Non-Verbal Communication

Mimics and Gestures

Introduction

The field of study concerned with the transmission of information through different channels
(speaking, writing, body motion, etc.) is called communication. 1 Although generally we tend to
focus on verbal communication when speaking about the communication process, we must not
forget the fact that our ancestors used non-verbal communication years before they developed the
capability use words. Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning through
behaviour and not words.2 Even if they are operating side by side, as part of the same system, verbal
communication and non-verbal communication have some important differences between them. For
instance, one of the differences is a biological one, since nonverbal communication is generated
typically by the right side of the brain, while the verbal communication is generated by the left side.

To present you with a more detailed perspective about nonverbal communication, it is worth
mentioning that verbal and non-verbal communications include two main components: vocal and
non-vocal elements. While the vocal element of the verbal communication is represented by the
spoken words, in the nonverbal communication the vocal component is named ''paralanguage'' and
it includes the pitch, volume and speaking rate of the speaker. Regarding the non-vocal elements, in
the verbal communication they are illustrated by the writing and the sign language, while the body
language (which includes gestures, facial expressions, clothing, body posture, etc.) is the non-vocal
element of the nonverbal communication.

The father of the modern communicative studies of body language is considered to be Charles
Darwin, who, in his book titled ''Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872), is
observing the body motions and facial expressions of animals and humans, but does not correlate
them with the communicative system. Therefore, the beginning of the scientific research of body
language was marked by the publication of the ''Introduction to Kinesics", written by Ray L.
Birdwhistell, in 1952

Attitudes, emotions and feelings are more easily transmitted through body motion and are the most
visible by using specific gestures and facial expressions. According to psychologist James Borg, we
are more likely to believe in what we see or touch, than in what we hear. That is why it is very
important to have some basic information about gestures and facial expressions, in order to have
good communication skills and in order to be able to know what a person is really thinking.

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In the following paragraphs, we will provide a detailed description of the communication process;
two main elements: facial expressions and gestures.

Facial Expressions

This chapter focuses on casting light on how emotions are expressed on a facial level, the main
types of emotions rendering such expressions, what role the eyes play in the non-verbal
communication, and also how other means of subconscious communication (i.e. vocalics) affect our
interaction with the others.

Facial expressions are gestures executed with the facial muscles3. The movement of the muscles is
triggered by the individuals emotions in response to an event, be it real, imagined, remembered or
anticipated4. Extensive studies conducted by psychologists in the latter half of the past century have
shown that there are universal facial expressions (six basic expressions happiness,
surprise/attention, anger/aggression, sadness, fear, disgust figure 1), and culturally specific facial
expressions, depending on each culture (e.g. in the South-Eastern Asian cultures, it is considered
rude to look a person in the eye while talking to them). Facial expressions may well serve a social
purpose (e.g. most of the smiles we produce are primarily made for others and are not just an
involuntary reflection of an internal emotional state5).

Neutral Happiness Sadness Fear Anger Surprise Disgust

Figure 1

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The psychologists Ekman and Friesen developed a coding system that helped represent the
activation of muscles for each basic emotion. Even though FACS (Facial Action Coding System) is
a good tool for specialists, there are a few signs that anyone can read and tell what basic emotion
one experiences.

Happiness. A true expression of happiness involves both the lips being pulled upwards, as well as
the spontaneous contraction of orbicularis oculi, the muscles around the eyes. Smile as a social act
is often said to be fake or polite and it does not involve the upper part of the face (figure 2 polite
smile on the left picture, genuine smile on the right)

Figure 2

One may exhibit the happy face when they are filled with joy. The English language lacks the
means of expressing each shade of positive feelings one might experience, but it shelters most of
them under the notion of happiness (even if it doesnt involve smiling with the eyes). For instance
one might say they are happy, but not sporting a wide grin on their face; the underlying feeling
could be content, relief, gratitude, serenity, mindfulness, etc.

Sadness. Dr. Paul Ekman in his Emotions Revealed. Understanding Faces and Feelings book
talks about how the loss of a child produces a deep sadness expression on the face of an individual.
The experiments he conducted in Papua New Guinea on a remote tribe of people showed that since
its biologically based, sadness is a universal feeling as well. A sad expression usually involves the
corner of the lips which are drawn downwards and also the involuntary raise of the inner part of the
eyebrows (figure 1). Generally sadness is triggered by an unpleasant event in someones life, the
loss of a loved one, or the feeling of loneliness.

Fear. The expression of fear comes as a warning for something that could be physically or mentally
harmful to the one displaying this expression. It usually follows surprise in terms of facial
movement, and it can last longer than a few seconds. This type of emotion has an involuntary,
innate trigger, such as a moving object that might hit us, or the sight of snakes, the gaze over a cliff,
and taught triggers, for instance one might feel fear if they mistake an EKG apparatus for an
electroshocking device.7
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Anger. Anger has many different intensities, from mere annoyance to outright rage. All of them,
though, carry the same facial expression. Typically an angry face has lowered brows and the fixed
glaring of the eyes. Tightened lips are also a common factor. Anger serves as a warning to others
about our emotional state and it goes hand in hand with violence. For example, if someone hurts me
or insults me deeply, my first angry reaction would be to fight back physically. Some evolutionary
psychologists argue that we have developed different behavioral strategies according to the intensity
of the anger.(Figure 1)

Surprise. Surprise is the briefest of all emotions, generally lasting less than a few seconds, and it
occurs in response to a sudden and unforeseen event. It will usually be followed by another
emotion, such as joy, if the surprise is welcomed, anger, if its unwanted, fear, if theres danger
accompanying the event. If it lasts longer, surprise may turn into shock. (Figure 1)

Disgust. Disgust involves a feeling of aversion towards a person or an object. This expression may
also take place as a result of imagining or recalling the specific reason which produces disgust. As
Paul Ekman states, its not only smells, tastes, touch, images, sounds or representations that produce
disgust, but also the actions and the looks of people. One might feel repulsion at the sight of spilled
blood or a handicapped person, or even at an idea considered demeaning. (Figure 1)

It is notable that all these basic expressions can be composed into tens of derivative reflections, but
not all make sense to humans. Serving as example are appall, hate and awe.

Appall Hate Awe

Figure 3

Appall is the act of feeling disgust and anger with the emphasis being on disgust; i.e., when
appalled we feel more disgusted than angry. Hate also involves the feeling of disgust and anger but,
this time, the emphasis is on anger. Awe is the feeling of fear and wonder (surprise) with the
emphasis being placed on the latter.8

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We also communicate through eye behaviour. The study of this branch of non-verbal studies is
called oculesics, coming from the Latin word oculus, which means eye. Eye contact has several
functions, from regulating interaction (signaling to others when we are ready to speak or cuing
others to speak) to monitoring it (typically, when speaking, our eyes will look away from the
listener for a short while and then back to their faces), to conveying information, to establishing
connection.9 While listening, we tend to make more sustained eye contact, not glancing away as
much as when speaking.10 Also, eye contact can be used to intimidate others or to flirt, depending
on the social context and the duration of the stare.

Pupil dilation is a subtle component of oculesics and it refers to the involuntary expansion and
contraction of the black part in the centre of our eyes. Typically, out pupils dilate when there is a
lack of lighting, and contract when light is plentiful. Pain, sexual attraction, general arousal,
anxiety/stress, and information processing (thinking) also affect pupil dilation. Researchers measure
pupil dilation for a number of reasons. For example, advertisers use pupil dilation as an indicator of
consumer preferences, assuming that more dilation indicates arousal and attraction to a product. We
dont consciously read others pupil dilation in our everyday interactions, but experimental research
has shown that we subconsciously perceive pupil dilation, which affects our impressions and
communication. In general, dilated pupils increase a persons attractiveness quotes Peter A.
Andersen in his Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions book.

Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal
messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and vocal fillers. I have included vocalics into
this facial expressions paper because it concerns the mouth, thus concerning the face.

The communicative functions of vocalics are repetition (reinforcing other vocal or non-vocal cues;
e.g., Im not sure with an uncertain tone), complementing (the pitch and volume used to say I
love sweet potatoes would add context to the meaning of the sentence, such as the degree to which
the person loves sweet potatoes or the use of sarcasm), accenting (emphasizing different parts of the
sentence; e.g., She is my friend or She is my friend, or She is my friend), substituting (e.g.,
saying uh huh instead of I am listening and understand what youre saying), regulating (e.g.,
falling pitch and slowing rate of speaking usually indicate the end of a speaking turn), contradicting
(e.g., a person could say Im fine in a quick, short tone that indicates otherwise).11

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 Gestures

Feelings, attitudes and emotions are more efficiently conveyed through body language than through
speech. According to the business consultant and psychological coach, James Borg, there are three
main elements in any communication message: body language, voice and words. Albert Mehrabian,
psychology professor at UCLA, continued Borg's theory by adding some more value to the three
elements: 55 percent of the meaning in any message comes from the visual body language
(gestures, posture, facial expressions), 38 percent is derived from the nonverbal element of speech
(vocal- the way in which the words are delivered: tone, pitch, pace) and 7 percent of the meaning
comes from the actual content. Gestures and emotions are closely linked to each other, so the body
language becomes the window to a person's mind!"12

1) Hands

Open palms have been always associated with truth, honesty, allegiance and submission. As
examples to prove this assumption we have the following situations: many oaths are taken with the
right palm over the heart and the palm is held open in the air when somebody is giving an evidence
in a court of law. On the other hand, someone who doesn't want to be honest about a certain
situation will try to hide their palms on their back or inside their pockets. There are three main palm
command gestures:

A) The Palm-Up position is used as a submissive, non-threatening gesture, being similar with the
pleading gesture of a beggar. (Figure 1)

B) The Palm-Down positions express an authoritarian attitude (Figure 2). During the World War 2,
Adolf Hitler used the palm-down" position as an official salute, the position being a symbol of
tyranny and power (Figure 3). Also, Allan and Barbara Pease, the authors of The Definitive Book
of Body Language", give us another example when this palm position represents authority: when
couples walk hand-in-hand, the dominant partner (very often the male, in heterosexual couples),
walks slightly in front with his palm facing backwards, while the other partner has their palm facing
forward.

C) The Palm-Closed-Finger-Pointed gesture is, beside an authoritarian gesture, one of the most
annoying gestures that can be used when communicating, creating negative feelings in most
listeners (Figure 4). In some countries (Malaysia, Philippines) this gesture is an insult, being used
exclusively with animals.

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Figure 1 Figure 3 Figure13
Figure 2Figure 13 Figure
Figure13
14 Figure 14 Figure 14 15 Figure 15
Figure

Figure 3
Muammar Gaddafi doing the Palm-Closed-Finger-Pointed gesture

2) Handshakes

The origins of handshakes date back in the ancient past, when the primitive tribes would shake their
hand, exposing their palms and showing that they had no weapons with them. The Lower-Arm-
Grasp (Figure 5) was developed in the Roman Empire, because of the practice of carrying a
concealed dagger in the sleeve. The handshake evolved as a way of greeting and ending businesses
deals and it spread around the world, even in the countries where, traditionally, other gestures are
used (countries like Japan, Thailand or South Korea). We can find out a lot of information about a
person just by observing their way of handshaking. There are two types of handshakes:

A) The dominant handshake is represented by turning your hand so that your palm faces down and
it communicates that you want to take control of the meeting. A large
number of political figures learnt that, if they sit left to their partner, they
will have a dominant attitude and will be able to gain the upper hand when
they shake. (John F. Kennedy, Bill Clinton).

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 B) The submissive handshake is the opposite of the dominant handshake,
therefore it means that you are willing to give the other person the
control over the situation.

If two dominant people meet, they will end in a vice-like handshake position which creates a feeling
of equality and mutual respect (Figure 6).

Figure 6Figure 5 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 6 Figure 15

3) Arms

The most common gesture that we do with our arms is the Crossed-Arm-On-Chest Position (Figure
7), which is a gesture that shows the negative feelings of the person doing it or the fact that the
person does not like something. This gesture has a variation of other gestures, such as Fists-
Clenched-Arms-Crossed (Figure 8), which shows an aggressive and hostile attitude or the Double-
Arm Grip (Figure 9) which is similar with a self-hugging and it expresses the insecurity and the
restrained attitude of the person doing it.

FigureFigure
8 Figure 7 Figure
When 9 find ourselves
we a 13
in Figure Figure
13 situation, or feel
stressful 14 about
Figure
insecure 14 something, we Figure 15 15
tend toFigure
recreate the moments in which our parents were hugging us. A female experiencing these kind of
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 situations will adopt the Partial-Arm-Cross-Position (Figure10), while a man will use the Holding-
Hands-With-Yourself (Figure 11) position (this position making him safe because he can protect his
crotch). Famous people, such as royalty, politicians, have their own way of showing insecurity, even
if is believed that they are used to the continually public display .Men, for example, will be often
seen adjusting their cufflinks, their watches, or rubbing their hands together, while women will use
their purses.

Prince Charles adjusting his

cufflinks in order to hide his
Figure
Figure 10
11 Figure
Figure 13 11 Figure 14 insecurity. Figure 15

4) Legs

Farther away from the brain a body part is positioned, the less awareness we have of what is
doing.'' For example, many people will be able, with exercising, to control, or even fake, their facial
expressions or hand's gestures. However, a far less number of people are aware of their feet
movements, therefore the legs and feet are an important source of information about a person's
attitude. According to Allan and Barbara Pease, legs serve two main purposes: to move to get food
and to run away from the possible dangerous situations. That is why the legs may express a persons
desire to leave the conversation, a dominant attitude, or uncertainty.

There are four main leg standing positions:

A) At Attention is the formal position which shows a neutral attitude with no desire to stay or to go
(Figure 12).
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 B) Legs Apart is, almost in every situation, a male position, used for expressing dominance and
authority (Figure 13).

C) In the Foot-Forward position the body weight is transferred to one hip, which leaves the front
foot pointing forward. In a conversation, the foot will point towards the person we are attracted to,
whereas when we want to leave the conversation will point towards the direction we want to leave
(Figure 14).

D) Leg Cross position shows a defensive and closed attitude, being the opposite of the open legs
position. When a person crosses both legs and arms, it means that it is no longer interested in the
conversation (Figure 15).

Figure 13
12
Figure 14
15 Figure 13
Figure 13 Figure 14
Figure 14 Figure 15
Figure 15
5) Head Positions

A) The Head Nod gesture is normally used to express an agreement or ''Yes''. An interesting fact
about this gesture is that in Bulgaria it actually means ''NO'', while the head shake means ''Yes''.
This gesture is also used to encourage somebody.

B) The Head Shake has their origins in infancy. When babies do not want to eat anymore, will
shake their heads in order to push their mother breast away. When they get a little bit older, they
will also shake their heads in order to not eat what their parents spoon feed them. So this gesture
will be perceived in their adulthood as a rejecting sign.

The basic head position

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A) Head Up is a position that expresses neutrality and is often accompanied with slight head-nods.
If the person raises their head high with their chin jutting forward it signals superiority, fearless or
even arrogance.

B) Tilting the head to the side is a position used by a submissive and non-threatening person. Is
mostly used by the women to appeal to men, since submission is attractive to most men.

C) The Head Down position will be used by someone who has a judgmental, aggressive or negative
attitude towards something.

6) Universal gestures:

A) The Shoulder Shrug is a gesture which shows that a person has nothing to hide
or doesn't know about what you are talking. There are three main specific actions
in this position: exposed palms (that are a signal of honesty), hunched
shoulders and raised brows.

B) Twirling or touching the hair are gestures used mostly when the
person is either in a stressful situation or a boring one. People do
these gestures because that is how their mothers calmed they
down when they were young. The Shoulder Shrug Gesture

C) The hand to face gesture is a critical gesture that shows that

the listener has critical, or even negative, thoughts.

D) Using the hand as a support for the head is a signal which shows that the person is bored.

E) Drumming the fingers on the table and continual tapping of the feet on the floor are signals of
impatience

7) Specific gestures when lying:

A) The Mouth Cover

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B) The nose touch: according to the Scientists at the Smell and Taste Treatment and Research
Foundation in Chicago, when lying, a person's nose release some chemicals named
,,catecholamines'', causing tissue inside the nose to swell. The human nose actually expands with
blood during lying, resulting in an itchy feeling. The same phenomenon occurs when a person is
upset, anxious or angry.

C) Eye Rub

D) The Ear Grab (in Italy is a signal which indicates that someone is effeminate or gay).

E) The Neck Scratch is also a signal of doubt or uncertainty

F) The collar Pull: it also occurs when a person is feeling angry or frustrated

G) Finger in mouth gesture is used by people who feel under pressure and is an unconscious
attempt of a person to return to the security offered by his mother when he was a baby.

8) Cultural differences in gestures13

A) Europe and North America: OK;

Mediterranean region, Russia, Brazil,
Turkey: A sexual insult; Tunisia, France,
Belgium: Zero, Worthless; Japan: Money,
Coins
B) Western countries: One, Excuse me!,
No! (to children)
C) Britain, Australia, New Zeeland, Malta:
Up Yours!; USA: Two; Germany: Victory;
France: Peace
D) Europe: Three; Catholic countries: A
blessing!
E) Europe: Two; Britain, Australia, New
Zeeland: One; USA: Waiter; Japan: An
insult!
F) Western countries: Four; Japan: An insult
G) Western countries: Five; Everywhere: Stop!; Greece and Turkey: Go to Hell!
H) Bali: Bad; Japan: Woman; South America: Thin
I) Malta and Italy: Protection against the Evil Eye (when pointed); South America: Protection
against bad luck; USA: Texas University Logo
J) Greece: Go to Hell!; The West: Two
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L) Europe: One; Widespread: Hitchhike, OK!, Good; Greece: Up Yours!; Japan: Man, Five
M) Holland: Do you want a drink?
N) USA: I love you!
O) The West: Ten, I surrender; Widespread: Im telling the truth!

Conclusion
To conclude, we think that facial expressions and gestures play a crucial role in modern
communication because they give us the opportunity to know the real attitudes, emotions and
thoughts of a person. Nowadays, body language makes up a huge part of the daily communication 14,
but, in order to understand well a persons real feelings or thoughts, we have to follow certain rules,
such as:

A) Do not interpret a solitary gesture or expression, as a single gesture or expression may have
many different meanings, but rather interpret them as a group.

B) Read the facial expressions and gestures in context, since they can have contradictory
interpretations in different contexts.

The world is full of obvious things which nobody ,by any chance, ever observes.

(Sherlock Holmes Quote-The Hound of the Baskervilles

Chapter 3: "The Problem")

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1 www.oxforddictionaries.com/english/communication

2 Licensed under Creative Commons, A Primer on Communication Studies, v1.0, chapter 4, p-181.

3 www.thefreedictionary.com/facial+expression

4 Paul Ekman, Facial Expressions and Emotions, American Psychologist Association, 1993, p-384

5 Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), p-35

6 Sample images courtesy of study conducted by Shichuan Du, Yong Tao, Aleix M. Martinez - Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH 43210 Study on the Compound Facial Expressions of Emotion

7 Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed. Understanding Faces and Feelings, 2003 (Romanian translation Editura Trei,
2011, p 224-225)

8 Shichuan Du, Yong Tao, and Aleix M. Martinez, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and
Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 Study on the
Compound Facial Expressions of Emotion

9 Licensed under Creative Commons ,A Primer on Communication Studies, v1.0, chapter 4, p-199

10 Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication inContexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-
Hill, 2010), p-276.

11 Licensed under Creative Commons, A Primer on Communication Studies, v1.0, chapter 4, p-210

12 James Borg, Body Language, FT Press Publisher, p-9

13 Allan and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language, Pease International Publisher, p-109-110-111Pictures
taken from The Definitive Book of Body Language by Allan and Barbara Pease

14 Article Understanding Body Language by Kendra Cherry.

psychology.about.com/od/nonverbalcommunication/ss/understanding-body-language.htm