Question 1:

State the relationship between forces of attraction and the physical state of matter of a
compound.

1) Forces of attraction are forces which act between neighbouring particles in atoms, molecules, or
ions. There are three main states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. These states of matter are in
existence simply because of the forces of attraction between there particles. If there is a strong
force of attraction, particles will be compact resulting in a solid physical state. If the forces of
attraction of particles in a compound are a little weaker than that of a solid then the forces would
not be as strong as that of solids. Therefore the particles would not be attracted to each other as
much resulting in a liquid physical state. The weaker the forces of attraction the less compact are
the particles of a compound. Therefore with little force of attraction particles of a compound are
free to move about with little resistance to movement.

Question 2:
Explain the formation of the following:

2) (a) Ionic bonds- Ionics bonds are formed when there is a transfer of electrons from
a metal, which would be the cation, to a non-metal, which would be the
anion. The goal of the metal atom is to have the same valence shell as the
group eight elements. Metals therefore lose electrons and the non metals receive
them. When there is a lost and a gain of two charges are involved. Losing
electrons would cause the ion to have a positive charge while gaining electrons
would cause the ion to have a negative charge. As it is known opposite
charges are attracted to each other. Therefore there is a force of attraction and it is this force
which hold the ionic compound together.

(b) Covalent bonds- Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share one or more electrons.
In covalent bonding the atomic orbital of one atom overlaps and
combines with the atomic orbital of another atom to form a bond.
When these orbitals combine and overlap molecular orbitals or formed.
These orbitals may be either sigma molecular orbitals or pi molecular orbitals.
Sigma bonds are formed in three ways. They may be formed when two s orbitals
overlap, when a s and p orbital overlap or when two p orbitals overlap. Pi bonds
are formed by sideways overlap of two parallel p orbitals that are
perpendicular to a sigma bond.

Question 3:
Describe the origin of the intermolecular forces.

3) Intermolecular forces can be defined as the forces of attraction between molecules.

Van der Waals forces are the weakest of all the intermolecular forces. These exist between
non-polar atoms of molecules. These interactions were first documented by J.D Van der
Waals. Vader Waals forced firstly referred to all intermolecular interactions however it is
now specifically referred to as induced dipole- induced dipole attractions.

Question 4:
Describe the coordinate dative covalent bonding.

4) Coordinate or dative covalent bonding is different to covalent bonding in a slight way. Usually in
covalent bonding each atom contributes an electron to the covalent bond so that it may be
shared. However in dative covalent bonding, instead of an atom contributing one electron to the
covalent bond, the atom can contribute two. A dative covalent bond is only formed when an atom
with at least one lone pair of electrons is present and an atom which can easily accept the pair of
lone electrons. Consider for instance the BF 3 molecule and the NH3 molecule. In BF3 Boron has a
total of six electrons in its valence shell meaning that it need to receive two more electrons to
complete its octet. In NH3, nitrogen has a lone pair of electrons which is not a part of the covalent
bond. It means therefore that the lone pair of electrons can be donated to the boron to complete
its valence shell.

Question 5:
State the basic principle of VSEPR.

5) The basic principle of VSEPR theory is that each group of valence electrons around a
central atom is located or is arranged in such a way as to minimize the occurrence of
repulsions. This theory predicts the shapes and the bond angles of simple covalent
molecules. The shapes and the angles of molecules are a result of the number of
bonding pairs and lone pair of electrons around the central atom of the molecule. The
bonding pairs interact between each other such that a bond repels another bond. This
repulsion is called bonding pair- bonding pair repulsion. The lone pairs, which are the
pairs not involved in any bonding, also repel each other. This is called lone pair-lone
pair repulsion. Repulsions can also occur between lone pairs and bond pairs, which is
called lone pair- bonding pair repulsion. The repulsion between electron pairs is related
to the distance between the pairs. Therefore lone pair-lone pair repulsion is stronger
 than lone pair-bond pair repulsion which is in turn stronger than bond pair-bond pair
repulsion.

Question 6:
Use the VSEPR theory to deduce the shapes and bond angles of the following:

(a) Trigonal- These have three bond pairs around a central atom. They have an
angle of 120 degrees.
(b) Linear molecules- These have two bond pairs that arranges themselves as
to minimize repulsion. The bond angle of the molecule is therefore 180
degrees since there are only two bond pairs and they look to distance
themselves from each other as to minimize repulsion. Their configuration is
one that is linear.
(c) Tetrahedral- These have four bond pairs around the central atom which
arranges themselves to form a tetrahedral shape. The bond angle is 109.5
degrees.
(d) Pyramidal- these have five bond pairs around a central atom. The pairs are
arranged to form a trigonal bipyramid shape. This shape is the result of three
atoms being formed with bond angles of 120 degrees and the other two being
90 degrees to the three 120 degree angles.
(e) Non-linear- These are the opposite of the linear molecules. While the linear
molecules have two bond pairs the non-linear molecules of two lone pairs. For
instance H2O has two lone pairs and also two bond pairs. In this case the pairs
of electrons would arrange themselves in such a ways as to avoid repulsion.
This would cause a tetrahedral shape to be formed. Lone- pair bond -pair
repulsion would cause the two bond pairs be repelled closer together thus
forming bond angles that is less than 109.5 degrees.
(f) Octahedral-These have six bond pairs around a central atom which are
arranged to form an octahedral shape and an angle of 90 degrees.

Question 7:
Describe the shapes and bond angles of:

(a) Ethane- sp3 hybridization occurs in ethane whereby the s orbital and the
three p orbitals and two of the p orbitals mix , then , three sp 2 hybrid orbitals
of equal energy level are formed. This type of mixing occurs in the orbitals
mix to form four hybrid orbitals of the same energy level.
(b)Ethane- If the s ethane molecule. Each carbon is sigma bonded tot the other
carbon atom and 2 hydrogen atoms. The 2s and the two of the 2p orbitals in
each of the carbon atom are mixed together to give 3 identical hybrids these
overlap end-on to give three sigma bonds. When the Ethen molecule is
constructed or drawn it can be clearly seen that the bond angles 120 degrees.
(c) Benzene- Just as ethane, the carbon atoms show sp2 hybridization in
benzene. Each carbon atoms form three sp2 hybrid orbitals and one unmixed
pure p orbital. These orbitals are called sp2 hybrids because they are made
from one s orbital and 2 p orbitals. These three sp 2 orbitals arrange
themselves in such a ways that they avoid repulsion and form 120 degree
angles between each other. The p orbital which is left in perpendicular to the
three sp2 orbitals.