State Space Design

Introduction

The classical, or frequency domain design technique used before converts a systems
differential equation to a transfer function. This replaces the differential equation with an algebraic
equation and simplifies the representing of the system. However, the classical approach is limited to
only systems that are linear and time-invariant or systems that can be approximated as such. While
this method provides rapid stability and transient response information, it is inadequate for more
sophisticated control system design. This is where the state-space design comes in, it is capable of
representing non-linear systems, systems with non-zero initial conditions, and systems that are time-
varying. Also, the state-space approach allows for a compact representation of multiple-input,
multiple-output systems; using the same form as single-input, single output systems. On the other
hand, the state-space approach is not as intuitive as the classical approach and the designer often
has to engage in several calculations before the physical interpretation of the model is possible.

General State-Space Representation

When formulating the general state space representation, the following definitions are
important:

Linear combination A linear combination of variables, , for = 1 to , is given by the

following sum:
= + 1 1 + + 1 1
Where is a constant.

Linear independence A set of variables is said to be linear independent if none of the

variables can be written as a linear combination of others.

System variable Any variable that responds to an input or initial conditions in a system.

State variables The smallest set of linearly independent system variables such that the
values of the members of the set at time 0 along with known forcing functions completely
determine the value of all system variables for all 0 .

State vector A vector whose elements are the state variables.

State space the n-dimensional space whose axes are the state variables.

State equations A set of simultaneous, first-order differential equations with variables,

where the variables to be solved are the state variables.

Output equations the algebraic equations that expresses the output variables as a system
of linear combinations of the state variables and the inputs.

Given these definitions, the state space representation of a system is represented by the following
equations:
 .
= + ()
= + ()

For 0 and initial conditions, (0 ), where

= state vector
.
=derivative of the state vector with respect to time

= output vector

= input or control vector

= system matrix

= input matrix

= output matrix

= feedforward matrix

An example for a linear, time-invariant, second order system with a single input () , the state
equations could take the form:
1
= 11 1 + 12 2 + 1 ()

2
= 21 1 + 22 2 + 2 ()

Where 1 and 2 are the state variables. If there is a single output, the output equation could be of
the form:

= 1 1 + 2 2 + 1 ()

Choosing State Variables

When representing the system in state-space form, the minimum number of state variables
must be chosen to sufficiently describe completely the state of the system. These state variables
have to be linearly independent. To satisfy the linear independence criteria, we can use the fact that
variables and their successive derivatives are linearly independent. For example, the voltage across

an inductor , is linearly independent of the current through the inductor, , since = .

With regards to the selection of the minimum number of state variables, typically the order of the
differential equation describing the system give the minimum number of state variable. Another
way of selecting the number of state variables is to count the number of energy storage elements in
the system. The number of these energy storage elements equals the order of the differential
equation and the number of state variables.

Hence to write the state equations, we write the simple derivative equation for each energy
storage device and solve for each derivative term as a linear combination of any of the system
variables and the input that are present in the equation. Next we select each differentiated variable
as a state variable. Then we express all the other system variables in the equations in terms of state
variables and input. Finally, we write the output equation as linear combinations of the state
variables and input.

Example 1

Find the state space representation of the circuit shown below if the output is taken as the current
through the resistor.

Solution

First we write the equations that govern the energy storage devices:

= (1)


= (2)

The variables being differentiated are taken as our state variables, hence
1 ()
=[ ]=[ ]
2 ()
and the input is ().

As such we need to re-write equations (1) and (2) so that they are expressed only in-terms of the
input variable or the state variables. Working on equation (1), from Kirchhoffs voltage law (KLV) we
get that:

() + () = ()
where () = (). Hence

() = () + () (3)

Substituting (3) into (1), and re-ordering the equation, gives state equation 1:
() ()
= + (1)

Working on equation (2), from Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) we get that:

= +
Hence:

=

where = = . Therefore:


= (4)

Substituting (4) into (2), and re-ordering, gives:

= (2)

Since the output is taken to be the current through the resistor, the output equation is:

= = (1)

Hence the equations of our state space form are:

= + (1)


= (2)


= = (1)

Rewriting (SE1), (SE2), and (OE1) in terms of state variables 1 , 2 and input = ()
. 1 1
1 = 2 + (1)

. 1 1
2 = 1 (2)
2
1
=
2
.
In matrix form = + and = + :
1 1
0
[ ] = [ ] [ ] + [] () ()
1 1
0

1
= [0 ][ ] ()

OR
1
. 0 1
1
[ . ]=[ ] [1 ] + [ ] ()
2 1 1 2
0

1 1
= [0 ][ ] ()
2
Example 2

Consider the mechanical system shown below. Assuming that the system is linear, the external
force () is the input to the system and the displacement () of the mass is the output. Find the
state space representation of the system.

Solution

In order to represent the system in state space form, we have to formulate the equations of the
system. The forces acting on the mass are shown in the figure below:

Hence:

=
() () () = ()

() () () = (1)

Where () is the velocity of the mass and () is the acceleration of the mass. Also, we know that

= (2)

Therefore, we can identify the two state variables as 1 = () and 2 = (). Hence from (2) we
have

= () (1)

And from (1)
1
= () () + () (2)

Writing in terms of identified state variables and input:
.
1 = 2 (1)

. 1
2 = 1 2 + (2)

Writing this in matrix form:

0 1 0
()
[ ]=[ ][ ] + [ 1 ] () ()
()

The output = () hence:

()
= [1 0] [ ] ()
()

OR
. 0 1 0
1 ] [ 1] + [ 1 ]
[. ]=[ 2 ()
2

1
= [1 0] [ ] ()
2

Example 3

Find the state space representation of the electrical network shown below. The output is ().
Solution

Writing the relationships for the energy storage devices:

1
1 = 1 (1)


= (2)

2
2 = 2 (3)

Hence our state variables are:
1 1

[ 2 ] = [ ]
3 2
Using KCL and KVL

1 = + = + (4)

= 2 = 1 2 (5)
1
2 = = = ( 1 2 ) (6)

Substituting:
1 1
1 = + ( 1 2 )

1 1 2
= + + (1)
1 1 1 1

= 1

 1
= + (2)

2 1
2 = ( 1 2 )

2 1 2
= + (3)
2 2 2
The output is given by:

= = 2 (1)

Rewriting in terms of state variables and input:

. 1 1 1 1
1 = 1 + 2 3 + (1)
1 1 1 1
. 1 1
2 = 1 + (2)

. 1 1 1
3 = 1 3 + (3)
2 2 2
= 3 (1)

Writing in matrix form:

1 1 1 1

. 1 1 1 1
1 1
. 1 1
[2 ] = 0 0 [2 ] + ()
. 3
3 1 1 1
0
[ 2 2 ] [2 ]
1
= [0 0 1] [2 ] ()
3

Example 4

Find the state equations of the translational mechanical system shown below:
Solution

The force () acts on 2 towards the right. This causes 2 to displace by 2 , which stretches the
spring and causes 1 to displace by 1 . This means the force due to the extension of the spring
would be given by = (2 1 ). This force would act to the left on 2 (balancing ()) and to
the right on 1 because the force exerted by the damper = 1 () would be acting to the left.
This is all outlined in the figure below:

Hence:
1
1 = (2 1 ) 1 ()

1
= 2 1 () (1)
1 1 1 1

1
= 1 (2)

2
2 = () (2 1 )

2 1
= () + 1 (3)
2 2 2 2

2
= 2 (4)

From this we can identify our input = () and the state variables:
1 1
2 1
= [ ] = [ ]
3 2
4 2

This gives:
1
= 1 (1)

1
= 1 1 + (2)
1 1 1 2
2
= 2 (3)

 2 1
= 1 2 + () (4)
2 2 2
OR
.
1 = 2 (1)
.
2 = 1 2 + (2)
1 1 1 3
.
3 = 4 (3)
. 1
4 = 1 3 + (4)
2 2 2

In matrix form:
1
0 1 0 0
0
1 1
0 0
= 1 1 1 1
[ ] + 0 () ()
2 0 0 0 1 2 1
2
0 0 [2 ]
2 [ 2 2 ]
[ ]
OR

.
0 1 0 0
1 0
1
. 0 0
2 1 1 1 2
. = [ ] + 0 ()
3 0 0 0 1 3 1
. 4
[4 ] 0 0 [2 ]
[ 2 2 ]