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"A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE"
- KR Rao (Editor) 12-11-10
STEAM TURBINE AND GENERATOR
INSPECTION AND CONDITION
ASSESSMENT
CREDITS
The material presented in this chapter includes certain text
owned by Structural Integrity Associates, Inc. (SI), reproduced
with the permission of SI. All figures, photographs, and diagrams
presented are owned by SI.
25.1 Introduction
The fundamental design concepts embodied in steam turbines
and generators are fairly simpleallow high pressure steam to ex-
pand through a series of blades mounted to a rotating member to
extract thermal energy from pressurized steam and convert it to
mechanical energy in the form of torque. Then utilize this torque
to rotate a large electromagnet past a series of conductors to pro-
duce current flow in the conductorspretty simple. However, as
simple as this seems, these are very complicated machines that in-
volve essentially all aspects of engineeringstatics and dynamics,
heat transfer, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, ferrous and non-
ferrous metallurgy, organic and inorganic chemistry, steam cycle
chemistry, materials behavior (stress/strain), fracture mechanics,
corrosion, erosion, electrical (power) engineering, electric circuits
and circuit models, electromagnetics, control theory and controls,
power system analysis, dielectrics and electrical insulation, tribol-
ogy, and various forms of materials joining from glues and resins
to soldering, brazing, and welding.
Looking back at the evolution of steam turbines and genera-
tors, it quickly becomes clear that the single-most limiting factor
that has controlled machine output capacity has almost universally
been the ability to dissipate heat from the generator. While nu-
merous, significant advances have been made in turbine efficiency
and unit rating, were it not for the generator output limitations,
the additional mechanical work required to power the generator
could easily be provided by simply adding more turbines. In fact,
that has been one means of powering larger generatorsadding
turbines in tandem driving a single generator. Early generator de-
signs featured air cooling, at ambient pressure and temperature,
and conventional cooling schemesconvective cooling of the ro-
tor steel and stator core and indirect cooling of the electrical coils
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chapter
25
Lawrence D. Nottingham
by conduction through the insulation to the rotor and stator core
where the convective cooling occurred. Step increases in unit out-
put were achieved coincidental with major ventilation improve-
mentssealed machines with integral gas coolers; increases in
gas pressure from 15 to 30 to 45, 60, and 75 psi, and therefore
increased heat dissipation capacity; the use of lower density and
higher heat capacity cooling gases as the cooling medium; direct
gas cooling of the stator and rotor coils; liquid (water) cooling of
the stator coils; and even water cooling of the rotor coils in some
non-domestic designs. Additionally, advances in insulation materi-
als enabled operation at higher temperature without degradation of
the insulating properties of the materials. At one point in the mid-
1970s through mid-1980s, cryogenically cooled superconducting
generators were considered the next design generation, and at least
one prototype machine was built domestically.
As these advances were made, machine complexity increased
dramatically. Hydrogen gas was found to be a very effective cool-
ing medium, and it quickly became the standard. Where it was once
necessary only to pass ambient air through the machine, it became
necessary to create sealed systems and maintain high Hydrogen pu-
rity because of the explosive nature of Hydrogen when mixed with
air. Elaborate labyrinth and gland sealing systems for the rotors,
integral hydrogen coolers, hydrogen dryers, and auxiliary support
systems resulted. Where the inherent rigidity of components in
small machines generally avoided vibration issues, elaborate coil
bracing systems were required as the machines grew is size and the
coils became longer and more flexible and therefore more prone to
vibration and fatigue. Rotor bearing systems evolved from simple
sleeve bearings with pooled lubricant to relatively complex tilting
pad bearings with elaborate seals, pumped lubricant, and complex
auxiliary support systems to remove particulates, cool the oil, and
safely remove hydrogen gas.
In parallel, advances in materials were required to keep pace
with the increased size of major components, particularly rotor
components. Stress in a rotating component is directly related to
size (diameter) and rotational speedlarger and faster both equate
to increased stress. For integral pole rotors, i.e., those having mag-
netic poles integral to a single piece rotor as found exclusively in
steam turbine generators, a maximum of four magnetic poles was
established as the practical limit for number of poles. To produce
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electrical current at a specific frequency, which in the US is 60 Hz,
the magnetic poles must pass the stator coils at that frequency; con-
sequently, 3600 and 1800 RPM are the operating speeds for 2-pole
and 4-pole rotors, respectively. With the speed defined, stresses
can be determined based on the size, and limits can be established
based on the stress capacity of the material. So, to build larger ma-
chines, materials had to evolve accordingly. In addition to the load
carrying capabilities of the materials, for generators, specific alloys
evolved to provide specific electrical characteristics.
Turning to the turbines, many of the advances came via materi-
als improvements, and alloy evolution and selection were based
on operation at high temperature in a steam environment. Material
improvements have allowed designers to take turbines to higher
temperatures and pressures, with increased output as a result. Simi-
lar to the generator rotors, at a given speed, turbine rotor size ef-
fectively establishes the stress and therefore the material properties
required for the rotor. Additionally, and again in a similar fashion
as for the generator rotor, specific alloys evolved for the various
turbines based on certain design conditions. For higher tempera-
ture rotors, which tend to be the smaller, typically high pressure
(HP) and some intermediate pressure (IP) units, high temperature
creep and temper embrittlement may be issues. Consequently,
specific alloys evolved to provide enhanced resistance to these
damage mechanisms. For the larger low pressure (LP) units, on
the other hand, the lower operating temperatures mean that creep
and embrittlement likely are not issues. However, the larger size
dictates higher strength materials because of the generally higher
stress associated with larger size. So, different materials evolved to
meet these requirements. Other considerations involved in material
evolution and selection include corrosion resistance and possibly
steam, water droplet, and hard particle erosion resistance. And
since blade velocity is directly related to diameter, different con-
siderations come into play in these regards. Design of the smaller
HP and IP rotors with the shorter blades will involve different con-
siderations than the large LP rotors with long blades running at
blade tip velocities near or exceeding Mach speeds.
Vibration and vibration analysis also was an integral and impor-
tant part of the expansion of turbine size and capacity. Analogous to
the small generators, in which the components were relatively small
and stiff, growth in size typically equated to increased flexibility
and therefore lower natural frequencies. As turbine blades grew in
size, so did the need for dynamic analysis to assure that natural fre-
quencies remained well away from any operational frequencies.
Operating hand in hand with all of these design and material con-
siderations and evolution, improved design tools and computeriza-
tion have enabled improved precision and reduction of conservatism,
resulting directly in increased turbine and generator output. And
this leads directly into the subject of this documentturbine and
generator inspection and condition assessment. In the older ma-
chines, there was greater uncertainty associated with certain as-
pects of the designs, particularly materials and design calculations.
Coincident with the evolution of improvements in materials and
reduction in the uncertainty associated with certain behavioral
characteristic was an increased ability to take advantage of these;
that is, to work closer to the limits. And so, condition assessment is
an issue for old and new alike.
Inspection and condition assessment of steam turbine and gen-
erator components is a complex process involving a significant
number of components, an array of different materials, numer-
ous potential damage mechanisms, and the full range of available
non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods and techniques. Add
to this data analysis and then the stress and fracture evaluations,
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and it is easy to understand that many, many combinations are
possible.
Insofar as the scope of this document is concerned, there are
many, many tests routinely performed on various turbine and gen-
erator components and typically classified as maintenance tests.
For the generator, these may include electrical tests to assess the
viability of ongoing operation of the existing generator insulations,
tests to confirm that the stator end turn bracing continues to main-
tain the coil end turns properly detuned from natural frequencies,
tests for stator core tightness, wedge tightness tests, and so on. For
the turbine, maintenance inspections include inspection of the sta-
tionary and rotating blades for cracking and other signs of distress
including droplet erosion, water cutting, tenon cracking, tie wire
cracking, and many others; they include dimensional measure-
ments to confirm clearances at seals, and so on. These maintenance
inspections generally detect conditions that can and are remedied
at that time. Each test or measurement typically has an established
limit, and once the limit is exceeded, the parts are either repaired
or replaced. This might involve, for example, tightening of the
generator stator end turn bracing, re-wedging the winding slots to
tighten the compression on the coils, removing and replacing dam-
aged hard metal erosion shields on the turbine blades, and an ar-
ray of similar actions for the various other components. This class
of inspection and assessment is not subject to further discussion
within the scope of this document. Treatment of all of these tests,
inspections, and assessments would require many, many volumes
of material, even if covered only at the most rudimentary level.
Rather, the body of this document deals for the most part with the
larger rotating components. These components are not necessarily
subject to regular inspection at each turbine-generator overhaul,
but are subject to critical analysis and re-inspection based on pro-
jections of damage progression into the future, or at intervals pre-
scribed by the manufacturer based on historical information. They
are included because the inspections are much more involved, time
consuming, and costly, and so are performed on an as-needed basis
rather than as part of the routine maintenance. Additionally, failure
is typically much more catastrophic than the components covered
by the maintenance tests, and immediate replacement is typically
not an option because of long lead times and high costs that pre-
clude the possibility in most instances of maintaining spares. Even
repairs are typically very long, costly operations.
25.2 Non-destructive Inspection
Methods
A number of inspection methods are used to assess various
turbine and generator components for flaw conditions that could
lead to failure or other operational issues if left unattended.
Without going into great detail, some brief description of the
relevant inspection methods is necessary as a background for the
component-specific information to follow. Most of the basic in-
spection methods recognized by the American Society for Non-
destructive Testing (ASNT) are employed in some form for one
or more of the various components that are subjected to periodic
inspection. For those unfamiliar with non-destructive evaluation
(NDE), there are a number of basic NDE methods: ultrasonic, eddy
current, radiography, and a number of others. Each method has very
specific requirements that must be met to become a certified prac-
titioner. In general, there are three levels of qualification for each
method, Levels I, II, and III, listed in order of increasing respon-
sibility. For example, a Level I must work under the supervision
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of a Level II or III, can implement an inspection, but cannot in-
terpret results. A Level II can work independently and perform
all stages of an inspection, including interpretation. A Level III
can additionally develop and write procedures and administer a
qualification program, as examples. Each qualification level has
specific requirements in terms of education, experience (typically
while certified at the next lower level), and training, and each re-
quire periodic requalification by examination.
Visual Testing (VT) is exactly as it soundsvisually assessing
components or assemblies for signs of distress. While this might
sound simple and even trivial insofar as recognizing it as a dis-
cipline, quality VT is actually one of the more demanding of the
various NDE methods because it requires extensive knowledge of
operative damage mechanisms and the visual signs that are asso-
ciated with each. VT obviously requires access to the surface(s)
under examination, although direct access is not mandatory. Video
probes, mirrors and other devices are often used to view surfaces
and assemblies that are otherwise inaccessible.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)UT is the material testing analogy to
active sonarping and listen. UT involves the introduction of high
frequency sound waves into a component using a transducer that
converts electrical voltage into deformation and the opposite. Cer-
tain materials possess this piezoelectric property. The voltage is
applied as a very short pulse, which causes the material to resonate
briefly. By coupling the transducer to the surface of a component,
the mechanical oscillation of the transducer can be coupled into
the component as a short duration sound wave. Similarly, when
a sound wave strikes the piezoelectric element of the transducer,
a voltage is created. The basic concept of UT is to introduce the
sound into the part, where it will reflect from a flaw back to the
transducer and therefore produces a measurable voltage. The prop-
agation mode and direction are controlled via the use of a refract-
ing wedge between the transducer and the component. The sound
field propagation direction is used to define the direction in the part
from which the reflection occurs. Because propagation velocity for
a specific propagation mode in a given material is constant, the
propagation time provides a measure of reflector location along the
beam, and the voltage of the return signal gives some indication of
the significance of the reflectorlarger flaws cover more of the
field and therefore in general produce more significant reflection
amplitudes. UT can often be effectively used to detect and charac-
terize flaws at locations completely otherwise inaccessible, includ-
ing flaws located at hidden internal surfaces of components and
flaws internal to the material itself, i.e., subsurface flaws. There
are numerous variations, or techniques, employed in optimizing an
inspection for a specific application. These will be discussed to the
degree necessary along with the various applications.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)This is a method for detect-
ing surface connected and near-surface flaws at accessible surfaces
of ferromagnetic materials. When the material is magnetized, any
flaw lying in the magnetized material disrupts the field, forcing the
magnetic flux around the flaw. This establishes magnetic poles at
the flaw. The magnetic field can be developed directly by passing
current through the part or indirectly by passing current through
a conductor located in close proximity to the part. By then dis-
tributing fine particles of ferromagnetic material over the part, the
particles are attracted to the field established by the flaw. Color
contrast particles are available in different colors to provide the
best contrast to the background color of the component. Fluores-
cent particles are available, typically in liquid suspensions, for use
with ultraviolet light to make them more visible. Wet fluorescent
MT (WFMT) is typically considered to be more sensitive than dry,
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color-contrast MT. For subsurface flaws, because the leakage field
associated with a flaw is relatively weak and localized, detection
does not typically extend to a significant depth into the part. How-
ever, MT procedures can be effectively applied for the detection of
flaws under thin coatings, for example, paint.
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)This method is limited to the
detection of flaws that are open to an accessible surface of the com-
ponent. The principle upon which PT relies is that of capillary ac-
tion of a liquid. A penetrant liquid is applied to the surface to be
inspected and is drawn into surface flaws by capillary action. The
surface is then cleaned of all remnant penetrant, and a developer is
applied to draw the penetrant from the flaw to the surface to make
it visible. Similar to MT inspection, the liquid penetrants come in
color contrast and fluorescent, the latter requiring the use of ul-
traviolet light and also the more sensitive. The penetrant material
itself is specifically designed via controlled color, surface tension,
and viscosity to enhance the process. Cleanliness and surface prep-
aration are very important considerations in PT inspection. Any
contaminant that prevents the introduction of the penetrant into the
flaws can reduce the effectiveness of the inspection or even render
it completely useless. Similarly, contaminants that hold penetrant
can lead to false calls. Surface cleaning methods that upset the
surface, such as abrasive grit blasting and grinding, are generally
considered incompatible with PT inspection as the flaws can be
smeared over or peened closed.
Eddy Current Testing (ET)ET inspection is an electromagnetic
inspection method that is effective in detecting and characterizing
surface and near-surface flaws in conductive materials. When cur-
rent is passed through a coil that is held in close proximity to the
surface of a conductive material, the magnetic field developed by
the coil induces current flow, i.e., eddy currents, in the conductive
material. So long as all things remain constantmaterial conductiv-
ity, magnetic permeability, proximity, material conditionthe char-
acteristic impedance of the coil remains constant. However, any
change, including the presence of a discontinuity within the eddy
current field, changes the impedance. Consequently, the impedance
can be monitored as a means of assessing the surface for the pres-
ence of flaws. Alternatively, a secondary pickup coil can be used to
measure the eddy currents directly, with the same result. Eddy cur-
rent inspection provides advantages over other surface inspection
methods in that the output can easily be recorded and positionally
correlated. It therefore lends itself to automation. ET inspection can
also be very sensitive, even to very small, tight cracks that likely
might go undetected by other surface inspection methods.
There are other inspection methods such as Radiographic Test-
ing (RT), Infrared Thermography (IRT), and others that are not
generally used for any of the covered turbine and generator appli-
cations, so additional detail on these is not provided.
25.3  urbine Design and Component
T
Overview
While it is well beyond the scope of this work to provide signifi-
cant detail on turbine and generator design, certain information is
required in order to put into the right context the information that
is provided on inspection and condition assessment. As is typically
the case, certain damage and failure mechanisms, and therefore the
means of dealing with them, are related directly to the design or
to specific design details. There are many different types of steam
turbines, the differences founded in the underlying principles in-
volved with the conversion of thermal energy to work. There are
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condensing and non-condensing turbines, reheat turbines, extrac-
tion turbines, induction turbines, and so on. In the power plant, the
most commonly found is the condensing turbine, which exhausts
steam that is already partially condensed and at a pressure below at-
mospheric into a condenser. The basic concept is to extract work by
allowing the steam to expand through a series of blades that turn the
rotor onto which the blades are attached. The blades through which
the steam initially passes are very small. Small blades maintain ac-
ceptably low stress when exposed to the high pressure steam; yet
extract significant work because of the high pressure even though
acting on relatively small areas. To allow the expansion and make
most efficient use of each successive row of blades, the blades in-
crease in size along the flow direction. As the pressure drops, greater
area is required to extract meaningful work, and the blades can be
larger and yet maintain acceptable stress levels because of the lower
pressure. Typically, turbines for power generation use have been
manufactured in one of three basic types: high pressure (HP) tur-
bines, intermediate pressure (IP) turbines, and low pressure (LP)
turbines. In any of these designs, the blades are arranged aroundthe
rotor in rows, where each row has duplicate blades within it and
the blades increase in size along the steam flow direction through
the turbine. In addition to these basic types, there are also hybrids,
for example, HP/IP and IP/LP turbines that combine the two into a
single unit. In such case, the two are still separated internally in sec-
tions, e.g., the HP section and the IP section, but are combined into
a single rotor in a single casing.
Regardless, the HP turbines will typically be the smallest ma-
chines having relatively small blades, IP will be larger machines
with larger blades, and the LPs are the largest machines with the
largest blades. In terms of pressures and temperatures, the HP sees
the highest pressures and temperatures, followed by the IPs which
might see equivalent temperature but not equivalent pressure, fol-
lowed by the LP. The last few blade stages in the LP typically
see some level of condensation before the steam exhausts into the
condenser. In addition to the various pressure designations for the
turbines, they are also characterized by flow direction, single flow
or double flow. Whereas HP and IP machines are generally single
flow, i.e., having steam flow in only one axial direction, it is more
common for LP rotors to have the steam enter at the axial center
of the machine and flow equally in both outward directions, i.e.,
double flow. In the latter double flow (DF) turbines, there is no net
axial thrust and therefore no requirement for thrust support provi-
sions in the design. A typical DFLP rotor is shown in Figure 25.1
Fig. 25.1 DFLP rotor sitting in the bottom half-
shell
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sitting in the lower half of the casing with the upper half removed.
In most cases, the two sections of the hybrid HP/IP and IP/LP ma-
chines are opposing flow, but this is not always the case.
In terms of the turbine combinations, any combination that can
be imagined has probably been built at some time or other. The
predominant arrangement in more modern turbines is the tandem
compound arrangement in which the machines are all aligned
along a single shaft axis and coupled directly one to the next. Such
an arrangement might have an HP turbine, followed by an IP tur-
bine, followed by one or more LP turbines, and then the genera-
tor. As mentioned above, there are many, many variations on the
number of turbines involved in driving the generator and on how
they are arranged. There are single turbines driving the generator,
up through and including five turbines (most that could be found)
including an HP, IP, and 3 LP turbines. In these arrangements,
the same steam flows from the HP, then to the IP, and then to the
LP(s). In a reheat unit, the steam returns to the boiler after passing
through the HP, where it is reheated before passing through the
IP, which for this reason is also commonly called a reheat turbine.
Cross compound is another option in which there are two genera-
tors driven by separate turbines. A cross compound unit typically
has a 3600 RPM, 2-pole generator driven by an HP or an HP/IP,
or an HP and an IP, plus an 1800 RPM, 4-pole generator driven by
an one or more LP rotors. These still use the same steam and can
involve reheat steam to the IP turbines or IP sections.
Output for steam driven generators in the US, of which there
are on the order of 2500 and 3000 operating units devoted to com-
mercial power generation, ranges for the most part between 50 and
1200 megawatts (MW), although a significant number of smaller
units also can be found, even as small as 2 MW, operating typically
at municipal facilities. Regarding the age of the units, not too many
steam power plants have been built in the US since the mid- to late
1970s, so the fleet is aging, with the majority near or past the half
century mark.
So, just from these generalized descriptions some of the impor-
tant considerations that could impact the approach to inspection
and life assessment might include:
T ypes of turbines comprising the unitHP, IP, HP/IP, LP,
etc.;
Unit rating and therefore the sizes of the machinesalso with
second order affects such as the materials used as impacted by
imposed stress, which is related to size;
Age of the unit as this dictates the materials that would have
been used and certainly the accumulated service hours;
Rotational speed of the unit;
Pressure and temperature of the steam;
Temperatures of the various components; and,
State of the steam along the flow, i.e., condensing or not.
For the generator, it is a bit simpler. A generator is a generator
in terms of the overall design concept. The rotor has sections of
the body containing a number of axial slots running the full length
of the body and solid sections that form the magnetic poles. Coils
are wound into the axially machined slots and around the magnetic
poles that are integral to the rotor forging. The coils are held in
place by slot wedges, and where the coils exit the slots and wrap
around to the opposite side of the pole, large rings are assembled
over the end turns to support them. A DC voltage applied to the ro-
tor windings, i.e., the excitation voltage, creates the magnetic field
associated with each magnetic pole.
The stator is essentially a large core of ferromagnetic, electrical
grade material surrounding the rotor and built up by many thou-
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sands of very thin laminations stacked axially and having integral
slots running the full length to contain and support the stator coils.
Similar to the rotor windings, the stator coils are held in the slots
by wedges and connected in the end turn area to form the 3-phase
winding.
As opposed to the turbines, of which there are many different
variety, as described above, all generators take on these same com-
mon features. The distinguishing features in the generator are gen-
erally linked directly to output, heat generation, heat capacity, and
heat dissipation:
Unit rating;
Stator cooling method, e.g., conventional, gas inner cooled,
direct water cooled, etc.;
Ventilation gas, typically air or Hydrogen;
Ventilation gas pressure (even if having water cooled coils,
the rotor and the remainder of the stator are still gas cooled);
and,
Temperature rating of the insulation materials.
Having now established some basic design fundamentals, we
can delve deeper into the issues associated with inspection, condi-
tion assessment, and remaining life analysis. We will start with
turbines and move to generators.
25.4  urbine Components Requiring
T a useful rotor forging begins with one of a number of rotor forg-
Periodic Life Assessment
Figure 25.2 provides a schematic of a turbine rotor cross sec
tion.Remember that the stationary components were defined as
routine inspection and maintenance components, at least for the
purposes of this document, and are therefore not included.
Regardless the type of rotor, i.e., HP, IP, or LP, there are many
common features rotor to rotor. Generally, there is a central shaft
and most often (at least for older vintage rotors) the rotor shaft has
a central bore hole. The disks, positioned appropriately along the
shaft to provide spaces between for the stationary blades that adjust
Fig. 25.2Turbine rotor (DFLP) cross section
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the steam flow direction at the admission side of the rotating stages
for optimum performance, form the support members for the rotat-
ing blades. The disks can be non-integral to the central shaft, as
shown, partially integral meaning that the smaller disks are inte-
gral to the shaft and the larger disks are separate, assembled com-
ponents, or fully integral to the shaft. Assembled disks typically
involve an interference (shrink) fit. Historically, the smaller HP
and IP rotors had integral disks and LP rotors had assembled disks.
The evolution from fully non-integral, to partially integral, to fully
integral disks essentially followed directly the evolution and avail-
ability of larger, quality forgings. Some HP and IP designs feature
blades that are directly mounted to the shaft without the presence
of disks, per se. Other major components include the bearings that
support the rotors and couplings that form the connection interface
between adjacent rotors.
25.5 Rotor Forging Assessment
Considerable research and development activities have been
expended over the years to develop inspection and analysis tools
that reduce outage and analysis times and provide realistic assess-
ments of remaining life. For the central shafts, forging production
standards have provided the appropriate surface from which to
launch relevant inspection protocols. The process that results in
ing specifications which have evolved over the years to provide
optimum performance under a number of operational conditions.
The classic material breakdown for applications in fossil plant ro-
tors is:
H P and IP rotors having operating temps up to 1050 FCr-
Mo-V(typically 1Cr-1Mo-1/4V) forgings;
LP rotors and discs3.5Ni-Cr-Mo-V;
GeneratorsNi-Cr-Mo-V; and,
Some very old units may be just Cr-Mo or Ni-Mo-V (1940s)
but those would be the exceptions.
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Specifications include:
A -469 Vacuum-Treated Steel Forgings for Generator Rotors;
A-470 Vacuum-Treated Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for
Turbine Rotors and Shafts (this is a Ni-Cr-Mo-V materials);
and,
A-471 Vacuum-Treated Alloy Steel Forgings for Turbine Ro-
tor Disks and Wheels (also Ni-Cr-Mo-V materials).
One designation that is referenced occasionally is that of C-grade
rotor material. C-Grade is a designation that was applied to 1950s
and earlier vintage 1Cr-1Mo-1/4V forgings that were austenitized
at 1850F. These forgings were found to exhibit low ductility and
notch sensitivity (low fracture toughness). The austenitizing tem-
perature was lowered in the mid-1950s to 1750F which improved
ductility and toughness, designated as D-Grade material. Much of
the early development activities associated with forging in-service
inspection (ISI) was centered on inspection of C-Grade rotors, al-
though the inspections now are recommended for most, if not all,
rotors.
Older forgings, particularly those made prior to the advent of
vacuum degassing practices, were prone to concentrations of im-
purities and flaws near the forging centerline. In the ingot, as the
solidification of the molten steel progressed from the outside in-
ward, impurities tended to concentrate within the last to solidify,
so toward the ingot center. Then, as the solidified ingot was forged
to form the basic shaft shape, these impurities were further con-
densed to the center section, concentrating them along and around
the shaft axis. A simple solution for removal of these impurities
and flaws was to bore the rotor along the axis.
In their final configurations, turbine and generator rotors are
subjected to any number of significant stress conditions. However,
the single most significant concern in terms of consequences of a
failure is a rotor burst. High speed rotation creates significant hoop
stress that is highest at the shaft center and falls off with increasing
distance from the center. The central bore hole, in fact, acts as a
stress concentration and thereby increases the stress at the bore sur-
face even further. Even so, until recently, when steelmaking prac-
tice evolved to the point of making suitably clean large ingots and
forgings, the benefits associated with flaw removal via the presence
of a bore overrode the negative impact on stress. Consequently,
in the US nearly all large rotors have central bore holes. There
are some exceptions, for example some rotors made during World
War II, when boring machines were otherwise occupied, and more
recently when forging quality improvements have allowed for the
elimination of the bore, but, in general, the presence of a bore is
relatively standard for the vast majority of the US fleet.
The raw forging, typically in the form of a series of contiguous
cylindrical sections made to encompass the final rotor shape, is
fairly easy to inspect from the outer periphery, and specifications
evolved accordingly for acceptance inspection of the forging. For
the central material, ASTM A-418 is one such inspection stan
dard.In the early days of ultrasonic inspection and still in many
cases to this day, ultrasonic inspection instruments were (are) cali-
brated using a series of calibration blocks containing reflectors
of the size of interest and located at various test distances repre-
sentative of the volume of interest in component being inspected.
For large rotors, this means very large blocks. ASTM A-418 was
developed for the specific purpose of eliminating the calibration
blocks by using either the bore in the case of a hollow cylinder
or the far wall in the case of the solid cylinder as the calibration
reflector. Theoretically derived relationships between the reflector
of interest and the reflection from a bore or backwall are used to
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd  Manila Typesetting Company
establish the correct calibration sensitivity based on the bore or
backwall reflection.
Considering the complex configuration of the final machined
rotor, however, ISI is not so easily accomplished from the outer
periphery. This is true regardless whether the subject rotor is a tur-
bine rotor, which has the disk configurations at least and possibly
assembled disks covering the OD, or a generator rotor that has the
full-length integral winding slots cut into the body. However, the
presence of the central bore hole provides a convenient, typically
uniform surface from which to inspect the central material for po-
tentially detriment flaws. Failures that initiate at the rotor bore sur-
face, where in-service stresses are highest, propagate by low cycle
fatigue or high temperature creep. Failures that initiate subsurface
typically initiate by link-up and growth of inherent discontinuities
remnant from the steelmaking process, but then propagate by low
cycle fatigue. Because the predominant stress is a hoop stress, i.e.,
tangential, the flaw of main concern is in a radialaxial orientation,
normal to the primary stress direction. The study of linear elastic
fracture mechanics tells us that a surface flaw of axial length (L) by
radial depth (a) has a crack tip stress intensity that is the same as a
subsurface flaw that is the same length but twice the radial dimen-
sion, i.e., L 2a, if acted on by the same stress. This factor, when
combined with the fact that the stress is highest at the bore surface,
means that the bore surface flaw is of major concern. However,
the subsurface flaws, particularly those in close proximity to each
other such that linkup is possible, cannot be discounted.
Ultrasonic inspection of the rotor material from the bore surface,
a practice that has become known generically as boresonic inspec-
tion, has become standard throughout the industry. Typically, the
inspection involves the introduction of ultrasonic waves in dif-
ferent directions relative to the bore surface to look for flaws at
different orientations. Because of the criticality of surface and near-
surface flaws, located where stresses are highest, the inspection is
typically designed to concentrate on the first few inches of material
radially outward from the bore. In most applications of ultrasound,
there is a limitation on the ability to detect and assess flaws located
at and very near the test surface, i.e., the surface from which the
ultrasonic waves are launched, in this case the bore surface. This
is typically a very shallow distance, measured in hundredths of an
inch, but in this case it is, nonetheless, the most important material
in terms of flaw criticality. Consequently, boresonic inspection is
supplemented using reliable surface inspection methods, generally
MT or ET inspection.
Boresonic systems currently in use are all fully automated, fea-
turing motorized, external scanning mechanisms that transport the
transducers systematically through the bore via a probe head and
series of drive rods to accomplish complete and reliable coverage
of the material. Figure 25.3 presents a photograph of a turbine rotor
inspection underway. The scan is accomplished either in a raster
mode in which the transducers undergo alternating clockwise and
counterclockwise 360 rotations with an axial index between, or in
a continuous helical scan. The raster mode allows the transducers
to be hard wired to the external instrumentation and data acquisi-
tion system, while the helical scan mode requires the use of slip
rings in the circuit to prevent continuous twisting of the wires. The
automated systems contain motion pickups to record probe head
position along with the inspection data. This enables the generation
of positionally-correlated data images for analysis purposes. More
information on data analysis is presented later.
Boresonic inspection is supplemented with a surface inspec-
tion to cover the zone in which the UT is ineffective. The surface
inspection is typically either MT or ET. Bore MT is conducted
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-
Fig. 25.3Boresonic drive attached to an HP/IP
rotor
using a central conductor and therefore indirect magnetization.
Theinspection relies on residual magnetization, i.e., the magne
tizing field is applied and then released while the magnetic particle
suspension is applied. The inspection utilizes color-contrast parti-
cles in a wet suspension. Viewing of the surface is performed using
an optical borescope or miniature camera in combination with a
high intensity light source. Bore ET inspection is conducted using
a more or less conventional eddy current probe that is scanned over
the entirety of the bore surface.
For rotor bore surface inspection, MT and ET each provide cer-
tain advantages and disadvantages. By virtue of the fact that ET is
an electronic inspection method, the data can be digitally recorded
for archival retention purposes. The inspection method requires that
the ET probe is scanned over the surface, thereby making the in-
spection compatible with the boresonic scanning. In fact, the probe
is typically included in the boresonic probe head such that the data
can be acquired concurrently with the boresonic inspection data,
which results in a real time savings. This advantage notwithstand-
ing, the main advantage of ET owes directly to the fact that the
data is acquired along with the digitally stored positional informa-
tion and so the coordinate reference system is consistent with that
used for the boresonic inspection. In the analysis phase of a bore
evaluation, the data is combined based on proximity of indications
and the local stress level. Closely proximate indications in regions
of high stress must be considered as a single flaw, the boundary
of which encompasses the entire volume containing the individual
flaws. The logic is that, if the ligament stress is high enough, the
individual flaws will soon link. Even small errors in flaw location
therefore can lead to significant errors in combining the individual
indications into an equivalent flaw size. And the error can go ei-
ther wayoverly conservative by combining individual flaws that
have wider separation or treating individually flaws that should be
combined. The primary deterrent to bore MT inspection is that the
inspection must be conducted using some visual device, such as an
optical borescope or camera, to view the surface. Unfortunately,
when using such devices, there is no effective way to provide the
same positional precision as can be attained when using precision
optical encoders in conjunction with automated positional systems.
And the fact that the ET inspection can be conducted concurrently
with the UT means that both sets of data have exactly the same
position reference datum. However, the advantage of the bore MT
is that it provides the ability to see the indication, a capability
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd  Manila Typesetting Company
that is still very attractive to many. A typical MT indication associ-
ated with an axial bore crack is shown in Figure 25.4. Likely the
best of both worlds is the use of ET as the primary inspection, with
full digital data acquisition and storage concurrently with the UT
inspections, followed by bore MT if/as necessary to corroborate
ET indications.
Bore surface preparation typically involves honing the bore to
provide a smooth, uniform surface condition, void of any conditions
that would upset the transducers or otherwise interfere with effec-
tive coupling of the ultrasound into and out of the rotor material.
In manual UT, the operator has full control of the transducer and
can compensate for minor surface irregularities by over-scanning
and feel. But in automated UT, the transducers traverse the surface
one time and with limited capability to compensate for irregulari-
ties. Consequently, the surface must be smooth and regular. Most
bore inspection specifications require that all oxide and contami-
nants are removed and that a 63--inch finish is provided for the
inspection. This surface finish is critical for the proper contact of
the UT probes and equally important for reliable detection and
characterization of surface MT indications. Rotors typically have
shrink-fit assembled end plugs that must be removed to access the
bore, and this operation is typically done by machining the plugs.
For bores that have a uniform bore diameter, typically only a sin-
gle plug is removed and the inspection is conducted from one end.
Often, however, rotors may have steps, transitions, and even bottle
bores. These features likely were put in at the time of manufacture
to remove material containing detected flaws. Depending upon the
details of the bore configuration, access from both ends of the bore
for honing and delivery of the inspection systems may be required,
in which case both end plugs must be removed.
Data analysis, for the most part, is now a largely automated pro
cess that converts the ultrasonic data into flaw tables that include
the location of each flaw centroid, expressed in most cases in terms
of radial depth, R (inches), axial position, Z (inches), and circum-
ferential position, q (degrees), as well as dimension in each direc-
tion as well. At one time, sizing of indications was based solely on
the amplitude of the ultrasonic response using area/amplitude cor-
relations based on the response from flat bottom holes (FBHs) in
calibration blocks. However, this sizing method has long been rec-
ognized as inaccurate because response amplitude is impacted by
Fig. 25.4Image of a bore axial crack in an HP
turbine rotor
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25- Chapter 25
many variables in addition to flaw size. Flaw orientation relative
to the beam direction, flaw shape, morphology, and composition
can all impact the reflection amplitude, not to mention material
structure and its affect in terms of attenuating the sound. Conse-
quently, without a priori knowledge on all of these other variables,
size analysis based on amplitude alone is prone to significant error.
And any such errors are always non-conservative; that is, all of the
variables that impact amplitude tend to lower the amplitude and
therefore make the flaws appear smaller than actual.
This is not meant to imply that early practitioners did not rec-
ognize and account for these errors. To the contrary, significant
correction and safety factors were applied to account for the poten-
tial sizing error. Unfortunately, the flaw sizing processes and algo-
rithms based on response amplitude simply resulted in significant
uncertainty. As a direct result, extremely conservative approaches
were utilized to make it absolutely certain that failures would not
occur. For many years, beginning in the early 1980s, related R&D
efforts concentrated on the removal of conservatism without as-
suming unacceptable risk of failure.
More recently, flaw sizing algorithms based on dynamic echo
response, hit envelope, tip diffractions, and amplitude drop have
evolved and have improved the accuracy of the flaw sizing results,
and therefore reduction in the safety factors that must be applied.
Ultrasonic images like those shown in Figure 25.5 are also re-
viewed as part of the data analysis process and to perform spot
checks on selected flaws from the flaw tables.
As stated earlier, the primary concern for the central material
in a rotor forging is low cycle fatigue. The stress cycle is related
to start/stop operation and to a much lesser degree to load swings.
When a unit is brought up to speed and then put on line, the tur-
bine rotors heat up and the rotational (centrifugal) stress increases
with increasing rotational speed. The startup procedure can have a
significant impact on peak stress, as the peak thermal stress occurs
during the startup transient conditions and then is significantly re-
duced once temperatures equilibrate and stead state operating con-
ditions have been reached. It is therefore good practice to control
Fig. 25.5Ultrasonic images (sectional views) used in data analysis, In this case representative of a
calibration block containing machined reflectors
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the startup rate to assure that the peak thermal stress is not present
concurrent with the peak mechanical stress. This typically means
slow ramp up to full speed or even hold points at certain speeds
to allow the rotors to soak at the temperatures to equilibrate there
before continuing. Material properties are also impacted by tem-
perature, and in general, higher temperature means more ductility
and less susceptibility to brittle fracture. These warming practices
also allow for the materials to pass the brittle-to-ductile transition
temperature range before reaching peak stress. For the generator,
temperatures are much lower and thermal stresses are typically not
even a consideration. Once at speed and fully on line and at opera-
tional temperature, the hoop stresses that predominate in the shaft
central material remain effectively constant until the unit shuts
down. Minor stress cycles accumulate with major load, and there-
fore thermal swings, but these account for only a small fraction of
the accumulated damage and life consumption. By far, cold starts
account for the majority of life consumption, followed by hot starts
for which the thermal stresses are not additive, followed by major
load swings.
Engineering analysis of indications detected via the rotor bore
inspections is performed using component-specific analysis pro-
grams. While there are other analysis programs used by various
analysis providers, the SAFER (Stress And Fracture Evaluation
of Rotors) computer analysis program that was developed by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) sets the standard and
will be presented here in that regard. SAFER provides two distinct
analysis options, deterministic and probabilistic. In a deterministic
analysis, single-value input parameters are used. These are typi-
cally worst case values to provide the most conservative solution,
which is in the form of a gono-go answer. That is, the future duty
cycle is input, along with conservative parameters in the form of
flaw sizes, material properties, and stresses, and a conservative es-
timate of remaining life is determined. Alternatively, the SAFER
program provides the means to perform probabilistic analyses. Un-
der this analysis option, all input parameters are input as statistical
distributions, and a Monte Carlo simulation is exercised to deter-
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-
mine the probability of failure in a specified operational interval.
This analysis removes a great deal of conservatism and therefore is
more realistic. However, in order to take advantage of the lowered
conservatism, the owner must be willing to deal with the output in
the form of a probability of failure in a specified operational life.
The owner must decide the probability of failure that represents an
acceptable risk. Typically, operators consider a 0.1% probability
of failure over the intended operational period until the next sched-
uled inspection to be acceptable, and for Nuclear units the accept-
able risk is more typically 0.01% (1 in 10,000). But the comfort
level is something that only the owner/operator can define based
on their tolerance for risk. In reality, there is risk associated with
operation of a unit regardless the assessment that is conducted. The
probabilistic approach merely quantifies this risk.
The analysis process involves three primary tasks. The first is
a transient thermal-elastic finite element stress analysis to deter-
mine the distribution of stress and temperature in the near-bore
region of the rotor. It is important to evaluate the typical cold start
up condition(s) for that specific unit to ensure that these factors
are included in the analysis. Information required to perform the
transient stress analysis of a rotor is listed below.
D escription of the rotor periphery as a function of axial
location;
Description of the rotor bore geometry as a function of axial
location;
Blade weights and mass center location or rim loads for each
stage;
Inlet and outlet steam temperature and pressure versus time
during a typical startup;
RPM versus time during a typical startup;
Heat balance diagram for the unit at full load;
Service history of the unit (online time and starts); and,
Rotor material datafracture appearance transition tempera-
ture (brittle/ductile temperature), composition, yield strength,
fracture toughness.
This is followed by the linkup analyses of the NDE data based
upon the proximity of indications and local stress and temperature.
This linkup analysis utilizes the spatial variation of stress and tem-
perature in the rotor to predict whether or not neighboring indica-
tions should be combined and considered as larger indications.
The third task is to perform the critical crack size evaluation.
This is either done deterministically using specific values for the
various input parameters or probabilistically using statistical ranges
derived from historical databases. Where the deterministic ap-
proach is exercised here as the third step, it can be followed by the
probabilistic analysis if additional rigor is considered justifiable,
or the analysis can proceed directly to the probabilistic analysis,
bypassing the deterministic. In this probabilistic treatment, the val-
ues of stress, initial crack size, fatigue crack growth rate, creep
crack growth rate, and fracture toughness are treated as random
variables. If available, rotor-specific material properties and their
associated distributions are used. In those instances where rotor-
specific materials property data is not available, literature values
available for the same class of material in similar rotors are used.
It is recognized, however, that the distributions for the various da-
tabase properties are relatively broad, i.e., having relatively large
standard deviations. This factor alone can have a dramatic impact
on the outcome. If this level of analysis falls short of indicating the
desired remaining operating life with acceptable risk, then the next
level of analysis would require rotor-specific material properties,
with the hope that the properties are determined to be toward the
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd  Manila Typesetting Company
better side of the distribution rather than toward the worse side.
This means that material samples must be removed from the ro-
tor for testing purposes. Sample removal and testing is discussed
later.
Another consideration in assessing certain rotors is that of dam-
age by high temperature creep. As with other topics mentioned at
various points within this document, the purpose is not to describe
creep in great detail, but simply to provide sufficient information to
enable a reasonable understanding of its importance. Creep occurs
essentially by atomic level diffusion of defects in the atomic struc-
ture. When subjected to elevated temperature above about 850F
and sufficient stress, vacancies and dislocations migrate within
the atomic structure until they reach a grain boundary, at which
point they are pinned. As the process proceeds, additional flaws
continue to accumulate at the grain boundaries, eventually form-
ing microscopic voids or cavities. At first, these will be distributed
relatively randomly, but eventually, as the process continues, they
become oriented, i.e., more prevalent along grain boundaries
that are normal or near-normal to the principal stress direction. Ul-
timately, the size and density of cavities becomes sufficient that
they begin to link to form micro-cracks. These eventually coalesce
to form macro-cracks. Once cracks are formed, they can propagate
by creep or fatigue, or a combination creep-fatigue mechanism. In
its initial stages, creep is consider more a materials properties de-
gredation mechanism in that the properties begin to degrade before
any measurable flaw can be detected. However, once cracks are
formed, creep is a double edged sword because not only is a frac-
ture mechanics flaw present, but it is growing into material around
the crack that is likely also degraded via creep cavities and/or
micro-cracks. Once creep reaches this point of progression, failure
is typically not far behind.
Temper embrittlement is yet another damage mechanism that
can be experienced in higher temperature rotors. Whereas creep
involves diffusion of atomic level vacancies and dislocations, tem-
per embrittlement involves diffusion of certain impurity elements
(i.e., phosphorus, tin, lead, sulfur, arsenic, etc.) to prior austenite
grain boundaries. Here they provide easy fracture paths, lowering
fracture toughness and increasing the fracture appearance transi-
tion temperature (FATT) accordingly. Temper embrittlement typi-
cally occurs in the temperature range of 600F - 1000F, although
degree of embrittlement is a function of exposure temperature
within this range, with the greatest effects occurring in the range
of 600F to 750F, targeting the back ends of the HP and mid-
dle of the IP sections. It seems more than logical that increased
content of tramp elements would increase susceptibility to temper
embrittlement and quantitative chemical analysis can be used to
determine the level of tramp elements in the material. However,
no correlation to composition with which to predict susceptibility
is known to exist.
Certain HP and IP rotors, or at least regions within these rotors,
operate within the temperature ranges at which creep and/or tem-
per embrittlement are potential considerations. In the analysis of
the rotor forgings, in fact, even in the absence of detectable flaws,
these mechanisms may become life-limiting. Every NDE method
and technique, as implemented for a specific application, has an
inherent detection threshold beneath which flaws will not be de-
tected. As the properties degrade, at some point the flaw size need-
ed to grow to failure within some defined operating interval can
fall below the detection threshold of the inspection, at which point
the detection threshold flaw must be considered as the life-limiting
case. Said another way, if a flaw is present just below the detec-
tion threshold, and if that flaw is larger than that needed to grow to
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25-10 Chapter 25
failure within the next duty cycle, then the properties in combina-
tion with a near-detectable flaw become life-limiting and the rein-
spection interval must be shortened to preclude risk of a failure.
25.6 Turbine Disks
For the purposes of this discussion, the disk is divided into three
parts, the hub, which is the relatively large, heavy body, central
part including the bore and keyway, the thinner web section that
extends outward from the hub, and the rim section where the blades
are attached. See Figure 25.6.
Turbine disks are generally susceptible to intergranular stress
corrosion cracking (IGSCC) and are particularly sensitive when
operating in unsuitable steam chemistry. Additionally, and poten-
tially as important as or even more important than operating condi-
tions are the conditions present during shutdown. While cracking
can occur essentially anywhere on the disks, certain areas are
more prone to damage than are other areas. Highly susceptible
areas include those having higher stresses combined with either
high temperature exposure or geometric considerations that tend
to trap contaminants that contribute to the stress corrosion dam-
age progression. This typically means that the blade attachment
regions are prone regardless. All operate at elevate stress because
Fig. 25.6Shrunk-on disk and inspection locations
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 10
of the stress concentrations associated with attachment geometries.
Some operate at temperatures sufficient to cause long term thermal
damage, and others operate in regions where steam conditions are
suitable for the formation of stress corrosion damage.
The other region that is considered highly susceptible to crack-
ing is the bore/keyway region of shrink-assembled disks. The de-
signs of shrunk-on disks typically involve some form of an axial
key at the shrink-fit interface to prevent the disk from rotating rela-
tive to the shaft under upset loading conditions. While the entire
disk is susceptible to IGSCC, the bore is more prone than most
other surfaces because the nominal rotational stress is highest at
the bore. Additionally, because of the stress concentration effect
of the keyway, the keyway surfaces are even more prone to crack-
ing. Another significant factor that can impact IGSCC in the bore
and keyway regions owes to the fact that there is no steam flow
in these regions. While other surfaces exposed to steam flow can
be cleaned of contaminants by the flow, the bore and keyway sur-
faces are not flushed in any way. Consequently, once contaminants
are introduced into these regions, the IGSCC process continues
unabated.
Disks operating at and beyond the phase transformation zone
(PTZ), i.e., where the steam is transforming from dry to wet and
beyond, are particularly prone to IGSCC. For many years, IGSCC
was known as an operative damage mechanism and was considered
to be a function only of steam chemistry and the local operating
conditions, i.e., those conditions present during operation in and
beyond the PTZ. More recently, the process has been better defined
and it now appears that the initiation occurs during unprotected
shutdowns [1]. The droplets and liquid films whichform on the
blade/disk surfaces in and beyond the PTZ during operation do not
initially create damage because neither contains any oxygen, even
in units with hundreds of ppb of oxygen in the steam. However, in
addition to the liquids, deposits of contaminants such as chlorides
can form during operation. During shutdown these deposits are still
present, and if there is no protection the deposits absorb moisture.
Unlike the moisture present during operation, however, this mois-
ture does contain oxygen, and when present in combination with
the deposits of contaminants remaining from operation, become
highly acidic. This environment first breaks down the passivity
on the PTZ surfaces, which leads to pitting. Repetition of the un-
protected shutdown situation eventually leads to a critical pit size
which, during operation in the concentrated liquid film, will grow
into a micro-crack. This micro-crack can then grow (propagate) as
a corrosion-fatigue or stress corrosion crack only during operation
because this is the only time that the stress exists. However, initia-
tion stems directly from unprotected periods of shutdown. If the
turbine and the PTZ are protected with dehumidified air, starting
day one and continuing during subsequent period of shutdown, the
deposits remain dry and therefore do not cause passivity break-
down and pitting. As a consequence there are no initiating centers
for corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking.
Pulling all of these factors together, it means that the most sus-
ceptible disks are the last downstream in the steam flow, typically
the last couple stages in the LP rotors. These disks are also the
largest on the rotors and therefore the ones that can do the most
damage in the event of a catastrophic failure, which can occur if
bore/keyway cracks propagate to a critical size. A failed disk is
shown in the photograph of Figure 25.7.
Turning now to the inspection of shrunk-on disk bores and key-
ways because the cracks occur at inaccessible surfaces, UT is the
only available inspection option unless the rotor is de-stacked, i.e.,
the disks removed to enable implementation of surface inspec-
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-11
Fig. 25.7 Failed turbine disk
tion methods. Because of the cost associated with de-stack and
re-stack, which may even necessitate high speed balancing of the
rotor, inspection with the disks remaining on the shaft is by far the
preferred approach. However, in many cases, the geometries of
the surfaces available for transducer placement often detract from
the effectiveness of the inspection.
Stresses at the bore and keyway are tangential; consequently,
cracks tend to grow in a radial/axial plane. In UT, optimum detec-
tion for cracks at the opposite surface of a component occurs when
the beam is in a plane normal to the corner created by the intersec-
tion of the crack with the component surface. Additionally, the
best approach angle within this plane is within the range of 30 to
60 and best at 45 relative to the corner. For this application, the
beam is therefore optimum when maintained in a radial/circum-
ferential plane and at 45 relative to the ID surface. At the outer
extremes of the hub, some designs have relatively short cylindri-
cal sections that make it easy to accomplish this optimum beam
propagation direction, but only over the lengths of the cylindrical
sections. Looking back to Figure 25.6, it certainly goes without
saying that a beam cannot be maintained in a radial/circumferen-
tial plane under the web section, and other geometry can impact
the effectiveness of the inspection as well. This is not to say that
adequate coverage cannot be achieved. However, going back sev-
eral years when ultrasonic data was presented as a time/amplitude
trace on a CRT (or more recently, digital) screen and when the
ultrasonic beam angle was fixed to a single value for a particu-
lar transducer/wedge combination, achieving high reliability was
very difficult and tedious. On one particular manufacturers de-
signs, the web sections are continually changing contoured radii;
consequently, to best cover the entirety of the bore, a series of
compound curved wedges had to be used, and each applied only
to a single location on the web.
The advent of computer based data acquisition and analysis
systems and the use of linear phased array ultrasonic technology
have resulted in improved flaw detection and sizing in general, and
particularly so for this difficult application. Since this is the first
mention of phased array UT, some brief description of the tech-
nology will be provided before proceeding on the disk inspection
application.
An ultrasonic phased array system includes an array transducer,
which contains multiple, precisely positioned transducer elements
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 11
(the array), an electronic pulser/receiver unit that provides inde-
pendent pulsers and receivers for each of the transducer elements,
and timing circuitry that controls the sequence and the timing in-
tervals (phasing) at which the elements is pulsed. This, as opposed
to the single element of conventional pulse-echo transducers or the
transmit/receive pair of conventional pitchcatch search units. If
some or all of the elements are pulsed sequentially with a small,
yet precise, timing delays imposed one to the next, certain beam
characteristics can be varied, and in fact controlled. A linear array
consists of a number of linear elements, arranged either in a single
row or in a two-dimensional array pattern, while an annular array
is an arrangement of concentric ring elements.
The linear phased array (LPA) technology provides the abili-
ties to steer the ultrasonic beam to angles other than straight in
front of and normal to the transducer element and to focus the
beam at some point along the beam axis. The easiest way to un-
derstand how this works is to view it from a point in front of
the transducer but not on the axis normal to the transducer face.
The propagation time required for each beam to get to that point
from each of the transducer elements can then be calculated based
purely on geometric considerations since the propagation veloc-
ity and the precisely defined element locations within the array
transducer are known. So, if the elements of the array transducer
are pulsed at very precise timing intervals based on the different
propagation times such that all of the beams reach the defined
point at the same time, the beam has effectively been steered in
that direction and focused at the defined position along the beam
direction. All of the beams are in phase and additive at this de-
fined point, but out of phase and destructively interfering else-
where. The timing sequence and delays required to do this are
collectively called the phasing or focal law. By picking another
beam direction and/or another point along beam direction, a simi-
lar calculation can be made, thereby creating a new focal law.
Because these operations are all performed very quickly and ef-
ficiently in the control computer, a series of focal laws can be im-
plemented to sweep the beam through a series of angles at a fixed
increment, for example, 30 through 60 at 1 increment, very
rapidly.
As described above, the linear array is used primarily to influ-
ence beam direction, electronically focus the beam, and/or a com-
bination of the two. A true spatial representation of the linear array
data requires that the data be presented in polar coordinates rather
than the Cartesian plots that are used to present x/y raster scanned
data. The amplitudes at all digitization points along each of the
waveforms are typically presented in colors, thereby creating a 2-
dimensional view in the plane of the swept beam. These plots have
become known as sectorial, or S-scans, because they represent sec-
tors of the cross section of the component in the plane of the beam.
A typical S-scan image is provided in Figure 25.8. In this case,
the scan is of a calibration block containing a stack of side drilled
holes, with a cartoon of the block shown at the left and the S-scan
image to the right to show the relationship between the component
and the resulting S-scan image.
This is the same technology that has been used in the medical
field for many years, babys first fetal picture being a prime exam
ple. However, because of the extreme amounts of data needed to
create such an image, instruments required very high speed pro
cessors, which made them very expensive and limited their use to
medical applications. Advances in processor speed and the corre-
sponding reduction in processor cost have now permitted the entry
of array systems into industrial applications over the past ten years
or so.
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25-12 Chapter 25
Fig. 25.8Ultrasonic linear array S-scan image
of a calibration block containing a series of
side-drilled holes
Now that the inspection technology has been described, atten-
tion can return to the application at hand, inspection of turbine
disk bore and keyway surfaces. Quality inspections are performed
using some form of scanning device to assure complete and ac-
curate coverage of disk. Some scanners are more-or-less crawling
devices that somehow traverse the OD of the disk to transport the
transducer(s) over the various surfaces. More often than not, how-
ever, the scan is accomplished using a fixed transducer positioning
device and by then rolling the rotor to scan the transducer around
the periphery. A scanner of this type is shown in Figure 25.9. Po-
sitioning devices used in this application can be relatively simple,
more-or-less a transducer on a stick. However, such devices are
often not very effective in the tight confines between blade stages
Fig. 25.9Typical transducer positioning device for turbine disk inspection
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 12 Manila Typesetting Company
and proper adjustment of the transducer can be difficult to achieve.
Consequently, the more prevalent design incorporates motor driven
motion axes to properly position the transducer on the surface. The
scanner shown in Figure 25.9 has motor driven raise and lower of
the scan arm, extension along the scan arm, and two rotational axes
at the transducer. Once the transducer is properly positioned, the
rotor rotation is typically provided by power rolls or a large lathe.
Rotational position is acquired along with the ultrasonic data such
that the data can be positionally correlated via an optical encoder
or similar device.
Full automation, digitally recorded data, and full imaging capa-
bilities have significantly enhanced the inspection of turbine disks,
reduced inspection and analysis time, and improved the accuracy
and reliability of the inspections. And the introduction of the LPA
technology described above has further enhanced the process. Fig-
ure 25.10 provides an S-scan LPA image of cracked disk superim-
posed over a dimensionally accurate drawing of the disk. In this
case, the crack extends along the top of the keyway and axially
along the bore of the disk beyond the end of the keyway. The par-
ticular S-scan image was acquired with the transducer on one face
of the disk web. The image clearly shows the nominal responses
from the disk bore and the top of the keyway, plus the cracks ex-
tending from the keyway. Because the data provides an accurate
dimensional representation of the various reflectors, it is possible
not only to detect the presence of a crack, but also to measure its
depth, a very important consideration in the stress and fracture re-
maining life evaluation to follow.
For the remaining life assessment, the geometries of the hub
and web sections of shrunk-on turbine disks vary too radically one
to the next to enable development of any generic life assessment
computer program that would cover any appreciable portion of the
fleet. Consequently, stress and fracture evaluations are typically
performed on a case-by-case basis using general purpose finite ele-
ment analysis programs such as ANSYS.
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-13
Fig. 25.10 Linear phased array S-scan image of
cracked disk keyway
Fig. 25.11Typical fir-tree blade attachment
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 13
25.7  isk Rim Blade Attachment
D
Dovetails
Turbine blades can be attached directly to the rotor shaft or to
the rim of the disks, whether integral or shrunk-fit. This photo-
graph of Figure 25.11 shows an example of one blade attachment
configuration referred to as a fir tree or Christmas tree dovetail
for obvious reasons. Blades attached at the rim of a disk of the fir
tree dovetail attachment design are typically one of two basic de-
signs, an axial entry blade attachment as shown in Figure 25.11, or
a straddle-mount or tangential entry blade attachment. In the axial
entry design, the fir tree configuration is machines in a repeating
pattern axially through the rim of the disk, thereby forming a series
of female slots around the periphery of the rim to accept the blades.
In this configuration, the slots and mating blades can be straight
through the disk rim, straight but at an angle, or curved in passing
through. The general configuration of the fir tree is fully exposed
on both faces of the disk rim, as in Figure 25.11.
In the straddle-mount or tangential-entry design, the fir tree
geometry is machine fully around the periphery of the disk, the
disk forming the male side of the attachment dovetail. The blades
have the mating fir tree dovetail configuration machined up and
into each blade base such that when full engaged on the disk rim,
the blades straddle the rim of the disk. To permit loading of the
blades onto the rim, the dovetail hooks are removed from the rim
for a short segment of the rim sufficient to allow one blade to be
dropped over the loading slot and then moved circumferentially to
engage the dovetail. In this design, the blades are actually referred
to as buckets, and the loading slot on the rim is called the loading
notch. The buckets are loaded sequentially by dropping them over
the notch and then sliding them tangentially until the stage is full
and only the notch remains. A notch block is then pinned between
the buckets located on either side of the notch to keep the buckets
in place and prevent tangential motion during service. Figure 25.12
provides a photograph of a 3-hook straddle-mount dovetail attach-
ment. Loaded blades can be seen to the extreme left and right of
the photograph, with the blades between removed to expose the fir
tree dovetail geometry and the loading notch.
Fig. 25.12Straddle-mount, tangential entry
buckets and rim with loading notch showing
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25-14 Chapter 25
There are other designs as well, for example a tangential entry
design in which the dovetail on the disk rim forms the female side
of the attachment and the male side is on the blades. However,
these are found more prevalently on relatively small industrial tur-
bines and infrequently in the turbines built for commercial power
generation. The vast majority of the US fleet involves one of the
two designs presented above at lease on most, if not all stages.
Within the majority of the US fleet, there is one exception
found frequently on LP rotors. That is, on the last stage and some-
times last two stages of certain LP rotors, a pinned blade attach-
ment configuration has been used extensively and is still in use.
In this design, a series of side-by-side, parallel slots are machined
fully around the disk rim. The slots are initially narrow at the slot
bottoms with transitions at different radial positions to form wider
slots and narrower plates toward the OD of the arrangement. The
buckets have matching fingers extending from beneath the bucket
foil and into the rim slots. Holes are then drilled axially through the
disk rim plate fingers, and the bucket fingers and pins are inserted
to hold the buckets in place.
Exceptions also typically exist on the first few stages of HP sec-
tions, all of the HP stages in some designs, and typically, some of
the entry stages in reheat IP sections. This encompasses the smaller
blades, located at much smaller diameters, where disk, per se, is
therefore not needed. In such case, the blades are typically attached
directly to the shaft proper without the radial extension of a disk.
In such case, the shaft typically provides the female geometry of
the attachment and the blade has the male attachment geometry.
Designs encountered routinely included T-slots and fir tree slots
directly into the shaft OD.
To this point, the only damage mechanisms presented for the
disks have been related to stress corrosion cracking, and it is clear
that this mechanism is important only for the last few stages of
the LP that operate in or past the PTZ. This mechanism was dis-
cussed earlier primarily in the context of the bore/keyway crack-
ing. However, the same considerations apply equally for the blade
attachments for the stages that operate in or past the PTZ. Crack-
ing typically occurs in the inside radii at the corners of the fir tree
dovetail hooks on the disk side of the attachment and propagate ei-
ther across the fir tree or more radially across the hook. Such crack-
ing occurs in both the axial-entry and straddle-mount designs in the
appropriate wet stages. Figure 25.13 shows a cracked dovetail in a
typical tangential-entry, straddle-mount blade attachment dovetail.
Fig. 25.13Wet fluorescent MT indication of a
cracked dovetail hook
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 14 Manila Typesetting Company
Cracking also occurs in the finger-pin design, in which cracks can
occur at the bottoms of the slots in the disks, around the pin holes,
and at the geometry transitions along the sides of the slots.
But corrosion-related cracking mechanisms are not the only ones
possible in the blade attachment dovetails. Unfortunately, creep
and temper embrittlement are not only possible in the rotor body
but also in the high temperature blade attachments. Consequently,
inspection and condition assessment are not limited to just the last
few stages in the LP rotor blade attachments. In the first few stages
of the HP and also the first few stages of reheat IP turbines, tem-
peratures are adequate to develop high temperature creep and/or
temper embrittlement, particularly given the accumulated service
hours that the majority of the fleet has now experienced.
Each of these variations on blade attachment configuration
presents its own inspection challenges. Starting with the tangential-
entry, straddle-mount design, this inspection is typically not too
difficult if implemented using the LPA UT inspection technology.
Because each hook represents a potential crack initiation site, each
must be inspected independently. The inspection is performed by
introducing a UT beam from the side of the disk immediately be-
neath the blade. The beam is directed up into and across the dove-
tail to the opposite side at the appropriate beam angle to address a
given hook directly. Prior to the availability of linear phased array
UT, this meant that an assessment had to be performed to define
the geometry of the underlying dovetail configuration and then
carefully select the appropriate fixed beam angle and transducer
position on the side of the disk for optimum interrogation of each
hook. From there, implementation was merely a matter of imple-
menting each of the inspections from each side of the disknot a
terribly challenging undertaking, but certainly tedious and time-
consuming.
With the introduction of the LPA technology, this inspection can
now be performed very quickly and effectively, and with much
greater reliability and sizing precision. Transducer placement is es-
sentially the same as for the fixed angle inspectionson the side of
the disk beneath the blade attachment, with the beams directed up
and into the dovetail hooks on the opposite side of the attachment.
However, the ability to sweep the beam makes it much easier to
infer the geometry and to establish the most effective transducer
position. The real time imaging capability of the LPA technology
makes it possible to perform some manual scanning to define the
most optimum transducer location along the face of the available
test surface, and the resulting image provides instant recognition
of the associated dovetail geometry to the trained operator. Ad-
ditionally, each side of each disk dovetail can be accomplished
in a single scan pass around the disk owing to the beam sweeping
capabilities of LPA, which results in significant time savings. Fig-
ure 25.14 provides an LPA S-scan image of a typical tangential-
entry, straddle-mount dovetail design having significant cracking.
The image is superimposed over a sketch of the geometry to assist
with recognition of the various reflectors. In this image, the more
significant reflections are from the tapered geometry of the hooks,
while the numbered smaller reflections are from the cracks, which
are located on geometric features of the dovetail that produce no
reflections unless cracks are present.
Blade attachments that enter the blades directly into contoured
slots in the shaft, i.e., smaller blades stages in the HP and IP sec-
tions, are inspected using the same protocol except that the ultra-
sound enters from available surfaces on the shaft between the blade
stages and is directed inward toward the dovetails. This inspection
is made difficult only by the limited space for transducer placement
and manipulation between the stages. Often, special transducers
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-15
Fig. 25.14Typical LPA S-scan image of cracked dovetails
and transducer wedges are required to enable inspection from very
limited and often complex configured surfaces. Higher frequencies
are typically used to increase resolution, keeping in mind that the
entirety of the geometry of the attachment is downsized signifi-
cantly relative to the typical straddle-mount designs, and the ultra-
sonic propagation distances are reduced, as well.
Inspection of the exposed faces of the axial-entry design can be
accomplished using appropriate surface inspection methods, pri-
marily MT or ET. However, cracks are not always present only at
the exposed faces, but can initiate away from these surfaces where
detection is much more difficult and requires subsurface inspec-
tion methods and techniques. Ultrasonic inspection has become the
standard inspection approach for this application. However, axial-
entry blade attachment dovetails present a significant inspection
challenge, even when utilizing the LPA technology. The inspec-
tion is complicated by the fact that the geometries of available test
surfaces for transducer placement can and do vary significantly
from rotor to rotor and from one disk to the next on the same rotor.
In general, for this design the disk web is relatively thin and the
disk rim section typically is much wider. From a design viewpoint,
the idea is to reduce the mass acting on the hub to the degree pos-
sible to minimize bore/keyway stresses as possible, yet to provide
sufficient web to adequately support the rim and blade loads. Addi-
tionally, where stages involve relatively small, low mass blades, a
single disk can support multiple blade stages, in fact up to three per
disk. Going all the way back to Figure 25.6, which depicts a disk
associated with axial-entry blade attachments, this particular disk
would support two stages of blades and has tapered sides beneath
the disk rim section. Other configurations might involve radii on
the underside of the rim or an elevated rim with straight, parallel
sides for some distance beneath the rim before the contour to the
relatively thin web starts.
The best ultrasonic approach for these attachments involves in-
troduction of the beam from the underside and/or sides of the rim
section, with the beam looking up through the rim at the dovetail.
This involves any number of contoured wedges needed to match the
many different surface contours that might be encountered during
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 15 Manila Typesetting Company
an inspection. And the inspection may involve variable axial angu-
lation of the beam or circumferential angulation, or some of each,
depending on the exact disk configuration and the crack location
and orientation.
Moreover, even after having addressed the various test surface
configurations and optimum beam angulation requirements, the in-
termittent nature of the blade dovetails as they pass the transducer
during a rotational scan means that the data analysis must be per-
formed on a pattern recognition basis. And, there is a question re-
lated to the number of beam angles required to cover the geometry
properly. Going back to the days of fixed angle UT, the possible
combinations of beam angle and transducer location were almost
endless, meaning many transducer/wedge combinations and many
scans resulting directly in significant inspection duration. By com-
parison, for the tangential-entry, straddle-mount design, the geom-
etry is constant within the circumferential scan and limited to two
or three fixed locations to interrogate, i.e., two or three hooks. In
the axial-entry design, however, the geometry changes in a direc-
tion essentially normal to the circumferential scan direction, so it is
difficult to define the number of beam angles required to cover the
geometry properly. So, more is better. Then, there is the question
of whether to introduce the beam along the geometry (i.e., axially),
or into the geometry (i.e., circumferentially), or both.
The LPA technology simplifies this considerably, and the op-
timized inspection typically utilizes a combination of the two:
beams angulated axially and beams angulated circumferentially,
both introduced during a circumferential scan. For the latter, a vari-
ety of fixed axial interrogation angles should be performed to cover
the full axial length of the attachment dovetail. Alternatively, two
dimensional arrays can be used to steer the beam both axially and
circumferentially. Regardless, because the scan is circumferential
and the geometry is machined axially across the rim, the resulting
data represents intermittent, yet sequential passage by the dove-
tails. Consequently, data analysis is primarily performed on the
basis of pattern recognition, i.e., looking for response(s) that do
not fit the typical pattern created as the dovetails pass. Because
so many beam angles and so many crack locations are possible,
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25-16 Chapter 25

Fig. 25.15 LPRimLife finite element models of two different dovetail types, tangential-entry (left)
and curved axial-entry (right)

data analysis can be a very time consuming, tedious undertaking.
Because of the generation of a large number of beam angles, the
LPA technology can produce a huge amount of data very rapidly
and very reliably. However, sorting through all of the data looking
for relevant indications can be a very detailed and time-consuming
process.
Remaining life assessment for disk rim dovetails can be as de-
manding an undertaking as the inspections, owing to the large
number of different geometries that may be encountered. The
state-of-the-art for the LP disk rim analysis of SCC in LP blade
stages at and beyond the PTZ is the EPRI LPRimLife compu-
ter code. This program includes geometry modeling leading to
finite element analysis for any of the geometric configurations
comprising the vast majority of those currently in service, includ-
ing: the tangential-entry, straddle-mount; the straight axial-entry;
the curved axial-entry; and, the dovetail finger plates. Figure 25.15
shows finite element meshes generated within LPRimLife for
typical tangential-entry, straddle-mount and the curved axial-entry
blade attachment designs, while Figure 25.16 shows a model of the
pinned plate dovetails.
On the various fir tree dovetail designs, one of the prime con-
siderations that must be factored into the analysis, and which is
integral to the LPRimLife program, is stress redistribution. As a
crack grows, the cracked hook loses capacity to carry load; con-
sequently, the load must be redistributed to other hooks on the fir
tree dovetail. The LPRimLife program includes consideration for

Fig. 25.16 LPRimLife finite element model of the pinned plate attachments

ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 16 Manila Typesetting Company 11/25/2010 05:57PM

 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-17
both initiation and crack growth, and it is extremely important to
consider the impact of redistributed stresses on initiation times and
on subsequent crack growth rates at other hooks, and upon dimin-
ished growth rate because of lowered stress at the initial crack. This
analysis is extremely complex in execution, requiring an iterative
process at very fine crack extension intervals to properly assess this
primary consideration as it impacts remaining life.
One outcome of an analysis can be that the worst (i.e., deepest
or biggest) crack in a dovetail does not represent the worst case
condition. Consider a dovetail design having three hooks, as an
example. If only one hook is cracked, that means that the other
hooks are still in the initiation stage and can continue to support ad-
ditional load redistributed from the cracked hook. This might take
significant time, allowing continued operation over an extended
period. In another case, if all three hooks have cracks, even small
cracks, at the same position along the dovetail (i.e., stacked), then
all have passed initiation and are in the growth mode. In such case,
the remaining life may well be less than for the large, single-hook
crack. So, the analyst must understand these interactions and care-
fully choose the crack conditions to analyze such that the worst
case condition is defined during the analysis. The natural tendency
is to pick the largest crack and analyze that, but in this case, the
largest crack may not be the most life limiting case.
Another prime consideration in the analysis of tangential-
entry, straddle-mount dovetails is the stress analysis around the
notch block. The hooks immediately adjacent to the notch block
are prime locations for crack initiation, typically ahead of other
regions around the periphery, due to elevated stress associated
with the stress singularity created by the notch in addition to the
added load of the notch block being supported by the blades on
either side. This is not always the worst case crack location, as lo-
cal machining variations and localized exposure history may cause
cracking elsewhere ahead of the notch block region. Consequently,
comprehensive inspection should not be waived and just the area
around the notch block tested. However, the tendency is for the
notch block area to initiate first; consequently, this is a good loca-
tion to concentrate initial inspection efforts.
25.8 Solid (Unbored) TurbineRotors
As alluded to earlier, some older turbine rotors were made with-
out bore holes. Additionally, modern steelmaking and forging
practices have now made it possible to make forgings for which the
benefits of lowering the central stress via elimination of the stress
concentrating bore typically outweigh the potential for having an
undetected critical flaw in the forging. The compound effects of
lowering the stress and increasing the tolerable flaw size simple
based on the difference between a surface and subsurface flaw in-
crease the critical flaw size to the point that it is simply not likely
to occur by modern practices.
For the older unbored rotors, the need for periodic inspection is
obvious. They can contain significant flaws and clusters that can
link up to eventually form critical flaws. Unfortunately, failure
of modern solid forgings is not totally unheard of; consequently,
owners seek to have these rotors inspected as well. Inspection of
these rotors is not a trivial undertaking, and even under the best of
circumstances and when using the most comprehensive and effec-
tive inspection approaches available, the best that can be accom-
plished is a partial inspection.
Access and the ability to direct beams into the material at the
appropriate angles for detection of the more critical radialaxial
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 17 Manila Typesetting Company
flaws impose the most restrictive limitations. Consider, for exam-
ple a built up LP turbine rotor having a central shaft and assembled
disks such as shown in Figure 25.2. This certainly would not be a
prevalent design, and such a rotor may not even existsolid shaft
with assembled disksbut it is useful to make a point. In such case,
there would be very few, if any, locations along the body of the ro-
tor at which an ultrasonic beam could be introduced into the shaft
material. In the more likely cases in which the involved rotors have
integral disks, access to OD surfaces appropriate for launching the
ultrasound is still very limited, typically to the small lands between
the disks and the sides of the disks themselves. When using the
surfaces between disks, the inspection is often further complicated
by the presence of relatively narrow lands and grooves placed there
for sealing purposes. When using the sides of the disks themselves,
the geometries may well complicate the inspection because the
transducer wedges must be contoured to fit. Consequently, for any
but flat sides on the disks, special wedges may be required.
Regardless, even for locations where appropriate transducer
placement can be accomplished, an optimum inspection for radial
axial flaws is achieved only in the cross sectional plane of the trans-
ducerthat is, directly under the transducer. For locations axially
removed from this plane, for example, under the disk center, some
level of coverage can be achieved using beam spread. However,
beam intensity decreases with increasing distance from the beam
axis, so sensitivity diminishes accordingly. Additionally, for the
flaw of interest, i.e., the radialaxial flaw, the reflectivity of a given
flaw in the direction of the transducer decreases due to its orienta-
tion relative to the beam direction. Together, these factors mean
that reflection amplitude for a given flaw decreases away from the
cross sectional plane of the transducer, and the wider the disk, the
more significant the sensitivity reduction. In some cases involv-
ing relatively wide disks, inspection beneath the disk center sim-
ply cannot be accomplished using single transducer, pulse-echo
techniques. Even if the beam angle is appropriately modified such
that beam intensity is maintained, the directionality of the reflec-
tion makes detection of the radialaxial flaw less than optimum. In
such case, the only option is to use a transmitter on one side of the
disk and a receiver appropriately positioned on the opposite side
to receive the reflected signal. This then introduces the necessity
to coordinate the positions and motion of two independently held
transducers.
For the narrower disks, there are ways to compensate for the
reduced sensitivity effects, for example by simply increasing gain.
However, there are other complications that cannot be accounted.
The way to best assess the position of a reflector is to scan it un-
til the peak response is obtained, which generally means that the
flaw is then located on the peak intensity point within the beam,
i.e., the beam axis. On these rotors, the ability to scan axially is
typically limited severely by the geometry; consequently, for any
fixed beam angle the exact axial position of the reflector remains
unknown and the appropriate gain increase needed to compensate
for its off-axis position therefore cannot be defined.
There is also the possibility that the reflector can be offset radi-
ally, i.e., away from the rotor centerline. The same considerations
apply for these. Looking first only within the cross sectional plane
of the transducer and considering only a straight, radial beam, a
radialaxial flaw that is offset significantly from the rotor centerline
is more aligned with the beam than normal to it as the transducer
passes over it; consequently, sensitivity to this flaw is significantly
diminished because of its orientation. By comparison, the same
reflector located at or near the rotor centerline comes into a plane
normal or near normal to the beam at two positions within the scan
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25-18 Chapter 25
around the rotor. To inspect for off-axis, radialaxial flaws, angle
beams are required, and to cover any appreciable radial distance,
multiple angles are required as shown in Figure 25.17. The further
the zone of coverage from the rotor axis, the higher the refracted
angle required for optimum detection.
And then there is the combination of these limitations when at-
tempting to address off-axis, radialaxial flaws that are additionally
under the disk and away from the cross-sectional plane of trans-
ducer placement. Compound refraction of the beam away from the
rotor axis and pitched to direct it under the disk is required to detect
flaws that are located in the rotor.
So, from all of these, it can be seen that a good inspection will
require multiple angles radially and axially from all access loca-
tions and typically implemented in all combinations, plus pos-
sibly pitchcatch arrangements for some areas. It is easy to see
that the inspection can become very complicated and very time-
consuming to implement. Fortunately, the LPA technology dis-
cussed previously as implemented for turbine disks can also
be used here to simplify and streamline this inspection as well.
Certainly, it is feasible and relatively straight forward to imple-
ment the various radial angle beam inspections in the plane of the
transducer, i.e., those shown in Figure 25.17, during a single scan
by utilizing the beam steering capabilities of a single dimensional
linear array. By adding a refracting wedge that pitches the beam
appropriately in the axial direction under the disk, and then using
the same steering process to steer the beam radially, the inspec-
tion under the disk can be accomplished. As the axial length of
the disk increases, multiple axial angles may be required. Alterna-
tively, a 2-dimensional array can be used to steer both axially and
radially.
An optional or supplemental technique that can be used in cer-
tain situations involves introduction of the beam from the sides
of the disks. This is relatively easy to implement on disks having
flat sides and particularly effective when they are tapered, getting
narrower toward the OD of the disk. In this case, the beam in the
first introduced radially toward the rotor axis and steered axially
using the array, as shown in Figure 25.18. Then, to cover for
Fig. 25.17Multiple angle beam inspection for
off-axis planar reflectors
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 18
Fig. 25.18Inspection from the disk side surfaces
off-axis flaws, the transducer can be skewed somewhat and then
the axial steering repeated during a second scan around the disk.
Several skew angles may be required to cover fully adequate ra-
dial depth from the rotor centerline, and the inspection should be
repeated from both faces as shown and in both skew directions.
As with the other inspections defined earlier, the axial sweep and
beam skew +/ can all be accomplished concurrently using a 2-D
array.
Once the inspection data have been acquired and processed and
the flaws defined as best possible, the rotor analysis follows the
same procedure using the same computer program as defined for
bored rotors. Typically this is done using the EPRI SAFER pro-
gram or similar.
25.9 Generator Rotors
Turning now from the turbines to the generators, those having
central bore holes are inspected with the same boresonic equip-
ment and following the same inspection protocols and procedures
as those used for turbine boresonic inspection. Disassembly and
reassembly of the rotor is a bit more involved than for the tur-
bine rotors, which merely require bore plug removal to access the
bore surface. The generator rotor bore contains insulated conduc-
tors that carry the DC current to the rotor windings. There must be
some means of getting the DC to the rotor windings, and the bore
provides a convenient path to get the excitation from the exterior,
past the seals, and past the bearing journals. Once beyond the seals
and journals, conductive radial studs bring the DC to the shaft OD
where additional conductors contained typically in wedged slots
running along the shaft OD connect from the studs to the rotor
windings. These conductors are insulated from each other and from
the ground potential of the rotor itself, and are typically installed as
a completed assembly. Once the bore plug has been removed from
the collector or exciter end of the rotor, the insulated and sealed
radial stud components must be removed, and then the insulated
axial conductor assembly can be removed.
The axial conductor assembly extends into the rotor only to
a point somewhat inside the bearing journal and not to the rotor
body. This rotor section is typically much smaller in diameter and
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-19
therefore operates at much lower stress and, because the sections
are typically uninterrupted cylindrical shapes, these area can alter-
natively be inspected conveniently from the OD. Consequently, a
plug can be installed in the bore from the turbine end of the rotor,
and a bore inspection of the full body length can be conducted
without disassembly of the leads. This saves the expense of re-
moving the additional rotor end plug, the radial stud assemblies,
and the axial conductors. It eliminates the need for certain replace-
ment parts and for a new replacement bore plug. And an effective
inspection can be conducted from the OD toward the shaft end
where the leads are located. But the plug must be 100% reliable
in containing the honing oil and honing debris and containing the
couplant fluids used during the ultrasonic inspection; otherwise,
the leads will have to be removed and reinsulated after the fact,
potentially extending the outage.
Additionally, some manufacturers install steel filler bars in the
generator rotor bores over the length of the body section to replace
the magnetic material removed by placement of the bore. Because
the magnetic flux lines pass through the rotor body, the theory is
that the use of the flux bars improves the magnetic efficiency of the
rotor. Some manufacturers adhere to this practice, while others do
not. Where flux bars are present, obviously these must be removed
to provide access to the bore for honing and inspection.
Otherwise, inspection of a generator rotor from the bore is iden-
tical to inspection of a turbine rotor. Typically, the generator is
longer than the turbines, somewhat longer than the LP rotors, and
significantly longer than the HPs, IPs, and even HP/IP combined
rotors, so inspections take a bit more time. Additionally, there is
typically a step in the bore near the end of the axial conductors,
the nominal bore being of a diameter selected to best clear indi-
cations and the conductor bore being of a fixed diameter set by
standard conductor sizes. Any steps and transitions take special
bore preparation processes, and the different sizes may require
that some of the fixtures be changed to accommodate and/or re
calibration of the test system. So, additional time must be pro-
vided accordingly.
Inspection of unbored generator rotors, however, is an alto-
gether different application than described for turbines. Winding
slots run from one end of the body to the other over more than
half of the rotor peripherylikely closer to 65% - 70%, leaving
some 30% or so comprising the poles, which in most cases do not
have slots. Even in the pole sections, some designs include ammor
tisseur windings, axial conductors that are there to carry surface
currents cause by electrical fault conditions, including motoring.
While the ammortisseur slots, if present, are shallow and leave suf-
ficient space between for spot inspections, the winding slots run on
the order of six inches or so deep, leaving narrow teeth between
that are typically on the order of -inch or so wide at the narrowest
point. So, inspection of the rotor central material from the slotted
sections of the rotor is effectively not possible. That is, the thin,
long rotor teeth do not lend themselves to reliable inspection of the
rotor central material. Additionally, the rotor typically has other
machining that interferes with implementation of any meaningful
inspection from the OD, even from the poles. For example, some
manufacturers machine some form of land and grove configuration
along the rotor to increase the surface area for cooling purposes.
In some designs, the lands and grooves as part of the ventilation
delivery design. Even here, though, where the machining is useful
only in the slotted region, because the pattern is produced by turn-
ing the rotor, it is present at the poles as well as the slotted portions.
Figure 25.19 shows an air gap pickup ventilated rotor and a typical
rotor OD machining configuration.
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 19
Fig. 25.19Typical air gap pickup ventilated gen-
erator rotor
For the most part, inspection of a generator rotor from the OD is
very difficult at best, and provides little value because of the limi-
tations imposed by the slots and the surface machining configura-
tions. There are exceptions, but most cases are very difficult.
Limited inspections can be performed on unbored generator ro-
tors during rewinds, when the slots are stripped of their windings.
Special probe wedges can be contoured to fit the slot bottoms, thus
enabling inspection of the body length over much of the volume.
If including beam spread in the equation, and if performed using
LPA swept beams, this approach attains approximately 75%-80%
coverage of the rotor volume. If inspection can additionally be
conducted from the OD surface of the rotor at the magnetic poles,
then the remainder of the rotor has good coverage as well. Other-
wise, the limited inspection from the slot bottoms is the best that
can be achieved.
Analysis of a generator rotor is typically much simpler than
that of a turbine for several reasons. First the geometries are
relatively uniform, so fewer sections need to be modeled. For
example, the rotor body cross section is the same from one end
to the other and can be modeled as a single section. Turbines, on
the other hand, have numerous sections, disk sizes, blade loads,
etc., each requiring geometry-specific analysis. Second, because
generator rotors operate much cooler than the turbines, thermal
stresses and transient thermal events are negligible. These typi-
cally are not even considered in the analysis unless specifically
analyzing the impact of significant transient events or fault con-
ditions. And finally, because the generator rotors operate much
cooler, thermal degradation mechanisms, such as creep and tem-
per embrittlement, do not pose any form of a threat. Aside from
these factors that make the generator rotor analyses much sim-
pler, the treatment of the flaws is performed exactly the same as
for the turbine rotors.
25.10 Generator Rotor Retaining
Rings
Retaining rings are high strength ring forgings that are assem-
bled onto each end of AC generator rotors to support the rotor end
turn windings. The rotor windings are contained over the length of
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25-20 Chapter 25
Fig. 25.20Generator rotor retaining ring and supported end turn windings
the rotor body in axial slots machined into the rotor body. Provi-
sions are included in the configuration of the rotor teeth, i.e., the
material remaining between the slots, for wedges to contain and
support the windings in the slots. At the ends of the rotor body, the
winding coils exit the slots and wrap around the solid pole sections
of the rotor, re-entering a symmetrical slot on the opposite side of
the pole. The retaining rings support the windings in the end turn
region where they are otherwise unsupported and cannot support
their own centrifugal load in the cantilevered configuration. Fig
ure25.20 shows the coil/slot/ring arrangement. The retaining ring
is assembled in all cases using an interference fit which places the
ring under tensile stress when at standstill. Most often, the shrink
fit is between the end of the rotor body and the inboard end of the
retaining ring, although some limited designs place the shrink fit
at the outboard end of the retaining ring, typically onto a fluted
section of the rotor. Typical designs also include a circumferential
key assembly at or near the shrink fit region to prevent axial move-
ment of the ring. This can be a separate key in a machined keyway,
scalloped bayonet fit, mating step, or others. The shrink fit at the
nose of the retaining ring and the circumferential key can be seen
in Figure 25.20.
The shrink fit is designed such that the ring maintains intimate
contact with the rotor even under maximum overspeed and electri-
cal fault heating conditions such that full and continuous support
of the winding coils is maintained at all times, even under the most
extreme fault conditions. The shrink fit interface also provides a
current path for surface currents circulating under certain abnormal
operating conditions, and must maintain contact to minimize arc-
ing and subsequent related damage. Some designs include specific
provisions, i.e., specific additional current conductors under the
rings to carry these surface currents, while others rely solely on the
retaining ring and conduction through the fit.
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 20 Manila Typesetting Company
The rings used on modern generator rotors are typically made
from a high strength, non-magnetic, austenitic steel alloy which
is one of several possibly compositions. These rings operate in
the magnetic field created by the generator rotor and therefore are
heated magnetically and thus producing heating losses. The use
of non-magnetic material minimizes the heating losses and so in-
creases generator efficiency. Domestic generator manufacturers
first used non-magnetic materials during the 1940s, and continue
to use non-magnetic materials to the present. Over the years,
catastrophic retaining ring failures have occurred occasionally,
and for some non-magnetic ring failures, the investigations that
ensued found the failures to be attributable to intergranular stress
corrosion cracking (IGSCC). In addition, vast amounts of related
research have shown that IGSCC can occur even in the presence
of relatively benign environments, including moisture. Following
the discovery that IGSCC is an operative damage mechanism un-
der certain exposure conditions, this damage mechanism quickly
became a major concern. One alloy in particular, containing nom-
inally 18% Manganese and 5% Chromium (generically known
as 18-5), received a great deal of attention, in fact the major-
ity, because of the large number of rings made from this alloy.
This alloy was used extensively by most generator manufacturers
world-wide for many years. In fact, it was the industry standard;
consequently, thousands of the 18-5 rings have been placed into
service.
The history of retaining ring failures shows that there have been
very few domestic failures involving the 18-5 material and attrib-
utable to IGSCC, although failures of this alloy have been more
pervasive world-wide. In a study conducted by EPRI in the early
1980s, a total of 39 failures were found to have occurred on retain-
ing rings in general world-wide [2]. Of these, nine were of the 18-5
alloy. Of the nine 18-5 ring failures, two were not really retain-
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-21
ing rings but zone cooling rings that additionally had pre-existing
machining tears, two occurred in Europe in water-cooled rotors
that had water leaking directly onto the rings (water cooled rotors
are not offered by domestic manufacturers), one was caused by
condensation during prolonged, improper storage, one was attrib-
utable to an overspeed incident and not IGSCC, one was attributed
to low ductility material and not IGSCC, and one involved a crack
that was discovered during an inspection but not associated with a
failure in the normal definition of failure. This accounts for eight of
the defined failures, leaving a single 18-5 retaining ring failure that
is germane to a discussion of IGSCC in rings of designs typically
implemented by domestic manufacturers. And, even this failure
had extenuating circumstances including low gas temperature, op-
eration of the ring in the cold gas (not typical), high moisture con-
tent, and lower bound fracture toughness [3]. Other failures may
have occurred since, but the noted EPRI study is the last known
comprehensive study that has been published, so information on
more recent failures is sketchy at best.
So, a reasonable question might bewith thousands of rings
in services in the US alone for many, many years, why only one
IGSCC failure? The simple answer is that moisture exposure is
typically not that usual an event. If we look at the generator as a
whole and specifically at the retaining rings, in general the rings
in most typical designs operate at elevated temperature. Typical
operating temperatures are, in fact, well above the point at which
moisture can condense on the rings, even if the cooling gas con-
tains significant moisture. One could then speculate that exposure
must occur when the machines are shut down, whether remain-
ing closed or open to the environment. All available literature on
this topic suggests that this is most likely the case. In one possible
exposure scenario, consider the operating generator that has mois-
ture in the cooling gas when it is shut down and goes on standby.
This could definitely lead to exposure. Or consider the rotor sitting
unprotected on an outdoor turbine deck. An earlier study, for ex-
ample, showed that most of plants where damage in 18-5 rings has
been found are outdoor units located in high humidity regions of
the countryalong the southeastern seaboard and gulf coast [4].
So that at least implies that the exposure occurred when the rotors
were sitting on the turbine decks.
But laboratory experiments and published data indicate rapid
growth rates, so even under the limited time exposures experienced
during standby, why have we found many damaged rings, but gen-
erally having relatively minor damage, and only one failure? One
published report addresses a potential re-incubation time [4]. The
laboratory data shows that crack growth stops when the moisture
is removed. However, when reintroduced to an existing crack, sev-
eral hundred hours are required before the crack begins to grow
again. Perhaps, this provides the explanationperhaps the rings
simply do not see sufficient exposure, over sufficient durations,
and at sufficient frequency to grow crack to failure.
None of this is meant to imply that this problem is trivial or that
it should be ignored. This is a very demanding application for any
material, requiring extremely high strength of up to 180 ksi yield
strength or possibly even a bit higher, good fracture toughness on
the order of 150 ksi root inch, high corrosion and stress corrosion
resistance, and appropriately low magnetic permeability. In the
wake of the discovery that these rings are susceptible to IGSCC,
a new alloy having 18 Manganese, 18 Chromium composition
(18-18) was developed as a suitable replacement. Ring suppliers
and generator manufacturers quickly adopted recommendations
for wholesale ring replacement, an expensive proposition consid-
ered by many to be unsupported by the failure history. However,
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 21 Manila Typesetting Company
for those not able or inclined to implement appropriate mitigation
measures with which to enable continued operation of 18-5 rings,
replacement likely is the most reliable and least involved solu-
tion. Still, many owners have not been inclined to replace rings,
particularly given the relatively exemplary operating history. As
a result, through the mid- and late-1980s, EPRI invested heavily
in related research directed toward justifiable avoidance of ring
replacement based on valid condition assessment and effective
moisture mitigation. The EPRI program was directed toward all
aspects of an effective asset management approach. It addressed
inspection, moisture monitoring, moisture mitigation, and analyti-
cal assessment protocols, with the overall objective of providing
viable options to the utility owner-operator to allow continued
safe, reliable operation of 18-5 rings. This research led to the fol-
lowing advancements:
effective non-destructive evaluation procedures with which to
detect extremely small flaws, well smaller than those required
to cause sudden failure;
effective equipment and procedures to ensure that rings are
maintained at all times in appropriately dry environments;
monitoring systems with which to assess ongoing environ-
mental conditions, make the appropriate adjusts if/as nec-
essary, and discontinue operation when unable to control
properly;
quantification of the actual crack depths necessary for sudden
failure and demonstration that they are relatively largefor
example, even the low fracture toughness of the single IGSCC
failure described above withstood a crack 0.6-inch deep 1.1-
inch long before it failed; and,
development of a probabilistic life assessment computer
code (RRing-Life) to statistically account for all of the fac-
tors potentially impacting crack initiation, crack growth, and
failure.
Ring replacement, which is very expensive to the owner, can be
avoided in many cases except those in which flaws have already
grown to excessive sizes or where other specific conditions cannot
be maintained within acceptable limits. Effective non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) provides the means to assess current condition
in terms of existing cracks and/or less dramatic evidence of prior
moisture exposure. Moisture mitigation procedures can be imple-
mented to minimize future exposure to hostile environments. And,
probabilistic condition assessment provides a realistic means to
assess the potential for crack initiation and growth and for ring
failure.
From an owners viewpoint, inspections are ideally conducted
with the rings assembled to the rotors in order to avoid ring re-
moval and reassembly costs. From an NDE standpoint, it is also
advantageous to perform the inspections with the rings assembled
to the rotor because of the shrink-fit that tends to hold cracks open
and make them more readily detectable. The materials used for
retaining rings acquire their properties via work hardening, typi-
cally mandrel expansion. This process leaves the resulting forging
in a state of relatively high compressive residual stress, likely in
the tens of thousands of pounds per square inch (psi). On the other
hand, when assembled to the rotor, shrink fit stresses are highly
tensile, on the order of 80, 90, 100 or even greater psi tensile, de-
pending on the rotor size. The change in stress from highly tensile
to moderately high compressive when the ring is removed from the
rotor has a crack closure affect that profoundly impacts the ability
to detect the cracks using ultrasonic techniques. When an interface
(gap) that provides the acoustic impedance mismatch required to
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25-22 Chapter 25
cause a reflection is reduced to some value that is a fraction of the
UT wavelength, the sound merely passes through and beyond the
gap. Squeezing the cracks closed has this affect. Consequently, ul-
trasonic inspection (UT) approaches, performed with the rings on
the rotor and under tensile shrink fit stress, provide the most effec-
tive means of inspecting inaccessible surfaces.
EPRI research [3] clearly demonstrated that the reliability of
detecting any specific crack in retaining rings is appreciably en-
hanced through the application of multiple inspection methods
and modes. Clearly, the detectability of a crack is affected by
many variablessize, shape, morphology, orientation, location,
and so on. One of the most likely locations for cracking to oc-
cur is along the edges of the rotor teeth in the shrink fit region.
This is because the moisture, when present, tends to wick along
the coil/slot-wall interface, where it then contacts the ring at the
tooth edges. Tooth edges, unfortunately, also constitute ultrasonic
reflectors in and of themselves; consequently, it can be difficult at
times to distinguish between pure geometry and geometry with a
co-located crack. This is true of conventional, contact shear wave
(S-wave) UT techniques, which are typically used for the basic
detection scans on the rings. However, other techniques provide
for improved discrimination between the two reflectors and are
typically used to supplement the conventional inspection for this
exact reason.
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) UT is a dual transducer ul-
trasonic technique that places the two transducers on opposite
sides of area of interest, directed toward each other. One is the
transmitter and the other is the receiver, and reflector depth be-
low the test surface is calculated based on the time of flight us-
ing a simple geometric triangulation algorithm. TOFD relies on
forward-reflected and diffracted responses and therefore does not
respond at tooth edges in the same way as the conventional back-
reflection approaches. And TOFD can discriminate very posi-
tively and reliably between a surface indication (geometry) and
a subsurface indication (crack tip diffraction) via the propagation
time depth calculation. However, TOFD relies on tip diffraction
responses to make this distinction, and these diffraction responses
are generally low in amplitude relative to reflections. Because
cracks are intergranular, they do not always produce sufficiently
coherent tip responses for reliable detection. Consequently, this
technique can miss cracks. However, even so, TOFD still can play
a significant role. TOFD is extremely effective for discrimination
and sizing purposes when it does detect, and can easily be per-
formed as a supplemental inspection at the shrink-fit regions, at
all other geometric discontinuities such as steps and transitions
where cracks are most likely to occur, and as needed in other
locations where indications have been detected during the basic
pulse-echo detection scans to further characterize the indication
source. Other techniques can also be utilized as needed to aid in
flaw discrimination and proper classification including a mode-
converted L-wave (MCLW) UT inspection technique, an inner
surface creeping wave inspection, and focused beam approaches.
Collectively, when implemented properly, these techniques result
in a reliable inspection. The appropriately prepared inspector will
have a number of tools in the toolbox in the way of multiple in-
spection approaches with which to optimize detection reliability
and characterization accuracy.
Regardless which inspections are performed, inspection ef-
fectiveness is dramatically dependent upon full automation. The
used of robotic scanners, effective position manipulation and po-
sition acquisition, digital UT data acquisition, and state-of-the-art
data imaging capabilities significantly enhance the inspections.
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 22 Manila Typesetting Company
Manual inspections are very difficult and reliability suffers
appreciably.
As compared to UT, eddy current (ET) inspection does not suf-
fer loss of sensitivity due to crack closure. When the surface cracks
are squeezed shut under high compressive stress, the oxide that has
formed on the faces of the crack serves as an electrical insulator
such that, even when the faces of the crack are pressed together,
there is still an electrical discontinuity which ET picks up very
readily. PT inspection is about the only other option, but because
PT relies on capillary action to pull the penetrant into the crack, PT
does suffer from crack closure. Therefore, for removed rings, ET
provides a superior inspection option.
For outer surface inspection of assembled rings, PT and ET pro-
vide the two options. Even when the rings are assembled, damage
forms on retaining rings tend to be tight and not particularly condu-
cive to rudimentary PT approaches. The application of a visible PT
inspection using the typical procedures appropriate for these PT
systems is simply not adequate for reliable detection. For optimum
results, the PT should be lipophilic and non-hygroscopic, such that
the PT in and of itself does not constitute moisture exposure poten-
tial. It should be high resolution, fluorescent, and it should be im-
plemented using lengthy penetrant application and developer dwell
times. Eddy current inspection is also effective on the outer surface
for the inspection of assembled rings. ET can be implemented ei-
ther manually, typically only to corroborate PT indications locally,
or using the same basic data acquisition and imaging system when
testing large areas, in which case, automation is considered neces-
sary. Eddy current arrays are now also available for rapid surface
inspection on retaining rings.
For the analysis of retaining rings, the only available computer
analysis program specifically used to perform remaining life as-
sessments of IGSCC in non-magnetic retaining rings is the EPRI
RRing-Life program. This is a fully integrated program that in-
cludes built-in finite element modeling capabilities with which to
perform stress analyses for specific, generic ring designs. It is a
probabilistic code that provides exposure probabilities based on
detailed assessment of a number of exposure sources. For exam-
ple, the code includes a link to National Weather Service statis-
tics such that the local environmental conditions can be applied
for the location of the unit during machine-open intervals. This is
not exact data, for example, humidity conditions on exact dates,
but statistical representations that provide probabilities of expo-
sure when open to the environment in general for the local cli-
matic conditions. It provides the means to bias this information
based on implementation of specific moisture mitigation provi-
sions applied at the plant or where known exposure events have
occurred. It provides statistical exposure probabilities from spe-
cific events such as cooler leaks and leaks in water-cooled wind-
ings. The program divides the analysis into three basic generator
operational modesrunning, stand-by, and open. Consequently,
it provides the ability to define when the rings are most likely to
see exposure such that maintenance and mitigation dollars can
be spent most effectively. One of the most effective uses of the
program, once all of the modeling is complete and the basic ex-
posure scenarios have been quantified, is to perform sensitivity
studies. The variables can be systematically altered to determine
which are most sensitive to change. Again, by defining those var-
iables that are most sensitive to change, the owner can define the
most effective mitigation program and thereby maximize return
on investment.
A class of magnetic materials was also utilized on older ma-
chines and is still used in some instances, even on new genera-
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-23
tors. For the most part, the primary damage mechanism in these
rings is fatigueprimarily low cycle fatigue due to start/stop op-
eration and possibly high cycle fatigue under limited, abnormal
conditions. However, when discussing fatigue issues in rings,
they apply equally to the non-magnetic alloys as to the magnetic
rings. The magnetic rings just dont appear to suffer IGSCC as
the non-magnetic rings do. One possible high cycle fatigue driver
involves torsional oscillations of the rotor due to electric system
unbalance, both steady state and those related to transient events.
A disturbance on the electrical system puts a sudden torque on the
rotor. Because of the very limited torsional damping in the rotor
system, the torsional oscillations decay slowly and therefore ac-
cumulate many, many cycles on the rotors from a single torsional
event. These can lead to torsional cracking of shafts, excitation of
higher order turbine blade frequencies that can fatigue blades, and
torsional relative motion of shrink assembled components. Years
ago, a shrunk-on turbine disk failed in a unit operating near a steel
mill that was operating an electric furnace. The cracking initiated
by fretting fatigue, but once initiated grew by torsional fatigue.
The transients introduced by the electric furnace were blamed for
the failure. Similarly, a retaining ring failure that occurred more
recently was attributed to exactly the same situation. It too was
located near a steel mill operating an electric furnace. The torsional
events caused fretting fatigue initiation of cracks at the shrink fit
of the retaining ring, and the cracks then were driven to failure
by the continuing torsional oscillations produced frequently by the
transient torque events.
Otherwise, operative damage mechanisms are not generic to
the fleet, but limited to specific designs, specific alloys or subsets
of alloys, and possibly to specific operating conditions. An is-
sue known to exist for certain magnetic rings is that of hydrogen
embrittlement, but it has only been defined for rings of a specific
alloy and, even for this alloy, for rings beyond a certain yield
strength within the particular alloy. Programs for these rings
include hardness tests to predict yield strength, coupled with
inspections for the detection of existing cracks. Another non-
magnetic alloy known as Gannaloy, a NickelTitaniumChromium
Aluminum alloy, was used by one manufacturer for a number of
years on certain generators. Several failures have occurred and
the manufacturer has recommended replacement of all Gannaloy
rings. Failure investigations have not provided adequate insight
relative to the failure mechanisms nor any means to predict or
prevent failure; consequently, the manufacturers recommenda-
tions appear to be appropriate and well-founded, without options
as those available for well-maintained and periodically inspected
18-5 rings.
Inspections for retaining rings other than the 18-5 rings do not
vary appreciably form the 18-5 inspections. The same procedures
are valid and the same implementation means, i.e., full automa-
tion, digital acquisition, and quality imaging capabilities, are still
important. Crack closure is still an issue for free standing rings,
although MT inspection provides and additional option for free
standing magnetic rings. Additionally, fatigue cracks and similar
as found in magnetic rings do not have the branched, intergranu-
lar nature of IGSCC cracks. Consequently a more coherent crack
tip is present, increasing the detection reliability when using ul-
trasonic tip diffraction techniques. As a result, the application of
redundant inspection techniques is not as much an issue. Having
said that, however, geometric reflectors still present a discrimina-
tion challenge when using conventional, pulse-echo techniques;
consequently; some form of positive tip diffraction UT, such as
TOFD, adds significantly to the inspection, and application of
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 23 Manila Typesetting Company
redundant inspection approaches still improves reliability of the
inspection.
For an analytical assessment of remaining life of retaining rings
other than 18-5 and/or damage mechanisms other than IGSCC,
typically these would be conducted using general purpose finite
element stress analysis programs, such as ANSYS or similar, and
general fracture analysis procedures. In general, however, cracks
propagating by any mechanism other than IGSCC are not so read-
ily disrupted. Whereas IGSCC growth in 18-5 rings can be arrested
by eliminating the corrosive environment, fatigue cracks for exam-
ple will continue to grow so long as the stress cycling continues.
Additionally, initiation time for fatigue cracks typically represents
the vast majority of life, leaving little for growth. As a result, once
detected cracks typically must be dealt with at the time, either by
local removal or ring replacement.
25.11 Generator Rotor Tooth-Top
Cracking
Two specific cracking mechanisms exist on typical domestic
generator rotors. Each is specific to a particular design approach
and therefore is generic to a particular manufacturer or to manufac-
turers producing similar designs. The first occurs in the retaining
ring shrink-fit area on rotors having Tee top teeth and in designs
that leave some of the Tee-top in the shrink fit region. The mecha-
nism is fairly straight forward. When the ring is assembled to the
rotor, the shrink fit imposes a compressive load on the rotor teeth.
This further imposes and inward bending stress on the cantilevered
sides of the Tee-top. The function of the Tee-top is to mate with a
matching wedge that supports the outward winding load developed
by rotation of the rotor. When at speed, therefore, the winding load
bears outward on the cantilevered sides of the Tee-top. The stress,
in this condition, is a concentrated tensile stress at the inside ra-
dius where the Tee-top intersects the radial side of the tooth. The
general configuration and loading is shown in Figure 25.21. In this
diagram, the downward load occurs at standstill from the retaining
ring shrink fit, and the upward load occurs during operation due to
the winding and wedge load.
The stress cycle is start/stop operation, and the stresses are high
enough that low cycle fatigue cracks can initiate in the radius, as
shown, in as few as several hundred start/stop cycles. The end
result of this cracking is unknown as no failures are known to
have occurred. The proposed end result is that the teeth lose their
ability to support the shrink fit load at some point, so the retain-
ing ring bears inward on the windings, thereby crushing the insu-
lation around and between the winding coils. The failure would
then be an electrical failure involving turn to turn shorts or coil to
shaft grounds, the latter of which can be very destructive, melting
copper and rotor steel and resulting directly in retirement of the
rotor.
Inspection of this region requires removal of the retaining rings
and the end wedges to expose the radius where the cracks initi-
ate. Inspection can then be by any surface technique inclusive of
PT, MT, or ET, although because of the proximity to the winding
components, the introduction of magnetic particles and/or liquid
penetrants certainly introduces significant risk of contaminating
the windings and the winding insulation. Therefore ET inspection
provides the better option.
A second generator rotor tooth-top issue exists for many rotors
that have steel wedges having hardness that closely matches the
rotor hardness and involves a fretting fatigue initiation mechanism.
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25-24 Chapter 25
Fig. 25.21Tooth Tee-top configuration (left) and loading (right)
Fretting occurs more readily where the materials are of similar
hardness, i.e., where there are steel wedges, and therefore is worse
where harder ferritic steel wedges are used. Relative motion is cre-
ated by the once-per-revolution bending of the rotor. If a location
on the rotor surface is selected and then followed through a full ro-
tation, the location will be at maximum compressive bending stress
when at 12:00, at neutral bending stress when at 3:00, at maximum
tensile bending stress when at 6:00, back to neutral at 9:00, and
finally back to maximum compressive when the location returns
to 12:00. Put another way, the rotor surface length changes as the
rotor rotates, shorter at 12:00 and longer at 6:00.
The wedges, however, are not necessarily locked to the rotor, at
least at slow speed, so they are not forced to undergo equivalent
strain. Consequently, there is a relative motion between the wedges
and the rotor. The relative motion experienced by any given wedge
is equivalent to the strain accumulated in the rotor over a length
equivalent to the wedge length minus any length that is locked to
the rotor. If viewed from the wedge, there is symmetry over the
length of the wedge; the axial center of the wedge therefore sees no
relative motion at any speed. During startup as the rotor speed in-
creases, the bearing load of the windings and wedge increases and,
as the normal force increases, the friction force increases accord-
ingly. This locks more and more of the wedge to the rotor, work-
ing from the wedge center toward the ends as the rotational speed
increases. At some point the entire wedge locks to the rotor and
no relative motion occurs from this point on until speed is reduced
during shutdown. Fretting cannot occur at slow speed because the
pressure load on the bearing interface is not sufficient to cause
damage, even though the relative motion is high. At full speed and
at some point before reaching full speed, the wedges lock to the ro-
tor over their full lengths; consequently, the wedges see the same
strain as the rotor, but without relative motion. At some intermedi-
ate speed, however, the bearing load and the relative motion occur
concurrently at levels sufficient to cause fretting fatigue damage.
Because the critical motion is limited to the material around the
wedge ends, damage is limited to these same localized regions on
the rotor, i.e., at and around the rotor wedge ends.
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 24 Manila Typesetting Company
Fretting damage can lead to transverse (radialcircumferential)
cracks which, under certain circumstances, can grow under pure
bending fatigue. If a crack reaches the critical depth at which the
bending stress is sufficient to grow the crack, stress cycles accu-
mulate very rapidly, once per revolution, so the cracks typically
grow very rapidly to failure. However, it also appears that there
are some mitigating circumstances that reduce the likelihood of
a fretting crack reaching the critical depth necessary for growth
by pure bending. First of all, fretting in and of itself is a deflec-
tion controlled process, so as the fretting crack grows deeper, it is
growing out of the surface deformation; consequently, it arrests at
some point. Additionally, because the cracks are relatively small,
the presence of a crack is not sufficient to impact the deflection. A
second influencing factor is that associated with Poisson effects in
both the rotor and the wedges. As the rotor comes up to speed and
expands radially, Poisson dictates that it must grow shorter as well.
Additionally, the radial compressive load on the wedges causes a
Poisson lengthening of the wedges. The axial contraction of the
rotor and axial expansion of the wedges, coupled with the fact that
the wedges are locked to the rotor at the wedge centers, introduces
a compressive component of stress on the surface of the rotor teeth
in the rotor material that has not yet locked to the wedge. As the
speed increases and the Poisson effects increase, the compres-
sive loads accumulate toward the ends of the wedges. A second
potential source of axial compressive stress in the rotor derives
from the forging process and residual stresses that can remain in
the rotor. When these compressive stresses are combined with the
axial bending stresses, the resultant axial tensile stress is reduced;
consequently, the fretting crack must reach a greater depth before
the axial bending stress alone can take over and grow the crack.
Overall, a conclusion that must be drawn is that the stress situa-
tion is relatively complex and includes a number of contributory
factors, many of which reduce the severity or the end result of this
crack initiation mechanism.
Susceptibility to fretting damage is associated with a number of
rotor design considerations. First is the bending flexibility of the
rotor, as related to the length/diameter ratio. Longer, leaner rotors
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-25
are more susceptible than are short, stout rotors. Susceptibility is
further a function of the number of accumulated start/stop cycles,
given that the combination of relative motion and compressive
bearing load occur only at intermediate speeds, which are experi-
enced only during startup and shutdown. Location along the length
of the rotor is also important. Because maximum bending stress
occurs at the axial center of the rotor, the shaft axial center is more
susceptible than the ends. And susceptibility is a function of wedge
length. The amount of strain that accumulates over the portion of
the wedge that is not locked down at any given speed equates di-
rectly to the amount of relative motion at that speed.
Another issue that involves a totally different initiation mecha-
nism can ultimately lead to similar transverse cracking in the ro-
tor in the immediate vicinity of the wedge ends on the underside
of the tooth-top dovetails where the wedges contact the teeth. In
this case, damage initiates from electrical arcing between the ro-
tor teeth and winding wedges. Certain transient fault and steady
state conditions can cause unbalance between the electrical phases,
which reflects over to the rotor as motor currents. Events that can
cause these transient events include motoring incidents, line faults
such as closely proximate lightning strikes, and so on. Steady state
conditions can result, for example, if the unit is operated with un-
balanced transformers on the three phases. The currents in the rotor
conduct at the rotor surface, traveling down the rotor and typically
around it at the retaining rings and them back along the opposite
side of the rotor. In the rotor winding slot region, the currents tend
to conduct in the wedges, arcing to the rotor teeth at the ends of
the wedges and then back into the next wedge. Unlike the fretting
damage, which tends to occur only where the rotor wedges are
steel and therefore relatively closely matched in hardness to the
rotor material, these surface currents tend to cause arcing damage
at the ends of any of the slot wedges. In fact, where other materi-
als are used for the wedges, for example, aluminum or other lower
electrical resistance material, the arcing is more prevalent because
of the lower resistance of the wedges, and, therefore, the increased
potential for the current travel in the wedges and arc to the rotor at
the wedge ends.
Where arcing occurs, localized heating results and the severity is
a function of the electrical current level. If the arcing is sufficient,
the heating can actually be sufficient to cause phase transforma-
tion, i.e., re-austenitization and even melting. Damage can run
the gamut, from very minor heating, localized spark erosion, re-
austenitization, to melting, in which case, the melted zone is also
going to be surrounded by re-austenitized material, and so on.
When the heat source is removed, the re-austenitized material is
quenched, resulting directly in a nugget of untempered marten-
site, which is very brittle and almost certainly cracks immediately
under the imposed stress. Because the local stress is primarily an
axial bending stress, any resulting cracks tend to form in a radi-
alcircumferential plane, just like the fretting cracks. In this case,
however, the depth of the resulting crack is not limited like it is for
fretting cracks. Arcing damage is related to current levels and can
immediately generate relatively deep cracks and otherwise dam-
aged material. It is certainly possible to cause damage sufficient to
retire the rotor. Other areas on the rotor where damage may also
occur is at the retaining ring shrink fit and at the ends of transverse
flexibility slots that are cut across the poles to equalize the mo-
ments of inertia about the pole and quadrature axes and therefore
to minimize twice per revolution vibration.
Inspection for tooth-top cracking of this type can take any of a
number of forms and include any of a number of NDE methods.
For moderate to severe electrical arcing damage, there is nothing
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 25 Manila Typesetting Company
Fig. 25.22Generator rotor showing overheat-
ing damage associated with circulating cur-
rents at the wedge ends and the end of the
transverse flexibility slots
like a good visual inspection of the rotor, concentrating on the are-
as defined above as being most prone to damage: the teeth surfaces
adjacent to the wedge ends and the ends of the wedges themselves,
the teeth and wedges and nose of the retaining ring adjacent to
the shrink fit, and the rotor material around the ends of the trans-
verse flexibility slots. Figure 25.22 provides a photograph of a ro-
tor displaying definite signs of overheating damage on the teeth
and wedges in the immediate vicinity of the wedge ends. In this
photograph, the slot run horizontally, and one of the poles is shown
covering the bottom ~1/3 of the photo. The end of one of the trans-
verse flexibility cross slots can be seen at the bottom right corner
of the photo. This also exhibits very definite signs of overheating
associated with circulating surface currents.
For less extensive electrical damage and for any level of fretting
damage, however, the damage does not manifest itself in any way
that produces visible symptoms on the accessible surfaces. To de-
tect these damage forms requires either ultrasonic inspection tech-
niques or disassembly of the rotorat least removal of the retaining
rings and the rotor slot wedgesto access the crack initiation sur-
faces and permit inspection by some surface inspection method.
For wound rotors, even when the rings and wedges are removed,
the use of PT and MT methods for the detection of cracks carries
the same risks as defined earlier for the axial cracking of the tooth-
tops. The inspections must be conducted in very close proximity to
the winding components, including the slot insulation, and the risk
of contamination is significant. This can be done, but it requires
extreme caution and extensive steps to protect the windings and in-
sulation. For rotors that are being rewound, i.e., those from which
the winding coils and insulation have been removed, either MT
or PT are perfectly acceptable test methods, although viewing the
underside of the tooth-top can be challenging, particularly if using
the more sensitive fluorescent MT or PT, which requires viewing
under UV illumination.
An alternative is to inspect the disassembled rotor using the ET
inspection method. This, of course, still requires full disassembly
to expose the initiation surfaces, and special ET probes, configured
to match the geometry. This inspection benefits immensely from
automation, i.e., automated or semi-automated scanning, and full
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25-26 Chapter 25
digital data acquisition and surface imaging. This requires a scan-
ner that matches the slot geometry in some way and that holds the
ET probe at the proper attitude in close proximity to the examina-
tion surface. The use of an ET array, i.e., an array of probes that
collectively cover the entirety of the test surface width, speeds up
the inspection significantly in that the entirety of a tooth top sur-
face can be inspected in a single scan pass along the length of the
rotor. One manufacturer, in fact, the primary manufacturer in the
US for which fretting fatigue of generator rotor tooth-tops is an
issue, recommends removal of the retaining rings and slot wedges
and implementation of an ET inspection protocol. Unfortunately,
the disassembly and reassembly costs far exceed the inspection
costs, likely by at least an order of magnitude.
An alternative for the detection of underside tooth-top crack-
ing without rotor disassembly involves UT from the outer surface
and, in most cases, is implemented using the linear phased array.
In some limited cases, the rotor OD surface is uniform and allows
scanning of the transducer along the tooth length. This permits a
fairly simple inspection protocol that utilizes either an LPA or con-
ventional UT approach. However, in most cases, the linear array
is required because of the rotor OD surface conditions. The com-
plex surface configurations that are typical in these rotor designs
can be observed by looking back at Figures 25.19 and 25.22. The
machined lands and grooves effectively prevent axial scanning of
the tooth top. The LPA technology provides the means to set the
transducer in one stationary position along the tooth and to then
sweep the beam through a series of angles to cover some length of
the underside surface of the tooth-top. By utilizing multiple of the
lands and grooves, the entirety of the wedge end regions can be
covered adequately.
Analysis of rotors for transverse cracking due to either fretting
fatigue or arcing damage relies on finite element analysis using
general purpose finite element programs such as ANSYS. That is,
there is no custom, special purpose program with which to analyze
specific tooth-top dovetail cracking situations on specific rotors.
The analysis of fretting fatigue indications involves determina-
tion of the crack depth required to grow by once-per-revolution
bending fatigue. If detected indications are smaller than this criti-
cal flaw growth size, with appropriate safety factors applied, then
further operation can be justified with limited risk of failure. For
damage caused by electrical arcing, the analysis is not this sim-
ple. Arcing damage includes not only the resulting cracks, but also
the damaged material surrounding the cracks. Consequently, the
only way to assure future safe operability involves removal of all
damaged material and metallographic verification of complete re-
moval. Once this has been accomplished, then the modified rotor
configuration can be modeled and analyzed to determine the im-
pact of the new configuration on remaining life.
25.12  aterial Properties
M
Characterization
When stress and fracture analysis indicates less that desired
remaining life for a primary component, the uncertainty associ-
ated with material properties most often is a significant contribu-
tor. Consider, for example, that many of these componentsrotor
forgings, shrunk-on disks, retaining ringswere forged prior to the
development of modern fracture mechanics approaches to crack
propagation and ultimately to failure of the component. Conse-
quently, even when the original material properties data is avail-
able, they may well not include fracture toughness or even FATT.
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And then there is the issue of the availability of the data to the
owner/operator. Often this information is simply not readily avail-
able. So, in all likelihood, the analysis will be conducted using
public domain database properties, of which significant quantities
are typically available through various sources.
Unfortunately, the spread in data for the key material property
input variables is typically significant; consequently, one is faced
with making a decision on which value to use for the analysis. If
performing a deterministic analysis, this means deciding the spe-
cific value that will be used, and for the sake of conservatism in the
analysis, a worst case assumption is typically used. While this is
the conservative approach, it means that the real value for the vari-
able will, in nearly all cases, be better than the value used for the
evaluation. In most cases, this analysis results in significant overly
conservative outcomes as a direct result. And, when one considers
that this may apply for multiple variables, conservatism stacks on
conservatism to a point at which it is not even reasonable. Even if
performing a probabilistic analysis, the spread in the data still re-
sults in overly conservative assessments in the form of higher than
actual probability of failure because of the inclusion of the worst
case values even on a statistically applied basis.
The solution is in the ability to more closely define the variables,
in this case, the specific material properties, and the most effec-
tive means of better defining the material properties uses samples
extracted from the most critical region of the component being
assessed. For a turbine rotor forging, this most often means the
near-bore material. For a turbine disk, it could mean the material
near the rim for blade attachment studies, and so on. A miniature
sample removal tool is available for extraction of samples from
the surface of a rotor bore, the side of a turbine disk, or other loca-
tions as needed and as appropriate. This specialized machining tool
extracts a small wafer, about the size of a quarter dollar, leaving a
smooth dimple in the surface. The tool is shown in a rotor bore in
Figure 25.23.
Analysis of the dimple has shown that it produces no meaningful
increase in local stress, so the dimple can remain with no further
conditioning. Miniature samples can be analyzed in the lab to quan-
tify material chemical composition, measure hardness (thereby
estimating yield strength), and define material microstructure. Ad-
ditionally, mechanical properties can be better characterized using
automated ball indenture testing. Properties that can be quantified
using miniature samples and the automated ball indenture test
Fig. 25.23Miniature sampler inside a rotor bore
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 A GUIDE TO SECTION I OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25-27
include yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, fracture appear-
ance transition temperature, and fracture toughness.
Additionally, the sampler can be used to extract samples from
the high temperature regions of HP and IP rotors to assess the ma-
terial for creep damage and for temper embrittlement.
25.13 Inspection Validation
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has supported
an extensive turbine and generator condition assessment program
over the years. This program has effectively dealt with the primary
aspects of T/G condition assessment, i.e., inspection validation
and remaining life assessment. EPRI maintains NDE validation
specimens for rotor bore inspection and turbine disk inspection.
These test beds comprise samples with known flaws (known only
by EPRI, not the participating inspection vendor) that are used
in blind tests to assess the capabilities of various inspection ap-
proaches. Some of the samples contain artificial flaws in the form
of electron discharge machined (EDM) notches, drilled holes, etc.
Some of the mockups contain more realistic, yet still man-made,
flaws in samples made by a hot isostatic press (HIP) process to
metallurgically join segments with artificial flaws inserted at the
interfaces. Still other samples have been removed from service-
exposed components and so contain naturally occurring flaws.
The EPRI T/G program has additionally led the way on the re-
maining life assessment aspect of condition assessment via pro-
duction of the SAFER stress and fracture program for rotor bore
assessment, the LPRimLife computer code for assessing turbine
disk rim blade attachment dovetails, and RRing-Life for probabi
listic assessment of generator retaining rings.
These resources have contributed immensely to the advance-
ment of the state-of-the-art for T/G assessment and are available to
interested parties for further use as the need arises.
25.14 Repairs
The first and most obvious repair that can be implemented for
any number of the described flaw conditions, at least those at or
very near a free surface, is to remove them by local excavation.
This is typically done by grinding, carefully removing the flaw,
and ultimately putting the geometry at the site of the local mate-
rial removal in the best condition possible to minimize the impact
on local stresses. Confirmatory inspections, most often MT or PT,
are implemented along the way to track the flaw for minimum ma-
terial removal while confirming complete flaw removal. Because
these inspection methods have inherent detection thresholds, i.e.,
a flaw size that cannot be detected, final confirmation by metal-
lographic replication often follows the MT or PT. Machining for
flaw removal is another option. Over-bores and bottle bores are
often implemented to remove flaws detected at or near the rotor
central bore surface. The generator rotor tooth-top cracking issues
each have repairs that involve crack removal by machining, and in
these cases, the repairs actually do improve the stress situation, so
there is dual benefit. More is presented on these later.
Unfortunately, except for very rare situations, as for the genera-
tor rotor tooth-top repairs, repair by local material removal can only
increase the local stress. Consequently, each repair has a maximum
depth beyond which the benefits of removing the flaws are overrid-
den by the negative impact of increased stress, and some other re-
pair or replacement must be considered. And each repair typically
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requires extensive analysis, most often involving 3-D finite ele-
ment stress analysis, to define the appropriate maximum allowable
repair depth and to define the optimum final repair geometry.
Repair of assembled components can often become very in-
volved owing to the necessity of disassembling the components
from the rotors. Generator rotor tooth-top repairs, regardless the
design and the elected repair method, require fan, retaining ring,
and wedge removal and reassembly upon completion of the re-
pairs. Because this involves removal and reassembly of relatively
massive components, it is not unusual for the rotor to require re-
balancing before being returned to service. Similarly, repair of
shrunk-on turbine disks and repairs for generator rotor coupling
keyway cracking involve removal and reassembly of shrunk-on
components, with similar processes involved.
For the generator rotor tooth-top axial cracking associated with
the retaining ring shrink fit, there are a number of fixes available.
One, identified as a short ring fix, involves removal of any exist-
ing cracks by local grinding or machining of the radius, increasing
the radius at the initiation site in the process. Then the original or
duplicate retaining rings are reassembled, and the crack initiation
and growth clock is essentially reset. This fix can be implemented
only up to certain crack depths; otherwise the reduction in area
associated with crack removal in and of itself structurally com-
promises the tooth integrity and ability to perform its intended
function.
In a long ring fix, a longer retaining ring is used such that the cir-
cumferential key can be removed from the original shrink fit area,
thereby permitting full removal of the Tee-top over the length of the
existing shrink fit. The key is moved inboard on the rotor body rela-
tive to the shrink fit, which necessitates the longer retaining ring.
The machining dimensions at the two fits, the new shrink area where
the Tee tops have been completely removed and the extended nose
where the key has been moved, are designed such that the former
carries the shrink fit load. The latter sees no appreciable shrink fit
load, if any, but carries the outward load at speed. This fix requires
new retaining rings, and additionally a rotor rewind to accommo-
date insulation modifications associated with the new ring design.
However, this is a more permanent fix, providing increased fatigue
life, whereas the short ring fix only resets the fatigue clock. Other
repairs involve removal of the Tee-tops by machining the sides off
rather than machining the OD, or combinations of the two.
A number of repairs are available for the transverse cracking at the
wedge ends that occurs either by fretting or negative sequence arc
damage. While these repairs vary in detail, they generally improve
the situation by removing any pre-existing damage by machining,
and in the process, relieve the contact at the ends of the wedges such
that the accumulated strain is distributed over greater length of the
rotor tooth. This lowers the axial stress that drives the process.
In addition to these very specific repairs, most if not all domestic
manufacturers and any number of independent repair organizations
now have established repair welding procedures and processes in
place. In the case of turbine disk rim blade attachment cracking, it
is not at all uncommon to simply machine away the entire outer pe-
riphery of the disk and then replace the material with a weld build-
up of material. The attachment geometry is than machined into the
new material and the blades are reassembled. Another approach
involves similarly machining the entire dovetail region from the
disk and then replacing it with a ring forging that is welded to the
periphery. Weld repairs are also routinely used, for example, to
replace cracked shaft ends and to build up material to enable resto-
ration to original configurations where rubs and other events have
forced material removal in the journal and seal areas.
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Much has been presented on the state-of-the-art for inspecting
major turbine and generator rotating components. Advances in mod-
ern inspection technology provide the ability to characterize flaws as
never before. LPA ultrasonic inspection technology is a prime exam-
ple. A great deal of effort and expense has been expended to develop
very specific, computerize remaining life assessment programs for
specific turbine and generator components, and the accuracy of the
analyses has improved as a direct result. Additionally, probabilis-
tic approaches are available and are typically used to remove some
of the conservatism inherent to the deterministic analysis process.
We have the means available through miniature sample removal
and testing to better define material properties. And, we have any
number of repair options available, some relatively generic and oth-
ers applying to specific components. And so, yes, the state-of-the-
art for turbine and generator condition assessment has evolved, and
continues to do so, with an ever present objective of extracting all
possible useful life from these very expensive machines and compo-
nents, while maintaining acceptable exposure to risk.
ASME_Power_Boilers Ch25.indd 28
25.15 References
1. Engelhardt G, Macdonald DD, Zhang Y, and Dooley B. Determin-
istic Prediction of Corrosion Damage in Low Pressure Steam Tur-
bines. 14th ICPWS, Kyoto, Japan. August 2004. Also published in
PowerPlant Chemistry, 2004, 6(11), pp 647661.
2. Viswanathan R. Retaining Ring Failures. Workshop Proceedings:
Retaining Rings for Electric Generators. Palo Alto, CA: Electric
Power Research Institute, August 1983. EPRI EL-3209.
3. Nottingham LD, Ammirato FV, MacDonald DE, Zayicek PA, and
Elmo PM. Evaluation of Nonmagnetic Generator Retaining Rings
Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, October 1994.
TR-104209.
4. Kilpatrick NL, Schneider M. Update on Experience with In-
Service Examination of Nonmagnetic Rings on Generator Rotors
Workshop Proceedings: Generator Retaining Ring Workshop.
Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, May 1988.
EL-5825.
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