PROBLEM 5.

1
KNOWN: Electrical heater attached to backside of plate while front surface is exposed to
convection process (T,h); initially plate is at a uniform temperature of the ambient air and
suddenly heater power is switched on providing a constant qo .
FIND: (a) Sketch temperature distribution, T(x,t), (b) Sketch the heat flux at the outer
surface, qx  L,t  as a function of time.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible

heat loss from heater through insulation.
ANALYSIS: (a) The temperature distributions for four time conditions including the initial
distribution, T(x,0), and the steady-state distribution, T(x,), are as shown above.
Note that the temperature gradient at x = 0, -dT/dx)x=0, for t > 0 will be a constant since the
flux, qx  0  , is a constant. Noting that To = T(0,), the steady-state temperature distribution
will be linear such that
T  T  L, 
qo  k o  h &(T  L,   T ,. .
L
(b) The heat flux at the front surface, x = L, is given by qx  L,t   k  dT/dx  x=L . From the
temperature distribution, we can construct the heat flux-time plot.

COMMENTS: At early times, the temperature and heat flux at x = L will not change from
their initial values. Hence, we show a zero slope for qx  L,t  at early times. Eventually, the
value of qx  L,t  will reach the steady-state value which is qo .
 PROBLEM 5.5
KNOWN: Geometries of various objects. Material and/or properties. Cases (a) through (d):
Convection heat transfer coefficient between object and surrounding fluid. Case (e): Emissivity of
sphere, initial temperature, and temperature of surroundings. Cases (f) and (g): Initial temperature,
spatially averaged temperature at a later time, and surrounding fluid temperature.
FIND: Characteristic length and Biot number. Validity of lumped capacitance approximation.

SCHEMATIC:
T, h
T, h k
T, h
Aluminum
alloy
D W w
L L
Air

Ac w W
Case (a) Case (b) Case (c)

Ti, , k, cp

T, h Tsur T, h

M

D D

D
L L
Ti, , k

Case (d) Case (e) Cases (f,g)

Case (a): D = 50 mm, Ac = 5 mm2, k = 2.3 W/m!K, h = 50 W/m2!K.

Case (b): W = 5 mm, w = 3 mm, L = 100 mm, h = 15 W/m2!K, AISI 304 stainless steel.
Case (c): w = 20 mm, W = 24 mm, h = 37 W/m2!K (L not specified), 2024 aluminum.
Case (d): L = 300 mm, D = 13 mm, M = 0.328 kg, h = 30 W/m2!K. stainless steel.
Case (e): D = 12 mm, k = 120 W/m!K, Tsur = 20C, Ti = 100C,  = 0.73.
Cases (f,g): D = 20 mm or 200 mm,  = 2300 kg/m3, cp = 1750 J/kg!K, k = 16 W/m!K, T = 20C, Ti =
200C, T = 100C at t = 225 s.

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) In case (e), radiation is to large surroundings.
PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless steel, AISI 304 (T = 300 K): k = 14.9 W/m!K. Aluminum 2024
(T = 300 K): k = 177 W/m!K.
ANALYSIS: Characteristic lengths can be calculated as Lc1 = V/As, or they can be taken
conservatively as the dimension corresponding to the maximum spatial temperature difference, Lc2.
The former definition is more convenient for complex geometries. The lumped capacitance
approximation is valid for Bi = hLc/k < 0.1.

(a) The radius of the torus, ro, can be found from Ac   ro2 . The characteristic lengths are

V Ac D 1 Ac 1 5 mm 2
Lc1   
As 2 Ac /    D 2 

2 
 0.63 mm <
Continued
 PROBLEM 5.5 (Cont.)

Lc 2  Maximum center to surface distance  radius  Ac /   5 mm 2 /   1.26 mm <

The corresponding Biot numbers are

hLc1 50 W/m 2 ! K  0.00063 m

Bi1 
k

2.3 W/m ! K
 0.014 <
hLc 2 50 W/m 2 ! K  0.00126 m
Bi2 
k

2.3 W/m ! K
 0.027 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid according to either definition. <

(b) For this complex shape, we will calculate only Lc1.

V WwL 5 mm  3 mm  100 mm
Lc1   
As 2(W  w) L  2Ww 2(5 mm  3 mm)  100 mm  25 mm  3 mm
 0.90 mm <

Notice that the surface area of the ends has been included, and does have a small effect on the result
0.90 mm versus 0.94 mm if the ends are neglected. The corresponding Biot number is

hLc1 15 W/m 2 ! K  0.00090 m

Bi1 
k

14.9 W/m ! K
 0.0009 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid. <

Furthermore, since the Biot number is very small, the lumped capacitance approximation would
certainly still be valid using a more conservative length estimate.

(c) Again, we will only calculate Lc1. There will be very little heat transfer to the stagnant air inside
the tube, therefore in determining the surface area for convection heat transfer, As, only the outer
surface area should be included. Thus,

V (W 2  w2 ) L (24 mm) 2  (20 mm) 2

Lc1 
As

4WL

4  24 mm
 1.83 mm <

The corresponding Biot number is

hLc1 37 W/m 2 ! K  0.00183 m

Bi1 
k

177 W/m ! K
 3.8  104 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid. <

Furthermore, since the Biot number is very small, the lumped capacitance approximation would
certainly still be valid using a more conservative length estimate.

Continued
 PROBLEM 5.5 (Cont.)

(d) We are not told which type of stainless steel this is, but we are told its mass, from which we can
find its density:

M M 0.328 kg
    8237 kg/m 3
V  D L / 4  (0.013 m) 2  0.3 m / 4
2

This appears to be AISI 316 stainless steel, with a thermal conductivity of k = 13.4 W/m!K at T = 300
K.

The characteristic lengths are

V  D2 L / 4 DL / 4 13 mm  300 mm / 4
Lc1    
As  DL  2 D 2 / 4 L  D / 2 300 mm  13 mm / 2
 3.18 mm <

Lc 2  Maximum center to surface distance  D / 2  6.5 mm <

Notice that the surface area of the ends has been included in Lc1, and does have a small effect on the
result. The corresponding Biot numbers are

hLc1 15 W/m 2 ! K  0.00318 m

Bi1 
k

13.4 W/m ! K
 0.0036 <
hLc 2 15 W/m 2 ! K  0.0065 m
Bi2 
k

13.4 W/m ! K
 0.0073 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid according to either definition. <

(e) The characteristic lengths are

V  D3 / 6 D
Lc1 
As

 D2
  2 mm
6
<

Lc 2  Maximum center to surface distance  D / 2  6 mm <

Since heat transfer from the sphere is by radiation, we will calculate the effective radiation heat
transfer coefficient (Equation 1.9):

hr   (Ts  Tsur )(Ts2  Tsur2 )

 0.73  5.67  108 W/m 2 ! K 4 [373 K  293 K][(373 K) 2  (293 K) 2 ]  6.20 W/m 2 ! K

Continued
 PROBLEM 5.5 (Cont.)

The surface temperature has been taken as the initial value, to give the largest possible heat transfer
coefficient. The Biot numbers are

hr Lc1 6.2 W/m 2 ! K  0.002 m

Bi1 
k

120 W/m ! K
 1.0  104 <
hr Lc 2 6.2 W/m 2 ! K  0.006 m
Bi2 
k

120 W/m ! K
 3.1  104 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid according to either definition. <

(f) The characteristic lengths are

V  D2 L / 4 D
Lc1 
As

 DL
  5 mm
4
<

Lc 2  Maximum center to surface distance  D / 2  10 mm <

We are not told the convection heat transfer coefficient, but we do know the fluid temperature and the
temperature of the rod initially and at t = 225 s. If we assume that the lumped capacitance
approximation is valid, we can determine the heat transfer coefficient from Equation 5.5:

Vc # i)  Dc # Ti  T )
h ln *  4t ln $ T  T *
As t $% 
+ %  +

2300 kg/m 3  0.020 m  1750 J/kg ! K # 200C  20C )

 ln $ *  72.5 W/m ! K
2

4  225 s % 100C  20C +

The resulting Biot numbers are:

hLc1 72.5 W/m 2 ! K  0.005 m

Bi1 
k

16 W/m ! K
 0.023 <
hLc 2 72.5 W/m 2 ! K  0.01 m
Bi2 
k

16 W/m ! K
 0.045 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is valid according to either definition. <

This also means that it was appropriate to use the lumped capacitance approximation to calculate h.

Continued
 PROBLEM 5.5 (Cont.)

(g) With the diameter increased by a factor of ten, so are the characteristic lengths:

V  D2 L / 4 D
Lc1 
As

 DL
  50 mm
4
<

Lc 2  Maximum center to surface distance  D / 2  100 mm <

Once again, we assume that the lumped capacitance approximation is valid to calculate the heat
transfer coefficient according to

Vc # i)  Dc # Ti  T )
h ln *  4t ln $ T  T *
As t $% 
+ %  +

2300 kg/m 3  0.20 m  1750 J/kg ! K # 200C  20C )

 ln $ *  725 W/m ! K
2

4  225 s % 100 C  20 C +

The resulting Biot numbers are:

hLc1 725 W/m 2 ! K  0.05 m

Bi1 
k

16 W/m ! K
 2.3 <
hLc 2 725 W/m 2 ! K  0.1 m
Bi2 
k

16 W/m ! K
 4.5 <

The lumped capacitance approximation is not valid according to either definition. <
This means that the calculated value of h is incorrect, therefore the above values of the Biot number
are incorrect. However, we can still conclude that the Bi number is too large for lumped capacitance
to be valid by the following reasoning. If the lumped capacitance approximation were valid, then the
calculated h would be correct, and its value would be small enough to result in Bi < 0.1. Since the
calculated Biot number does not satisfy the criterion to use the lumped capacitance approximation, the
initial assumption that the lumped capacitance method is valid must have been false.

COMMENTS: (1) The determination of whether or not the lumped capacitance approximation can
be used is, to some degree, dependent on how much precision is required in a given application. If the
Biot number is close to 0.1 and good precision is required, the spatial variation of the temperature
should be accounted for. If the geometry is simple, the analytical solutions presented in the text may
be appropriate. For complex geometries, a numerical solution is often required, using the finite
difference or finite element method. (2) In Case (d), the type of stainless steel is inferred from
knowledge of its density. The variation of k among the four stainless steels listed in Table A.1 is on
the order of 10%. If the object temperature varies significantly with time, the thermal conductivity
may vary by more than 10% as a result. In that case, evaluating k at an appropriate average
temperature is at least as important as distinguishing the type of stainless steel.
 PROBLEM 5.9
KNOWN: Solid steel sphere (AISI 1010), coated with dielectric layer of prescribed thickness and
thermal conductivity. Coated sphere, initially at uniform temperature, is suddenly quenched in an oil
bath.
FIND: Time required for sphere to reach 140C.
SCHEMATIC:


PROPERTIES: Table A-1, AISI 1010 Steel T 
500  140 C/2  320C  600K :


  7832 kg/m3 , c  559 J/kg  K, k  48.8 W/m  K.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steel sphere is space-wise isothermal, (2) Dielectric layer has negligible
thermal capacitance compared to steel sphere, (3) Layer is thin compared to radius of sphere, (4)
Constant properties, (5) Neglect contact resistance between steel and coating.
ANALYSIS: The thermal resistance to heat transfer from the sphere is due to the dielectric layer and
the convection coefficient. That is,
 1 0.002m 1 m2  K
R        0.050  0.0003  0.0503 ,
k h 0.04 W/m  K 3300 W/m 2  K W
or in terms of an overall coefficient, U  1/R   19.88 W/m 2  K. The effective Biot number is
ULc U  ro / 3 19.88 W/m  K   0.300 / 6  m
2
Bie     0.0204
k k 48.8 W/m  K
where the characteristic length is Lc = ro/3 for the sphere. Since Bie < 0.1, the lumped capacitance
approach is applicable. Hence, Eq. 5.5 is appropriate with h replaced by U,
 c " V (  i  c " V ( T  0   T
t # ) ln  # ) ln .
U $ As *  o U $ As * T  t   T
Substituting numerical values with (V/As) = ro/3 = D/6,

7832 kg/m3  559 J/kg  K " 0.300m (  500  100  C


t # 6 ) ln
19.88 W/m 2  K $ * 140  100  C

t  25,358s  7.04h. <

COMMENTS: (1) Note from calculation of R  that the resistance of the dielectric layer dominates
and therefore nearly all the temperature drop occurs across the layer.
 PROBLEM 5.14

KNOWN: Thickness and initial temperature of copper sheet. Dependence of the convection heat
transfer coefficient on sheet temperature.
FIND: Time required to reach sheet temperature of T = 102C.
SCHEMATIC:

Copper sheet
Ti = 118C
qconv

Water

TSAT = 100C

2L= 2 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties. (2) Lumped capacitance behavior.

PROPERTIES: Table A.1, copper (T = 383 K): 
= 8933 kg/m3, c = 394 J/kgK, and k = 394 W/mK.

ANALYSIS: Since h = 1010 W/m K (T Tsat) the values of C and n in Equation 5.26 are 1010
2 3 2

W/m2 3 and 2, respectively. Equation 5.27 becomes

dT CA (T  Tsat )3 C (T  Tsat )3
  s ,c 
dt Vc L c
or

T t C
 Ti
(T  Tsat ) 3dT   
0 L c
dt

so that

L c  T  Tsat  Ti  Tsat  

2 2

  t
C  2 2 

Substituting values,

1  103 m  8933 kg/m 3  394 J/kg  K  T  100C  118C  100C   (1)

2 2

t   
1010 W/m 2  K 3  2 2 

For T = 102C, t = 0.43 s <

Continued...
 PROBLEM 5.14 (Cont.)

The heat transfer coefficient at T = 110C is h = 1010 W/m2K3(10 K)2 = 101,000 W/m2 


for the case where the heat transfer coefficient is constant Equation 5.6 becomes

 Lc  Ti  Tsat  8933 kg/m 3  1  103 m  394 J/kg  K 118C  100C 

t ln   ln  (2)
h  T  Tsat  101,000 W/m 2  K  T  100C 

Equations (1) and (2) may be solved for time-dependence of the plate temperature to yield

120

116

Constant h
Plate temperature (C)

112

108
Variable h

104

100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

time (s)

The convection heat transfer coefficient is initially relatively high and decays as the temperature
difference between the plate and the water decreases. If the convection heat transfer coefficient is
evaluated at the average plate temperature, the heat transfer coefficient is initially under-predicted,
leading to a slower plate cooling rate at early times. However, the convection coefficient is over-
predicted at later times, leading to an unrealistic high cooling rate as evident in the graph.

COMMENTS: (1) The time could also be calculated by solving Equation 5.28.

(2) The Biot number based upon the average heat transfer coefficient is
hL 101, 000W/m 2  K  1  10 3 m 0.25. The lumped capacitance approximation is not valid at
Bi   
k 394 W/m  K
early times. However, the trends evident in the comparison of the variable versus constant heat transfer
coefficients would also occur if spatial temperature gradients were accounted for.
 PROBLEM 5.16
KNOWN: Configuration, initial temperature and charging conditions of a thermal energy storage
unit.
FIND: Time required to achieve 75% of maximum possible energy storage. Temperature of storage
medium at this time.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible radiation
exchange with surroundings.

 
PROPERTIES: Table A-1, Aluminum, pure T  600K  327C : k = 231 W/mK, c = 1033
3
J/kgK,  = 2702 kg/m .
ANALYSIS: Recognizing the characteristic length is the half thickness, find
hL 100 W/m 2  K  0.025m
Bi    0.011.
k 231 W/m  K
Hence, the lumped capacitance method may be used. From Eq. 5.8,
Q    Vc  i "$1  exp   t/ t  (*   Est (1)

 Est,max    Vc  i . (2)
Dividing Eq. (1) by (2),
Est / Est,max  1  exp   t/ th   0.75.
 Vc  Lc 2702 kg/m3  0.025m 1033 J/kg  K
Solving for  th     698s.
hAs h 100 W/m 2  K
Hence, the required time is
exp   t/698s   0.25 or t  968s. <
From Eq. 5.6,
T  T
 exp   t/ th 
Ti  T

 
T  T   Ti  T  exp   t/ th   600 C  575C exp  968/698 

T  456C. <
COMMENTS: For the prescribed temperatures, the property temperature dependence is significant
and some error is incurred by assuming constant properties. However, selecting properties at 600K
was reasonable for this estimate.
 PROBLEM 5.22
KNOWN: Thickness and properties of furnace wall. Thermal resistance of film on surface
of wall exposed to furnace gases. Initial wall temperature.
FIND: (a) Time required for surface of wall to reach a prescribed temperature, (b)
Corresponding value of film surface temperature.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) Negligible film thermal capacitance, (3)
Negligible radiation.
3
PROPERTIES: Carbon steel (given):  = 7850 kg/m , c = 430 J/kgK, k = 60 W/mK.
ANALYSIS: The overall coefficient for heat transfer from the surface of the steel to the gas
is
1 1
1 1   1 
U   R

tot     R

f    102 m 2  K/W   20 W/m2  K.

h  2
 25 W/m  K 
Hence,
UL 20 W/m 2  K 0.01 m
Bi    0.0033
k 60 W/m  K
and the lumped capacitance method can be used.
(a) It follows that
T  T
 exp   t/ t   exp   t/RC   exp   Ut/ Lc 
Ti  T

 Lc T  T 7850 kg/m3  0.01 m  430 J/kg  K 1200  1300

t ln  ln
U Ti  T 20 W/m 2  K 300  1300

t  3886s  1.08h. <

(b) Performing an energy balance at the outer surface (s,o),
  
h T  Ts,o  Ts,o  Ts,i / R

f 
hT  Ts,i / R

f 25 W/m 2  K 1300 K  1200 K/10-2 m 2  K/W

Ts,o  
h  1/ R

f   25  100  W/m 2  K
Ts,o  1220 K. <
COMMENTS: The film increases t by increasing Rt but not Ct.
 PROBLEM 5.27
KNOWN: Dimensions and operating conditions of an integrated circuit.
FIND: Steady-state temperature and time to come within 1C of steady-state.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) Negligible heat transfer from chip to
substrate.
3
PROPERTIES: Chip material (given):  = 2000 kg/m , c = 700 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: At steady-state, conservation of energy yields
E
out  E
g  0
   
h L2  Tf  T
  q
L2  t  0


qt
Tf  T

h

9 106 W/m3  0.001 m

Tf  20 C   80 C. <
150 W/m 2  K
From the general lumped capacitance analysis, Equation 5.15 reduces to

 
 L2  t c
dT
dt
 
 q
L2  t  h  T  T
 L2 .
With
h 150 W/m 2  K
a   0.107 s-1
 tc
 
2000 kg/m  0.001 m  700 J/kg  K 
3

q
9 106 W/m3
b   6.429 K/s.
c
 
2000 kg/m3  700 J/kg  K 
From Equation 5.24,
T  T
 b/a  79  20  60  K
exp  at     0.01667
Ti  T
 b/a  20  20  60  K

ln  0.01667 
t  38.3 s. <
0.107 s-1
COMMENTS: Due to additional heat transfer from the chip to the substrate, the actual
values of Tf and t are less than those which have been computed.
 PROBLEM 5.29
KNOWN: Diameter, resistance and current flow for a wire. Convection coefficient and temperature
of surrounding oil.
FIND: Steady-state temperature of the wire. Time for the wire temperature to come within 1C of its
steady-state value.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) Wire temperature is independent of x.

3
PROPERTIES: Wire (given):  = 8000 kg/m , cp = 500 J/kgK, k = 20 W/mK, R e  0.01 /m.

ANALYSIS: Since

Bi 
h  ro / 2 


500 W/m 2  K 2.5 10-4m   0.006  0.1
k 20 W/m  K
the lumped capacitance method can be used. The problem has been analyzed in Example 1.4, and
without radiation the steady-state temperature is given by
 Dh  T  T   I2R e .
Hence

T  T 
I2 R e
 25 C 
100A 2 0.01 / m  88.7 C. <
 Dh  
 0.001 m 500 W/m 2  K
With no radiation, the transient thermal response of the wire is governed by the expression (Example
1.4)
dT I2 R e 4h
   T  T  .

dt  c  D2 / 4  c p D
p 
With T = Ti = 25C at t = 0, the solution is


T  T  I 2 R e /  Dh   exp   4h t !".

Ti  T   I2 R e /  Dh  
  cp D #
"

Substituting numerical values, find

87.7  25  63.7  4  500 W/m 2  K !
 exp   t"
25  25  63.7  8000 kg/m3  500 J/kg  K  0.001 m "
 #
t  8.31s. <
COMMENTS: The time to reach steady state increases with increasing , cp and D and with
decreasing h.