Application of Technology for Final Wall

Damage Control at Cerro Vanguardia,

Argentina
W R Adamson1, V Muoz2 and G Sarapura3

ABSTRACT
Cerro Vanguardia SA (CVSA), property of AngloGold Ashanti, mines gold and silver from
a system of vetiforme orebodies located in the south of the Argentine Patagonia, in the Province
of Santa Cruz.
Surface mining techniques are applied to develop a series of narrow pits with an average waste
to ore ratio of 26:1. This quite unique constraint brings into focus the need to maximise inter-ramp
and final wall angles, leading to a strong need to optimise wall control drilling and blasting in
order to reduce back-break damage to an absolute minimum.
The paper describes a program of applied investigation and design modification implemented
during 2008 and 2009 in two separate pits of Cerro Vanguardia. Three distinct yet complementary
damage mechanisms were identified and observed during the field components of the work;
vibration induced strain fracturing, surface cratering around blasthole collars and quasi-static
loading and unloading of the surrounding rock mass as a consequence of poorly controlled
confinement.
With these mechanisms identified, a measurement, modelling and modification campaign was
conducted in order to reduce the incidence of each source of damage. Interactive design analysis
and modelling, near-field vibration measurement, video capture and the application of electronic
initiation technology were supported by seed wave modelling and topographic evaluation of the
achieved results.
Results point to the usefulness of simulation techniques for determining optimum delay timing
to reduce vibration impact, while the visualisation of explosive energy distribution produced
by drilling and explosive loading decisions assists in reducing the probability of over-confinement.
This paper presents relevant aspects of the two fieldwork campaigns:
1. describing the application of the techniques, and
2. summarising the results obtained.

INTRODUCTION
Austin Powder Argentina provides a full blasting shot service
to Cerro Vanguardia SA (CVSA) at the companys mining
operations in the Province of Santa Cruz, in the Argentine
Patagonia. CVSA mines ore simultaneously from several
pits in order to produce gold and silver from a series of vein
orebodies. The gold and silver bearing veins have narrow
widths (between approximately 0.8 and 10 m at the widest)
resulting in the need to develop pits with waste to ore ratios
in excess of 25:1.
Given this physical context, there is a fundamental and
constant need to maximise inter-ramp angles. This is
extremely important if profitability targets are to be met on
a regular basis.
Achieving stable slopes at an acceptable angle; sufficient
to provide profitable and efficient extraction of the mineral,
implies the need to exercise an adequate degree of control
over the incidence of blast induced rock mass damage.
In recent years we have conducted field studies with
the objective of achieving the required degree of control over
blast induced damage. Two campaigns covering 2008 and
2009 focussed on wall control blasting in two pits; Osvaldo
Diez Cutback 7 (CB7) and Dany Cutback 1 (CB). This paper
summarises the principal aspects of the methodology applied
and the results achieved, describing how the reduction in
damage was quantified.
The Osvaldo Diez CB7 work, carried out during March
2008, focused on studying the principal factors controlling
the extension of back-break and the consequent loss of safety
berms within the pit; a constant concern to mine management
as this damage will compromise haul road stability. Working
with the knowledge gained from this process, design

1. Senior Technical Manager, Austin Powder International. Email: bill.adamson@austin.cl

2. Technical Service Engineer, Austin Powder Argentina.
3. Drill and Blast Supervisor, Cerro Vanguardia SA.

EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011 1

W R ADAMSON, V MUOZ AND G SARAPURA
FIG1 - Panoramic view of Dany Pit CB1, Cerro Vanguardia Mine.
modifications were introduced to reduce the damage. The
2008 study examined drilling and explosive loading practices,
while the later; Dany CB1 study also investigated the
application of electronic initiation systems and blast vibration
modelling techniques to reduce dynamic strain effects. This
latter study is the main focus of the paper.
Figure 1 shows the Dany Pit, giving an impression
of the final wall angles and the narrow nature of the pit.
The following sections identify design and implementation
issues that, when optimised, contribute to the improvement
of final wall conditions. A number of these issues arose from
the initial 2008 work in Osvaldo Diez CB7 and the solutions
produced at that time were subsequently applied in Dany CB1.
However an additional dimension was introduced for this
2009 study with a combination of electronic initiation and
the use of seed wave modelling tools to simulate the effects
of variation of blast timing on blast vibration characteristics.
It was demonstrated that this methodology is a potent
technique for controlling the impact of vibration, one of three
principal damage mechanisms discussed in this paper.
During the 2009 Dany CB1 phase of the work, two adjacent,
consecutive blast events were studied; a control blast applying
the standard blast design (drilling pattern, explosive selection
and pyrotechnic initiation sequence) and subsequently
a second case applying a modified design and electronic
initiation sequence to reduce damage impact in the final wall.
Conventional drilling and blasting design
and practices
Blasting against pit walls is always conducted using narrow
trim blasts with 10 m benches and blastholes of diameter
92 mm (3), and always includes an inclined row of presplit
holes. Trim blasts traditionally contain two rows of inclined
blastholes, charged with ANFO with integral air decks and
one or two rows of inclined charge holes charged with ANFO
or a 0.9 g/cc heavy ANFO. These factors represent the primary
measures to control damage to the pit wall.
The pit profile includes stacked benches of 20 m vertical
height, using 20 m inclined (15) presplit holes drilled from
the upper bench and fired several days ahead of the adjacent
trim blast. The presplit row is charged with 19 mm diameter
water gel, at 1.5 m spacing; however every second hole is
charged with 40 g detonating cord.
2 EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
The intention of this reduced charge is to limit the potential
for damaging the final wall as a direct consequence of the
presplit blast.
Presplit holes are fired in groups of approximately
ten holes, separated by a surface delay of, typically
17 ms. In these respects the design follows text book
best practices by:
the use of inclined small diameter presplit holes with
continuous decoupled charges, fired ahead of the
adjacent trim blast;
no more than four rows of blastholes, most
commonly three, all being inclined and fired towards
a free face that has been cleared of blasted and loose
rock material;
the use of low density explosives, coupled with
air decks, near the pit wall; and
the use of a stand off distance between the last row
of blastholes and the row of presplit holes (pit wall).
A typical design such as was originally used in wall control
blasting is presented in cross-sectional view in Figure 2.
As regards initiation sequence, the limits blasts are usually
initiated with a V configuration, using pyrotechnic delays.
Each row contains a different downhole delay commencing at
Air
Pre-split
row
Heet 920
ANFO
FIG 2 - Section showing typical charge configuration for final wall blasts
in Osvaldo Diez, CB7.
 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR FINAL WALL DAMAGE CONTROL AT CERRO VANGUARDIA, ARGENTINA
FIG 3 - Pit wall damage examples from Osvaldo Diez Pit.
400 ms, followed by increments to 450 ms, 500 ms, 600 ms
and 700 ms if required. The inter-hole delay within each row
is 50 ms for production rows and 25 ms between the more
closely spaced, lightly charged buffer holes.
Damage mechanisms
The principal concerns expressed by mine personnel at the
mine, relating to wall quality involved crest loss, complete
loss of berms and the propensity for the eastern walls to
suffer toppling failure or displacement of unloaded wedges or
blocks, depending on local structural orientation.
Figure 3 shows two different cases previously observed in
Osvaldo Diez CB7.
The following sections summarise the principal
mechanisms responsible for damage to pit walls at CVSA.
Excessive blast induced vibration
The primary source of vibration induced damage derives from
the charged blastholes in the previous bench, as illustrated
in Figure 4, where the contours drawn around each row of
blastholes indicate the approximate extent of blast induced
damage, and are dependent on the particular geotechnical
properties of the rock mass, the blasthole diameter and the
explosive properties such as density and weight strength.
-2.7 -1.2 0.3 2.7 5.2 7.7
10
8
6
4 drilling quality control (QC).
2
0
FIG 4 - Indicative damage contours showing greater potential for damage
to underlying bench crest than to the adjacent bench crest.
Even where subdrill is eliminated for holes drilled near
to the underlying bench crest, a high risk of vibration induced
fracturing to the berm still exists, for which the greatest impact
will be crest loss. With the wide berms used at CVSA (10 m)
EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
it may be sufficient to eliminate subdrill only for the rows
of holes drilled on either side of the designed underlying crest,
rather than to all holes drilled above the berm.
In the case of the bench containing the blasts discussed
in this paper, the surface below the trim blast area would
not represent the future berm; rather it will become the
drilling platform for the second of the two stacked benches.
Nonetheless the development of the practices discussed
in the paper can be implemented at this time.
The risk of blast induced vibration occurs from both upper
and lower benches of the 20 m double bench batters formed
in the pit.
The primary risk when blasting the upper bench is to the
presplit wall, in particular the adjacent crest where breakage
can occur most easily beyond the presplit line. The primary
risk when blasting the lower bench is to the underlying crest
area, where vibration damage from the toes of the blastholes
that coincide with this part of the lower bench surface.
Inasmuch as is possible, the blast design should avoid
locating rows of explosive charges directly above the line
of the future crest of the bench below; ideally holes out
to be positioned equidistant of either side of such a line.
If inevitable that charges be located above the future crest then
the design should consider reducing the subdrill, perhaps even
to a negative (stand off) extent. Of course, constant evaluation
of the state of the blasted floor (potential source of hard toe)
should be implemented and action taken if this becomes a
problem.
It was understood by all involved parties that as trim blast
designs are refined for the particular needs of Dany CB1,
the correct and faithful implementation of these designs
in the field is of critical importance, particularly as pertains to
Damage due to charge cratering
Cratering occurs whenever a charge is buried. Even when
un-stemmed, charges tend to produce some degree of crater
damage as the high pressure explosion gases escape to the
atmosphere. Cratering typically commences at a depth
of around one metre below the base of the stemming column,
for 92 mm diameter holes with a crater angle of around 110
(Figure 5).
This suggests that cratering is likely to occur to a distance of
around 3 m behind the presplit line, and for a depth of around
3 m below the crest line. Although it may not be possible
to eliminate this cause of damage, it can be reduced by the
following steps:
3
W R ADAMSON, V MUOZ AND G SARAPURA
-2.7 -1.2 0.3 2.7 5.2
10
Crater zone
8
6 more than 100 m. No adjustments to equipment and personnel
4 in order to implement this change to charging practices.
2
0
FIG 5 - Zone of crater damage expected behind back row blastholes.
eliminate or reduce the length of stemming in the two
rows of holes nearest to the pit wall as much as practical
(a maximum of 1.5 m is recommended, taking into
consideration the hole diameter, size of charge and the
size of the deck);
move the back row of holes as far as possible from the crest
area by drilling vertical holes and by increasing the offset
distance of the back row of blastholes from the presplit
line as much as practical (Figure 6); and
-2.7 1.0 3.0 5.4
10
Crater zone
8 depend on local geological structure, including structural
6 Damage occurring as a result of over-confinement
4
2
0 rows, increasing confinement of charges near to the pit wall.
FIG 6 - Reduced zone of crater damage to crest for vertical holes
and reduced stemming column length.
increasing the effectiveness of the presplit fracture by
better matching the charge weights to the rock strength
and hole spacing.
From Figure 5 it is apparent that cratering can cause severe
loss of crest and almost complete loss of berm, when using
inclined blastholes and long stemming decks.
Figure 6 indicates the extent to which it may be possible to
reduce the effect of cratering by reducing stemming lengths
and increasing stand-off distance between the back rock of
holes and the toe of the presplit line from 0.5 - 1 m. Increasing
stand-off distance may not be an option in the harder rock
domains, so this adjustment to blast design must be carefully
matched to local geology.
Increasing stand-off distance may also be more easily
achieved in the upper part of the stacked bench the need for
stand-off is increased in the lower half of the stacked benches,
4 EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
7.7 where it is more important to ensure that the design toe-line
is reached.
Although reduced stemming increases the risk of fly rock,
modelling (McKenzie, 2009) suggests that 92 mm diameter
holes, charged with around 25 to 30 kg of ANFO, 3.5 to 4.5 m
of air and 1.5 m of stemming will not project rock fragments
clearance distances were therefore anticipated as necessary
Damage due to excessive charge confinement
The detonation of an explosive charge produces extreme
gas pressure in each blasthole. Under conditions of high
confinement, these pressures are transferred to the
surrounding rock mass in all directions, including backwards
into the pit wall. Shorter interhole, and more importantly,
inter-row delay times extend this negative influence over
a great area of the blast. The effect of this pressure is to
produce deformation of the rock mass, through intense
compression, for the time that it takes for the pressure to be
released. The longer these gases are contained (ie the higher
the state of pressure confinement) the greater will be the rock
mass deformation, with two commonly observed outcomes:
bulk movement will occur along unfavourable joint sets
ie joint sets inclined upwards towards the bench surface
(Figure 7), and
upon release of the pressure (which occurs as a result
of muckpile displacement or stemming ejection, or both)
vertically oriented joints experience tensile failure and
8.2
cracking parallel to the back row of blastholes as the
rock mass suddenly relaxes after removal of the intense
compressive load (Figure 8).
The distance to which these effects can be observed will
interactions such as wedges.
of charges is controlled by promoting rapid release of pressure
through strong forward displacement of the burden in each
row, requiring an appropriate powder factor in all blasthole
rows. In particular, the front row burden material must move
quickly so as to not impede the movement in other, later firing
rows. Failure of the front row to move will condemn all other
An indication of the large front row burden for some of the
holes fired in the Osvaldo Diez CB7 blast on 13 March, 2008,
is shown in Figure 9.
The impact of the excessive front row burden, in terms
of reduced burden movement, is seen in the photograph in
Figure 10, taken during the detonation of the aforementioned
blast. It is clear from this image that horizontal displacement
of the bench face is minimal compared with vertical
displacement of the bench top in the zone behind the large
front row burden. As a result, the time over which the material
behind the blastholes was subjected to the effects of the
extreme compression was expected to increase substantially.
In order to ensure that the charges in the back rows of
blastholes are not excessively confined, it is recommended
that each row be designed to achieve approximately the same
forward velocity of movement. Since the charge in the back
rows is greatly reduced by virtue of both the reduced explosive
density and the integral air deck, the burden dimension in the
back rows must also reduce.
Developing solutions
The optimisation of drilling and blasting, including the
initiation sequence, should ideally follow an ordered sequence
 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR FINAL WALL DAMAGE CONTROL AT CERRO VANGUARDIA, ARGENTINA
FIG 7 - Bulk block displacement observed 15 m behind a blast with small diameter blastholes in a 10 m bench.
FIG 8 - Tensile failure occurring behind the blast, generally parallel to the back
row of blastholes, controlled by structural geology.
of steps that examine the geometry of the blast and explosive
distribution, as well as the implementation of the initiation
sequence variations, including the introduction of electronic
delays.
In a perfect experimental design environment only one
variable would be altered at one time, prior to evaluating
the next alternative. Unfortunately the operational mining
environment may impede perfect adherence to this model and
a solution may be sought in the shortest possible time period;
as was the case for the work described in the paper.
The work was therefore restricted to two trials involving
consecutive and adjacent blasts in the Dany CB1 pit,
designated as da 165 v102 and da 165 v103. The first blast was
EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
a control event using standard drilling, charging and initiation
sequence design parameters. The second blast event was
re-designed in order to reduce the impact of the previously
described damage mechanisms.
Control of cratering damage
Figure 10 shows a transversal section view of the standard
blast design applied for event da 165 v102. Two blast induced
consequences are represented on the section. The coloured
contours represent vibration intensity, calculated using
the static Holmberg and Persson algorithm (Persson,
Holmberg and Lee, 1994). These contours are shown for the
purpose of relative comparison only and a more appropriate
dynamic modelling approach is used and discussed later
in the paper. Figure 10 also shows a super-imposed estimation
of the extent of cratering damage, given the blasthole angle
and explosive loading characteristics for the last row.
The implications for the crest loss damage are clear.
The initial steps towards mitigation of damage therefore
involve introducing changes to the drilling geometry for
each row of blastholes, particularly the last buffer row,
as well as increasing the stand off distance from the presplit
so that the cratering damage zone is distanced from the new
bench crest.
Figure 11 depicts the anticipated results from the planned
design for the da 165 v103 blast and there is a noticeable
reduction in the volume of rock at the crest that is compromised
by the formation of the crater. The buffer row charge
is modified to guarantee the correct fragmentation of the rock
between the presplit plane and this final row. The distribution
of vibration intensity contours is modified only slightly, however
the majority of improvement in damage performance results
from the change in buffer hole drilling angle.
Control of confinement damage
The photographic image shown in Figure 12 comes from
a blast fired in the Osvaldo Diez CB7 pit, in 2008. The
considerable amount of damage registered behind the
presplit plane on this occasion was largely attributable
to the incidence of severe over-confinement of the volume
of rock to be blasted. There is a relatively common tendency
to apply drilling and charging designs in isolation from any
consideration of the geometry of the front row burden. If this
volume of rock is underestimated at the moment of designing
the drilling and charging plan, an inadequate distribution
of available energy at the toe may result.
A conceptually simple (although at times opera-
tionally complex) solution requires the obtaining
of accurate survey information that describes the
5
W R ADAMSON, V MUOZ AND G SARAPURA

FIG 9 - Large front row burden in 13/03/08 trim blast in Osvaldo Diez CB7 (left-hand image obtained using I-Site data for crest and toe lines).

FIG 10 - Example of standard drilling and charging design for Dany CB1 Pit, including representation of cratering damage zones.

FIG 11 - Example of modified drilling and charging design for Dany CB1 Pit, including representation of cratering damage zone..

6 EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011

 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR FINAL WALL DAMAGE CONTROL AT CERRO VANGUARDIA, ARGENTINA
FIG 12 - Preferential vertical mvoement occurring behind large front row burden, indicating high confinement of gas pressures.
actual topography of the front row burden that
must be fragmented and displaced. In the absence
of available survey resources, the use of modern laser
scanning or photographic systems (such as I-Site, McKenzie,
2008) offers a rich and detailed data base for application and
analysis.
The work described in this paper made use of I-Site data to
produce a three dimensional model of the blast volume within
the Austin Powder International drill and blast design and
analysis suite; QED Plus. Given the model of actual blast
geometry it then became a simple and rapid process to modify
the front row blasthole geometry and explosive loading
to ensure delivery of an adequate distribution of explosive
energy and facilitate the front row burden fragmentation and
displacement.
Figure 13 shows such an example, developed to overcome
this problem in Osvaldo Diez CB7 and subsequently applied
in Dany CB1.
Once the challenge of achieving an adequate distribution of
explosive energy had been met, it was necessary to ensure that
adequate time was assigned between rows in order to ensure
the satisfactory displacement of each row, prior to the firing of
the next. Normal mine practice of using 100 ms between rows
was considered to be satisfactory; however it was thought that
some further optimisation of this work would become possible
through the use of electronic initiation systems.
The challenge of optimising inter-row delay time, while
seeking a delay combination to optimise vibration impact
on the final wall is well suited to the application of electronic
timing and this is described in the following section.
FIG 13 - Use of vertical and inclined holes to ensure front row burden movement.
EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
Control of vibration induced damage modification
of initiation sequence, seed wave modelling and application
of electronic initiation
A growing number of researchers and practitioners
have reported successful results in the modelling of
vibration characteristics using the principle of elemental
wave superposition (Blair, 1999; Valdivia et al, 2003;
Spathis, 2006, 2009; Yang and Scovira, 2008, Yang, Scovira
and Patterson, 2009). A variation on this modelling approach
was applied by the authors of this paper to find low vibration
solutions for blast timing applications.
The practical application of this technique for the
abovementioned purpose requires the acquisition of
a representative elemental waveform, generated by a single
explosive charge, the characteristics of which (diameter,
charge weight, distance from point of measurement) are
quantified, having detonated in the same rock mass within
which it is intended to reduce the vibration intensity and
related damage.
This waveform, once acquired, is used to synthesise the
complete seismic record of the blast to be fired, taking into
account the drilling pattern, choice of delays, distance and
direction to the point of interest, as well as the P-wave velocity
for the rock mass in question.
In the case of the Dany CB1 optimisation study, a
representative seed wave was obtained by firing a single
charge at one end of the da 165 v102 blast, using a triaxial
array of geophones, fully grouted into a drill hole behind the
main body of the blast. Figure 14 shows this elemental wave
shape.
7
W R ADAMSON, V MUOZ AND G SARAPURA

Applying the seed wave model, as described by McKenzie
(2007) and using the original pyrotechnic sequence intended
for the da 165 v103 blast, and estimated predicted value
of 430 110 mms-1 was obtained, based on 500 simulations.
One of the 500 simulated waveforms is displayed in Figure 15.
The short lapse of time between firing da 165 v102 and
da 165 v103 did not permit the installation of a second
triaxial geophone array to measure the actual vibration
trace produced by da 165 v103; something that must be kept
in mind for future work.
The same model was used to estimate the optimum
combination of electronic delays to reduce the vibration
levels behind the blast. A search algorithm was used to
obtain a suggested combination of 9 ms between charges in
the same row and 41 ms between rows. Taking into account
the previous discussion between the existences of at least
three damage mechanisms operant in open pit blasting,
(of which vibration is only one) an alternative vibration
solution was sought that incorporated additional inter-row
time in order to enhance forward muckpile displacement
and reduce the probability of confinement related damage.
A combination of 9 ms / 80 ms was found to offer similar
benefits (in terms of vibration levels) to the 9 ms / 41 ms case.
Modelling da 165 v103 using exact (surveyed) hole locations
and planned charge loading, a 500 simulation exercise
produced a predicted vibration peak of 180 20 mms-1 at the
same distance behind the presplit plane.
This value represents a decrease of approximately 60 per cent
compared with the pyrotechnic sequence for the same blast.
The reduced degree of scatter associated with the second
simulation series (approximately one in nine, compared
with approximately one in four) reflects the precision of the
electronic initiation system.
Figure 16 shows one of the 500 simulated full waveforms
associated with the electronic sequence.
A variation of the same modelling technique provides
a quantitative evaluation of the probability of sustaining
vibration related damage to the final wall, represented by
the presplit plane.
The technique requires the drill and blast engineer
to estimate a critical value of vibration associated with
damage to the rock, based on what should be readily
available geotechnical data for the rock in question. A series
of coloured data points are generated, graded in proportion
to the estimate of critical vibration intensity. McKenzie (2007)
and McKenzie and Adamson (2011) describe this process
in more detail.
Figure 17 compares the results of over a thousand
simulations each for the pyrotechnic and electronic initiation

Cerro Vanguardia - Pit Dani: Seed Wave

1.0

0.5
Velocity

0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
-0.5

-1.0
Time (sec)

FIG 14 - Singe charge generated seed waveform, da 165 v102.

500
400
300
PPV (mm/s)

200
100
0
-100 400 600 800 1000 1200
-200
-300
-400
-500
Time (ms)
FIG 15 - Simulated full blast waveform for pyrotechnic firing of da 165 v103.

8 EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011

 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR FINAL WALL DAMAGE CONTROL AT CERRO VANGUARDIA, ARGENTINA
Delays: 0 / 9 / 80 ms
200
150
100
PPV (mm/s) 50
0
0 100
-50
-100
-150
-200
FIG 16 - Simulated full blast waveform for electronic firing of da 165 v103.
sequences for da 165 v103. The two images indicate damage
probability (pyrotechnic to the left and electronic to the right).
The coloured images are similar to the typical output contours
of the Holmberg and Persson model however the current
model takes into account the dynamic impact of timing
variations. In the case of the Dany CB1 pit hanging wall (where
the blasting was carried out), damaging levels of vibration
were estimated to commence at levels corresponding to the
orange (second closest) contour.
A relative comparison of damage levels can be obtained
by assuming that a particular level of vibration, if exceeded ten
per cent of the time, produces an unacceptable risk to mine
geomechanical staff. The depth behind the bench to which
this condition occurs is compared for the two alternative cases
shown in Figure 17. For the pyrotechnic event the damage
will extend to a depth of 6.1 m while the electronic sequence
of the same blast will damage the rock to a little over half that
distance; 3.2 m. It may also be observed that the definition of
the distinct levels (colours) of vibration is considerably more
tightly defined in the case of the electronic sequence, due to
the superior precision of the electronic system.
Following the evaluation of a number of alternative initiation
strategies, the electronic sequence discussed above was
implemented on 8 October 2009, using the E*Star system.
Quantitative measurement of success
The unambiguous measurement of rock mass condition,
in order to measure or detect the presence of damage, is a
FIG 17 - Near field vibration simulations for pyrotechnic (left) and electronic (right) initiation sequences for da 165 v103.
EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (ms)
constant challenge in the mining industry. Adamson (2007)
discussed a range of potential alternatives, highlighting
the advantages of direct observation, wherever possible.
A simple, yet powerful technique for surface operations is
to use topographic survey methods to locate final crest and toe
lines once the blasted rock has been excavated and the bench
and face fully cleaned. A visual comparison between
this real final bench geometry and the intended case
according to the mine plan will show clearly how successful
(or not) the blast has been.
The survey data (and mine plan geometry) for the
da 165 v102 and da 165 v103 blasts were input into the
drill and blast modelling package and superimposed on
the as-blasted final layouts. Figure 18 shows hole layout
and final wall crest and toe lines for the relevant section of the
165 bench in the Dany CB1 pit. The presplit plane represents
the mine design target for the final wall location.
The analysis software allows vertical sections to be cut
through any part of the blast in question (seven section lines
shown in Figure 18) and the planned and actual topography
can be superimposed on each section. The difference between
the two traces represents the over-break (or under-break
as the case may be).
This exercise was carried out for both da 165 v102 and
da 165 v103 and the results were evaluated as described.
Figure 19 shows the results for a representative profile for
the pyrotechnic blast. The grey prism observed behind the
9
W R ADAMSON, V MUOZ AND G SARAPURA
FIG 18 - Plan view of blast da 165 v102, showing analysis profile traces.
intended presplit plane represents damage and this order
of over-break was common along the final wall behind this
first blast.
On the other hand, Figure 20 shows a representative
section for the electronic da 165 v103 blast. It may be seen
that the compliance between plan and actual result is almost
100 per cent.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It has been shown that the development and application
of a holistic approach is useful for defining various rock mass
damage mechanisms that simultaneously (or very nearly so)
impact on final pit walls. This learning and understanding
permits the researcher and/or practitioner to develop
a program or combination of corrective measures that attack
each of the different damage mechanisms.
This paper has highlighted the importance of developing,
modifying and applying field measurement techniques
to verify the achievement of improvements (reduction)
FIG 19 - Cross-section of blast da 165 v102 (pyrotechnic), showing back-break damage and vibration intensity contours.
10
in damage. It is particularly noted that even the simplest of data
such as correctly acquired and applied topographical survey
coordinates can be used to contribute to the understanding
and visualisation of the sequence of blasting impacts on the
rock mass.
Numerical modelling and simulation play a fundamental
role in the investigation of the level of effectiveness
of the various strategies developed to confront and ameliorate
the extent of blast induced damage behind final walls in
open pit mines. Some of the same modelling packages offer
an interesting degree of support for the task of visualising
the blast impact and this in turn facilitates the development
of idea proposals for the management and implementation
of improved blast designs.
The combination of modelling and field implementation
of designs and test blasts has reinforced the superiority
of dynamic models over their static equivalents. This was
shown to be particularly so in terms of calculating the vibration
resulting from the detonation of multiple, delay-sequenced
EXPLO CONFERENCE / MELBOURNE, VIC, 8 - 9 NOVEMBER 2011
 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR FINAL WALL DAMAGE CONTROL AT CERRO VANGUARDIA, ARGENTINA
FIG 20 - Cross-section of blast da 165 v103 (electronic) showing virtually no back-break damage and vibration intensity contours.
explosive charges. Nonetheless, static modelling techniques
such as the Holmberg and Persson algorithm will continue to
be useful in supporting the analysis of the potential impact
of explosive charge confinements in the near field.
Dynamic vibration modelling using the superposition
of elemental waveforms has been shown to be effective
in determining initiation sequence designs that will reduce
the occurrence of vibration pulse coupling and reinforcement
of blast induced vibration intensity.
The application of electronic initiation systems technology
to initiate surface blasts has been shown to be easy, efficient
and robust in the case of the system used at CVSA. Coupled
with simulation tools, this method of initiating blasts offers
great opportunities to continue improving the control
over the physical consequences of blasting to surrounding
rock masses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the participation
of management of Cerro Vanguardia SA and Austin Powder
International, as well as the permission to publish and
present this work.
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