to Harris there are two words that are generally accepted as being
used for malachite: and .24 Malachite is a mineral of hydrous copper carbonate
(Cu2CO3[OH]2) that occurs with other copper-rich minerals, including, chrysocolla, azurite
(Cu3[CO3]2[OH]2), and metallic copper.25 And it is this association with copper-bearing
minerals that has created confusion surrounding the term, , since the majority of ore
26
mined at Serabit el-Khadim and Wadi Maghara was malachite.
There is, however, a textual problem. In Pyramid Text 350, we find the phrase
, 27 where cannot be an adjective given that the stroke determinative is used
and the fact that the word is not in adjectival order. Given the connection of with green
eye-paint and the malachite residue found on cosmetic palettes, we can be confident that
is malachite. Yet, the textual evidence supports that was also a green stone obtained
28
from mining operations in Sinai, Nubia, and Retenu. Newberry thought that was
malachite because of its mineralogical association with turquoise.29 Even though we cannot
be certain of the value of , we may be able to eliminate some possibilities and even
venture to provide an educated guess. We can assume that is associated with copper and
gold mining activities given propinquity with the end products associated in Egyptian texts.
This would prima facie exclude emerald (green beryl) and true jade which is also confirmed
by the paucity of these minerals in the material culture.30 We can also exclude jasper as there
were several native sources for jasper that made it an export commodity31 and is thus an

23
Balanda (2005/6), 33-34.
24
Harris (1961), 132, 102.
25
Gettens and Fitzhugh (1974), 2.
26
Aston, Harrell, and Shaw (2000), 44.
27
Sethe (1908), 292.
28
Harris (1961), 132.
29
Newberry (1932), 320.
30
Aston, Harrell, and Shaw (2000), 39.
31
Aston, Harrell, and Shaw (2000), 30.
 55

unlikely candidate for importation. Azurite while associated with copper mining is unsuitable
for carving and jewelry. We know that was used in the carving of a statuette in P.
Harris I,32 so it would need to occur in sizes sufficient for the carving of shabti figurines.
Chrysoprase only rarely occurs in large enough pieces for use as a statuette, and its use was
restricted to beads and pendants.33
Instead I would suggest that might be serpentine. Serpentine is a group of twenty
varieties of hydrous magnesium phyllosilicate minerals. Gold-bearing quartz veins transverse
serpentinite rock in the gold mines of the Eastern desert,34 so this mineral could have been the
by-product of ancient gold mining operations. My reason for adopting this interpretation is
also based upon the etymologically related word, , which is well-established to be
alabaster. Finished alabaster has a distinctive waxy feel. Likewise serpentine also has a
similar waxy feel. Furthermore, some spellings of use the jar determinatives (Gardiner
W17 or W18). There are extant examples of serpentine being used for stone vases.35
Serpentine is common in Egyptian material culture finds; however, it is has often been
misidentified as jade,36 aventurine, jasper, or other green minerals. It was often used in
Middle Kingdom statuary37 and in the New Kingdom for heart scarabs and shabti figurines.38
I further support the translation of as "malachite" because of the rhythm of our
primary text. Recent scholarship has brought to our attention that even non-literary texts,
such as private commemorative stelae, often contain couplets or triplets.39 If in this text
is to be translated as "malachite", then we have a list of goods consisting of a series of
couplets as follows: a pair with two kinds of myrrh (as a resin and in trees), two opposite
wood-like materials (ebony and white ivory40), two metal-related materials (gold and
malachite), two kinds of woody spices, three kinds of toiletries (perfume, incense, and eye
paint), three kinds of animals (baboons, monkeys, and hounds), and a pair of single items
(leopard skins and servants).
These singles, couples, and triples are arranged into similar literary pairs that form a
parallelism called framing.41 Each pair amplifies the couplet but unlike the Greek chiasm
does not necessarily bring emphasis to the central unit. The list of the products from Punt
arrange neatly into framing. The pair of woody spices is the central unit. Below that line is

32
Birch (1876), 40a.
33
Aston, Harrell, and Shaw (2000), 27.
34
Ogden (2000), 170.
35
James, McGovern, and Bonn (1993), 45.
36
Aston, Harrell, and Shaw (2000), 38.
37
Cassirer (1958), 1. Ricketts (1917), 211.
38
Forbes (1966), 174.
39
See Leprohon (2001) for a study on versification in non-literary texts.
40
Ivory is not actually a wood but it is often naturally paired with ebony because of its contrasting colour and
working properties. This is similar to the way we naturally pair salt and pepper, even though we know that salt is
not a spice in the literal sense.
41
This suggestion was generously given to me by Mark Collier.
56

the couplet of triple products, and above that line is the couplet of double products. Not only
does the sequence of lines implies that the text, , should be read as a two products,
but the literary structure of the framing confirms that the products in that position should be
read as "gold and malachite."
Malachite was a common import into Egypt during the New Kingdom. As a gem
material, it was used infrequently in jewelry. Lucas noted that when compared to the use of
turquoise, malachite was very rarely employed as a gem stone.42 However, as a metal-
related material, it served a more important function which was as a primary ore for the
production of copper/copper alloy. Samples of malachite ore were found at Old Kingdom
smelting site of Buhen.43
Since the mining operations in the Sinai at Serabit el-Khadim proved to be an essential
source of copper ores for Egypt,44 this does raise the question of why would the Egyptians
need to import malachite from Punt? The answer is two-fold. First there is the matter of ore
quality. Malachite is the richest source of copper ore with 90% recovery possible without the
production of slag.45 African sources of malachite are cleaner than Sinai sources; therefore,
smelting operations are more efficient because they require less fuel to obtain similar results.
This is supported by the lack of slag heaps found at Buhen46 contrasted against slag heaps
found near Sinai mining centers as well as the recovery ratios of modern prospecting reports.47
Second is a matter of transportation. Smelting operations in the Sinai were conducted near the
mines as the end products had to be carried over land by donkeys where they were then
shipped across the Gulf of Suez from the west coast of Sinai.48 However, because the Punt
trading mission was done using a fleet of at least five large ships,49 large amounts of high
grade ore could be transported easily. It is conceivable that more copper in the form of
malachite could be transported during a single trading mission to Punt than could be
processed and transported during several seasons of Sinai operations. The fact that turquoise
was part of the trade expedition's return goods50 makes it not only conceivable but highly
likely that malachite was also on the return trip since turquoise is found near copper ore
deposits because turquoise depends upon copper ions for its formation.
The importation of malachite and gold together represented a trading cycle with Punt.
In the Deir el-Bahari reliefs, we see that copper/copper alloy refined metal and finished tools
are brought to Punt as the primary trading commodity. Large rings of metal in the reliefs are

42
Lucas (1948), 458.
43
El Gayar and Jones (1989), 33.
44
Lucas (1948), 234.
45
Ogden (2000), 151.
46
Ogden (2000), 151.
47
Lucas (1948), 236-7.
48
Mumford (2006), 48-51. Mumford and Parcak (2003), 89-92.
49
Naville (1898) pls. lxxii and lxxiii.
50
Naville (1898), pl. lxxxi.
 57

brought by the Egyptians51 to trade for smaller rings that are identified by the caption ( ).
And instead of using the malachite as an offering to Amun as was done with many of the
expedition's goods, the Egyptians probably refined the malachite in a smelting process then
made the resulting copper into valued-added products for the subsequent trading missions.
A consequence of this cycle of trade is that we need to consider the possibility that the
reliefs at Deir el-Bahari do not constitute a trade mission in isolation but represent perhaps the
first or most successful of many trading missions. The trade between Punt and Egypt was
probably a fairly regular occurrence given relief scenes of trade of foreign goods found in
tombs, such as, in Theban Tomb 143,52 which dates between Thutmosis III and Amenhotep
II.53
This leaves us with a few translational problems.54 As for the identification of ,
there appears to be some controversy over the botanical identification of the plant that
produces this resin. Phillips, taking the majority view of Kitchen, Breasted, and others,
suggested that it should be translated as "myrrh" (Commiphora spp.).55 Dixon suggested that
is possibly a kind of Frankincense tree (Boswellia spp.).56 He claimed that root damage
during harvesting may have been responsible for the failure to transplant the trees
successfully and used this as an argument in favor of identifying these trees as Frankincense;
however, I do not consider this to be sufficient warrant for deviating from the traditional
translation. Serpico stated that myrrh has a complex taxonomy with nearly two hundred
species making it impossible to pinpoint exactly the kind of myrrh that was exported.57
After the mention of the place-name Emu,58 we have a pair of woods ( - )
that have disputed translations. Breasted translated these words as "cinnamon" and "khesyt
wood." Faulkner suggested that these should be translated as "a tree and its spice"59 and "a
kind of spice."60 Edel identified as an aromatic product served after a meal or used to
add scent to perfume.61 The problem with translating - as cinnamon is that it is not a
plant that grew in Africa but was an import that originated from south-east Asia.63
62

However, cassia is a cinnamon-like woody spice that is native to Africa, and based upon the

51
Naville (1898), pl. lxix.
52
Bradbury (1996), 39-40.
53
Porter and Moss (1960), I.255.
54
It should be noted that the remaining products of Punt could be expanded into entire articles. We are only
providing a brief discussion of each in order to fill out our suggested translation.
55
Phillips (1997), 426.
56
Dixon (1969), 61.
57
Serpico (2000), 439-40.
58
Kitchen (1999), 416. He suggested that Emu is located north of Punt but south of Kush placing it outside of
Egyptian control.
59
Faulkner (1962), 294.
60
Faulkner (1962), 205.
61
Edel (1984), 193.
62
Schoff (1920), 262-3. Breasted in a discussion with Schoff admitted that his identification of - as
cinnamon was "merely hypothetical" (p. 263).
63
Grey (1970), 224.
58

vocalization of the Egyptian, translating as "cassia," a cinnamon-like woody spice, is

plausible. However, given that we have few clues regarding the identity of - other than
it is probably the bark or woody part of a plant, we will simply call it "fragrant bark."
The introduction of the first triplet of materials ( - ) provides a list
of toiletries that have been somewhat debated but are translated roughly as "perfume, incense,
eye-paint." Lucas identified the eye-paint as being either malachite or galena (a dark grey ore
of lead) and could include lamp or ivory black or other green or black pigments.64 Regarding
, the meaning here appears to be imprecise, although "perfume" is certainly a reasonable
hypothesis given that perfumery was an extant art at the time.65
The second to last item ( ) is translated literally as "leopards of Upper
Egypt." This raises the geographic issue of the origin of the leopards. The text concerns the
products from Punt yet these leopards (Panthera pardus) are said to be from Upper Egypt.
However, this is probably a label of variety instead of an indication of geographic origin.
Edel identified as a recent form of , cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).66 Osborn
and Osbornova observed that in the Punt reliefs the iconography clearly portrays live
cheetahs.67 The Punt reliefs shows two kinds of large cats: one that can be identified as a
cheetah with its head raised, collared, and chained, the other that can be identified as a leopard
with its head lowered, a thicker neck, and unchained.68
The words for the remaining nine of the products are well-attested from numerous
texts, and there is no need to contest the accepted translations: resin ( ), trees ( ),
ebony ( ), clean ivory ( ), incense ( - ), baboons ( ), monkeys ( ),
hounds ( ), and servants with their children ( ).
In conclusion, I suggest a new translation for the passage. "Loading the boats very
greatly with marvels of the hill country of Punt and every good plant of god's land: heaps
from the resin of myrrh and from inside trees of fresh myrrh; of ebony and clean ivory; of
dark yellow gold and malachite of Emu; of fragrant bark and cassia; of perfume, incense, and
eye paint; of baboons, monkeys, and hounds; of skins of Upper Egyptian leopards; of servants
with their children."

64
Lucas (1930), 41-42.
65
Brun (2000), 278.
66
Edel (1984), 193.
67
Osborn and Osbornov (1998), 122.
68
Naville (1898), pl. lxxx.
 59

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