Mechanics of Material

Practical manual

Ibrar Ahmad 2K13-Civ (E)-31 3rd Semester

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Mechanics of Material

Layout of strength of material laboratory

1. Jib crane apparatus

2. Center of gravity apparatus
3. Principle of moment apparatus
4. Hanging rope apparatus
5. Coefficient of friction apparatus
6. Reaction beam apparatus
7. Compression machine
8. Manual UTM
9. Digital UTM
10. Shear center
11. Unsymmetrical bending
12. Verification of Hookes Law
13. Small Instruments
14. Reaction frame

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Small Instruments
Vernier caliper:
The vernier, dial, and digital calipers give a direct reading of the
distance measured with high accuracy and precision. They are functionally identical,
with different ways of reading the result. These calipers comprise a calibrated scale
with a fixed jaw, and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides along the scale. The
distance between the jaws is then read in different ways for the three types.
The simplest method is to read the position of the pointer directly
on the scale. When the pointer is between two markings, the user can mentally
interpolate to improve the precision of the reading. This would be a simple calibrated
caliper; but the addition of a vernier scale allows more accurate interpolation, and is
the universal practice; this is the vernier caliper.
Vernier, dial, and digital calipers can measure internal dimensions
(using the uppermost jaws in the picture at right), external dimensions using the
pictured lower jaws, and in many cases depth by the use of a probe that is attached to
the movable head and slides along the centre of the body. This probe is slender and
can get into deep grooves that may prove difficult for other measuring tools.
The vernier scales may include metric measurements on the lower
part of the scale and inch measurements on the upper, or vice versa, in countries that
use inches. Vernier calipers commonly used in industry provide a precision to
0.01 mm (10micrometres), or one thousandth of an inch. They are available in sizes
that can measure up to 1,829 mm (72 in).

Digital Vernier caliper:

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A refinement now popular is the replacement of the analog dial

with an electronic digital display on which the reading is displayed as a single value.
Rather than arack and pinion, they have a linear encoder. Some digital calipers can be
switched between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All provide for zeroing the
display at any point along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential
measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital calipers may contain some sort of
"reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of dimensions even in awkward
locations where the display cannot be seen. Ordinary 6-in/150-mm digital calipers are
made of stainless steel, have a rated accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02mm) and resolution of
0.0005 in (0.01 mm). The same technology is used to make longer 8-in and 12-in
calipers; the accuracy for bigger measurements declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for
100200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200300 mm.
Many digital calipers are inexpensive and perform reasonably
well. One point worth noting is battery current when they are turned off. Many
calipers do not stop drawing power when the switch is in the off position; they shut
down the display but continue drawing nearly as much current. The current may be as
much as 20 microamperes, which is much higher than many established brands.
Sometimes calipers may not work properly when the battery voltage has dropped
relatively little; silver cells, preferably selected from a datasheet to have a constant
voltage for most of their life, may give a much longer usable life than alkaline button
cells (e.g., SR44 instead of LR44).
Increasingly, digital calipers offer a serial data output to allow
them to be interfaced with a dedicated recorder or a personal computer. The digital
interface significantly decreases the time to make and record a series of
measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records. A suitable device to
convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces such as RS-
232, Universal Serial Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased. With such a
converter, measurements can be directly entered into a spreadsheet, a statistical
process control program, or similar software.
Some digital calipers contain a capacitive linear encoder. A
pattern of bars is etched directly on the printed circuit board in the slider. Under the
scale of the caliper another printed circuit board also contains an etched pattern of
lines. The combination of these printed circuit boards forms two variable capacitors.
The two capacitances are out of phase. As the slider moves the capacitance changes
in a linear fashion and in a repeating pattern. The circuitry built into the slider counts
the bars as the slider moves and does a linear interpolation based on the magnitudes
of the capacitors to find the precise position

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of the slider. Other digital calipers contain an inductive linear encoder, which allows
robust performance in the presence of contamination such as coolants. Magnetic
linear encoders are used in yet other digital calipers.

Screw gauge:

Micrometer screw gauge is a form of calipers used for measuring

small dimensions. Screw gauge in extensively used in the engineering field for
obtaining precision measurements. The article describes the principle and main parts
of a basic micrometer screw gauge.

Screw gauge or micrometer screw gauge is a measuring

instrument used for precision measurement. A measuring device used extensively in
the mechanical engineering field, micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring
extremely small dimensions. A screw gauge can even measure dimensions smaller

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than those measured by a Vernier Caliper. Belonging to the family of calipers,

micrometer screw gauges also consists of two different scales.

Micrometer Screw gauge works on the simple principle of

converting small distances into larger ones by measuring the rotation of the screw.

This screw principle facilitates reading of smaller distances on a

scale after amplifying them.

Extensometer:
An extensometer is a device that is used to measure changes in the
length of an object. It is useful for stress-strain measurements and tensile tests. Its
name comes from "extension-meter". It was invented by Dr. Charles Huston who
described it in an article in the Journal of the Franklin Institute in 1879. Huston later
gave the rights to Fairbanks & Ewing, a major manufacturer of testing machines and
scales.

Inside caliper:
The inside calipers are used to measure the internal size of an
object.
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The upper caliper in the image (at the right) requires manual adjustment prior
to fitting, fine setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the caliper legs
lightly on a handy surface until they will almost pass over the object. A light push
against the resistance of the central pivot screw then spreads the legs to the correct
dimension and provides the required, consistent feel that ensures a repeatable
measurement.

The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be
carefully adjusted without removal of the tool from the work piece.

Outside caliper:
calipers are used to measure the external size of an object.
The same observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the above
inside caliper. With some understanding of their limitations and usage these
instruments can provide a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. They are
especially useful when measuring over very large distances, consider if the calipers
are used to measure a large diameter pipe. A vernier caliper does not have the depth
capacity to straddle this large diameter while at the same time reach the outermost
points of the pipe's diameter. They are made from high carbon steel.
In the metalworking field, a divider caliper, popularly called
a compass, is used in the process of marking out locations. The points are sharpened
so that they act as scribers, one leg can then be placed in the dimple created by
a center or prick punch and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on the work
piece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle.

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A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two

points on a map. The two caliper's ends are brought to the two points whose distance
is being measured. The caliper's opening is then either measured on a separate ruler
and then converted to the actual distance, or it is measured directly on a scale drawn
on the map. On a nautical chart the distance is often measured on the latitude scale
appearing on the sides of the map: one minute of arc of latitude is approximately
one nautical mile or 1852 meters.
Dividers are also used in the medical profession. An ECG (also
EKG) caliper transfers distance on an electrocardiogram; in conjunction with the
appropriate scale, the heart rate can be determined. A pocket caliper versions was
invented by cardiologist Robert A. Mackin.

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Tensile Test

Introduction:
A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most
fundamental type of mechanical test you can perform on material.

Tensile test are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully

standardized. Bye pulling on something, you will very quickly determine how the
material will react to force being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled
you will find its strength along with how much it will elongate.

Background:
For structure applications of materials such as bridges, pressure
vessels, ships and auto mobiles. The tensile properties of the metal material set the
criteria for a safe design. Polymeric materials are being are used more and more in
structural applications, particularly in auto mobiles and pressure vessels. New
applications emerge as designers become aware of the differences in the properties of
metals and polymers and take full advantage of them. The analysis of the structure
using metals or plastics required that the data be available.

Stress-Strain curve:
The tensile properties of a material are obtained by pulling a
specimen of known geometry apart at a fixed rate of straining until it brakes are
stretches to the machines limit. It is useful to define the load per unit area (stress) as a
parameter rather than load to avoid the confusion that would arise from the fact that
the load and the change in the length are the dependent on the cross sectional area
and original length of the specimen. The stress, however, changes during the test for
two reasons: The load increases and the cross sectional area decreases as the
specimen gets longer.

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Tensile strength is indicated by the maxima of a stress strain curve

and in general indicates when necking will occur. As it is an intensive property, its
value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. It is however,

dependent on the preparation of the specimen and the temperature of the test
environment and material.

Tensile strength, along with plastic modulus and corrosion

resistance, is an important parameter of engineering material used in structures and
mechanical devices. It is specified for materials such as alloys, composite material,
ceramics, plastics and wood.

Yield strength:
The stress at which material strain changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform permanently.

Ultimate strength:
The maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to
tension, compression or shearing. It is the maximum stress on the stress-strain curve.

Breaking strength:
The stress coordinates on the stress-strain curve at the point of
rupture.

Material to be tested:
Tension testing will be performed on a total of three materials:

Steel bar
Steel wire
Aluminum

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Equipment to be used:

Universal testing machine

Measuring tape
Weighing balance

Manual universal testing machine Digital universal testing machine

Testing procedure:
Measuring the original length and diameter of the specimen.
The length may either be length of gauge which is marked on the specimen
with the preset punch or the total length of the specimen.
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Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring
devices to it.
Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data.
Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached.

Measure elongation value with the help of dividers and a ruler.

Continue the test till Fracture occurs.
By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final
length and diameter of specimen.

Precautions:
To avoid injury from fractured pieces, keep away from the loading unit when
test is being performed.
To avoid the handles with a fall by fractured shock, remove the upper and
lower handles when test is doing.
Do not put unnecessary things on the table and crossheads of the loading units.
Be sure that no obstacles before moving the cross heads.
To avoid from the finger injuries, do not put your hands in the jaws of the
U.T.M.

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Hookes Law
Introduction:
In 1678, Robert Hooke announced the invention of the spring
scale and the relationship for elastic materials that is now known as Hookes Law.
When an object is acting upon by a force, it can be compressed, stretched or bent. If
when the force is removed, the object returns to its original shape, it is said to be
elastic. Solid that do not return to their original configuration once they have been
distorted are categorized as plastics.

Hooke discovered that not only are certain materials (steel bars,
roads, wire, springs, diving boards and rubber band) elastic, but the stretch thy
experience is directly proportional to the load that they support.

Elastic media will stretch until they reach their elastic limit, or
yield point. After that point, they exhibit plastic deformation and will never return to
their original shape. Ductile materials stretch thinner and thinner, while brittle
materials brake without any plastic deformation. Eventually all will rupture at their
braking point.

Analysis:
When a mass M is suspended from a spring the spring extends
by an amount l so that the downward force (Mg) is balanced by the upward
restoring force Fs of the spring (see fig 1). The mass is at rest in its equilibrium
position. I.e. Fs = -Mg

Because extension is linearly proportional to load its follow that

the restoring force Fs must be linearly proportional to extension. Thus,

Fs = -k l

Mg = k l

I.e. l = (g/k) M

K is a constant termed the spring constant.

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Hookes Law Apparatus

Purpose:
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship of the
force applied to a spring and the distance that the spring is stretched.

Apparatus:
Rubber cord meter stick mass hanger
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Steel spring retort stand 10g and 100g masses

Procedure:
Fix one end of the rubber cord to the retort stand and the other to a mass
hanger.
Measure the relaxed length l of rubber cord with no mass attached.
Determine a suitable range of masses over which to measure the extension of
the rubber cord.
Successively apply the masses (M) on to the rubber cord and record the length
(l) and the extension (l) in each case to get at least 8 10 reading.
Take care not to over load the cord otherwise permanent deformation can
result.
Plot a graph of extension (in mm) versus mass (in kg) for the rubber cord.
Indicate on the graph the region (if any) where Hookes Law is satisfied. For
this region, measure the slop (S) in mm kg-1.
Connect the steel spring to the retort stand and repeat steps 1-6 for the steel
spring.

Data and Calculations:

Applications of Hookes Law:
Hookes Law may be used in regards to the support of bungee
jumping.

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Flexural strength
Introduction:
Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture,
bend strength or fracture strength, a mechanical parameter for
brittle material is defined as a materials ability to resist deformation
under load. The transverse bending test is most frequently
employed in which a rod specimen having either a circular or
rectangular cross section is bent until fracture using a 3 point
flexural test technique. The flexural strength represent the highest
stress experienced within the material at its moment of rupture. It is
measured in term of stress here given the symbol .

A bending test also known as a bent test, is used to

determine the strength of material by applying force to the item in
question and seeing how it reacts under pressure. Typically the
bend test measures the ductility, the ability of a material to change
form under pressure and keep that form permanently. In certain
cases the bending test can determine the tensile strength. When
using the bend test for this purpose, testers examine which side of
the material brakes first to see what type of strength the material
has. It also lets them know what kinds of pressure it holds up
against and what kinds it does not.

Bending stress:
Bending stresses in the beam are determined from
the flexure formula:

=My/I

Where:

M = Bending moment

Y = distance from neutral axis to point of stress

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I = moment of inertia of cross section with respect to neutral

axis.
MR
= (3 Pmax L) / (2b h )
2
Modulus of rupture:

Where:
Pmax = maximum load

L = span length (not specimen length)

b = width

H = height

Objectives:
The nature of wood in flexure (bending will be
evaluated). Flexural mechanical properties of wood will be
ascertained.

Apparatus:
Flexural strength machine, test specimen i.e.
concrete beam, wooden beam etc.

Procedure:
1. To determine the flexural strength of beam, a beam of the
required dimensions is prepared in the laboratory or it is
brought from the sight. The apparatus used to determine the
flexural strength of the beam is shown in the fig.
2. There is arrangement of two fixed point load on the beam and
two roller supports at the extreme ends of the apparatus.
Although they are moveable but they are fixed in our case
making the beam simply supported at the end points and
having two points load on it.
3. After placing the beam on the support, as we switch on the
power button to apply load on the beam, we have to press a
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button which decides the intensity of the load on the beam I.e.
either we applying the load on the beam with single intensity,
double intensity etc. we can increase the load intensity up to
11 time with respect to the original one. There is a dial which
shows the value of load applied on the beam.
4. After switch on the power button and pressing the fluid button
by selecting the intensity of the loads apply on the beam say
two, we note the dial reading at which braking starts in the
beam. As the breaking starts in the beam we switch off the
power and note the dial reading. This shows the load bearing
capacity of the beam. It must be noted that we can not apply
more than 150 KN load on the beam due to the limitation of
the apparatus.

Result:
Due to the limitation of the apparatus, our beams do
not bend or crack as it has the ability to bear more than 150KN
load.

Precaution:
1. The apparatus is limited to 150KN i.e. we cannot apply more
than 150KN load on the test specimen.
2. The supports must be adding the same distance from the
corners of the beam.
3. Applications of the load on the beam is also restricted i.e. we
cannot apply UDL and UVL on the beam.
4. Only two point load can be applied on the beam.

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Flexural machine

Result of Bending Test

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Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has carbon
content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the
most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are
used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Varying the amount of
alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel controls qualities such as
the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased
carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less
ductile than iron.

Size:
Imperial Sizes

Imperial bar appellations represent rebar stick diameters in fractions of an inch, such that #8 = 8/8 inch = 1 inch
diameter.
Bar Size Soft Wt. Nom Diam. Nom Diam. Nom Area
Metric (in) (mm) (in2)
Size (lb/ft)

#3 #10 0.376 0.375 9.525 0.11

#4 #13 0.668 0.500 12.7 0.20

#5 #16 1.043 0.625 15.875 0.31

#6 Metric Sizes
#19 1.502 0.750 19.05 0.44

#7 Metric bar
#22designation represents the specified rebar
2.044 stick diameter in 22.225
0.875 millimeters, rounded 0.60
to the nearest
5mm.
Bar Size Mass Nom Diam. Cross-Section Area
#8 #25 2.670 1.000 25.4 0.79
(mm2)
(mm)
#9 #29 3.400 1.128 28.65 1.00
(kg/m)
#10 M 0.785 11.3 100
#10 #15 M #32 4.303
1.570 1.270 16.0 32.26 200 1.27
#20 M 2.335 19.5 300
#11 #25 M #36 5.313
3.925 1.410 25.2 35.81 500 1.56
#30 M 5.495 29.9 700
#14 #35 M #43 7.650
7.850 1.693 35.7 43 1000 2.25
#45 M 11.775 43.7 1500
#18 #55 M #57 19.625
13.60 2.257 56.4 57.33 2500 4.00

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Type of Steel Bars:

Generally there are two types of steel bars ( Sairya in Hindi)
available in the market.

1. Mild Steel Bars

2. Deformed Steel Bars

Mild Steel Bars:

Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (Reinforced
Cement Concrete) slab beams etc. in reinforced cement concrete work. These steel
bars are plain in surface and are round sections of diameter from 6 to 50 mm.

Deformed Steel Bars:

As deformed steel bars are rods of steels provided with lugs, ribs
or deformation on the surface of bar, these bars minimize the slippage in concrete and
increases the bond between the two materials. Deformed bars have more tensile
stresses than that of mild steel plain bars.

To limit cracks that may develop in reinforced concrete around mild steel bars due to
stretching of bars and some lose of bond under load it is common to use deformed
bars that have projecting ribs or are twisted to improve the bond with concrete. These
bars are produced in sections from 6 mm to 50 mm dia.

Cold Twisted Deformed:

Cold Twisted Deformed bars are recommended as best quality
steel bars for construction work by structural Engineer.

Hot Rolled Steel:

They are heated up red-hot and pushed through rollers that
squeeze the metal, literally squishing it into a particular profile, depending on the
shape of the rollers.

Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine

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A universal testing machine, also known as universal tester

materials testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile stress and
compressive strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many
standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures.

Applications:
For Conducting Tension Tests:
Clamping jaws for testing round and flat test specimens under
Tension Tests.

For Conducting Compression Tests:

A pair of compression platens, dully hardened, ground and
polished, with the bottom platen provided with guide-lines for placing the test
specimen co-axial with the hydraulic RAM.

For Conducting Bending/Transverse:

A table with adjustable rollers complete with mandrel for
conducting bending/transverse tests.

Components:
Load Frame:
Usually consists of two strong supports for the machine. Some
small machines have a single support.

Load Cell:
A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is
required. Periodic calibration is usually called for.

Cross Head:
A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up and
down. Usually this is at a constant speed, sometimes called a constant rate of
extension (CRE) machine. Some machines can program the crosshead speed or
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conduct cyclical testing, testing at constant force, testing at constant deformation, etc.
Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive, and resonance drives are used.

Means of Measuring Extension:

Many tests require the measure of a response of the text specimen
to the movement of the cross head. Extensometers are used sometimes.

Output Device:
A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older
machines have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer machines
have a computer interface for analysis and printing.

Conditioning:
Many tests require controlled conditioning (temperature,
humidity, pressure, etc.). The machine can be in a controlled room or a special
environmental chamber can be placed around the test specimen for the test.

Text Fixtures:
Specimen holding jaws and related sample making equipment are
called for in many test methods.

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