entropy

Article
Entropy Generation Analysis and Performance
Evaluation of Turbulent Forced Convective Heat
Transfer to Nanofluids
Yu Ji 1 , Hao-Chun Zhang 2, *, Xie Yang 1 and Lei Shi 1, *
1 Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Nuclear
Energy Technology, Key Laboratory of Advanced Reactor Engineering and Safety of Ministry of Education,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; jiyu1994joe11@163.com (Y.J.); yxheneng@163.com (X.Y.)
2 School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
* Correspondence: zhc5@vip.163.com (H.-C.Z.); shlinet@tsinghua.edu.cn (L.S.);
Tel.: +86-451-8641-2328 (H.-C.Z.); +86-10-6277-3361 (L.S.)

Academic Editor: Yan Jin

Received: 21 January 2017; Accepted: 8 March 2017; Published: 11 March 2017

Abstract: The entropy generation analysis of fully turbulent convective heat transfer to nanofluids
in a circular tube is investigated numerically using the Reynolds Averaged NavierStokes (RANS)
model. The nanofluids with particle concentration of 0%, 1%, 2%, 4% and 6% are treated as single
phases of effective properties. The uniform heat flux is enforced at the tube wall. To confirm the
validity of the numerical approach, the results have been compared with empirical correlations and
analytical formula. The self-similarity profiles of local entropy generation are also studied, in which
the peak values of entropy generation by direct dissipation, turbulent dissipation, mean temperature
gradients and fluctuating temperature gradients for different Reynolds number as well as different
particle concentration are observed. In addition, the effects of Reynolds number, volume fraction
of nanoparticles and heat flux on total entropy generation and Bejan number are discussed. In the
results, the intersection points of total entropy generation for water and four nanofluids are observed,
when the entropy generation decrease before the intersection and increase after the intersection as the
particle concentration increases. Finally, by definition of Ep , which combines the first law and second
law of thermodynamics and attributed to evaluate the real performance of heat transfer processes,
the optimal Reynolds number Reop corresponding to the best performance and the advisable Reynolds
number Read providing the appropriate Reynolds number range for nanofluids in convective heat
transfer can be determined.

Keywords: nanofluids; turbulent flow; convective heat transfer; entropy generation; performance
evaluation

1. Introduction
Facilities with high power density account for an increasing share in some industries as the
technology advances, which demands an effective approach to ensure safe and efficient heat transfer.
For the last several decades, many methods have been utilized to enhance heat transfer, such as
changing flow geometry or boundary conditions and improving the properties of working fluids.
Nanofluids technique is an approach for increasing the nominal fluid thermal conductivity through
suspending nanometer-sized particles in a base fluid [1]. Usually, the particles are metals, metal-oxides
such as Cu, Au, CuO, TiO2 , Al2 O3 , or even carbon nanotubes, while the base fluid is a poor heat transfer
fluid, including oil, water and ethylene glycol [2]. In terms of their unique features, nanofluids have
attracted a great deal of attention and several experimental and numerical investigations have been
conducted to analyze their thermal and hydrodynamics characteristics. For example, He et al. [3]

Entropy 2017, 19, 108; doi:10.3390/e19030108 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2017, 19, 108 2 of 18

investigated the laminar and turbulent convective heat transfer to TiO2 nanofluids, and found that
heat transfer rate is better when the particle concentration increases and particle size decreases.
Xuan and Li [4,5] investigated the heat transfer coefficient and friction factor of Cu-water nanofluids
experimentally, and the results showed that heat transfer capability enhanced significantly as particle
loading rises. Additionally, Xuan et al. [6] correlated a formula evaluating heat transfer to capture
the effect of energy transport due to particle dispersion. Rea et al. [7] explored the difference of
laminar convective heat transfer to Al2 O3 -water and ZrO-water nanofluids in a vertical heated tube.
An increment of 17% in heat transfer coefficient in the entrance region and 27% in developed region
for 6 vol % Al2 O3 -water nanofluids was observed, while it was reduced to 2% in the entry length and
3% in the developed region for 1.32 vol % ZrO-water nanofluids. Maige et al. [8] studied the thermal
and hydrodynamic characteristic of two nanofluids, viz., water-Al2 O3 and ethylene glycol-Al2 O3
in a uniformly heated tube, which show that the heat transfer rate using ethylene glycol-Al2 O3 is
much better than that using water-Al2 O3 mixture. Bianco et al. [9] investigated the flow and heat
transfer behavior of water-Al2 O3 nanofluid in a circular tube numerically, in which they adopted the
mixture model and compared the results with the single-phase model, which regarded the nanofluids
as single phase fluid of effective properties and was used frequently in amounts of researches [1014].
The similar results derived by single phase model and mixture model indicated that heat transfer was
augmented with the increase of volume fraction of particles and Reynolds number.
Besides the work stated above, the mechanisms of thermal transport in nanofluids involving
Brownian motion, interfacial resistance, liquid layering at particle liquid interface, motion of
nanoparticles clustering and thermophoresis have also been investigated in some explorations [1519].
Both the experimental and numerical studies revealed the absolute potential of nanofluids in heat
transfer enhancement.
However, most studies on nanofluids just focused on the heat transfer coefficient and pressure
drop under the framework of first law of thermodynamics. Evidently, the enhancement of heat transfer
performance is accompanied by the increase of pressure drop penalty, which results from that the
improvement of thermal conductivity is accompanied by the increase of viscosity [20]. Although much
information about heat transfer to nanofluids can be obtained through first law analysis, little is known
about the exergy and dissipation. Moreover, the optimal condition cannot be determined by first law
approach in a viewpoint of energy utilization. Entropy generation analysis is an effective method to
determine the irreversibility of energy processes or thermal engineering systems. Entropy generation
minimization method (EGM) introduced by Bejan [21] is a combination of fluid mechanics, heat transfer
and thermodynamics. Nowadays, it is widely used in many applications including the friction and heat
transfer assessment of fluid flow and heat transfer [2224], drag reduction of channels with shark skin
surfaces [25], performance improvement of two-phase natural circulation loops [26], optimization of
heat pipe systems and refrigeration systems [27,28]. Beyond question, EGM has been applied to the
analysis of nanofluids problems successfully.
Singh et al. [29] conducted an analytical study of laminar nanofluids flow in three scale geometries,
i.e., microchannels, minichannels and conventional channels. Li et al. [13] investigated the entropy
generation of Al2 O3 -water nanofluids laminar flow in the microchannels with flow control structures.
Recently, more attention has been paid to the turbulent flow regime of nanofluids. Bianco et al. [30]
carried out a parametric investigation of entropy generation of turbulent forced convective heat transfer
to Al2 O3 -water nanofluids in a circular tube subjected to constant wall heat flux. The results determined
the optimal particle concentration to minimize entropy generation for different inlet conditions and
a concentration range from 0% up to 6%. Mwesigye and Huan [20] performed a thermodynamics analysis
and optimization of fully developed turbulent convective heat transfer to water-Al2 O3 nanofluids in
a tube with circular section, in which the effects of cross section areas, particle concentration and
Reynolds number on entropy generation were discussed. Siavashi and Jamali [31] analyzed the entropy
generation of TiO2 -water nanofluids flowing through annuli with different radius ratios and the optimal
working condition was found to reach the minimum irreversibility.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 3 of 18

Entropydifferent
with 2017, 19, 108
radius ratios and the optimal working condition was found to reach the minimum 3 of 18

irreversibility.
From
From thethe literature
literature review
review above,
above, itit can
can be
be noticed
noticed that
that almost
almost all
all work
work related
related to
to the
the entropy
entropy
generation
generation of nanofluids emphasized the general parameters, but no detailed information, such
of nanofluids emphasized the general parameters, but no detailed information, such as
as
entropy generation profile in the flow field of nanofluids was not provided, which
entropy generation profile in the flow field of nanofluids was not provided, which prevents us from prevents us from
better
better understanding
understanding the the mechanism
mechanism andand optimizing
optimizing these
these sophisticated
sophisticated devices.
devices. Therefore,
Therefore, inin the
the
current work, the fully developed turbulent flow of Al 2O3-water nanofluids is investigated
current work, the fully developed turbulent flow of Al2 O3 -water nanofluids is investigated numerically.
numerically. The entropydistribution
The entropy generation generation distribution
within fluid within
domainfluid domain is determined
is determined first,
first, and then and then a
a parametric
parametric
study of thermodynamic irreversibility is performed. Finally, the evaluation parameter Epparameter
study of thermodynamic irreversibility is performed. Finally, the evaluation , which is
E p, which is a combination criterion of the first law and second law of the thermodynamics, is
a combination criterion of the first law and second law of the thermodynamics, is introduced to
introduced
evaluate thetoperformance
evaluate theofperformance
convective heat of convective heat transfer
transfer processes, and theprocesses,
effects of and the effects
Reynolds number,of
Reynolds number, heat flux, and particle concentration
heat flux, and particle concentration on it are discussed as well. on it are discussed as well.

2.
2. Problem
Problem Description
Description
The
The geometry
geometry model
model of
of the
the problem
problem being
being investigated
investigated in
in this
this paper
paper is
is depicted
depicted inin Figure
Figure 1.
1. It
It is
is
aa circular tube with
circular tube with the
the uniform
uniformheat
heatflux
fluxatatthe
thewall.
wall.The
Thelength
lengthofofthe
thetube
tubeisis1 1mmand
andthe
the diameter
diameter is
is 1
1 cm.cm.

Figure 1.
Figure Schematicview
1. Schematic view of
of circular
circular tube
tube being
being investigated
investigated in
in this
this paper.
paper.

The
The turbulent
turbulent flow
flow at different Reynolds number is taken into account. The The nanofluids
nanofluids whose
whose
particle concentration ranges from 0% to 6% consist of water and Al22O O33nanoparticle
nanoparticleof
of25
25nm
nmsphere,
sphere,
and
and the
the Reynolds
Reynoldsnumber
numberisisdetermined
determinedbybybulk
bulkvelocity,
velocity,tube
tubediameter
diameterand effective
and properties
effective of
properties
nanofluids. In the investigation, the nanofluids are treated as single phase fluids
of nanofluids. In the investigation, the nanofluids are treated as single phase fluids with with constant
properties, which will be introduced in the following part of this paper.
paper.

3. Numerical
3. Numerical Approach
Approach

3.1. Properties
3.1. Properties of
of Nanofluids
Nanofluids
Correct specification
Correct specification of
of thermodynamic
thermodynamic and and transport
transport properties
properties is
is significant
significant in
in the
the simulation
simulation
of convective heat transfer to nanofluids, which determines the accuracy of the analysis
of convective heat transfer to nanofluids, which determines the accuracy of the analysis usually. usually. In this
investigation, the sole properties of Al
In this investigation, the sole properties O
2 of nanoparticle and the water base fluid are listed in
3 Al2O3 nanoparticle and the water base fluid are listed in Table 1,
and the
Table 1, determination of mixtures
and the determination is introduced
of mixtures as below.as below.
is introduced
Table 1. Properties of base fluid and Al2 O3 nanofluids [32].
Table 1. Properties of base fluid and Al2O3 nanofluids [32].
3) (J/kgK) (Pas)(Pas) (W/mK) (W/mK)
Substances
Substances (kg/m
(kg/m 3) ccpp(J/kgK)
Water Water 998.2 998.2 4182.0
4182.0 0.001003
0.001003 0.6 0.6
Al2O3 Al O
2 3 3970 3970 765
765 - - 40 40

Density
Density of
of the
the Al
Al22O
O33-water
-watermixture
mixtureisisgiven
givenby
by[8]:
[8]:
nf = p + (1 ) bf . (1)
n f = p + (1 )b f . (1)
By assuming the thermal equilibrium between the base fluid and particle, the specific heat
By assuming
capacity the thermal
is calculated equilibrium
as follows [20]: between the base fluid and particle, the specific heat capacity
is calculated as follows [20]:
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 4 of 18

p c p,p + (1 )b f c p,b f
c p,n f = . (2)
n f
As for viscosity, the empirical correlation proposed by Maiga et al. [8] is adopted, which reads as:
 
n f = b f 1232 + 7.3 + 1 . (3)

The correlation has been used in several studies [8,14,3338]. It is obtained by a least squares
curve fitting of experimental data from Wang et al. [39]. On one hand, the correlation gives the viscosity
value close to the experimental values when compared with earlier models proposed by Einstein and
later modified by Brinkman [40] as well as one also proposed by Batchelor [41]. On the other hand,
the expression of correlation is simpler than some recent models [42]. Besides, the correlation can give
the viscosity for water-Al2 O3 nanofluids with particle concentration up to 6%.
Thermal conductivity is determined by Bruggeman model [43], which takes the interaction among
spherical particles into consideration, and is written as:
h i
n f = (3 1) p + (2 3)b f + /4, (4)

h i2
= (3 1) p + (2 3)b f + 8 p b f . (5)

The model is popular in some investigations due to its simplicity [13,20,36,44]. From the results of
some studies, the Bruggeman model approaches the Maxwell model at low nanoparticle concentration,
which gives the thermal conductivity of nanofluids accurately in a benchmark test carried out by
34 organizations [45]. The Maxwell model and its improved versions have been adopted to determine
the thermal conductivity of nanofluids successfully in the last several decades [13,20,44,45]. In addition,
the Bruggeman model is more appropriate to use for high quantities of particle loading when compared
with Maxwell model [46,47].
In the statement above, the subscript nf represents nanofluid, bf represents base fluid and p
means particles.

3.2. Governing Equations of CFD Calculation

The turbulent convective heat transfer is investigated by means of solving the incompressible
steady NavierStokes equation numerically here, and the governing equations after averaging are
listed below, in which the subscript nf is omitted to ensure the conciseness of equations:

Continuity equation:
(ui )
= 0, (6)
xi

Momentum equation:
!!

P ui u j
ui u j = + ( + t ) + , (7)
x j xi x j x j xi

Energy equation:
! !


T ui u j ui
u j c p T = + t c p + + , (8)
x j x j x j x j xi x j

where the variables with bar represent mean parameters, i.e., mean velocity and mean temperature.
The t and t are the turbulent viscosity and turbulent thermal diffusivity separately, which should
be determined using the turbulence model, i.e., standard k model in this work. The model has
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 5 of 18

incorporated modifications for low-Reynolds number effects and shear flow spreading. The transport
equations of turbulence kinetic energy k and the specific dissipation rate yield as [48]:
!
k
k


ku j = + Gk Yk , (9)
x j x j x j
!




u j = + G Y , (10)
x j x j x j

in which, Gk represents the production term of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean velocity
gradients, while Yk represents the dissipation term of turbulence kinetic energy due to turbulence,
analogously in the equation of specific dissipation rate . Besides, k and are the diffusivity of
k and respectively. The detailed introduction of these term can be obtained in [48]. Through the
values of k and , the turbulent viscosity and thermal diffusivity are computed as:

k
t = , (11)

t
t = , (12)
Prt
where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number and the coefficient is a damping function of turbulent
viscosity accounting for low-Reynolds number correction, and it is given by [48]:

0 + Ret /Rk
 
= , (13)
1 + Ret /Rk

in which, = = 1 for high-Reynolds number flow, and the variables or parameters are calculated
as [48]:
k
Ret = , (14)

i
Rk = 6, 0 = , i = 0.072. (15)
3

3.3. Entropy Generation

The irreversibility of convective heat transfer consists of two part, viz., flow friction due to viscous
and heat transfer with finite temperature difference. For turbulent flows, the entropy generation
describing the irreversibility can be divided into four terms:
!2
ui 2
 
. 000 ui u j
Sgen, D = 2 + + , (16)
T xi x j xi

!2
. 000 ui0
 2
ui0 u0j
Sgen, D0 = 2 + + , (17)
T xi x j xi

 2
. 000 T
Sgen, C = 2
, (18)
T xi
2
T 0

. 000
Sgen, C0 = 2
, (19)
T xi
which represent entropy generation by direct dissipation, entropy generation by turbulent dissipation,
entropy generation by heat conduction for mean temperature gradients, and entropy generation by
heat transfer for fluctuating temperature gradients according to [49]. However, Equations (17) and (19)
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 6 of 18

involve the velocity and temperature fluctuations, which cannot be obtained from RANS approach.
Then the information contained in the turbulence model, standard k model should be applied to
update these two terms in a close form, which are shown as [22,49]:

1. By assuming the local equilibrium of turbulent kinetic energy, the exact dissipation approximately
equals to the production of density and the turbulent dissipation rate; the turbulent dissipation
rate is directly proportional to the production of turbulence kinetic energy and specific turbulent
dissipation rate; therefore, the equation can be rewritten as:
. 000 k
Sgen, D0 = = C , (20)
T T
in which, the coefficient C is set as a constant, 0.09.
2. By using the Boussinesq approach and a constant turbulent Prandtl number, the entropy
generation because of fluctuating temperature gradients is replaced by:
2 2 2
t c p T k c p T
  
. 000 c p T
Sgen, C0 = t 2 = = . (21)
T xi Prt T 2 xi Prt T 2 xi

Summarizing the four terms above, the total volumetric entropy generation rate is given as:
. 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000
Sgen = Sgen, D + Sgen, D0 + Sgen, C + Sgen, C0 . (22)

Integrating volumetric entropy generation rate to the whole computational domain, the total
entropy generation rate is determined as:
. Z . 000
Sgen = Sgen dV. (23)
V

3.4. Boundary Conditions

To get fully developed turbulent flow inside the tube, the periodic boundary conditions are
adopted at the inlet and outlet section. The mass flow rate corresponding to different Reynolds
number and particle concentration of nanofluids are specified here. Besides, the inlet temperature
is set as 293 K. For the tube wall, the uniform heat flux boundary with no slip and no penetration is
selected. To investigate the effect of heat flux on the entropy generation, the heat flux with the values
of 50,000 W/m2 , 100,000 W/m2 , 200,000 W/m2 and 500,000 W/m2 is considered in this study.

3.5. Solution Method

The solution of the problem is performed using ANSYS FLUENT 16.0, a computational fluid
dynamics code based on finite volume method. In the simulation, the Semi-Implicit Method for
Pressure-Linked Equations-Consistent (SIMPLEC) algorithm is adopted for pressure-velocity coupling,
and the second upwind scheme is used for spatial discretization of equations with regards to
continuity, momentum, energy, turbulent kinetic energy and specific dissipation. During the simulation,
the calculation will not be terminated unless the two criteria below are attained [22]: (1) The scaled
residuals for all solutions except energy should be less than 106 , while the term for energy is set to
109 ; (2) The entropy generation rate integrated to whole domain hardly changes with iterations.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Verification and Validation

In the verification process, four meshes are chosen to check the grid independence under
the condition of convective heat transfer using pure water at Re = 40,000. The friction factor f,
Nusselt number Nu and dimensionless total entropy generation Ns are selected as evaluation criteria.
The simulation results are shown in Table 2.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 7 of 18

Table 2. Results of grid independence check.

Entropy 2017, 19, 108 7 of 18
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 7 of 18
Nodes f Difference (%) Nu Difference (%) Ns * Difference (%)
Table 2. Results of grid independence check.
1 157,628 0.0249 8.52 2. Results306.2722
Table of grid independence5.65 check. 0.01756 16.8
2 268,068 Nodes 0.0229 f Difference
3.00 (%) 289.8880 Nu Difference
3.23 (%) 0.01503
Ns * Difference
7.72 (%)
Nodes f Difference
8.52 (%) 281.1345 Nu Difference
5.65 (%) 0.01396Ns * Difference (%)
3 1 462,844
157,628 0.0249
0.0223 1.08 306.2722 0.42 0.01756 16.8
0.12
21 157,628
268,068 0.0249
0.0229 8.52
3.00 306.2722
289.8880 5.65
3.23 0.01756
0.01503 16.8
7.72
4 923,844 0.0220 - 279.6317 - 0.01393 -
32 268,068
462,844 0.0229
0.0223 3.00
1.08 289.8880
281.1345 3.23
0.42 0.01503
0.01396 7.72
0.12
Tin Sgen /Q,0.0223
*3Ns =462,844 Tin is the temperature
1.08 Sgen is the total entropy
at inlet, 281.1345 0.42 generation and Q is the heat
0.01396 0.12 input.
4 923,844 0.0220 - 279.6317 - 0.01393 -
4* Ns =923,844 0.0220 - 279.6317 - 0.01393 -
TinSgen/Q, Tin is the temperature at inlet, Sgen is the total entropy generation and Q is the heat input.
From* Nsthe
= Tintable,
Sgen/Q,itTincan betemperature
is the observed that theSgen
at inlet, relative discrepancy
is the total of friction
entropy generation and Qfactor, Nusselt
is the heat input.number
and dimensionless total entropy generation are 1.08%, 0.42%, 0.12% respectively,
From the table, it can be observed that the relative discrepancy of friction factor, Nusselt number when the mesh
changes From
and from the table,
mesh 3 tototal
dimensionless it can
mesh be observed
4. Therefore,
entropy that the
mesh
generation relative
are 31.08%, discrepancy
with 0.42%, of
462,8440.12% friction
nodes factor,
is adoptedwhen
respectively, Nusselt number
by considering
the mesh the
andof
balance dimensionless
changes from mesh
accuracy and total
3 to entropy
mesh generation
4. Therefore,
efficiency. arethe
mesh
To validate 31.08%,
with 0.42%, nodes
462,844
numerical 0.12% respectively,
is
approach, adopted by when
the results ofthe
considering
basemesh
the
fluid in
changes from mesh 3 to mesh 4. Therefore, mesh 3 with 462,844 nodes is adopted by considering the
termsbalance
of fluidof friction
accuracyand andheat
efficiency.
transferTo are
validate the numerical
compared with thatapproach,
obtained theby
results of base fluid
Petukhovs in
correlation,
balance
terms of of accuracy
fluid friction andandefficiency.
heat To validate
transfer are the numerical
compared with thatapproach,
obtained the
by results of base
Petukhovs fluid in
correlation,
Equation (24), and Gnielinskis correlation, Equation (25), which are given as [50]:
terms of fluid
Equation (24), friction and heat correlation,
and Gnielinskis transfer are Equation
compared(25), with that obtained
which are givenbyas Petukhovs
[50]: correlation,
Equation (24), and Gnielinskis correlation, Equation (25), which are given as [50]:
f =f (=0.790 Re
( 0.790lnlnRe 1.64))2, 2 ,
1.64 (24) (24)
f = ( 0.790 ln Re 1.64 ) ,
2
(24)
((f f/88)(
)( Re1000
Re )
1000 Pr) Pr
Nu = Nu = ( f 8)( Re 0.5 ,
, (25) (25)
Nu1=+ 1 +12.7
1000
0.5
Pr)2 2/3
12.7((ff/88)) 0.5 Pr
Pr
3
(
1, 1 )
and the comparisons are shown separately
1 + 12.7 ( f 8) Pr 2 3 1
in Figures 2 and 3.
( ) (25)
and the comparisons are shown separately in Figures 2 and 3.
and the comparisons are shown separately in Figures 2 and 3.
0.045
0.045
0.040 9.34% Petukhov's correlation [50]
9.34% CFD calculated
Petukhov's correlation [50]
0.040
0.035 CFD calculated
0.035
0.030
f

0.030
0.025
f

0.025
0.020
0.020
0.015
0.015
0 50000 100000 150000 200000
0 50000 100000
Re 150000 200000
Re
Figure 2. Validation of CFD calculated friction factor with Petukhovs correlation [50].
Figure 2. Validation of CFD calculated friction factor with Petukhovs correlation [50].
Figure 2. Validation of CFD calculated friction factor with Petukhovs correlation [50].
1200
1200 Gnielinski's correlation [50] 4%
1000 CFD calculated
Gnielinski's correlation [50] 4%
1000 CFD calculated
800
800
600
Nu Nu

600
400
400
200
200
0
00 50000 100000 150000 200000
0 50000 100000
Re 150000 200000
Re
Figure 3. Validation of CFD calculated Nusselt number with Gnielinskis correlation [50].
Figure 3. Validation of CFD calculated Nusselt number with Gnielinskis correlation [50].
Figure 3. Validation of CFD calculated Nusselt number with Gnielinskis correlation [50].
From these figures, it can be seen that the CFD calculated results are in good agreement with the
From these
correlation figures,
in a wide it can
range be seen that
of Reynolds the CFD
number calculated
except results are in
a few deviations, good
i.e., agreement
9.34% with
of friction the
factor
correlation
From
at Re =these in a wide
figures,
5000 and range of
4% ofitNusselt Reynolds
can be number
seen thatnumber
at the
Re =CFDexcept a few deviations, i.e., 9.34% of friction
calculated results are in good agreement with the
200,000. factor
at Re = in
correlation 5000 and 4%
a wide of Nusselt
range numbernumber
of Reynolds at Re = 200,000.
except a few deviations, i.e., 9.34% of friction factor at
Re = 5000 and 4% of Nusselt number at Re = 200,000.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 8 of 18

Additionally, the model of entropy generation rate is validated against the results derived
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 8 of 18 by
Bejans formula, i.e., Equation (26). The formula is an analytical expression applied to the determination
of entropyAdditionally,
generation the in amodel of entropy
tube with forcedgeneration
convectiverate is validated
heat against
transfer and the as
reads results
[51]:derived by
Bejans formula, i.e., Equation (26). The formula is an analytical expression applied to the
determination of entropy generation in a tube0 2with forced convective
8m3 c heat transfer and reads as [51]:
0 q f
Sgen = + 2 32 , (26)
2
T q Nu2
8 m c T
f bulk D
5
= bulk
Sgen + , (26)
Tbulk
2
Nu 2 2Tbulk D 5
where q is the heat input per unit length, D is the diameter of tube, Nu = hD/ with h = q/(Tw Tbulk ),
m is where q is the
the mass flowheat input
rate, cf per
= (unit length, D is2 /2)
dp/dx)/(u the diameter
with u = of 4m/(d
tube, Nu =2 hD/
) andwith h =isq/(T
Tbulk w Tbulk),
the bulk fluid
m is the mass flow rate, cf = (dp/dx)/(u2/2) with u = 4m/(d2) and Tbulk is the bulk fluid temperature,
temperature, which takes the approximate value as (Tin + Tout )/2. The validation of this term is
which takes the approximate value as (Tin + Tout)/2. The validation of this term is shown in Figure 4.
shown in Figure 4. From the figure, it can be observed that good agreement is reached between present
From the figure, it can be observed that good agreement is reached between present entropy
entropy generation
generation modelmodel and Bejans
and Bejans formula.
formula.

1.6 Bejan's formula [51]

Present study

1.2
Sgen

0.8

0.4

0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Re
Figure 4. Validation of present entropy generation model with Bejans formula [51].
Figure 4. Validation of present entropy generation model with Bejans formula [51].
4.2. Local Entropy Generation Profile
4.2. Local To
Entropy
makeGeneration Profileof local entropy generation more appropriate, the dimensionless
the comparison
volumetric
To entropy
make the generationofrate
comparison in the
local flow region
entropy of heatedmore
generation pipe flow characterizing
appropriate, the the ratio of
dimensionless
energy dissipation and the heat input under the local conditions is defined as:
volumetric entropy generation rate in the flow region of heated pipe flow characterizing the ratio of
energy dissipation and the heat input underSthe d 2 conditions is defined as:
T local
l Td
4 = Sgen
gen
Sgen
+
=. 000 . , (27)
SgenqT dl 4q000 Td
d 2
.+
4 l S gen
Sgen = = , (27)
q dl
in which, T is the local temperature, q is the heat 4q length of the tube.
flux and l is the
Figure 5 shows the dimensionless local entropy generation by direct dissipation, turbulent
in which, T is the
dissipation, local
mean temperature,
temperature q is the
gradients heat
and fluctuating l is the length
flux andtemperature of theattube.
gradients different Reynolds
Figure
number, in5 which
shows the with
the fluids dimensionless local entropy
nanoparticle concentration generation
of 0%, 1%, 2%, 4% and by 6% direct
are taken dissipation,
into
turbulent dissipation,
account. From these mean
figures,temperature
the peak valuegradients
of the fourand
termsfluctuating
can be found temperature
in the flow gradients
domain. at
However,
different the peak
Reynolds valuein
number, ofwhich
entropy generation
the from
fluids with mean gradients,
nanoparticle i.e., Sgen,
+
concentration D
and
of 0%, +1%,, exist
S gen, C 2%, in
4% and
6% are
thetaken into
viscous account.
sublayer (y+ From these
< 5) due figures,
to steep the peak
gradients herevalue
( u yof and
the four
T terms canthe
y ), while be peak
found in the
value of flow
.+ .+
domain. However,
entropy the peak
generation from value i.e., Sgeneration
of entropy
fluctuation, + +from
gen, D and S gen, mean
C , lie gradients,
in the i.e., Sinner
buffer layer, Sgen, C ,
and of
gen, Dedge
exist buffer
in the layer
viscous +
accurately (y ~ 10) because of violent turbulence here. In a detailed view, the entropy peak
sublayer + (y < 5) due to steep gradients here (u/y and T/y), while the
.+ .+
valuegeneration
of entropybygeneration
direct dissipation decreases monotonously when y increases, but the term owing to
+
from fluctuation, i.e., Sgen, D0 and Sgen, C0 , lie in the buffer layer, inner edge
the turbulence dissipation
+ grows rapidly form 0 to its peak value in
of buffer layer accurately (y ~10) because of violent turbulence here. In a detailed the sublayer to inner
view, edge of
the entropy
buffer layer, and then reduced gradually when y+ increases unceasingly. + Similar results are found in
generation by direct dissipation decreases monotonously when y increases, but the term owing to the
the distribution of entropy generation by mean and fluctuating temperature gradients, but some
turbulence dissipation grows rapidly form 0 to its peak value in the sublayer to inner edge of buffer layer,
difference exists in the near wall region. The entropy generation due to mean temperature gradients
and then reduced
hardly changesgradually when
or with some y+ increases
small rise in theunceasingly. Similar
sublayer to inner edgeresults
of buffer arelayer,
foundandinthe
thevalue
distribution
of
of entropy
water is greater than that of other nanofluids, while no discrepancy for the value of entropyin the
generation by mean and fluctuating temperature gradients, but some difference exists
near generation
wall region.byThe entropytemperature
fluctuating generationgradients
due to mean temperature
existed gradients
in the sublayer when thehardly changes or
concentration of with
somenanoparticle
small rise inincreases.
the sublayer to inner edge of buffer layer, and the value of water is greater than that of
other nanofluids, while no discrepancy for the value of entropy generation by fluctuating temperature
gradients existed in the sublayer when the concentration of nanoparticle increases.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 9 of 18

Entropy 2017, 19, 108 9 of 18

Additionally, the profiles with self-similarity of these terms show that the entropy generation by
Additionally, the profiles with self-similarity of these terms show that the entropy generation
dissipation, including direct dissipation and turbulent dissipation, grows greatly, while the entropy
by dissipation, including direct dissipation and turbulent dissipation, grows greatly, while the
generations due to both mean and fluctuating temperature gradients remain the almost same state
entropy generations due to both mean and fluctuating temperature gradients remain the almost same
as Reynolds number of the pipe flow increases. It can also be seen that the local entropy generation
state as Reynolds number of the pipe flow increases. It can also be seen that the local entropy
resulted from friction increases and the terms due to heat transfer decreases as the nanofluids become
generation resulted from friction increases and the terms due to heat transfer decreases as the
denser and denser
nanofluids become from Figure
denser and 5, which
denser fromis Figure
due to5,the increase
which is dueoftoviscosity andofimprovement
the increase viscosity and of
thermal conductivity.
improvement of thermal conductivity.

-3 -2
(x10 ) (x10 )
2.0 1.6
=0%
1.6 =1% =0%
=2% 1.2 =1%
1.2 =4% =2%
=6%

gen,D
=4%
gen,D

0.8

+
=6%

S
0.8
+
S

0.4 0.4

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 + 30 40 50
y
+
y
-3
(x10 ) (x10 )
-2

0.4 =0%
=1% 0.3 =0%
=2% =1%
0.3 =4% =2%
=6% =4%
0.2
gen, D'

gen,D'

=6%
0.2
+

+
S

0.1
0.1

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
+ +
y y

2.5 2.5
=0%
2.0 2.0 =1%
=0%
=2%
=1%
=4%
1.5 =2% 1.5
gen,C

=6%
gen,C

=4%
+
+

=6%
S

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 + 18 24 30
+
y y
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 =0%
0.5 =0%
=1%
=1%
0.4 =2%
0.4 =2%
gen,C'
gen,C'

=4%
0.3 =4%
=6%
+

0.3
+

=6%
S
S

0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0.0
+ 0 10 20 + 30 40 50
y y
(a) (b)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Cont.
Cont.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 10 of 18
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 10 of 18

-1
(x10 ) 2.0
1.6
=0%
=0% 1.5 =1%
1.2 =2%
=1%

gen, D
=2% =4%
gen, D

=4% 1.0 =6%

+
0.8

S
+

=6%
S

0.4 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
+ +
y y
-1
(x10 )
0.4 0.4
=0% =0%
=1% =1%
0.3 =2% 0.3 =2%
=4%
=4%
=6%
gen, D'

gen, D' =6%

0.2 0.2
+

+
S

0.1
0.1

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.0
+ 0 20 40 60 80 100
y +
y

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0
=0% =0%
=1% =1%
1.5 1.5
gen,C

gen,C

=2% =2%
+

=4%
+

=4%
S

1.0 =6% 1.0 =6%

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 6 12 + 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
y +
y
0.7 0.7

0.6 =0% 0.6

=0%
=1% =1%
0.5 0.5
=2% =2%
0.4 =4% 0.4 =4%
gen,C'

=6%
gen,C'

=6%
+

0.3 0.3
S
+
S

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 + 30 40 50
+
y y
(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 5.5. Dimensionless
Dimensionless local entropy
local generation
entropy generationby direct dissipation,
by direct turbulence
dissipation, dissipation,
turbulence mean
dissipation,
temperature gradients and fluctuating temperature gradients at different Reynolds
mean temperature gradients and fluctuating temperature gradients at different Reynolds number; number;
(a) Re
(a) Re ==5000;
5000;(b)
(b)Re
Re==10,000;
10,000;(c)
(c)Re
Re==20,000;
20,000;(d)
(d)Re
Re==40,000
40,000(The
(Thedimensionless
dimensionlesslocal
localentropy
entropy generation
generation
here has been quadrupled).
here has been quadrupled).
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 11 of 18

4.3. Thermodynamic
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 Irreversilities 11 of 18

The total entropy generation rate represents the availability of engineering process or energy
system
4.3. to some degree.
Thermodynamic To make the form of this item more appropriate for analysis, the
Irreversilities
dimensionless entropy generation which represents the ratio of energy dissipated to the total heat
The total entropy generation rate represents the availability of engineering process or energy
transfer, is redefined as:
system to some degree. To make the form of this item more appropriate for analysis, the dimensionless
entropy generation which represents the ratio Sof gen T
energy
b dissipated to the total heat transfer,
Ns = , (28)
is redefined as: Q
Sgen Tb
Ns = , (28)
in which, Sgen, Tb and Q are entropy generation in the
Q fluid domain, bulk temperature of nanofluids
and
in heat input
which, Sgen , Ttob the
andtube respectively.
Q are entropy generation in the fluid domain, bulk temperature of nanofluids
Based on the analysis above, the main entropy generations come from two irreversibilities, heat
and heat input to the tube respectively.
transfer andonfluid
Based the friction.
analysisThe two the
above, irreversibilities
main entropy vary oppositelycome
generations most from
time, two
as one increases the
irreversibilities,
other decreases. Therefore, the proportion of entropy generation by heat transfer in the
heat transfer and fluid friction. The two irreversibilities vary oppositely most time, as one increases total entropy
the
generation is an important parameter for thermal processes, and the dimensionless
other decreases. Therefore, the proportion of entropy generation by heat transfer in the total entropy Bejan number
(Be) is defined
generation is antoimportant
describe the share [37]:
parameter for thermal processes, and the dimensionless Bejan number (Be)
is defined to describe the share [37]: Sgen,C
Be =Sgen,C . (29)
Be = Sgen . (29)
Sgen
The limiting
The limiting values
values of of Be
Be == 00 and
and Be
Be == 11 mean
mean that the entropy
that the entropy generation
generation is is dominated
dominated by by fluid
fluid
friction irreversibility
friction irreversibility and and heat
heat transfer
transfer irreversibility
irreversibility respectively.
respectively.
Figure 6 shows the variation of dimensionless
Figure 6 shows the variation of dimensionless entropy generation entropy generation raterate with
with Reynolds
Reynolds number
number
corresponding to different heat flux at the tube wall, from which it can
corresponding to different heat flux at the tube wall, from which it can be observed that this term be observed that this term
decreases first
decreases first and
and then
then rise
rise when
when Reynolds
Reynolds number
number increases
increases from
from 50005000 to to 200,000
200,000 for for all
all heat
heat
conditions. Besides, there exist the intersection points for water and four
conditions. Besides, there exist the intersection points for water and four nanofluids. The entropy nanofluids. The entropy
generations decrease
generations decrease before
before thethe intersection,
intersection,whilewhileincrease
increaseafter afterthe
theintersection
intersection asasthetheincrease
increase of
particle
of particleconcentration.
concentration. The
The accompanying
accompanying increase
increaseofofentropy
entropygeneration
generationindicates
indicates thatthat the heat
the heat
transfer enhancement by means of nanofluids is an inadvisable approach
transfer enhancement by means of nanofluids is an inadvisable approach from the viewpoint of entropy from the viewpoint of
entropy generation
generation minimization minimization
method (EGM). methodThis(EGM).
is due toThis
the is due to the irreversibilities
irreversibilities are thermal dominated are thermalfirst
dominated first and friction dominated later. In addition, the entropy
and friction dominated later. In addition, the entropy generation is smaller at low Reynolds numbergeneration is smaller at low
Reynolds number than that at high Reynolds number when the heat flux
than that at high Reynolds number when the heat flux is low, such as Figure 6a,b. Then the two terms is low, such as Figure 6a,b.
Then the
match as two terms
the heat match
flux as the shown
increases, heat fluxinincreases,
Figure 6c.shown in Figurethe
Subsequently, 6c. entropy
Subsequently, the entropy
generation at low
generation at low Reynolds number becomes greater than that at high
Reynolds number becomes greater than that at high Reynolds number oppositely when the heat flux Reynolds number oppositely
when
is highthe heat flux
enough, is highinenough,
as shown Figure 6d. as Moreover,
shown in Figure 6d. Moreover,
the figures also indicate thethat
figures also indicate
the Reynolds that
number
the Reynolds number
corresponding to minimumcorresponding to minimum
entropy generation entropyas
increases generation increases as heat flux increases.
heat flux increases.

1.6 0.07 =0% 1.0 0.14

=0%
0.06 =1% 0.12
=1%
0.05 =2% 0.8 0.10 =2%
1.2 =4%
0.04
0.08 =4%
=6%
0.03
0.6 0.06 =6%
0.02
0.8 0.04
Ns
Ns

0.01
0.02
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
0.4
0 10000 20000 30000 40000

0.4
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Re Re
(a) (b)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Cont.
Cont.
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 12 of 18
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 12 of 18

0.30 0.6
0.4 2017, 19, 108 =0% 0.6
Entropy
0.25
=0%12 of 18
=1% 0.5
0.5 =1%
0.20 =2% 0.4 =2%
0.3 0.30 =4% 0.6
0.40.15 =0% 0.6
0.4 0.3 =4%
=6% =0%
0.10
0.25
=1% 0.5
0.2
=6%
=1%
=2% 0.5
0.2 0.20
0.3 0.4 =2%
0.30.05 0.1
Ns

Ns
0.15 =4% =4%
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
=6%
0.4 0.3
0.10 0.2 0.0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
=6%
0.2
0.1
0.2 0.05 0.3
0.1 0.1
Ns

Ns
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
0.2 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000

0.1
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
0.0 0.0
Re Re
0 50000 (c)100000 150000 200000 0 50000 (d)
100000 150000 200000
Re Re
Figure 6. Variation of dimensionless entropy generation rate with Reynolds number and nanoparticle
Figure 6. Variation of dimensionless
(c) entropy generation rate with Reynolds(d) number and nanoparticle
concentration corresponding to different heat flux enforced at the tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2;
concentration corresponding to different heat flux enforced at the tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2 ;
(b) Figure 6. Variation
q = 100,000 of dimensionless
W/m22; (c) q = 200,000 W/mentropy
2; (d) generation
q = 500,000rate
W/m with
2. Reynolds number and nanoparticle
(b) q =concentration
100,000 W/m ; (c) q = 200,000
corresponding W/m2 ;heat
to different (d) qflux
= 500,000
enforcedW/m
2
at the. tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2;
(b) q 7
Figure = 100,000
showsW/m ; (c) q = 200,000
the variation W/m ; number
of Bejan (d) q = 500,000
2
withW/m .
Reynolds
2
number and volume fraction of
2

Figure 7 shows
nanoparticle the variation
corresponding of Bejan
to different number
heat flux. FromwiththeReynolds
figure, itnumber
can be seenandthat
volume fraction
an increase of of
Figure 7 shows the variation of Bejan number with Reynolds number and volume fraction of
nanoparticle
particle concentration and Reynolds number reduces the thermal irreversibility significantly, while of
corresponding to different heat flux. From the figure, it can be seen that an increase
nanoparticle corresponding to different heat flux. From the figure, it can be seen that an increase of
particle concentration
the augmentation of and
heatReynolds
flux increasesnumber reducesirreversibility
the thermal the thermal irreversibility significantly,
dramatically, especially while
in the highthe
particle concentration and Reynolds number reduces the thermal irreversibility significantly, while
Reynold number
augmentation of conditions.
heat flux For the situations
increases the whose
thermal Be is close todramatically,
irreversibility 0, the enhancement of heatintransfer
especially the high
the augmentation of heat flux increases the thermal irreversibility dramatically, especially in the high
through
Reynold higher Reynolds number or denser nanofluids is
Be undesirable for its more
Reynold number conditions. For the situations whose Be is close to 0, the enhancement of heat transfer heat
number conditions. For the situations whose is close to 0, the fluid
enhancement friction
of
irreversibility,
transfer through
through which
higher
higher isReynolds
consistent
Reynolds number with
numberor the
orresults
denser
denser derived byundesirable
nanofluids
nanofluids is Figure 6. for its
is undesirable formore
its more
fluidfluid friction
friction
irreversibility, which
irreversibility, is consistent
which is consistent with thethe
with results
resultsderived
derived by Figure6.6.
by Figure
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.8 0.8 =0%
0.6 =0%
0.6 =1%
=1%
=0% =0%
0.6 0.6 =2%
Be

=2% =1%
Be Be

0.4 =1% 0.4 =4%

=4% =2%
Be

=2% =6%
0.4 =6% 0.4 =4%
=4%
0.2 0.2 =6%
=6%
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Re Re
Re
(a) (b)Re
(a) (b)
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
0.8 =0% 0.8
=0%
=1%
0.6 =1% 0.6
0.6 =2% 0.6
=2%
=4% =0%
=0%
Be
Be

=4%
Be
Be

0.4 0.4 0.4

=6%
=6%
0.4 =1%
=1%
=2%
=2%
0.2 0.2 0.2
0.2 =4%
=4%
=6%
=6%
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0

0 0 50000
50000 100000
100000 150000
150000 200000
200000 00 50000
50000 100000
100000 150000
150000 200000
200000

ReRe Re
Re
(c)(c) (d)
(d)
Figure
Figure 7. Variation of Bejannumber
numberwith
withReynolds
Reynolds number and and volume fraction of nanoparticle
Figure 7. 7.Variation
Variation ofofBejan
Bejan number with Reynolds number
number andvolume volumefraction
fractionofofnanoparticle
nanoparticle
corresponding
corresponding to to different
different heat
heat flux enforced at the tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2; (b) q = 100,000 W/m2;
heat flux enforced at the tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m
flux enforced at the tube wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m ; (b) q = 100,000
2 2;
corresponding to different W/m 2;
(c) q = 200,000 W/m 2; (d) q = 500,000 W/m2.
(c) q = 200,000 W/m2 ; (d) q = 500,000 W/m . 2
2 2
(b) q = 100,000 W/m ; (c) q = 200,000 W/m ; (d) q = 500,000 W/m . 2
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 13 of 18

Entropy 2017, 19, 108 13 of 18

4.4. Performance Evaluation

4.4. Performance Evaluation
TheThelocation
locationofof
minimum
minimumentropy
entropygeneration is preferable,
generation is preferable,but
butthe
thestate
state does
does notnot correspond
correspond to to
thethe
best heat transfer condition possibly. Therefore, the evaluation parameter of E , which
best heat transfer condition possibly. Therefore, the evaluation parameter of Ep, pwhich combinescombines
thethe
first law
first and
law andsecond
secondlaw lawofofthermodynamics
thermodynamics and attributedtotoassess
and attributed assessthe
theactual
actual performance
performance of of
heat transfer,
heat is defined
transfer, is definedas:as:
Nu
Ep = Nu , (30)
E = Ns ,
p (30)
N
where Nu is the Nusselts number of convective heats transfer, and Ns is the dimensionless entropy
generation
where Nu stated
is theabove. Therefore,
Nusselts numberthis evaluationheat
of convective parameter
transfer,characterizes
and Ns is thethe heat transferentropy
dimensionless capability
pergeneration
unit entropy generation.
stated above. Therefore, this evaluation parameter characterizes the heat transfer
capability
To analyze per the
uniteffect
entropy generation.
of adding nanoparticles to base fluid, the Ep criterion is adopted. Figure 8
To analyze
illustrates the effect of
the performance ofadding nanoparticles
the nanofluids to base fluid,
as a function the Ep criterion
of Reynolds number is adopted. Figure heat
with different 8
illustrates the performance of the nanofluids as a function of Reynolds number with
flux at the wall. From which, it can be noted that there exist the peak values representing the optimal different heat
flux
state foratall
thenanofluids
wall. Fromno which, it can
matter be heat
what notedconditions,
that there exist the peak
and the peak values representing
value reduces the optimal
significantly as the
state for all nanofluids no matter what heat conditions, and the peak value reduces
volume fraction of nanoparticles increases. Besides, the decrease of volume fraction and increase significantly as of
the volume fraction of nanoparticles increases. Besides, the decrease of volume fraction and increase
heat flux lead to the growth of Reop , which is the Reynolds number corresponding to the peak value of
of heat flux lead to the growth of Reop, which is the Reynolds number corresponding to the peak value
Ep . The intersection points are also found in the figures. Taking the nanofluid of 6 vol % nanoparticles
of Ep. The intersection points are also found in the figures. Taking the nanofluid of 6 vol %
and water as an example, the intersection Reynolds number, or called advisable Reynolds number
nanoparticles and water as an example, the intersection Reynolds number, or called advisable
Read increases synchronously as heat flux increases. When the Re is less than Read , the addition of
Reynolds number Read increases synchronously as heat flux increases. When the Re is less than Read,
nanoparticles
the addition actually improve
of nanoparticles the performance
actually of heat transfer,
improve the performance but
of heat if the Re
transfer, butisif greater
the Re is than
greaterRead ,
thethan
penalty
Read,oftheEpenalty
p occursofbyEpusing
occursnanofluids, which is which
by using nanofluids, due toisthe
dueresults of viscosity
to the results increase
of viscosity is much
increase
stronger than the improvement of thermal conductivity. So do other
is much stronger than the improvement of thermal conductivity. So do other cases. cases.

20000 20000 =0%

=0% =1%
=1% =2%
15000 =2% 15000 =4%
=4% =6%
=6%
Ep

10000
Ep

10000

5000 5000

0 0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Re Re
(a) (b)
20000 =0% 20000 =0%
=1%
=1%
=2%
=2%
15000 =4% 15000 =4%
=6% =6%
Ep

Ep

10000 10000

5000 5000

0 0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Re Re
(c) (d)
Figure 8. Performance of the nanofluids as a function of Reynolds number with different
Figure 8. Performance of the nanofluids as a function of Reynolds number with different heat
heat flux enforced at the wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2; (b) q = 100,000 W/m2; (c) q = 200,000 W/m2;
flux enforced at the wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m2 ; (b) q = 100,000 W/m2 ; (c) q = 200,000 W/m2 ;
(d) q = 500,000 W/m2.
(d) q = 500,000 W/m2 .
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 14 of 18

Entropy 2017, 19, 108 14 of 18

Figure 9 shows the variation of Ep with particle concentration at some fixed Reynolds number.
From these figures, it can be observed that the performance is improved at
Figure 9 shows the variation of Ep with particle concentration at some fixed Reynolds number.
low or medium Re,
whileFrom
deteriorated at high
these figures, it canRebeasobserved
nanofluids is denser
that the and denser
performance whenatthe
is improved low heat flux is 50,000
or medium Re, whileW/m2 ,
as shown in Figure
deteriorated 9a. Moreover,
at high the performance
Re as nanofluids is denser andof Re = 50,000
denser whenisthetheheat
bestflux
among the five
is 50,000 W/mReynolds
2, as

conditions on most occasions, and the performance of Re = 150,000 is just slightly

shown in Figure 9a. Moreover, the performance of Re = 50,000 is the best among the five Reynolds better than that of
conditions
Re = 5000. The on most occasions,
possible reason can andbethe performance
concluded as of Re the
that = 150,000
flow ofis just
Re =slightly
150,000 better thanmuch
causes that ofmore
Re =generation
entropy 5000. The possible reasondissipation.
by turbulent can be concluded as that the
Intersection floware
points of Re = 150,000
found in thecauses
figuremuch more
as well, that is
entropy generation by turbulent dissipation. Intersection points are found in the
the intersection of the Ep curve of Re = 25,000 and the Ep curve of Re = 50,000 at = 0.047, and the figure as well, that
is the intersection of the Ep curve of Re = 25,000 and the Ep curve of Re = 50,000 at = 0.047 , and the
intersection of the Ep curve of Re = 25,000 and the Ep curve of Re = 100,000 at = 0.005, which mean
intersection of the p curve of Re = 25,000 and the Ep curve of Re = 100,000 at = 0.005 , which mean
that performances areEsame here. Before the intersection, the performance of higher Re is better than
that performances are
that of lower Re, but this becomessame here.opposite
Before theafter
intersection, the performance
the intersection, i.e., theofperformance
higher Re is better than Re is
of lower
that of lower Re, but this becomes opposite after the intersection, i.e., the performance of lower Re is
better than that of higher Re. The same phenomena can be found in the remained photos of Figure 9.
better than that of higher Re. The same phenomena can be found in the remained photos of Figure 9.
Therefore, the work here provides the advisable particle concentration range to the enhanced heat
Therefore, the work here provides the advisable particle concentration range to the enhanced heat
transfer processes
transfer processesfor for
thethegiven
givenReynolds
Reynoldsnumber.
number.

Re=5000 Re=5000
20000 Re=25000 20000 Re=25000
Re=50000 Re=50000
Re=100000 Re=100000
16000 Re=150000 16000 Re=150000

12000 12000
Ep

Ep

8000 8000

4000 4000

0 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
(%) (%)

(a) (b)
Re=5000 Re=5000
20000 Re=25000 20000 Re=25000
Re=50000 Re=50000
Re=100000 Re=100000
16000
Re=150000 Re=150000
15000
12000
10000
Ep
Ep

8000

5000 4000

0 0

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
(%)
(%)
(c) (d)

Figure 9. Performance evaluation of the nanofluids as a function of particle concentration with

Figure 9. Performance evaluation of the nanofluids as a function of particle concentration with different
different heat flux enforced at the wall; (a) q = 50,000 2W/m2; (b) q = 100,000 W/m22; (c) q = 200,000 W/m2;
heat flux enforced at the wall; (a) q = 50,000 W/m ; (b) q = 100,000 W/m ; (c) q = 200,000 W/m2 ;
(d) q = 500,000 W/m2.
(d) q = 500,000 W/m . 2

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, an entropy generation analysis of turbulent convective heat transfer to nanofluids
In this paper,
is carried an entropy
out through generation
numerical analysis
simulation. Theofstandard
turbulent convective
k model is heat transfer
adopted to nanofluids
for turbulence
is carried
closureout
andthrough numerical
the entropy generation simulation. The standard
model is established k
based on the model is adopted
second law for turbulence
of thermodynamics.
closure
Theand the entropy
numerical generation
approach model
is validated is established
against based
the Petukhovs on the second
correlation law of thermodynamics.
and Gnielinskis correlation
with regards
The numerical to the friction
approach factor and
is validated Nusseltthe
against number, as wellcorrelation
Petukhovs as the analytical
and expression
Gnielinskisproposed
correlation
by Bejan characterizing the entropy generation rate. In addition, the local entropy generation
with regards to the friction factor and Nusselt number, as well as the analytical expression proposed profile
within
by Bejan the flow domain,
characterizing and the
the entropy general assessment
generation of thermal
rate. In addition, irreversibilities
the local as well as
entropy generation profile
within the flow domain, and the general assessment of thermal irreversibilities as well as performance
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 15 of 18

evaluation of different conditions are also investigated. The main inferences can be summarized
as follows:

(1) Peak values of local entropy generation due to the mean parameters exist in the viscous sublayer
(y+ ~ 5), while those due to fluctuating parameters lie in the buffer layer (y+ > 10) for all nanofluids
at different Reynolds number.
(2) Intersection points of total entropy generations for water and other nanofluids have been
observed, where the total irreversibilities are equal. The entropy generations decrease before the
intersection while increase after the intersection as particle concentration increases, when the heat
transfer enhancement through nanofluids is an inadvisable approach from an EGM viewpoint.
(3) The Bejan number, which determines whether the irreversibilities due to heat transfer are
dominant, is shown to decrease as the Re increases, particle concentration increases and heat
flux reduces.
(4) By definition of the evaluation parameter of Ep , the optimal Reynolds number Reop and the
advisable Reynolds number Read can be determined. The decrease of particle concentration and
increase of heat flux lead to the growth of Reop . Besides, if Re < Read , the further addition of
nanoparticles improves the performance of heat transfer, but if Re > Read , the penalty of Ep occurs.

Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, Grant No. 51421063) and the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (NSFC, Grant No. 51536001, 51572058).
Author Contributions: Then research concept was proposed by Yu Ji and Hao-Chun Zhang initially. Yu Ji
performed the calculation under the help of Xie Yang and Lei Shi. The manuscript was primarily written by Yu Ji,
with the assistance of Hao-Chun Zhang and Lei Shi. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Be Bejan number
cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure, J/kgK
C parameter in the turbulent model
Ep evaluation of performance
k turbulent kinetic energy, m2 /s2
Ns dimensionless entropy generation rate
Nu Nusselts number
P mean pressure, Pa
Prt turbulent Prandtl number
q heat flux, W/m2
Re Reynolds number
S entropy generation rate, W/mK
T temperature, K
u velocity, m/s
V volume of fluid domain, m3

Greek Letters
coefficient in the turbulence model
t turbulent thermal diffusivity, m2 /s
medium variable calculating thermodynamic of

nanofluids, W2 /m2 K2
turbulent energy dissipated per unit mass, m2 /s3
thermal conductivity, W/mK
viscosity, kg/ms
density, kg/m3
particle concentration
specific dissipation rate, 1/s
Entropy 2017, 19, 108 16 of 18

Subscripts and Superscripts

bf base fluid
C heat conduction process
D dissipation process
gen generation
k turbulent kinetic
nf nanofluids
p particle
specific dissipation rate
0 fluctuating variables
000 volumetric parameters
 mean variables

Abbreviations
CFD computational fluid dynamics
EGM entropy generation minimization
EGR entropy generation rate
RANS Reynolds Averaged NavierStokes Equations
SIMPLEC Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations-Consistent

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