ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

ELECTRIC CHARGE, Q
There are two kinds of charge: positive (+) and negative (-)

All objects are made up of atoms , and all atoms

contain positive particles (protons)and negative particles.
(electrons)
And yet atoms don't have an overall charge. They are
neutral
That's because atoms contain the same number of protons
and electrons. So the positive and negative charges are
cancelled out
Electric Charge, Static Electricity
Static electricity is generated when any material gains or
loses electrons and becomes positively (when it loses
electrons) or negatively charged (when it gains
electrons).

Static electricity is caused by an atom having too many or

too few electrons (e-).

When insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons

are knocked off one of them and onto the other.
 Electric Charge, Static Electricity
Also, it is worth mentioning that in ordinary matter, the
nuclei are fixed in place ... it's the electrons that move.
When there are extra electrons present, the material has a
negative charge. When there are fewer electrons, the
material has a positive charge.
It all depends on the electrons!
Notice that 'static' in this case does NOT mean 'no
movement'. Rather, it means 'a charge imbalance', ...
electrons moving away from nuclei, so that one area
becomes more negatively charged, and another more
positively charged. If all the electrons were to go back to
where they came from, the material would become neutral
again.
Charging by Friction (Rubbing)
Charging by Friction (Rubbing)

When a polythene strip is rubbed with a duster, the

electrons move from the duster to the strip. The strip
becomes negative (because it has more electrons than it
needs to cancel out the protons) and the cloth becomes
positive (because it has less electrons than it needs)

When a piece of cellulose is rubbed with a duster,

the electrons move from the cellulose to the duster.
The duster becomes negative (because it has more
electrons than it needs to cancel out the protons) and
the cellulose becomes positive (because it has less
electrons than it needs)
Electric Forces
All electric charges exert a force on each other. This force
can be either attractive or repulsive depending on the
sign of the charge.
Two like charges repel each other while two unlike
charges attract each other.
Quick Question: Draw in the force that each charge
would experience
a. b.
+ + - +

c. d.
+ - - -
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
In the induction process, a charged object is brought near
but not touched to a neutral conducting object.

The movement of electrons leaves imbalance an of

charge on opposite sides of the neutral conductor. While
the overall object is neutral (i.e., has the same number of
electrons as protons), there is an excess of positive
charge on one side of the object and an excess of
negative charge on the opposite side of the object.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Once the charge has been separated within the object,
a ground is brought near and touched to one of the sides.
A ground is a direct electrical connection to the
The touching
earth of the ground to the object permits a flow
of electrons between the object and the ground. The flow
of electrons results in a permanent charge being left upon
the object.

When an object is charged by induction, the charge

received by the object is opposite the charge of the
object which was used to charge it.
ELECTRIC FIELDS
An electric field is an area or region in which an electric
charge will feel a force of electrical origin.

Electric Field Lines are imaginary lines which show the

direction of the electric field.
Represented by lines with arrows
The direction of the E-field is determined by the direction a
small positive test charge would move if placed in the field
ELECTRIC FIELDS

+ + +

- -
ELECTRIC FIELDS

+ -

- +
USEFUL STATIC
Photocopiers and some computer printers want the toner to
go in the right place. Give the toner charge and give the paper
you want it to appear on the opposite charge.

Special powder paints that have been charged, spread out to

form a very even coating of paint on an earthed metal object -
a car body or a bike frame, for example. It also means paint is
not wasted as all the paint is attracted to the object. Less mess
too!

Static is also used to remove pollution from smoke-stacks.

Electrostatic plates are placed in the chimneys and they attract
all the polluted dust.
Question

Charged spheres A, B and C behave like this under

the effect of charged rod D and E. If C is positively
charged, find the signs of the other spheres and
rods.

A(+), D(+), B(+), E(-), C(+)

 NASTY STATIC
If clouds get charged up enough, you get lightning, the
biggest spark of all.
Static can also be dangerous when refuelling cars,
containers or even aircrafts.
The fuel rubs against the side of the hose and lots of
charge builds up. If the plane isn't earthed, the spark can
blow the plane up quicker than in Die Hard 2. A thin
copper wire between the plane and earth is enough to
carry the excess charge away.
Current Electricity, I
This is the flow of charge through a substance

S.I. Unit: Ampere, A

Conductors : A substance that allows current to flow

freely without any permanent damage to the substance
itself.

Examples: copper, aluminum, graphite,

Insulators : A substance which does not allow current to

flow freely without permanent damage to the substance.

Examples: rubber, plastic, wood, air

Current Electricity, I
In metals the electric current consists of a flow of
electrons
In other media an electric current may consist of the
movement of negative and positive charge carriers.

Eg. In salt solution there are positive and negative ions.

Electron Flow Vs. Conventional Current
An electric current in a metallic conductor is a flow of
electrons towards a region of greater positive potential.

Unfortunately early researchers assumed that current

flowed from a region of positive potential to negative.

This is called Conventional Current

Electron flow
current

Conventional
current
Current Electricity Electric Charge Q
charge = current x time or Q = It
S.I. Unit Coulomb or Ampere. second

Question
Calculate the charge that passes through a lamp
in 2 minutes if the current is 1.5 A?

I = 1.5 A
t = 2 minutes Q = It
= 2 x 60 = 1.5 A X 120 s
= 120 s =180 C
Direct Current D.C. vs Alternating Current
A.C.
Direct Currents are currents that flow in one direction
only

Direct currents may be steady or fluctuating

In an Alternating Current the direction of flow changes

constantly

Voltage-time or Current-time graphs are used to show

the variation of the direct or alternating current or
voltage with time.

We can obtain the amplitude, period and hence frequency

of an alternating signal from the V-t or I-t graphs.
Question
Are these signals direct or alternating?
Alternating Current
What is the amplitude, period and frequency of the signal?

+5 V

time / s

-5 V

Amplitude: ____________
Period: __________
Frequency:___________________
Electrical Quantities
The mains supply is used as the source of electrical
energy for all types of household appliances.
In all electrical appliances, electrical energy is
transferred into other forms. For example:
Appliance Electrical energy
transferred to
toaster heat
radio sound
kettle heat
lamp light
hair dryer kinetic and heat
Electrical Quantities Potential Difference,
V
Potential Difference P.D. - the P.D. (voltage) between two
points is the electrical energy converted to other forms

Eg., a battery has a rating of 9V means that it can supply

(9 Joules of energy for each Coulomb of charge that
flows through the circuit

V = E/Q or V = W/Q

S.I. Unit: Volt The Volt (V) is defined as one Joule per
Coulomb
Electrical Quantities - Power
In many practical applications, we want to know
the rate at which energy is delivered, not how much
energy is delivered per coulomb of charge.

The rate at which energy is delivered is called power

Power = Energy / Time

Because the voltage V tells us the number of joules per

coulomb, and the current I tells us the number of
coulombs per second, all we have to do to get the
current is to multiply them:
Power Formula: P = I V
Quick Question

Suppose we had a circuit with a battery voltage of 2 volts

and a current of 3 amps. How much power would be
delivered to the resistor?
P = IV
= (3 A) (2 V)
= 6W
Question Time
During a heart attack the heart beats very irregularly. The
heart may resume its normal beat if a large current is
passed through the body for a short time. This current
can be supplied by a machine which stores a charge of
4.010-2 C at a potential difference of 6000V
I. Calculate the electrical energy that is stored in the
machine
II. If the total charge is passed in 5ms calculate the current
produced.
Question Time
The base of a thundercloud has a total charge o 30C. A
lightning strike occurs between the base of the cloud and
a tree top. During the strike, the total negative charge on
the base of the cloud is transferred to earth by a current
of 1.5104A. If the lightning strike is associated with the
release of a total of 2.0107 J of energy Find:
I. The duration of the lightning strike
II. The electrical p.d. between the base of the cloud and
the tree top which was struck
III. The electrical energy converted per unit of electrical
charge transferred
IV. The electrical power delivered during the strike.
Why Conserve Electricity Energy?
The Cost
The Caribbean produces electrical energy mainly from
fossil fuels which is a non-renewable resource and it is
decreasing rapidly.
Fossil fuels have proven to be very efficient unlike
alternate methods of energy.
Given that it is precious it is important to conserve.
Ways We Can Conserve
Turning off light when not in use
Use fluorescent and LED bulbs instead of incandescent
bulbs
Buy more energy efficient appliances eg. Refrigerators, a/c
units
Plug out appliances when not in use
Use solar instead of electrical or gas-fired water heaters
Circuits and Components

a.c. supply
Fixed resistor Variable resistor

d.c. supply
diode

cell
Filament lamp

battery switch

ammeter

voltmeter
fuse
Series Circuit
In a series circuit there is only one path for the current
and the current is the same at all points.
Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit there is more than one path for the
current to follow. At some points in a parallel circuit
there will be junctions of conductors. Junctions are shown
by dots on circuit diagrams. The sum of currents in
parallel branches is equal to the current drawn from the
supply.
Primary and Secondary Cells
Draw a diagram of a zinc-carbon cell and explain the
functions of its various parts.
Comparison of Primary & Secondary Cells
Characteristics Primary Secondary
Terminal voltage
Maximum current
Internal resistance
Portability
rechargeability
Comparison of Primary & Secondary Cells
I-V Relationships
Ohms Law: The current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between
the ends at constant temperature
V I
V cons tan t I
V IR
The constant of proportionality is known as Resistance
 I-V Relationships
Resistance, R
This is the ability of a substance to oppose the flow of
current
S.I. Unit: Ohm,
Why do we get resistance?
An electric current flows when charged particles
called electrons move through a conductor. The moving electrons can
collide with the atoms of the conductor. This makes it more difficult
for the current to flow, and causes resistance. Electrons collide with
atoms more often in a long wire than they do in a short wire. A thin
wire has fewer electrons to carry the current than a thick wire. This
means that the resistance in a wire increases as:
the length of the wire increases
the thickness of the wire decreases
I-V Relationships
I-V graphs are used to show the relationship between the
voltage and current for a given material or substance.
What quantity would the gradient of an I-V graph
represent? I ( A)
y2 y1 I ( A)
m
x2 x1 V (V ) V (V )

V I 1
But, from Ohms Law we know, R
I V R

So the gradient represents 1/R

I-V Relationships Metallic Conductor

I V
1/R = constant

R is a constant
I-V Relationships Filament Lamp

Gradient decreases as V increases, therefore the

resistance increases
At low currents the characteristic may be fairly straight
but as the current rises producing more heat the
temperature rises increases the resistance of the filament
lamp.
I-V Relationships Semiconductor Diode

Gradient increases as V increases, therefore the

resistance decreases
Only a very small current flows in the reverse direction
indicating the reverse resistance is very high
In the forward direction almost no current flows until a
voltage of ~0.7V is reached.
I-V Relationships Semiconductor Diode

Above 0.7V the current rises sharply and the device has a
low resistance.
A diode conducts well in one direction ONLY
I-V Relationships Copper Sulphate
Solution
I V
1/R = constant
R is a constant

The copper sulphate solutions breaks down into two

charged particles. These are positive copper ions and
negative sulphate ions which can carry electric charge
through the solution
The resistance of the solution is high compared with
metallic conductors because the ions in the solution are
less mobile than the electrons in a metal.
Resistance, R
Usually the resistance of a component in a circuit is not
measured directly, we first measure the electric current
through the component and then the voltage across it.

Ohms Law (V = IR) can then be used to calculate the

resistance.

Measuring Current- An Ammeter is used to measure

electric current
An ammeter needs to measure the flow of charge, so it
must be connected in series . This means that all the
charge has to flow through it and can be counted.
Ammeters should have low resistance
Resistance, R

Measuring Potential Difference A Voltmeter is

used to measure the potential difference across a
component

A voltmeter measures potential difference (voltage). This

means it must be connected in parallel and it also needs a
high resistance (otherwise all the current would flow
through the meter instead of the component).
Resistors in Series

Current in series: same all the way round (all the

current has to flow through everything).
Voltage in series: voltages across each component add
up to the total voltage supplied by the battery, as they
have to share the voltage between them [ V=V1+V2+V3 ]
Resistors in series:
For resistors in series the equivalent resistance = sum of
the individual resistances
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in Parallel

Voltage in parallel: all voltages the same

Current in parallel: the current is shared out between
the branches, but recombines near the battery.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Resistance in parallel: The total resistance of a set of
resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals
of the resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of
the total:
equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel:
1 / RP = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
Putting it into Practice
1. Bicycles with battery operated lights often have
different size bulbs for the front and rear lights. The
filament in the front lamp has a resistance of 3 ohms. It
takes a current of 0.6A. What voltage does it work at?
Putting it into Practice
1. In which of these circuits are the resistors connected in
parallel?
Putting it into Practice

1. For the circuit shown below if R1 = 3 and R2 = 6

What is the total resistance in the circuit?
(ii) If V = 9V what is the total current flowing in the
circuit?
Putting it into Practice

1. For the circuit shown how much current flows through

each resistor?
(ii) What is the total current flowing in the circuit?
Putting it into Practice
(i)What is the total resistance in the circuit?
(ii) How much current flows through the 2 resistor?
(iii)How much current flows through the 6 resistor?
(iv)What is the total current in the circuit?
Putting it into Practice
3. For the circuit shown below if R1 = 2 , R2 = 3 and
R2 = 6 and V = 15V.
(i)What is the total resistance in the circuit?
(ii) How much current flows through the 2 resistor?
(iii)How much current flows through the 6 resistor?
(iv)What is the total current in the circuit?
 Electricity at Home - Mains supply (AC and
DC)
We use two main sorts of electrical supplies, DC and AC.

DC - This is Direct Current. The current flows in one

direction only and has a consistent value. Provided by
batteries or DC adaptors that plug into the mains supply

AC - This is Alternating Current. The current flows first

one way then the other.

In normal mains circuits this happens 50 times a second, so

we say it has a frequency of Hz . 50
 Electricity at Home Mains supply (AC and
DC)

AC is what comes out of the mains sockets, usually at

around 110V or 220V.

The wiring in a house connects all appliances together in.

parallel .This is so that each has
the mains supply of 220 volts across it and
also so that they can all be used independently.
So why have DC and AC?
Many things won't work with an AC supply, but, it
is very easy to change the voltage of AC using
a transformer (these don't work with DC).
Electricity at Home
Safety last
Because we use electricity everyday, we often forget how
dangerous it can be. Mains supply can kill, but a bit of
common sense can go a long way.

Things to look for are:

bad wiring,
water near appliances,
too many double plugs/adaptors,
frayed wires.
Just use your common sense!
Electricity at Home
Wiring a Plug
One big problem used to be wiring plugs. By law now, all
new appliances are fitted with one already, which helps,
but you do need to know what's going on inside there:
Electricity at Home - Fuses
Fuses help protect the circuit against faults . If a fault
develops and the current in the wire becomes
dangerously large , the fuse melts and breaks the circuit.
The key thing is to get the wire just thick enough to carry
the current you want, but thin enough to melt if there is a
current surge.

Fuse Ratings
Common sizes are 3, 5 and 13Amp fuses, but there are
many others. Always choose one slightly higher than the
current rating of the appliance, so that it doesn't blow
under normal conditions.
Quick Example: A mains (240V) kettle has a power rating
of 3kW. What fuse should be used?
Electricity at Home - Circuit Breakers
Fuses stop things getting too hot and catching fire but
they don't always protect you! There might be a fault
where there is not enough current to blow the fuse but
more than enough to kill you.

The answer is a circuit breaker. Also called power

breakers, MCB's and RCD's. They do exactly what the
name suggests, they break the circuit if there is a problem.
They automatically compare the current entering and
leaving the circuit and even if there is the tiniest
difference they 'trip' off.
Electricity at Home - Earth
What's this earth business? The Earth (yes, our planet) is
very good at soaking up loose charge. The earth in your
house could be connected to the plumbing (if your water
comes in metal pipes)or to a large metal spike in the
ground somewhere.

Double Insulation
If something is completely cased in an insulator, like
plastic, it is said to be double insulated, and does not need
earthing. You can't get a shock from the case!
 Electricity at Home

In the diagram above, the electric fire has a metal case. If there
was a fault and the live wire touched the case, there would be
no visible sign of a problem, except that it wouldn't work.
Anyone touching it would complete a circuit with earth
causing a potentially fatal current to flow. If it is earthed, the
earth wire allows this current to flow easily. A larger current
than normal flows, causing the fuse to blow - disaster is
avoided.
Electricity at Home Effect of Voltage
Fluctuation on Appliances
Voltage fluctuations are changes or swings in the steady-
state voltage above or below the designated input range
for a piece of equipment.
These can happen because of lightning strikes, or accidental
closing of transmission circuits due to weather, animal
activity, improper wiring or grounding or other unusual
events

Vulnerable equipment: Computers; fax machines; variable

frequency drives; extruders; motors

Effects: Data errors; memory loss; equipment shutdown;

flickering lights; motors stalling/stopping; reduced motor
life
Questions
Why are fuses in the live lead of an appliance?
This is so that when a fuse blows it cuts off the live wire
which is at a high voltage. The neutral wire is never at a
high voltage.
Why are appliances connected in parallel in a household
circuit?
Give a reason why a circuit breaker is better than a fuse.
Some reasons are:
they operate more quickly
they only need to be reset, not replaced
they cannot be replaced with the wrong size of wire