KISII UNIVERSITY

NAME: MARITIM GEOFFREY KIPLANGAT

REG. NO: ALP/03406/16

FACULTY: EDUCATION

COUSE TITLE: LEGAL POLICIES IN EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: PGDE 709

LECTURER: MR. MOMANYI

TASK: ASSIGNMENT 1

Q (1a) discuss the characteristics of wife abuse

Characteristics of Domestic Violence
Domestic Violence comes in many forms. Some typical situations include:
Regular criticism, name-calling, put-downs.
Minimized or belittled feelings
Unsafe or fearful feelings
Hitting, punching, slapping, kicking, shoving, strangling, or biting
Destroying and/or stealing personal belongings
Abusing or threatening children and grandchildren
Use of intimidation or manipulation as a means of control over a victim or his/her
children
Isolation from friends, family, and community
Threats of "outing" or criticism of sexual identity
Threats to hurt the victim's friends, family, or pets
Control of access to money or transportation
Repercussions for a victim going where he/she wants when he/she wants
Deportation or immigration status threats
Prevention from working or attending school
Harassment at school or work
Public or private humiliation
Denial of food, clothing, sleep, or medications
Practice or accusations of affairs
Forceful or unconsensual sexual acts
Use of weapons to hurt or threaten

(1b) Explain the characteristics of child abuse

Types of abuse
The International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect recently
compared definitions of abuse from 58 countries and found some commonality in
what was considered abusive (7). In 1999, the WHO Consultation on Child Abuse
Prevention drafted the following definition (8):
Child abuse or maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-
treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other
exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the childs health, survival,
development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or
power.

Child maltreatment is the abuse and neglect that occurs to children under 18 years of
age. It includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse,
neglect, negligence and commercial or other exploitation, which results in actual or
potential harm to the childs health, survival, development or dignity in the context of
a relationship of responsibility, trust or power. Exposure to intimate partner violence
is also sometimes included as a form of child maltreatment.

Scope of the problem

Child maltreatment is a global problem with serious life-long consequences. In spite

of recent national surveys in several low- and middle-income countries, data from
many countries are still lacking.

Child maltreatment is complex and difficult to study. Current estimates vary widely
depending on the country and the method of research used. Estimates depend on:

the definitions of child maltreatment used;

the type of child maltreatment studied;

the coverage and quality of official statistics;

the coverage and quality of surveys that request self-reports from victims,
parents or caregivers.

Nonetheless, international studies reveal that a quarter of all adults report having been
physically abused as children and 1 in 5 women and 1 in 13 men report having been
sexually abused as a child. Additionally, many children are subject to emotional abuse
(sometimes referred to as psychological abuse) and to neglect.

Every year, there are an estimated 41 000 homicide deaths in children under 15 years
of age. This number underestimates the true extent of the problem, as a significant
proportion of deaths due to child maltreatment are incorrectly attributed to falls,
burns, drowning and other causes.
In armed conflict and refugee settings, girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual
violence, exploitation and abuse by combatants, security forces, members of their
communities, aid workers and others.

Consequences of maltreatment

Child maltreatment causes suffering to children and families and can have long-term
consequences. Maltreatment causes stress that is associated with disruption in early
brain development. Extreme stress can impair the development of the nervous and
immune systems. Consequently, as adults, maltreated children are at increased risk for
behavioural, physical and mental health problems such as:

perpetrating or being a victim of violence

depression

smoking

obesity

high-risk sexual behaviours

unintended pregnancy

Alcohol and drug misuse.

Via these behavioural and mental health consequences, maltreatment can contribute to
heart disease, cancer, suicide and sexually transmitted infections.

Beyond the health and social consequences of child maltreatment, there is an

economic impact, including costs of hospitalization, mental health treatment, child
welfare, and longer-term health costs.

Risk factors

A number of risk factors for child maltreatment have been identified. These risk
factors are not present in all social and cultural contexts, but provide an overview
when attempting to understand the causes of child maltreatment.
Child

It is important to emphasize that children are the victims and are never to blame for
maltreatment. A number of characteristics of an individual child may increase the
likelihood of being maltreated:

being either under four years old or an adolescent

being unwanted, or failing to fulfil the expectations of parents

having special needs, crying persistently or having abnormal physical features.

Parent or caregiver

A number of characteristics of a parent or caregiver may increase the risk of child

maltreatment. These include:

difficulty bonding with a newborn

not nurturing the child

having been maltreated themselves as a child

lacking awareness of child development or having unrealistic expectations

misusing alcohol or drugs, including during pregnancy

being involved in criminal activity

experiencing financial difficulties.

Relationship

A number of characteristics of relationships within families or among intimate

partners, friends and peers may increase the risk of child maltreatment. These include:

physical, developmental or mental health problems of a family member

family breakdown or violence between other family members

being isolated in the community or lacking a support network

 a breakdown of support in child rearing from the extended family.

Community and societal factors

A number of characteristics of communities and societies may increase the risk of

child maltreatment. These include:

gender and social inequality;

lack of adequate housing or services to support families and institutions;

high levels of unemployment or poverty;

the easy availability of alcohol and drugs;

inadequate policies and programmes to prevent child maltreatment, child

pornography, child prostitution and child labour;

social and cultural norms that promote or glorify violence towards others,
support the use of corporal punishment, demand rigid gender roles, or
diminish the status of the child in parentchild relationships;

social, economic, health and education policies that lead to poor living
standards, or to socioeconomic inequality or instability.

Prevention

Preventing child maltreatment requires a multisectoral approach. Effective

programmes are those that support parents and teach positive parenting skills. These
include:

visits by nurses to parents and children in their homes to provide support,

education, and information;
parent education, usually delivered in groups, to improve child-rearing skills,
increase knowledge of child development, and encourage positive child
management strategies; and

multi-component interventions, which typically include support and education

of parents, pre-school education, and child care.
Other prevention programmes have shown some promise.

Programmes to prevent abusive head trauma (also referred to as shaken baby

syndrome, shaken infant syndrome and inflicted traumatic brain injury). These
are usually hospital-based programmes targeting new parents prior to
discharge from the hospital, informing of the dangers of shaken baby
syndrome and advising on how to deal with babies that cry inconsolably.
Programmes to prevent child sexual abuse. These are usually delivered in
schools and teach children about:

o body ownership

o the difference between good and bad touch

o how to recognize abusive situations

o how to say "no"

o how to disclose abuse to a trusted adult.

Such programmes are effective at strengthening protective factors against child sexual
abuse (e.g. knowledge of sexual abuse and protective behaviours), but evidence about
whether such programmes reduce other kinds of abuse is lacking.

The earlier such interventions occur in children's lives, the greater the benefits to the
child (e.g. cognitive development, behavioural and social competence, educational
attainment) and to society (e.g. reduced delinquency and crime).

In addition, early case recognition coupled with ongoing care of child victims and
families can help reduce reoccurrence of maltreatment and lessen its consequences.

To maximize the effects of prevention and care, WHO recommends that interventions
are delivered as part of a four-step public health approach:

defining the problem;

identifying causes and risk factors;

designing and testing interventions aimed at minimizing the risk factors;

 disseminating information about the effectiveness of interventions and
increasing the scale of proven effective interventions.

WHO response

WHO, in collaboration with a number of partners:

provides technical and normative guidance for evidence-based child

maltreatment prevention;
advocates for increased international support for and investment in evidence-
based child maltreatment prevention;

provides technical support for evidence-based child maltreatment prevention

programmes in several low- and middle-income countries.

(2a)Why is violence tolerated in families?

(2b)Describe the impact of drug and substance abuse

Effects of Drug Abuse and Addiction

Drugs are chemicals. Different drugs, because of their chemical structures, can affect
the body in different ways. In fact, some drugs can even change a person's body and
brain in ways that last long after the person has stopped taking drugs, maybe even
permanently.

Depending on the drug, it can enter the human body in a number of ways, including
injection, inhalation, and ingestion. The method of how it enters the body impacts on
how the drug affects the person. For example: injection takes the drug directly into the
blood stream, providing more immediate effects; while ingestion requires the drug to

Most abused drugs directly or indirectly target the brain's reward system by flooding
the circuit with dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter present in regions of the
brain that regulate movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of
pleasure. When drugs enter the brain, they can actually change how the brain
performs its jobs. These changes are what lead to compulsive drug use, the hallmark
of addiction.

The known facts in USA are:

Illicit drug users make over 527,000 costly emergency room visits each year
for drug related problems.
One dollar out of every $14 of the nation's health care bill is spent to treat
those suffering from smoking-related illnesses.

Drug offenders account for more than one-third of the growth in the state
prison population and more than 80 percent of the increase in the number of
federal prison inmates since 1985.

More than 75 percent of domestic violence victims report that their assailant
had been drinking or using illicit drugs at the time of the incident.

Substance abuse and addiction are fully treatable.

45% of individuals with an untreated substance use disorder commit suicide.

Injuries

More deaths, illnesses and disabilities stem from substance abuse than from any other
preventable health condition. Today, one in four deaths is attributable to illicit drug
use. People who live with substance dependence have a higher risk of all bad
outcomes including unintentional injuries, accidents, risk of domestic violence,
medical problems, and death.

Health Problems

The impact of drug abuse and dependence can be far-reaching, affecting almost every
organ in the human body. Drug use can:

Weaken the immune system, increasing susceptibility to infections.

Cause cardiovascular conditions ranging from abnormal heart rate to heart
attacks. Injected drugs can also lead to collapsed veins and infections of the
blood vessels and heart valves.
 Cause nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain.

Cause the liver to have to work harder, possibly causing significant damage or
liver failure.

Cause seizures, stroke and widespread brain damage that can impact all
aspects of daily life by causing problems with memory, attention and decision-
making, including sustained mental confusion and permanent brain damage.

Produce global body changes such as breast development in men, dramatic

fluctuations in appetite and increases in body temperature, which may impact
a variety of health conditions.

Effects On The Brain

Although initial drug use may be voluntary, drugs have been shown to alter brain
chemistry, which interferes with an individual's ability to make decisions and can lead
to compulsive craving, seeking and use. This then becomes a substance dependency.

All drugs of abuse - nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, and others - effect the brain's
"reward" circuit, which is part of the limbic system.
Drugs hijack this "reward" system, causing unusually large amounts of
dopamine to flood the system.

This flood of dopamine is what causes the "high" or euphoria associated with
drug abuse.

Behavioral Problems
Paranoia
Aggressiveness

Hallucinations

Addiction

Impaired Judgment

Impulsiveness

Loss of Self-Control
Birth Defects

Nearly 4 percent of pregnant women in the United States use illicit drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine, Ecstasy and other amphetamines, and heroin. These and other
illicit drugs may pose various risks for pregnant women and their babies. Some of
these drugs can cause a baby to be born too small or too soon, or to have withdrawal
symptoms, birth defects or learning and behavioral problems. Additionally, illicit
drugs may be prepared with impurities that may be harmful to a pregnancy.

Finally, pregnant women who use illicit drugs may engage in other unhealthy
behaviors that place their pregnancy at risk, such as having extremely poor nutrition
or developing sexually transmitted infections.

References: