Chapter 1

Rings

1.1 Preliminaries
This course assumes a good working knowledge of sets, mappings, equivalence relations, and Z (including
prime factorisations, and the Euclidean algorithm). In particular, you are unlikely to pass this course if you
are unable to (1) show that a given object is or is not an element of a given set, (2) determine if two sets
are equal, (3) determine if a mapping is injective or surjective.
This section contains a few review problems on these topics. You should use them to find any gaps in
your knowledge, and if you do find any, you should review your MT1810 notes or get help.

1.1.1 Sets
Exercise 1.1. Let
A = {x Z there exists y Z such that x = 2y},
and
B = {a Z there exists b, c Z such that a = 6b + 10c}.
Prove that A = B.
Exercise 1.2. Let A, B, C be sets with A and B . Show that

(A B) (B A) = C C A = B = C.

Exercise 1.3. Use a Venn diagram to show that A B = A B (A B)

Exercise 1.4. For which of S {N, Z, Q, R, C} are the following statements true?
1. {x S x2 = 5} ,
2. {x S x 1 12 } = {1}.

9
Iain Moatt
1.1.2 Mappings
Notation 1.5. Let A B be a mapping. If a b then you are used to writing (a) = b. However,
in this class we will write functions on the right. That is

if a b we write a = b.

You can think of this as a passes through to give b.

If, in addition, B C, then the composite function, which you are used to writing as ((x)) is
written as x . (Think x goes through then x goes through .)
We will adopt the above convention for mappings between rings. However, for functions that are elements
of rings, we will often use the f (x) notation.
Definition 1.6. Let A B. Recall the following.
1. is surjective (or onto) if b B, a A such that a = b.
2. is injective (or 1-1) if a1 = a2 a1 = a2 .

3. is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

Exercise 1.7. Each of the following describes a mapping f A B. Determine which of the mappings are
surjective and which are injective.

1. A = Z, B = Q, xf = 2x + 1.
2. A = Z, B = Z Z, xf = (x 1, 1).
3. A = R, B = R, xf = x3 .
4. A = C, B = C, xf = x.

Exercise 1.8. Given mappings f A B and g B C, prove that

f g injective f injective;
f g surjective g surjective.

Theorem 1.9. Let A B.Then

1. has an inverse if and only if it is bijective;

2. is injective if and only if there is some function such that = idA ;
3. is surjective if and only if there is some function such that = idB .

Exercise 1.10. Prove the above theorem.

10
 MT 283: Rings and Factorisation
1.2 The definition of a ring
1.2.1 Our prototype
Recall that our motivation comes from the way that the integers,

Z = {, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, },

behave. The first thing we need to do is to decide on the basic algebraic structure of the integers.

Question. What are the standard operations on Z?

Answer. +, -, and
Question. Why not ?
Answer. If a, b Z, then a b need not be.

Question. Do we really need the operation -?

Answer. No, as it can be defined in terms of +: a b = a + (b), where b is the unique number with the
property that b + (b) = 0.
Question. What basic rules do the standard operations + and - obey?

Answer. For all a, b, c Z:

addition multiplication mixed
a+bZ ab Z a(b + c) = ab + ac
a+b=b+a a(bc) = (ab)c (a + b)c = ac + bc
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
a=a+0 ab = ba
x s.t. a + x = 0 1 s.t. 1a = a = a1
(Note: there are many other properties that you might write down.)
We extract some of the key properties to define a ring.

1.2.2 Definition of a ring

First we need to define what we mean by addition and multiplication.
Definition 1.11. A binary operation, , on a set S is mapping S S S. The image of (a, b)
under is denoted by a b.
Informally, if you input any two elements of S, a binary operation will output an element of S.
Example 1.12.
1. Addition and multiplication are binary operations on the sets N, Z, Q and R.

2. Matrix multiplication is a binary operation on the set Mn (R) of real n n matrices. It is defined by
n
([aij ], [bij ]) [cij ] , where cij = aik bkj .
k=1

3. Subtraction is a binary operation on Z, but not on N.

Now that we know what we mean by multiplication and addition, we can define a ring.

11
Iain Moatt
Definition 1.13. A ring consists of a set R together with two binary operations called addition
(usually denoted by +) and multiplication (usually denoted by or by concatenation) such that the
following axioms hold.
Axioms for addition
(A0): for all a, b R, we have a + b R Closure law
(A1): for all a, b, c R, we have a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c Associative law
(A2): there exists 0 R such that a + 0 = a = 0 + a, for all a R Zero law
(A3): for all a R, there exists b R such that a + b = b + a = 0 Inverse law
(A4): for all a, b R, we have a + b = b + a Commutative law

Axioms for multiplication

(M0): for all a, b R, we have ab R Closure law
(M1): for all a, b, c R, we have a(bc) = (ab)c Associative law

Mixed axiom
(D1): for all a, b, c R, we have (a + b)c = ac + bc and c(a + b) = ca + cb Distributive law
To show that a given set with a given addition and multiplication is a ring, we need to show that it
satisfies all of the axioms given in Definition 1.13. Verifying that each axion holds can be time consuming,
but later we will see some shortcuts.
Observe that by (A4), for (A2) we only need to check that a + 0 = a, and for (A3) that a + b = 0.
Example 1.14. Zm , Z, Q, R, and C with the usual addition and multiplication are all rings.
Example 1.15. The set M2 (Z) of 2 2 integral matrices (that is, its entries are all in Z). Then M2 (Z)
forms a ring under the usual addition and multiplication.
We will verify (A0), (A2), and (A3), leaving the verification of the rest of the axioms as an exercise.
For (A0), let A = , B = M2 (Z). Then
a b x y
c d z w

a+x b+y
A+B = + = .
a b x y
c d z w c+z d+t

Since, Z is a ring, and therefore closed under addition, a + x, b + y, c + z, d + t Z, and so A + B M2 (R)

For (A3), set 0 = . Now let A = M2 (Z). Then
0 0 a b
0 0 c d

0+a 0+b
0+A= + = = = A,
0 0 a b a b
0 0 c d 0+c 0+d c d

where the penultimate identity follows since 0 is the zero of the ring Z. Similarly,

a+0 b+0
A+0= + = = = A,
a b 0 0 a b
c d 0 0 c+0 d+0 c d

again using the fact that 0 is the zero of the ring Z.

a b
For (A2), let A = M2 (Z). Then let B = . We have B M2 (Z) since a, b, c, d Z
a b
c d c d
(as a, b, c, d Z). Then

a b a + (a) b + (b)
A+B = + = = .
a b 0 0
c d c d c + (c) d + (d) 0 0

Where the last equality holds since Z is a ring and n is the additive inverse of n, for each n Z. Since (A4)
holds, B + A = A + B = 0.

12
 MT 283: Rings and Factorisation
Exercise 1.16. Verify that M2 (Z) from Example 1.15 is a ring by showing that the remaining ring axioms
do indeed hold.

Example 1.17. The set 2Z = {2n n Z} of even integers with the usual addition and multiplication is a
ring.
Since (A1), (A4), (M1), and (D1) all hold for Z, and since Z and 2Z have the same addition and
multiplication, they will also hold for 2Z. It remains to check (A0), (A3), and (M0) and
For (A0), and (M0), let a, b 2Z. Then we have a = 2k and b = 2j for some k, j Z. Then

a + b = 2k + 2j = 2(k + j) 2Z,

where we have used the fact that (D1) holds. Also,

a b = (2k)(2j) = 2(k(2j)) 2Z,

where we have used the fact that (M1) holds.

For (A2), 0 2Z, and since 0 is a zero of Z it must also be a zero of 2Z.
For (A3), Let a 2Z. Then a = 2k for some k Z. Let b = 2(k). Since Z is a ring k Z and (M0)
holds, and so b = 2(k) 2Z. Then,

a + b = (2k) + (2(k)) = 2(k k) = 2(0) = 0

and
b + a = (2(k)) + (2k) = 2((k) + k) = 2(0) = 0,
where we have used the facts that (A2), (A3), and (D1) hold in Z.

Exercise 1.18. Follow the method in Example 1.17 to show that the set 5Z = {5n n Z} with the addition
and multiplication induced by those from Z is a ring.

Example 1.19. The set R = {2n + 1 n Z} of odd integers with the usual addition and multiplication is
not a ring.
To show that this is the case, we need to show that any one of the axioms of a ring fail to hold. Lets
show that (A0) fails. To do this we need to show that there exists a, b R such that a + b R.1 We have
1 R, but 1 + 1 = 2 R, so (A0) is false and R is not a ring.

Exercise 1.20. Following the method in Example 1.19, show that (M0) and (A2) also fail to hold for
structure in Example 1.19. Show that all of the remaining axioms do hold.

Remark 1.21. There are three three basic types of proof that are used in verifying the ring axioms:

(A0), (A1), (A4), (M0), (M1), (D1) are all of the form

(a, b R)(something involving a and b holds),

or
(a, b, c R)(something involving a, b, and c holds).
For the first type, your proof should start Let a, b R. Then you go onto prove the property.
(Since the property starts a, b R, you have no control of the choice of a and b so they have to be
arbitrary.) Similarly for the second form, your proof should start Let a, b, c R.
1 To see why, recall from first year that (A0) is false (A0) is true. We can write (A0) as (a, b R)(a + b R). Then

(A0) ((a, b R)(a + b R)) (a, b R) ((a + b R)) (a, b R)(a + b R)

So to show (A0) is false we need to find two elements a, b R such that a + b R.

13
Iain Moatt
(A2) is of the form
(0 R) such that (a R)(a + 0 = 0 + a).
To prove this you need to explicitly give a special element 0, such that a + 0 = 0 + a for every other
element a R. Your proof should look something like Let 0=(something you specify). Let a R.
Then (deduce that a + 0 = 0 + a).
(A3) is of the form
(a R)(b R) such that (a + b = 0) (b + a = 0).
To prove this for every element a R, you need to give the special element b that has the property
a + b = 0 = b + a, where 0 is your special element from (A2) Your proof should look something like Let
a R. Let b =(something you specify). Then (deduce that a + b = 0 and that b + a = 0).

Definition 1.22. Let R be a ring. Then

R is a ring with identity if it satisfies

(M2): there exists 1 R such that a1 = 1a = a, for all a R Identity law

R is a commutative ring if it satisfies

(M4): for all a, b R, we have ab = ba Commutative law

Example 1.23. Zm , Z, Q, R, and C with the usual addition and multiplication are all commutative rings
with identity.
Example 1.24. The ring 2Z from Example 1.17 is commutative since Z is. It does not have an identity. To
see this suppose that 2Z has in identity element n. Then 2n = 2. The only integral solution is n = 1 (why?),
but this is not in 2Z.
Exercise 1.25. Show that M2 (Z) is a non-commutative ring with identity.
Remark 1.26.

1. A ring is specified by three things: a set, an operation + called addition, and an operation called
multiplication.
2. The + and need not be the ones youd expect.
3. We ofen write ab for a b.
4. Sometimes we will write 0R , +R , etc. to keep track of which ring the elements and operations belong
to. (This is especially useful when we are working with more than one ring.)
5. If multiplication and addition are not stated, then you can assume that they are the standard ones.
For example, by consider the ring Z, we mean consider the ring Z with the usual addition and
multiplication.
6. The symbol 0 is used to denote a special element of a ring called the zero. It need not be the
number zero.
7. Similarly, the symbol 1 is used to denote a special element of a ring called the identity. It need
not be the number one.
8. Technically (A0) and (M0) are redundant as they follow from the fact that addition and multiplication
are binary operations. However, it is much safer to include them.
9. There are many properties of Z that we have left out of the definition of a ring. There are good reasons
for this. For example,

14
 MT 283: Rings and Factorisation
We have not insisted that ab = ba since this excludes many important examples, such as matrices.
We have not insisted on a multiplicative identity 1 as would lead to problems with ideals later in
the course.
Some properties follow from the axioms, for example a + b = a + c b = c.

1.2.3 More examples of rings

Example 1.27. Let R be a set with a binary operation + satisfying (A0)-(A4). Define multiplication by
a b = 0, for all a, b R. Then R is a ring. Such a ring is called a zero ring.
Exercise 1.28. Verify that a zero ring is a commutative ring, by showing that (M0), (M1), (M4) and (D1)
hold. Does the zero ring have an identity?
Example 1.29. Let R = {0} be a set with addition defined by 0 + 0 = 0 and multiplication by 0 0 = 0. Then
R is a ring. Such a ring is called a trivial ring.
Example 1.30. Let R be the set Z Z Z = {(a, b, c) a, b, c Z}. Define addition and multiplication on
R by
(a, b, c) + (d, e, f ) = (a + d, b + e, c + f )
(a, b, c) (d, e, f ) = (ad, bd + ce, cf ).
Then, with this addition and multiplication, R is a non-commutitive ring with an identity.
(Note that this is not the standard ring structure on Z Z Z.)
We will verify (A0) and (M1), leaving verifying the rest of the axioms as an exercise.
Let (a, b, c), (d, e, f ), (p, q, r) R. Then, for (M0),

(a, b, c) + (d, e, f ) = (a + d, b + e, c + f ) R,

since a + d, b + e, c + f Z as Z is a ring.
For (M1)

(a, b, c)[(d, e, f )(p, q, r)] = (a, b, c)(dp, ep + f q, f r)

= (a(dp), b(dp) + c(ep + f q), c(f r)) = (adp, bdp + cep + cf q, cf r),

where the last equality follows since Z is a ring. Also

[(a, b, c)(d, e, f )](p, q, r) = (a + d, b + e, c + f )(p, q, r)

= ((ad)p, (bd + ce)p + (cf )q, (cf )r) = (adp, bdp + cep + cf q, cf r),

It follows that (a, b, c)[(d, e, f )(p, q, r)] = [(a, b, c)(d, e, f )](p, q, r).
Exercise 1.31. Referring to Example 1.30, check that the remaining ring axioms hold. Verify that the ring
has an identity (you need to write one down). Show that the ring is non-commutative.
Example 1.32. Let K = {a, b, c, d} with addition and multiplication defined by the following tables.

+ a b c d a b c d
a a b c d a a a a a
b b a d c b a b c d
c c d a b c a a a a
d d c b a d a b c d

Here x + y and x y are the entries in the intersection of the row labelled x and the column labelled y. For
example, b c = c.
Then K forms a ring. Note 0K = a. It is non-commutative, it does not have an identity.

15
Iain Moatt
Example 1.33. The set of all functions which are continuous on the interval[0, 1] form a ring under the
usual addition and multiplication of functions.

Example 1.34. Let X be a set. Recall that P(X) = {A A X} is the power set of X, and that
A B = (A B)(A B) is the symmetric dierence of A and B.
The set P(X) with addition and multiplication defined by

A + B = A B

A B = A B
forms a ring. A ring of this type is called a Boolean ring.
We can verify, say, (D1) using a Venn diagram as follows:

Exercise 1.35. Using Venn diagrams, check that the object in Example 1.34 is a ring. In particular, what
is the zero, and what is the additive identity of A P(X). (Note that the use of Venn diagrams does not
constitute a formal proof.)

Exercise 1.36. Let X be a non-empty set, and P(X) be its power set. Define addition and multiplication
by A + B = A B and A B = A B. Then show that P(X) with this addition and multiplication does not
form a ring.

1.2.4 Some standard rings

Example 1.37. Z, Q, R, and C with the usual addition and multiplication are all rings.

Example 1.38. Let R be a ring, and Mn (R) the set of n n matrices over R (that is, its entries are all in
R). We can write matrices concisely using the notation

a11 a12 a1n

a a2n
[aij ] = [aij ]nn = 21
a22

an1 an2 ann

Then Mn (R) forms a ring with the usual addition and multiplication:

[aij ] + [bij ] = [cij ] , where cij = aij + bij

n
[aij ] [bij ] = [dij ] , where dij = aik bkj
k=1

16
 MT 283: Rings and Factorisation
Exercise 1.39. This exercise is about Mn (R). If you find it tricky, try working the problem for M2 (R) or
M3 (R).

1. Verify that the definitions of matrix multiplication and addition from Example 1.38 agree with the
usual ones. (For example, write out [aij ] and [bij ] the long way, multiply them and add them.)

2. Very carefully show that Mn (R) is a ring. In particular, why do we need R to be a ring?

3. Look at your solution for the exercise above. Explain why R needs to be a ring.

4. Does the ring Mn (2Z) have an identity? Justify your answer.

5. In general, Mn (R) is non-commutative. Is it ever commutative? That is, is there a ring R for which
Mn (R) is commutative?

Example 1.40. For formal power series and polynomials, we work a little bit informally. A formal approach
is given in Appendix A.
Let R be a commutative ring with identity. A formal power series over R in indeterminate x is an
expression of the form
n
a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + = ai xi ,
i0

where ai R, for each i. Note that we usually use the convention that a0 = a0 x0 and a1 x = a1 x1 .
Here, you should think think of a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + as a formal expression. In particular, you should
think of the symbol + as a symbol. It does not represent addition in the ring here. Moreover, we are not
interested in questions of convergence here.
Let
R[[x]] = ai xi ai R
i0

be the set of all formal power series over R.

Addition and multiplication are defined exactly how you expect:

ai xi + bi xi = (ai + bi )xi
i0 i0 i0

i i i
a i x i bi x i = aj bk x = aj bij x .
i0 i0 i0 j+k=i i0 j=0
So

(a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ) + (a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ) = (a0 + b0 )x0 + (a1 + b1 )x1 + (a2 + b2 )x2 +

and

(a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 ) (a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ) = (a0 b0 )x0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x1 + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2 + ,

just as you are used to.

Then R[[x]] is a commutative ring with identity.

Exercise 1.41. Let R be a commutative ring with identity.

1. Convince yourself that the definitions of multiplication and addition from Example 1.40 agree with the
usual ones.

2. Very carefully show that R[[x]] is a commutative ring with identity.

17
Iain Moatt
3. Look at your solution for the exercise above. Explain why R needs to be a commutative ring with
identity.
Example 1.42. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. An element of p(x) R[[x]] is said to be a
polynomial over R of degree n and in indeterminate x if

p(x) = ai xi where an 0 and ai = 0 for all i > n.

i0

That is,
p(x) = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn + 0xn+1 + 0xn+2 + 0xn+3 + ,
where an 0.
The set of all polynomials over R in indeterminate x forms a commutative ring with identity. This
ring is denoted by R[x].
By convention, when we write polynomials we exclude terms with zero coefficient. That is rather than
writing
p(x) = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn + 0xn+1 + 0xn+2 + 0xn+3 + ,
we just write
p(x) = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn .
With this convention, polynomials are exactly what you know as polynomials!

Exercise 1.43. Verify that when R is a commutative ring with identity, R[x] is also a commutative ring
with identity. For this observe that (A1), (A4), (M1), (M4) and (D1) all hold since they hold in R[[x]]. So
you only need to check (A0), (A2), (A3), (M0), and (M1).
Exercise 1.44. Let S = {a0 + + a4 x4 a0 , . . . a4 R} be the set of all polynomials over R of degree at most
4. Show that S does not form a ring under the usual addition and multiplication of polynomials. Is there
some other multiplication or addition that will make S into a ring?
Exercise 1.45. Let p, q R[x]. Show that

deg(p + q) = max{deg(p), deg(q)}

and
deg(pq) = max{deg(p) + deg(q)},
where deg(f ) denotes the degree of a polynomial f .

Example 1.46. Let R be a commutative ring with identity We can also define rings of polynomials and
rings formal power series in more than one variable by setting

R[x, y] = (R[x])[y].

R[[x, y]] = (R[[x]])[[y]].

For example R[x, y] is the ring of polynomials in two variables. We write its elements in the form
i,j ai , jxi y j . Addition and multiplication work in exactly the way you are used to. For example,

(2x + 3x3 )y 2 + (1 + 3x)(y 4 ) = 2xy 2 + 3x3 y 2 + y 4 + 3xy 4

18
 MT 283: Rings and Factorisation
1.3 Rings with additional structure
Definition 1.47. Let R be a ring. Then
R is a division ring if it is non-trivial and satisfies
(M2): there exists 1 R such that a1 = 1a = a, for all a R Identity
(M3): for all a R, with a 0 there exists b R such that ab = ba = 1 Inverse law
R is a field is a non-trivial commutative division ring, i.e., it satisfies
(M2): there exists 1 R such that a1 = 1a = a, for all a R Identity law
(M3): for all a R, with a 0 there exists b R such that ab = ba = 1 Inverse law
(M4): for all a, b R, we have ab = ba Commutative law

Example 1.48. With the usual addition and multiplication,

Q, R, and C are fields
Z is a commutative ring with identity, but is not a division ring or a field.
Example 1.49. If R is a has an identity, then so does Mn (R). The ring Mn (R) is, in general not commu-
tative, and is not a division ring when n > 1.
Example 1.50. If F is a field, then neither F [x] nor F [[x]] are fields. For example,

(0x0 + 1x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 + ) (a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ) = (0x0 + a0 x1 + a1 x2 + a2 x3 + )

and it is easy to see that this can never equal 1 = 1x0 + 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 + .
Example 1.51. Z3 is a field. We know that is a commutative ring with identity [1]. Also

[1] [1] = [1], [2] [2] = [4] = [1].

Exercise 1.52. Determine which of Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , Z4 , Z5 are fields. (You may assume that they are commu-
tative rings with identities.)

19