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13. Presentation of the Theory toc
In this section we present the proofs of the theorems stated in the
main tutorial.
Theorem 13.1. (The Power Rule: Junior Grade) Consider the func-
tion f (x) = xn , for some n ∈ N, the set of natural numbers. Then
f 0 (x) = nxn−1 x ∈ R. (1)
Proof. Recall the definition of the function (cf ): (cf )(x) = cf (x).
Then the derivative of the function (cf ) is the limit of the difference
quotient.
(cf )(a + h) − (cf )(a)
(cf )0 (a) = lim / difference quotient
h→0 h
cf (a + h) − cf (a)
= lim / defn of cf
h→0 h
f (a + h) − f (a)
= c lim / Homgen. of Limits
h→0 h
0
= cf (a) / since f 0 (a) exists
Thus,
(cf )0 (a) = cf 0 (a),
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
Proof. The equation (3) is verified by the definition. Recall the defi-
nition of the sum of two function:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x). (4)
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
Observe that (1) is the difference quotient of the function f , and (2)
is the difference quotient for the function g. Now, take the limit as
h → 0. The left-hand side of the equation is the difference quotient for
the function f +g, and the right-hand side is the sum of two difference
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
quotients. Keeping in mind that the limit of a sum is the sum of the
limits (provided each limit exits), we obtain:
Proof. This proof is a little trickier than the previous ones. We begin
by constructing the difference quotient and manipulate it appropri-
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
ately.
f (a + h)g(a + h) − f (a)g(a)
h
f (a + h)g(a + h) − f (a + h)g(a) + f (a + h)g(a) − f (a)g(a)
=
h
f (a + h)g(a + h) − f (a + h)g(a) f (a + h)g(a) − f (a)g(a)
= +
h h
g(a + h) − g(a) f (a + h) − f (a)
= f (a + h) + g(a)
h h
Thus,
f (a + h)g(a + h) − f (a)g(a)
h
g(a + h) − g(a) f (a + h) − f (a)
= f (a + h) +g(a) . (6)
| {z } | h
{z } | h
{z }
(1)
(2) diff. quot. (3) diff. quot.
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
provided g(a) 6= 0.
You can see the point of the manipulations: to create difference quo-
tients for the purpose of being able to calculate the limit. We want to
take the limit as h → 0; the limit of a ratio is the ratio of the limits
provided the limit of the denominator is nonzero. Let’s check this out:
lim g(a + h)g(a) = g(a)g(a) = [g(a)]2 6= 0,
h→0
Proof. This is the content of Theorem 13.2, Theorem 13.4 and Theo-
rem 13.5.
The last equality also follows from (15) (Verify?), but it is just the
much celebrated property of the sine function — that of being an odd
function: sin(−A) = − sin(A), for any number A ∈ R.
Now invoke the definition of derivative:
d cos(x + h) − cos(x)
cos(x) = lim
dx h→0 h
sin(x − π/2 + h) − sin(x − π/2)
= − lim (19)
h→0
h
d
=− sin(t) / (17)
dt t=x−π/2
= − cos(t)|t=x−π/2
= − cos(x − π/2) = − sin(x) / by (18)
You should verify in your own mind the validity of equality (19). But
the limit in the (19) is also the same difference quotient you would
obtain if you were trying to calculate the derivative of sin(t) at the
particular value of t = x − π/2 — here I have introduced a dummy
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
The derivative can be calculated in exactly the same way as the tan-
gent function. Just to change things up a little, and to keep you on
your toes, let’s write,
1
cot(x) = ;
tan(x)
therefore,
d d 1
cot(x) =
dx dx tan(x)
0 − (1) sec2 (x)
= / quot. rule & (20)
tan2 (x)
sec2 (x)
=−
tan2 (x)
= − csc2 (x)
You must verify the last step for yourself — verify, verify, verify ev-
erything!
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
The Derivative of the Secant Function: Now for the secant function.
d d 1
sec(x) =
dx dx cos(x)
0 − (1)[− sin(x)
=
cos2 (x)
sin(x)
=
cos2 (x)
= sec(x) tan(x)
Thus we have shown,
d
sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x).
dx
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
f (c + h) ≥ f (c)
or,
f (c + h) − f (c) ≥ 0.
Now, as we are assuming h < 0, we see that
f (c + h) − f (c)
≤ 0.
h
Therefore,
0 f (c + h) − f (c)
f− (c) = lim− ≤0
h→0 h
thus,
0
f− (c) ≤ 0 (22)
0 f (c + h) − f (c)
Right-hand Derivative: f+ (c) = lim .
h→0+ h
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
f (c + h) ≥ f (c)
or,
f (c + h) − f (c) ≥ 0.
Now, as we are assuming h > 0, we see that
f (c + h) − f (c)
≥ 0.
h
Therefore,
0 f (c + h) − f (c)
f− (c) = lim ≥0
h→0− h
thus,
0
f+ (c) ≥ 0 (23)
Conclusions: We have shown (22) and (23). What does this mean?
Recall, that since f 0 (c) exists, this implies
f 0 (c) = f−
0 0
(c) = f+ (c).
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
Finally, we need to argue that f 0 (c) = 0, but this follows from Fer-
mat’s Theorem: f indeed has a local extrema at c (since it is in fact
an absolute extrema), and as we have deduced, c is not an endpoint.
Since f is differentiable on the interval ( a, b ) and c ∈ ( a, b ), f 0 (c) ex-
its. We have just argued that the hypothesis of Fermat’s Theorem
is true for this situation and are justified in concluding f 0 (c) = 0.
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = (25)
b−a
or,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a) (26)
or even,
f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (c)(b − a) (27)
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
Proof. Let L(x) the function whose graph is a straight line passing
through the two points
( a, f (a) ) and ( b, f (b) ).
The exact functional form can be worked out if desired, but it is not
needed. L is a straight line whose slope is
f (b) − f (a)
m= . (28)
b−a
Recall though that the derivative of a straight line is its slope; there-
fore,
f (b) − f (a)
L0 (x) = .
b−a
Now, define a new function g by
f (b) − f (a)
0 = g 0 (c) = f 0 (c) − , (31)
b−a
and so,
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = ,
b−a
which is the desired equation.
Section 13: Presentation of the Theory
= (n + 1)xn .
Thus we have shown that if f (x) = xn+1 , then f 0 (x) = (n + 1)xn . By
the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we have shown
dxn
= nxn−1 ∀n ∈ N.
dx
This proves the theorem. Important Point