Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply Vol 7 No 1 pp 139145 Q IWA Publishing 2007
period
E. Mavromati* and L. Chryssaidis**
*The Greek Ombudsman, Home address: 3 Paridi str., Polygono 11476 Athens
(E-mail: elmavromati@synigoros.gr)
**The Statial Data Maintenance Division of Ktimatologio S.A., 3 Paridi str., Polygono 11476 Athens
(E-mail: lchrysai@ktimatologio.gr)
Abstract Since their very beginnings, organized societies have been concerned with the preservation and
improvement of their environment and natural resources as these were the basis of their wellbeing and
survival. In pursuing this goal, many civilizations have constructed admirable technical and infrastructural
works. To most of us, however, the society that stands out for its particular preoccupation and special
widespread achievements in this field is the Roman Empire which actively demonstrated great interest for its
cities and the providing for their everyday basic livelihood needs. The creation of most urban centres was
combined with the construction of aqueducts, water supply and wastewater systems. During the Roman
occupation period (200 BC 300 AD) of the Hellenic world, many cities within the region expanded and
new urban centres were created. Substantial steps were taken to upgrade the urban landscape and to
improve their living conditions. This was connected with water supply and wastewater systems, comprising
aqueducts, water towers and underground pipe systems. The investigation of the criteria that determined
engineers design choices for aqueducts, methods and processes of construction, techniques and materials
used - as these are revealed through the archaeological excavations and relics - testify to the environmental
approach and the maintenance perception of the Roman period.
Keywords Aqueduct; Hellenic area; Roman period
Introduction
During the Roman period, mankind demonstrated its ability to go beyond existing
technical limitations, aiming at improving the methods covering everyday needs in
relation to adequate water supply and sewage removal. This led to new functional
constructions, by utilizing and upgrading the technical experience and by financing
appropriate public works (Italy). Roman ambassadors and governmental officials are
often cited as aqueduct, fountain and temple financers. The water supply and sewage
system networks represent one of the biggest achievements in aquatic resources
management. In addition, this sparked progress for parallel sectors such as management
of human potential and labor resources, organizing complex and extensive worksites and
management of emergencies.
Due to Pax Romana, trade was flourishing. Thus, lead imports from Spain and
other provinces of the Roman Empire allowed the wide use of this material for the
manufacturing of water pipes thus allowing for a better quality of provided water.
In the Hellenic area, several water supply and sewerage networks had been revealed
by archaeologists dating as back as the prehistoric period. The Minies (1450 BC) used a
sinkhole (katabothra) for the water management of Copais Lake; which was quite the
same as later water diversion constructions (Babliakis, 1997). For the purpose of
gathering water from mountains, advanced technical methods were used, and water
collection systems, shafts, reservoirs and tunnels were made. Typical examples of water
conducting works were: a) the Strymi water supply system (Kraniotis, 1984) in Thrace
(similar to the Eupalineian digging of Samos - Babliakis, 1997), composed of tunnels,
shafts and reservoirs (late 6th - early 5th BC), b) the Eupalineian digging at the mountain
Ambelos, composed of a 1040 m length and 1.80 1.80 m cross- section tunnel, into
which, a water pipeline was placed for the needs of Samos city (540 or 525 BC), c) the
Olynthos aqueduct at Chalkidiki (late 5th century BC) and d) the Pangaio aqueducts (4th
BC), whose lengths were 20 and 14 km respectively.
Romans participated in the social/ economic life of Greek cities and contributed
financially to the construction of public benefit works. The aqueducts of Athens,
Dyrrachio and Corinth were erected by the emperor Adrianos. Later, Alexandre Seviros
repaired the aqueduct of Dyrrahio, and Antigonos Efsevis built another one in Odyssos.
Figure 1 Parts of bridges of Nikopolis aqueduct: (a) Canal bridge at the area of Agios Georgios (Source:
www.AT.idx.gr); (b) Bridge near the mountain (Sakellariou, 1974, p. 188); and (c) Part of the aqueduct at
140 Nikopoli (Source:http://netkerveros.blogspot.com/2006/04/photography.html)
Canals were covered with the construction of arches impermeable to water (with square
openings for ventilation and cleaning at intervals). (b) In certain difficult geomorphic
regions, as that one of Kokkinopylo, a tunnel was dug out by particularly skilled technicians
who devised innovative methods in order to allow for the passage of water through the
mountain. By using strong fires and cold water alternatively, they heated and cooled the
rocks in quick succession, thus cracking the bedrock and facilitating the removal of the
unwanted rock mass. Through parallel working in separate sections, they managed neverthe-
142 Figure 2 Model of a water bridge of Hadrianion aqueduct (Source: Phoca and Valavanis, 1992, p. 56)
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis
Figure 3 Nymfaio: (left) Image of Nymfaio (Source: History of Greek Nation, v. ST, p. 160, according
Hliakis); and (right) Nymfaio today (Source: Calendar 2004, Efessos publ.)
In fact, it was a votive offering. It included two cisterns, (one oblong rectangular cistern
and another of semicircular shape, which was located at a higher level, Figure 3).
Figure 4 Plan of the building of Lappas thermae (Crete) to the west below the main site on the hill.
(Source: Sanders, 1982, p. 82) 143
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis
and were linked with three lines of arches. Seven arches of its intermediate section and
one of the lower line, are still to be seen today.
The artificial channel was found at the top of the bridge. It was supported by plinths-
built arches. It has been estimated that the part of the Moria region had a length of about
170 m and a height of 27 m, and it comprised seventeen arches. Parts of the canal bridge
of Lesbos aqueduct is shown in Figure 5.
Conclusions
Adequate water supply was a major concern of many Roman rulers. During the Roman
period ambitious constructions were erected with the purpose of both covering the needs
of provinces and big urban centres while reflecting the power and supremacy of Pax
Romana and the Roman way of life. Emperors promoted such an administrative and
economic system that served and facilitated the construction of impressive water supply
and wastewater management systems in the hub and the provinces of the Roman territory
In Hellas, the problem of water shortage was already intense since the prehistoric period.
Steps to find solutions had been taken from early times, primarily through the construction of
technical works (pipelines, cisterns, public fountains etc.), but it was during the Roman ages
that civic economics and technological know-how finally allowed for the systematic
construction and maintenance of comprehensive and adequate aqueducts and networks in the
various urban centres of Greece. This trend was further promoted by the incorporation of
Roman officials in the economic and social life of the regional urban centres.
In the Hellenic area, technologically up-to-date sound processes were used for the
construction of aqueducts and water management systems. They usually started by
locating adequate water sources (usually found at a high altitude, up in hills or
mountains). Distance between springs and settlements stopped posing unsurpassable
hindrance, as the craftsmen were able to overcome natural obstacles in order to direct
water into the cities. Essential elements of an aqueduct were the water tanks, which were
constructed a) near the source, b) at a region outside the city and c) in various points of
the urban network. They provided for water storage and guaranteed that the water flow
and pressure would be constant. The prevailing way of gathering water was hydromas-
tefsi (see analysis of this system in Babliakis, 1997), that gave also a) the possibility to
collect water from other sources along aqueducts and b) the possibility to supply water to
several destination points with the creation of sinks.
In order to convey water, underground pipelines, tunnels and terrestrial water bridges
were used. Underground venues were dug or curved in hard rock. Shafts were used for
144 cleaning and ventilation. The tunnels were created a) by the technique of quick
expansion-contraction of rocks through overheating/cooling, b) by digging or c) by cur-
ving the rock. The aqueduct bridges were built with plinth walls, connected with wall
plaster. They were supported by built or marble pillars and had arches, usually in their
upper part, or in successive levels, which hosted the water channel.
Concluding, one could say that aqueducts and other water management great works of
that period best reflect the prowess and supremacy of the Roman Empire throughout the
then-known world. They provide historical evidence of the sustainability perception of the
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