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DNA -deoxyribose nucleic acids
-contains hundred or thousand of gene
M Phase 1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
1. Chromosomes condense and each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at
the centromere.
2. Spindle fibres begin to formed and centriole migrates to opposite poles.
3. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
Metaphase
1. Centromeres of all chromosomes lined up on the equator of the cell which is known as
metaphase plate.
Anaphase
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1. Also known as process of cytoplasmic division.
2. Plasma membrane is pulled inward forming cleavage furrow.
3. The cleavage furrow deepens until the cell separates into two cells.
Difference between animal cells and plant cells
1. Cancel cells divide freely and uncontrollably and finally lead to a tumour.
2. The cancer cells compete with the surrounding normal cells.
3. The cancer cells intrude on and spread to other tissues.
Factors of cancer
1. Cloning
2. Tissue culture
Cloning
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1. Somatic cells are removed and grown in a culture.
2. The nucleus of an unfertilized egg is sucked out.
3. An electric impulse stimulate the fusion between the somatic cells and the egg.
4. The embryo formed is implanted into a surrogate mother (ovum donor)
5. The cells divided mitotically forming an embryo.
6. Dolly~dolly is borned.
Advantages of cloning:
1.multiply the copies of useful genes in a shorter period.
2.cloned plants bear fruits faster.
2.transgenic crops are more resistant to herbicides, pests, and disease.
4.Genetically modified food does not rot easily.
5.doesnt need pollinating agent.
6.transgenic bacteria can be used to control environmental pollution.
Disadvantages of cloning:
1.long term side effects.
2.maybe cause mutation which produced mutants that harm the environments.
3.does not show genetic variations. Drastic change to environmental may wipe out all species at
the same time.
4.may transfer the gene to weeds through virus.
5.cloned animals have shorter lifespan
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1. Explants are cut out from plant tissues.
2. Enzymes are used to digest the cell walls forming protoplast.
3. Protoplast are sterilized and placed in a glass container contain nutrient call culture
medium.(contains glucose, amino acid,minerals)
4. Protoplast start to divide mitotically produce aggregates of cells.
5. Aggregates of cells develop into callus and callus develop into embryo.
6. The embryo develop into plantlet and then transfer to soil for growth.
Advantages:
1.produces young plants with desirable traits.
2.produce genetically identical plants.
3.produce large number of plants for commercial purpose.
Meiosis
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Meiosis I
1. Prophase I
- Chromosomes condensed.
- Homologous chromosomes form bivalent through synapsis.
- Non-sister chromatids exchange segment of DNA at chiasmata.This process is known as
cross over.
- Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
- Centrioles moves to opposite of the cell.
Metaphase I
- Spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart and they moves to opposite poles.
- At the end, each pole has only two chromosomes(each with two sister chromatids).
- The centromere ________ breaks.
Telophase I
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Meiosis II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
1. Centromeres of each chromosomes lined up on the equator of the cell which is known as
metaphase plate.
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Cytokinesis
Caobohydrates, proteins and lipids are broken down into their monomers through
hydrolysis by digestive enzyme so that they can be absorbed easily into our
blood stream.
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