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LONG ELECTRON ACCELERATOR at the Stanford els down a vacuum pipe lined with klystron tubes and focusing
Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) was used to obtain the exp eri magnets . Near the end of i ts t rip the electron heam passes
menta l results reported in thi s article. The electron beam is raised through a "beam swi tchyard" before reaching the tar g e t areas,
to a maximum energy of 21 billion electron volts (Ge V ) as i t trav which are l o cated i n s i de the two large buildings in the foreground.
60
S
ixty-five years ago Ernest Ruther In addition to exhibiting the strong produce such large particle deRections.
ford observed how alpha particles force, protons and neutrons also respond Rutherford concluded that "the posi
are scattered by thin metal foils to the electromagnetic force, which is tive charge associated with an atom is
and concluded that the atom is not a some 100 times weaker. Both nuclear concentrated into a minute center or nu
homogeneous body but consists of neg particles behave like tiny magnets and cleus, and that the compensating nega
atively charged electrons surrounding a both comprise electric charges (although tive charge is distributed over a sphere
small, massive, positively charged nu the neutron's net charge is zero). Where of radius comparable with the radius of
cleus. Since that time physicists in many as the strong force operates only when the atom." He also worked out the
laboratories have conducted scattering the interacting particles are very close mathematical law describing how one
experiments with particles of ever in together (a distance roughly equivalent point of electric charge would be scat
creasing energy in an effort to probe the to their own diameter: about 10-13 centi tered by another point charge [see bot
structure first of the atom, then of the meter), the electromagnetic force has an tom illustration on page 63]. The force
nucleus and now of the basic constitu infinite range, falling off in strength with between two charged particles was as
ents of the nucleus: the proton and the the square of the separation. Since the sumed to be given by Coulomb's law.
neutron. Are these "elementary" nuclear neutron and the proton respond to the Knowing the charge and mass of the in
particles homogeneous? Recent investi electromagnetic force, they scatter elec teracting particles, Rutherford combined
gations with electrons brought to an trons aimed at them. It is the pattern of Coulomb's law with Newton's laws of
energy of 21 billion electron volts by the scattering that provides clues to their motion to relate the probability of scat
the two-mile accelerator at the Stan structure. tering through a given angle to the ener
ford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) Since the Stanford experiments are gy of the incident particle. The prob
strongly suggest that history may be re fundamentally the same as Rutherford's ability of scattering by a single target
peating itself on a scale 100,000 times it will be useful to brieRy review his atom is the "scattering cross section," de
smaller than that of the atom. It turns techniques and results. He placed a nat fined as the area of the incident beam
out that ultrahigh-energy electrons are ural emitter of alpha particles (particles within which the inRuence of the target
scattered by protons and neutrons in with a charge of +2, later identified atom gives rise to the process observed
ways that no one had predicted. The as helium nuclei) in an evacuated box in this case scattering. The cross section
tentative conclusion is that the nuclear equipped with a collimator so that a is not necessarily related to the "true"
particles have a complex internal struc well-defined beam of particles would physical size of the target particle but
ture consisting of pointlike entities now strike a target consisting of a metal foil rather represents a measure of the force
called pattons. And there is evidence [see top illustration on page 63]. The exerted on the incident particle by the
that pattons share some of the proper box was also provided with a zinc sul target particle.
ties assigned earlier to those hypotheti fide screen that would scintillate when The cross section is experimentally de
cal particles named quarks. it was struck by an alpha particle. The termined for different angles (measured
Knowledge of the internal structures screen could be moved to intercept par from the axis of the incident beam), and
of the proton and the neutron may pro ticles scattered at any angle, and the the results can be compared with theo
vide the key to understanding the scintillations were counted one at a time retical predictions. Rutherford's formula
"strong" force that holds the atomic nu with the aid of a low-power microscope. predicts the scattering cross section from
cleus together and endows the universe Two of Rutherford's collaborators, Hans the mass m and charge of the incident
with its stability. The strong force makes Geiger and Ernest Marsden, soon no particle, the mass and charge of the tar
its presence known in the nuclear reac ticed that alpha particles were being get particle, the velocity v of the inci
tions that fuel the stars and that, on a scattered at large angles far more often dent particle and the scattering angle B.
more modest scale, provide the energy than one would have predicted on the The formula depends directly on the
for nuclear power and nuclear explo basis of the then current ideas of atomic particular combination of these variables
sives. Although the exploitation of the structure. The electric charge in atoms that describes the vector difference, q,
strong force has become a commonplace was believed to be diffusely distributed between the initial momentum and the
in technology, the nature and origin of and hence should not have exhibited the final momentum of the scattered parti
the force is still poorly understood. concentrated electric fields needed to cle: q = 2mv (sin B/2). Another term for
61
1971 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
q is "momentum transfer" [see top illus cle with another, the two have to inter ditions the particle energy expressed in
tration on page 64]. The formula as act (that is, the experimenter must scat GeV and its associated momentum ex
sumes that the interacting particles are ter one from the other), and this involves pressed in GeVIe are essentially equal.
mathematical points, having neither size a transfer of momentum between the
nor shape. In general, however, a scat two. Thus it is reasonable that the accu Two Kinds of Scattering
tering cross section will depend not only racy x to which the details of an un
on the details of the forces (for example known structure can be examined is gov The scattering of electrons can be ei
exactly how their strength varies with erned by the momntum transfer q ex ther "elastic" or "inelastic." In elastic
distance) and on the laws of motion of perienced in the collision; the resulting scattering the target particle recoils
the particles (which may involve non relation is x = hlq [see bottom illus much as if it were a billiard ball, re
Newtonian, or relativistic, considera tration on page 64]. This formula implies maining in the same internal state it was
tions) but also on whatever internal that our ability to distinguish fine detail in before the collision. In inelastic scat
structure the particles may have. in the target particle depends on making tering the target particle either disinte
In scattering processes described by q as large as possible in order to make grates or is left in an excited state, a
quantum mechanics the momentum the wavelength A as small as pOSSible. state different from its original concli-
transfer plays a central role, because it (Momentum is the product of mass times tion. There is a trade-off between the
determines the scale of what is being velocity; at the energies of interest to two processes: one robs the other. Both
studied. In quantum mechanics a par physicists engaged in high-energy elec processes tell a good deal about the
ticle that has a certain momentum p also tron scattering the mass increases with structure of the target particle. We shall
has associated with it a certain wave increasing energy while the velocity re discuss elastic scattering first.
length A. The formula that relates these mains essentially constant at the velOCity Rutherford's formula does not ade
properties is A = hlp, where h is the ex of light.) quately describe the elastic scattering of
tremely small number (6.6 X 10.27 erg In scattering experiments of the type high-energy electrons for two reasons.
second) known as Planck's constant. The performed at Stanford momentum is First, the velocities are so great that one
accuracy to which a particle can be lo measured in units of GeVIe, where must use relativistic quantum theory to
cated is limited by the associated wave; "GeV" stands for giga (lon, or one bil describe the wave nature and behavior
the probability of finding the particle lion) electron volts and e is the velOCity of the incident and target particles. Sec
at a given pOint is governed by the be of light. An electron of 20 GeV lacks only ond, electrons have "spin," that is, they
havior of the "wave packet" describing one part in three billion of traveling at have a unique angular momentum, as if
the particle's motion. To lo'cate one parti- the velocity of light. Under these con- they rotated around an internal axis. The
LARGE MAGNETI C SPECTROMETERS in one of the experi a complica ted array of magneti c lenses and bending magnets, are
menta l areas a t the SLAC site are used to separate and classify the installed around a common p ivo t point in thi s area; two are visi
scattered electrons emerging from the target and to funnel them ble in thi s view. The scale of the instruments can be appreciat.
into a system of dete ctors. Three spe ctrometers, each consisting of ed by n o ting the two men standing near the "middle sized" device.
62
63
.
p
--
ton's magnetization as well as with its
) "- electric charge. Since the magnetization
----- --------- . ........d....--....--------
INCIDENT can also have a finite distribution in
ELECTRON space, it gives rise to a second fOlm fac
tor, designated Fm to distinguish it from
the electric form factor Fe. The effect of
these complications is to modify Ruther
MOM ENTUM T R ANSFER, an important con cept in the theoretical trea tment of the scat ford's original formula to take account of
tering process, is defined as the ve ctor difference (q) between the initial momentum (p) the following facts: Both the incident
and the final momentum (p') of the scattered parti cle. The formula that expresses this rela and the target particle carry spin, the
tion i s q 2mv (sin (j 12), where m i s the mass of the incident parti cle, v i s i ts velo city and
target particle is extended in space, the
=
(j i s the scattering angle. In elastic scattering the ta rget nucleon simply recoils; in inelastic
collision velocities are so high that rela
scattering i t either disintegrate s to form o ther parti cles o r it is left in an excited state.
tivistic effects are introduced, and the
motion of both particles is described by
provide substantial information about a proton from electron-scattering data wave mechanics rather than by classical
the proton. If the form factor were closely resembles the task of reconstruct mechanics [see illustration on page 66l.
known for a wide range of values of the ing the structure of a crystal from the This somewhat elaborate discussion
momentum transfer, the charge distribu complex diffraction pattern produced should not detract from the basic sim
tion in the target particle could be re when it is bombarded by X rays. The plicity of the electron-scattering process.
constructed. electron-scattering problem is much The process enables one to explore the
The task of computing the distribu more difficult, however, particularly unknown structure of subnuclear parti
tion of charge within a particle such as when the velocity of the recoiling proton cles with the known forces of electro
magnetism. This is in contrast to those
experiments (interesting for other rea
10 sons) in which two particles of unknown
structure collide, for example in proton
proton or pion-proton scattering. As far
a role in radioactive decay processes, but
since the weak force is roughly 1010
"
times smaller than the electromagnetic
force it can be ignored in electron-scat
tering experiments.) The laws of elec
only area in physics where a single quan
titative description has proved valid over
the entire range of experiments for
10 102 10
3
justified.
64
-'
w
measuring their momenta in the pres 2': 2
10-
ence of many other particles produced \
\
w
by the collisions of electrons and nuclei. a:: \
\
A vessel containing liquid hydrogen \
\
provides the target protons; the nucleus \
of ordinary hydrogen consists of a sin \
6
gle proton. Using liquid deuterium, or 10-
\
heavy hydrogen, is the next best thing \
\
to having a target of free neutrons; the
deuterium nucleus consists of a proton
and a neutron. To a good approximation
the scattering from deuterium nuclei is 0 _L -J --L---------
10-1 7 ----------5---------- --------
3 ----------
1
simply the sum of the scattering from 10- 10- 10- 10- 10 103
neutrons and protons. Because the beam
MOMENTUM TRANSFER SOUARED [(GeV/dl
striking these liquefied gases is very in
tense they must be cooled continuously SCATTERING CROSS SECTION, defined as the area of the incident beam within which
by means of a heat exchanger, not sim the inflnence of a targ e t a tom give s rise to a certain kind o f interac tion, i s given here for
---;.
\
electrons into a system of detectors.
They were designed and constructed as
a collaborative effort by physicists from
the California Institute of Technology,
\
l- f-----?
)
the Massachusetts Institute of Technol
ogy and the group at SLAC. Very high
resolution in both energy and angle is
required, since we must be able to dis
tinguish between elastically and inelas
I- f----7
)
tically scattered electrons and to resolve
the detailed structure in the spectra of
I-
electron energies produced by inelastic
'\
-""'-\
scattering.
A
-./
In the inelastic scattering one or more
l- f-----?
pions can be produced in the scattering
collision. Since the energy required to
create a pion is 139 MeV (million elec
.
I- f-------7
tron volts) the resolution needed must
be considerably better than the ratio of
139 MeV to the incident energy, which
MOD I F I CATION of the scattering formula is required if the electron is a ssumed to scatter
can exceed 20 GeV. A resolution of bet
not from another point charge (top) but rather from an object o f finite dimensions (bot
ter than .7 percent in energy is therefore tom), represented here as compose d of three point constituents. In the la tter case each seg
needed. A similar analysis of the colli m e n t o f the electron wave front i s diffracte d separately by e a c h subunit of charge. T h e indio
sion kinematics indicates that the resolu vidual wavelets scattered by subunits then recombine to form an outgoing wave that repre
tion in angle should be a fraction of a sents the scattered electron. The amount by which the sca ttering cross section from a charged
milliradian, which is about three minutes particle of finite size is reduced below tha t from a point charge i s called the form factor (F) .
. 65
' ( COS2 )
section, which varies as the square of
u
M
_(2e2 E'/c2)2.
q
, E=INITIAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON
(
F2+TF2
Fm=MAGNETIC FORM FACTOR
lowest part of the curve are extremely
small: the smallest cross section mea
u=u
M
+2TF 2m tan2
1+T 2 ) T= q2/4M2c 2
M=MASS OF NUCLEON
sured was about 2 X 10-39 square centi
meter per steradian, which under the
conditions of the experiment means that
only one out of every 1018 electrons was
INCREASING COMPLEXITY is introduced to the s cattering equation as one proceeds
scattered into the detector. The scatter
from the Rutherford formula to the Molt formula to the Rosenbluth formula (lelt).
The fina l equation takes into a ccount the following facts: b o th the incident and the target
ing decreases as the fourth power of the
parti cle carry spin, the target parti cle is extended in space , the co llision ve l o cities are s o momentum transfer. This rapid falling
h i g h tha t relativi s ti c effects a r e introduce d , and the motion o f b o th particles is described off is one of the current puzzles in high
by wave mechanics rather than by classical mechanics. Symbols are defined in key a t right. energy physics. To understand how the
66
IS
Is it ignorance you 're hooked on? Or indifference? Even in the writing on the wall.
See no evil, speak no evil, hear no evil may And they're ready whenever you are. Wher
be O.K. for monkeys. ever you are.
But for you, it can be fatal. So there's no real excuse for turning your
Because your kind of bliss is a pipedream. self off.
And it's turning into a nightmare. When reality comes knocking on your door,
The facts, the issues, the problems of the don't say we didn't tell you ...
day are right. before your eyes. In black and white. You've got a right to read.
They're in books, newspapers, magazines . Don't blow it.
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Book Committee
Inc.
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Wedecided
not to make a big case out of it.
05926 3 /73 .
C loc k No. E.xpiration
Signature _ ,
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3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ENERGY OF SCATTERED ELECTRONS (BILLION S OF ELECTRON VOLTS)
TYPICAL SCATTERING SPECT R U M produce d by an electron out the elastic p eak on the low.energy side. The sm aller peaks or
beam with an energy o f 10 G e V collidin g with sta tionary protons bumps in the inela stic spectrum c o rrespond to excited states of
includes both elastic events (color) and inela stic events (black). the proton ; they are called r e sonance excita tions, or simply reso
The ela stic peak at right has been reduced in height by a factor of nances. T o the left o f these bumps i s a smo o ther c ontinuous spcc
five ; the asymmetry of its tail arise s because the electrons can emit trum called the con tinuum. As one g o e s to higher incident en
"soft" X rays that "rob" various amounts o f energy and thu s blur ergies the resonance s tend to disappear but the continuum remain s.
71
10-1
\ the excited states represented by the
bumps are comparable to the dimensions
of the proton itself in its unexcited con
dition. This implies that in some way
"-
most of the nucleon structure is involved
"-
2 when it is in a resonance, or excited,
\:2- state.
n::
0 The second feature of the scattered
f-
,
U electron spectrum produced by inelastic
processes is called the continuum: the
:::; 1 0 -2
n:: smooth distribution in the energies of
,
0
LL those scattered electrons that do not fall
<d in the resonance peaks. Physicists regard
f-
W
Z
the continuum as perhaps the most ex
0 citing and puzzling part of all the recent
<[
:::;
Stanford results. As we go to larger scat
tering angles or to higher incident ener
gies the resonances tend to disappear
10-
3 r--...
but the continuum remains.
r-- When the inelastic-scattering program
was formulated, theorists had believed
that the continuum cross sections would
decrease nearly as rapidly as the elastic
cross sections when the momentum
transfer was raised. Instead the results
show that for incident electron energies
ranging from 4.5 to 19 GeV the inelastic
5 10 15 20 25 30
scattering cross sections more closely re
MOMENTUM TRANSF E R SQUARED [(GeV/c)2] semble those that would be produced by
point targets [ see illustration on page
MAGNETIC FORM FACTOR OF PROTON was found by tbe Cal Tech-M.I.T .-SLAC
group to be unexpe ctedly smooth o ver an enormous range of experimental variables. ( The
75]. In one comparison the best predic
square of the magnetic form factor is the amount by which the s cattering cross section at tions available before the experiments
tributable to the magnetization o f a charged parti cle of finite size is less than that o f a point turned out to be low by as much as a
charge.) The fact tha t the form factor d e creases as fourth p o wer o f the momentum transfer, factor of 40 [see top illustration on oppo
which is faster than theorists had predicted, is a current puzzle of high.energy physics. site page ] . The factor of error is even
72
\
f-
name "parton" to the unknown constit U
W
uents of the proton and the neutron that (f)
(f)
(f)
inelastically scatter high-energy elec
0
trons. Feynman assumes that pmtons are n::
U
-'
point particles. He and others have ex W
>
amined the possibility that pmtons may
be one or another of the great array of
-
W
previously identified subnuclear parti n::
10
cles. The mesons that contribute to the
"clouds" of nucleonic charge are obvious
candidates, but there is strong experi
mental evidence that pmtons, if they
exist at all, do not exhibit the known
properties of mesons.
It has also been suggested that par
tons may be identical with the hypo
thetical entities known as quarks, the
t3
o scattering takes place are much smaller than the nucleons either in their ground state or
Gel ann and Zweig suggested that in their excited state is summarized in this graph, which covers a portion of the spectrum
m so s could be assembled from a quark recorded by the M.LT .-SLAC group in which the predicted scattering cross section (bottom
an an antiquark. Nucleons and other curve ) is lower by a factor of 40 than the observed cross section (top curve ) . The data were
obta ined at a scattering angle of six degrees ; the energy of the inci dent electrons was 16 Ge V.
rticles with similar properties (that is,
the baryons) would have to be assem
bled from three quarks. No real particles 1 .5
'\ / \
oc
, " fr
constructed mathematically by arbi W
U
trarily assuming that the hypothetical (/) f-
pmtons have the properties formerly Z u
(f) \
assigned to the equally hypothetical f- Z
:::J O
.
quarks. W f-
Conceptual models such as the parton
Z O
LL n:: II I
i
O D.. . 5 \
model represent the theorist's effort to
0 0
II
describe the nucleon's internal structure - f-
in accordance with the most advanced n::
73
.5
.4
II 1
t
. 3
I If f J
t,
j1
.2
iV
1
.1
+
I I
IjJ +
.
l I
o
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20
w= 2M v / q2
"UNIVERSAL CUR VE" results when the inelastic-scattering data trons actually takes place from po intlike objects within the indi
taken over a large range o f scatterin g angles and initial and final v i d ual nucleons. The physical nature o f these obj ects, which have
energies are p lotted as a function of the new variable w introduced been called "partons," remains uncertain. The coalescence illus
in the bottom illustration on the p receding page. This coalescence trated by the curve has been given the name "scaling." This kind of
into a single curve ( one for the proton and one for the neutron ) is relation, involving the square of the momentum transfer, occurs
consistent w ith the idea that the scattering of the high-energy elec naturally in the kinemat ics of scattering from po intlike particles.
74
Now you can ceives of a cloud of partons moving in a is qualitatively quite successful in ex
frame of reference at nearly the velocity plaining the scattering results, its quanti-
think smaller.
Microhole capabilities
as small as
6 microns diameter
If your needs for m i c ro-sta m p e d , or E D M (electrical
d i sc h a rg e m a c h i ned) h o l e s o r slots, measure down
to ours, a p h o n e c a l l or letter will get u s together.
l e ms. You s h o u l d h a ve the deta i l s now. 2 3 4
J u st w r i t e : MOM E N TUM TRANSFER SQUARED [(Ge V/c)2]
FURTHER EVIDENCE that the observed inelastic.scattering cross sections may be pro
TH E WAR R E N R U P P C O . duced by p o int targets i s presented in this graph, in which the ratio o f R osenbluth scatter
1 3 W E S T S I XTH STR E ET ing to Mott scattering is given for elastic electron scattering (colored curve) and for three
MAN S F I E L D , OH I O 44902 different portions of the inelastic-scattering spectrum ( b lack curves ) . Before these results
Originators in pump ing were obtained it had been assumed that the inelastic-continuum cross sections would de
crease as rapidly as the elastic cross sections when the momentum transfer was raised.
76
model provides the best available expla the stru ctu re of i n terindu stry transactions i n to g r a p h i c vi s i b i l i ty.
nation for the observations.
Several related experiments are now
being planned. One calls for a compari
son of neutrino and antineutrino scatter O ffp r i n ts of five S C I ENTI F I C A M E R I CA N a r t i c l es o n the techn i q u e
T h e a rticles a r e :
o f i n p u t / o utp ut a n a l y s i s , a cco m p a n y t h e c h a r t .
ing (which one expects to have equal
cross sections) . Another involves a I n p u t / O u t p u t E co n o m i cs
by Wass ily l. Leontief
search for positron-electron annihilation
at high energies to yield a proton and an The Economic Effects of D isarm a m e n t .
by Wa s s i l y W. Leo n t i e f a n d 'M a rv i n H offe n b e r g
antiproton in addition to pions (a reac
tion that may also exhibit a pointlike T h e S t r u c t u re o f Deve l o p m e n t
b y Wass i l y W. L eo n t i e f
. ,
The unpredicted electron-scattering - - - 1
results obtained with the two-mile linear
accelerator at Stanford have stimulated W. H . F R E E MAN A N D CO M PANY I
a fresh wave of theoretical speculation 6 6 0 M a rket Street. S a n Francisco. C a l i f o r n i a 9 4 1 0 4
I
and experimental study. It is still too . 58 K i n g s Road. Reading R G 1 3AA. BerkS h i re. E n g l a n d
I
early to say whether the parton model
I e n c lose $. ____ . (Ca l i fo r n i a res i d e n ts p l ease add sales tax.) I
will lead to an understanding of the nu Send m e , postp a i d , ______ i n p u t/ o u t p u t wa l l charts at
cleon's structure or whether entirely new $10 each, plus the offp r i nts l i sted.
I
ideas may be required. Whatever the I
N a m e'______________________________________
case, it seems likely that a full explana I
Co m pany________________________________________
tion of the electron-scattering studies will I
clarify not only the nature of the nu Address;_________________________________________
I
cleon's constituents but also the nature
of the strong interaction and the fami
I
lies of particles that are governed by it. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
77