5G Mobile Wireless Technology

- preliminary details and information about the wireless technology being developed for 5th
generation or 5G mobile wireless or cellular telecommunications systems
5G WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

With the 4G telecommunications systems now starting to be deployed, eyes are looking towards the development of 5th
generation or 5G technology and services.

Although the deployment of any wireless or cellular system takes many years, development of the 5G technology systems is
being investigated. The new 5G technologies will need to be chosen developed and perfected to enable timely and reliable
deployment.

The new 5th generation, 5G technology for cellular systems will probably start to come to fruition around 2020 with
deployment following on afterwards.

5G mobile systems status

The current status of the 5G technology for cellular systems is very much in the early development stages. Very many
companies are looking into the technologies that could be used to become part of the system. In addition to this a number of
universities have set up 5G research units focussed on developing the technologies for 5G

In addition to this the standards bodies, particularly 3GPP are aware of the development but are not actively planning the 5G
systems yet.

Many of the technologies to be used for 5G will start to appear in the systems used for 4G and then as the new 5G cellular
system starts to formulate in a more concrete manner, they will be incorporated into the new 5G cellular system.

The major issue with 5G technology is that there is such an enormously wide variation in the requirements: superfast
downloads to small data requirements for IoT than any one system will not be able to meet these needs. Accordingly a layer
approach is likely to be adopted. As one commentator stated: 5G is not just a mobile technology. It is ubiquitous access to
high & low data rate services.
5G cellular systems overview
As the different generations of cellular telecommunications have evolved, each one has brought its own improvements. The
same will be true of 5G technology.

First generation, 1G: These phones were analogue and were the first mobile or cellular phones to be used.
Although revolutionary in their time they offered very low levels of spectrum efficiency and security.

Second generation, 2G: These were based around digital technology and offered much better spectrum
efficiency, security and new features such as text messages and low data rate communications.

Third generation, 3G: The aim of this technology was to provide high speed data. The original technology was
enhanced to allow data up to 14 Mbps and more.

Fourth generation, 4G: This was an all-IP based technology capable of providing data rates up to 1 Gbps.

Any new 5th generation, 5G cellular technology needs to provide significant gains over previous systems to provide an
adequate business case for mobile operators to invest in any new system.

Facilities that might be seen with 5G technology include far better levels of connectivity and coverage. The term World Wide
Wireless Web, or WWWW is being coined for this.

For 5G technology to be able to achieve this, new methods of connecting will be required as one of the main drawbacks with
previous generations is lack of coverage, dropped calls and low performance at cell edges. 5G technology will need to
address this.

5G specifications
Although the standards bodies have not yet defined the parameters needed to meet a 5G performance level yet, other
organisations have set their own aims, that may eventually influence the final specifications.

Typical parameters for a 5G standard may include:

SUGGESTED 5G WIRELESS PERFORMANCE
PARAMETER SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE
Network capacity 10 000 times capacity of current network
Peak data rate 10 Gbps
Cell edge data rate 100 Mbps
Latency < 1 ms

These are some of the ideas being put forwards for a 5G standard, but they are not accepted by any official bodies yet.

Current research
There are several key areas that are being investigated by research organisations. These include:

Millimetre-Wave technologies: Using frequencies much higher in the frequency spectrum opens up more
spectrum and also provides the possibility of having much wide channel bandwidth - possibly 1 - 2 GHz. However
this poses new challenges for handset development where maximum frequencies of around 2 GHz and
bandwidths of 10 - 20 MHz are currently in use. For 5G, frequencies of above 50GHz are being considered and
this will present some real challenges in terms of the circuit design, the technology, and also the way the system is
used as these frequencies do not travel as far and are absorbed almost completely by obstacles. Read more
about 5G millimetre wave links

Future PHY / MAC: The new physical layer and MAC presents many new interesting possibilities in a number of
areas:
 o Waveforms: One key area of interest is that of the new waveforms that may be seen. OFDM has been
used very successfully in 4G LTE as well as a number of other high data rate systems, but it does have
some limitations in some circumstances. Formats being proposed include: GFDM, Generalised
Frequency Division Multiplexing, as well as FBMC, Filter Bank Multi-Carrier, UFMC, Universal Filtered
MultiCarrier. Each has its own advantages and limitations and it is possible that adaptive schemes may
be employed, utilising different waveforms adaptively for the 5G mobile systems as the requirements
dictate. This provides considerably more flexibility for 5G mobile communications. Read more about 5G
waveforms

o Multiple Access Schemes: Again a variety of new access schemes are being investigated for 5G
technology. Techniques including OFDMA, SCMA, NOMA, PDMA, MUSA and IDMA have all been
mentioned. Read more about 5G multiple access schemes

o Modulation: Whilst PSK and QAM have provided excellent performance in terms of spectral efficiency,
resilience and capacity, the major drawback is that of a high peak to average power ratio. Modulation
schemes like APSK could provide advantages in some circumstances. Read more about5G modulation
schemes

Duplex methods: There are several candidate forms of duplex that are being considered. Currently systems use
either frequency division duplex, FDD or time division duplex, TDD. New possibilities are opening up for 5G
including flexible duplex, where the time or frequencies allocated are variable according toth e load in either
direction or a new scheme called division free duplex or single channel full duplex. This scheme for 5G would
enable simultaneous transmission and reception on the same channel. Read more about 5G full duplex

Massive MIMO: Although MIMO is being used in many applications from LTE to Wi-Fi, etc, the numbers of
antennas is fairly limited -. Using microwave frequencies opens up the possibility of using many tens of antennas
on a single equipment becomes a real possibility because of the antenna sizes and spacings in terms of a
wavelength.

Dense networks Reducing the size of cells provides a much more overall effective use of the available spectrum.
Techniques to ensure that small cells in the macro-network and deployed as femtocells can operate satisfactorily
are required.

Other 5G concepts
There are many new concepts that are being investigated and developed for the new 5th generation mobile system. Some
of these include:

Pervasive networks : This technology being considered for 5G cellular systems is where a user can concurrently
be connected to several wireless access technologies and seamlessly move between them.

Group cooperative relay: This is a technique that is being considered to make the high data rates available over
a wider area of the cell. Currently data rates fall towards the cell edge where interference levels are higher and
signal levels lower.

Cognitive radio technology: If cognitive radio technology was used for 5th generation, 5G cellular systems,
then it would enable the user equipment / handset to look at the radio landscape in which it is located and choose
the optimum radio access network, modulation scheme and other parameters to configure itself to gain the best
connection and optimum performance.
 Wireless mesh networking and dynamic ad-hoc networking: With the variety of different access schemes it
will be possible to link to others nearby to provide ad-hoc wireless networks for much speedier data flows.

Smart antennas: Another major element of any 5G cellular system will be that of smart antennas. Using these it
will be possible to alter the beam direction to enable more direct communications and limit interference and
increase overall cell capacity.

There are many new techniques and technologies that will be used in the new 5G cellular or mobile telecommunications
system. These new 5G technologies are still being developed and the overall standards have not yet be defined. However
as the required technologies develop, they will be incorporated into the new system which will be defined by the standards
bodies over the coming years.

5G Timescales & Timeline

- it is anticipated that the first 5G networks will go live around 2020, but to get there a rigid
timeline must be developed and adhered to so that the technology advances swiftly and to the
required dates & timescales.
5G TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

No formal dates have been set yet for the development of 5G, but a number of companies and organisations have set their
own 5G timelines so they can plan ahead.

There are many elements to the overall 5G timeline - everything from the investigation and development of new
technologies, to the standardisation process, and the release of spectrum needed to support 5G.

Accordingly the various elements in the 5G timeline need to be closely managed and all the elements brought together to
enable the system to be launched in the required timescale.

Frequency spectrum
One major enabler for 5G will be the release of frequency spectrum and this needs to be managed on a global scale to
ensure commonality and also the reduction of interference between services, especially those operating globally. This
process is managed under the auspices of the International Telecommunications Union, ITU.

To manage the process of spectrum allocations, large international meetings called the World Radio Conference, WRC are
held every four years. There is one in 2015, another in 2019, and this is followed four years later by one in 2023..

A summary of the WRC dates and timeline is:

2015 - WRC15: In this World Radio Conference, the main focus for mobile telecommunications is for providing
additional frequency spectrum for 4G services. Work is not yet sufficiently advanced for determining allocations for
5G.

2019 - WRC19: By this date, it is anticipated that work on 5G will have advanced sufficiently, and this will have
allowed adequate work to be undertaken to determine the spectrum requirements for 5G. More will be required at
frequencies below 5GHz, but additional spectrum is anticipated for frequencies above 5GHz as well. It is within this
timeframe that 5G allocations will be discussed.

Although the earliest deployments for 5G may occur around 2020, these will be comparatively limited and its use
not as wide as it is anticipated to be later. Accordingly the dates for spectrum release for 5G will progressively
occur as 5G deployments increase and the bandwidth requirements grow.

2023 - WRC23 : Work towards WRC23 will only commence properly once WRC19 has taken place. However
many will be looking towards this timeframe for further allocations for 5G and beyond.

Technology investigation timescales

One of the key elements in the early stages of 5G is the development of the basic technology. This started shortly after the
first deployments of 4G.

Although the timeline for the research phase can only be broadly bounded and work will be ongoing even after the system
enters service, it is anticipated that the basic research and investigations will need to be complete by around 2016 to enable
this to feed into the standardisation process.

Standardisation process timelines

Standardisation is a key element of the 5G process. The timescales and dates of this activity are key to the successful
deployment of 5G. It also involves several agencies including 3GPP, ETSI, NGMN, IEEE, and the like.

Possibly one of the key authorities is 3GPP. Their standards are used for the definition of the cellular standard, but with 5G
being an aggregation of technologies, it is likely to require a number of standards institutions to work together.

The submission for the IMT 2020 are to follow the following dates and deadlines:

Initial technology submission date:

o Deadline: Jun. 2019

Detailed specification submission date

o Deadline: Oct. 2020

One of the key elements of the 5G developments themselves is the work on the radio access network, RAN. It is anticipated
that the discussions on the RAN could be started around December 2015.

It is anticipated that the bulk of the requirements will be agreed in the first 6 months of the RAN discussion to guide the work
in the working groups.
5G useful life timescale
It is generally estimated that the timescale for the first 5G networks will be around 2020, although there is pressure for some
operators to launch much earlier.

However the useful lifetime for 5G is likely to be long. As it is aimed at providing general connectivity, and for IoT and M2M
communications many of these applications will need to remain in place for many years. Utility meters, for example remain
in place for many years, and the utility companies will not take kindly to having to replace their meters more frequently to
follow the cellular technologies. Accordingly the useful life timescale for 5G is anticipated to remain in use until at least 2040.

5G Requirements for the next generation Mobile Wireless

System
- details of the industry requirements that are developing for 5G wireless technology.
5G WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

In order to ensure that the correct 5G wireless system is developed, it is necessary to collect and agree the requirements of
the system.

By collecting the requirements, it is possible to understand the needs and design the 5G wireless system to meet the
requirements, and in that way fulfil the needs.

By agreeing the requirements, all parties can work towards developing the same system and develop work-arounds where
their own particular needs may not be sufficiently met.

Care has to be taken that the 5G requirements are carefully collected and analysed so that the best system is achieved.
Otherwise it could result in a system that is not usable.

5G technology requirements
In recent years there have been several views about the ultimate form that 5G wireless technology should take. There have
been two views of what 5G wireless technology should be:

Hyper connected view: This view of the requirements for 5G wireless systems aims to take the existing
technologies including 2G, 3G, 4G, Wi-Fi and other relevant wireless systems to provide higher coverage and
availability, along with more dense networks. Apart from having requirements to provide traditional services, a key
differentiator would be to enable new services like Machine to Machine, M2M applications along with additional
Internet of Things, IoT applications. This set of 5G requirements could require a new radio technology to enable
low power, low throughput field devices with long battery lifetimes of ten years or more.

Next generation radio-access technology: This view of the 5G requirements takes the more technology driven
view and sets specifications for data rates, latency and other key parameters. These requirements for 5G would
enable a clear demarcation to be made between 4G or other services and the new 5G wireless system.

In order to meet the industry and user needs, it is necessary to accommodate all requirements within the definition process,
ensuring that the final definition meets the majority of users needs without becoming so demanding that any system cannot
succeed.

5G requirements summary
By accounting for the majority of needs, the following set of 5G requirements is gaining industry acceptance.

1-10Gbps connections to end points in the field (i.e. not theoretical maximum)

1 millisecond end-to-end round trip delay - latency

1000x bandwidth per unit area

10-100x number of connected devices

Perception of) 99.999% availability

Perception of 100% coverage

90% reduction in network energy usage

Up to ten year battery life for low power, machine-type devices

One of the key issues with the 5G requirements is that there are many different interested parties involved, each wanting
their own needs to be met by the new 5G wireless system. This leads to the fact that not all the requirements form a
coherent list. No one technology is going to be able to meet all the needs together.

As a result of these widely varying requirements for 5G, many anticipate that the new wireless system will be a umbrella that
enables a number of different radio access networks to operate together, each meeting a set of needs. As very high data
download and ultra low latency requirements do not easily sit with low data rate and long battery life times, it is likely that
different radio access networks will be needed for each of these requirements.

Accordingly it is likely that various combinations of a subset of the overall list of requirements will be supported when and
where it matters for the 5G wireless system.

5G Waveforms
- with the higher level of processing that will be available, new 5G waveforms are being
considered and evaluated for use with the new system.
5G TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

Although OFDM has been a great success and still has many advantages, there are many ideas for new 5G waveforms that
could bring additional advantages to the new cellular system under certain conditions and circumstances. No single
waveform provides all the advantages and answers that are needed.

As a result many anticipate that the final outcome for 5G waveforms may include an adaptive solution - using the optimum
waveform for any given situation.

Now that 5G is being investigated, there is an excellent opportunity to consider the optimum waveforms for the 5G system
that will be used until at least 2040.

5G waveform background
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has been an excellent waveform choice for 4G. It provides excellent spectrum
efficiency, it can be processed and handled with the processing levels achievable in current mobile handsets, and it operates
well with high data rate stream occupying wide bandwidths. It operates well in situations where there is selective fading.

However with the advances in processing capabilities that will be available by 2020 when 5G is expected to have its first
launches means that other waveforms can be considered.

There are several advantages to the use of new waveforms for 5G. OFDM requires the use of a cyclic prefix and this
occupies space within the data streams. There are also other advantages that can be introduced by using one of a variety of
new waveforms for 5G.

One of the key requirements is the availability of processing power. Although Moore's Law in its basic form is running to the
limits of device feature sizes and further advances in miniaturisation are unlikely for a while, other techniques are being
developed that mean the spirit of Moore's Law is able to continue and processing capability will increase. As such new 5G
waveforms that require additional processing power, but are able to provide additional advantages are still viable.

5G waveform requirements
The potential applications for 5G including high speed video downloads, gaming, car-to-car / car-to-infrastructure
communications, general cellular communications, IoT / M2M communications and the like, all place requirements on the
form of 5G waveform scheme that can provide the required performance.

Some of the key requirements that need to be supported by the modulation scheme and overall waveform include:

Capable of handling high data rate wide bandwidth signals

Able to provide low latency transmissions for long and short data bursts, i.e. very short Transmission Tine Intervals,
TTIs, are needed.

Capable of fast switching between uplink and downlink for TDD systems that are likely to be used.

Enable the possibility of energy efficient communications by minimising the on-times for low data rate devices.

These are a few of the requirements that are needed for 5G waveforms to support the facilities that are needed.

Candidate 5G waveforms
There are several new 5G waveform formats that are being considered. These include:

FBMC, Filter Bank Multi-Carrier: FBMC has gained a high degree of interest as a potential 5G waveform
candidate. This waveform scheme provides many advantages.

In many ways FBMC has many similarities to CP-OFDM, OFDM using a cyclic prefix which is used as the 4G
waveform. Instead of filtering the whole band as in the case of OFDM, FBMC filters each sub-carrier individually.
FBMC does not have a cyclic prefix and as a result it is able to provide a very high level of spectral efficiency.

The subcarrier filters are very narrow and require long filter time constants. Typically the time constant is four times
that of the basic multicarrier symbol length and as a result, single symbols overlap in time. To achieve
orthogonality, offset-QAM is used as the modulation scheme, so FBMC is not orthogonal with respect to the
complex plane.

UFMC, Universal Filtered MultiCarrier: This 5G waveform can be considered as an enhancement of CP-OFDM.
It differs from FBMC in that instead of filtering each subcarrier individually, UFMC splits the signal into a number of
sub-bands which it then filters.

UFMC does not have to use a cyclic prefix, although one can be used to improve the inter-symbol interference
protection.

GFDM, Generalised Frequency Division Multiplexing: GFDM is a flexible multi-carrier transmission technique
which bears many similarities to OFDM. The main difference is that the carriers are not orthogonal to each other.
GFDM provides better control of the out-of-band emissions and the reduces the peak to average power ratio,
PAPR. Both of these issues are the major drawbacks of OFDM technology.

Filtered OFDM, f-OFDM As the name, f-OFDM indicates, this form of OFDM uses filtering to provide its unique
characteristics. Using f-OFDM, the bandwidth available for the channel on which the signal is to be transmitted is
split up into several sub-bands. Different types of services are accommodated in different sub-bands with the most
suitable waveform and numerology. This enables a much better utilisation of the spectrum for the variety of
services to be carried.

In addition to these waveforms, and number of other waveforms are also being considered for use with 5G.

5G Modulation Schemes
- the modulation scheme or schemes adopted for 5G will play a major role in determining the
performance and complexity of the handsets and other nodes used.
5G TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

The modulation schemes used for 5G will have a major impact on performance.

Whilst there are requirements to ensure that the data rates needed can be carried and the 5G modulation schemes
performance issues including peak to average power ratio, spectral efficiency, and performance in the presence of
interference and noise need to be included in any decisions made.

Peak to average power ratio, PAPR

The peak to average power ratio is one aspect of performance that needs to be considered for any 5G modulation scheme.

The peak to average ratio has a major impact on the efficiency of the power amplifiers. For 2G GSM, the signal level was
constant and as a result it was possible to run the final RF amplifier in compression to obtain a high level of efficiency and
maximise the battery life.

With the advent of 3G, then its HSPA enhancements and then 4G, the modulation schemes and waveforms have meant that
the signals have become progressively more 'peaky' with higher levels of peak to average power ratio. This has meant that
the final RF amplifiers cannot be run in compression and as the PAPR has increased, so the efficiency of the RF amplifiers
has fallen and this is one factor that has shortened battery life.

The opportunity now arises to utilise 5G modulation schemes that can reduce the PAPR and thereby improve efficiency.

Spectral efficiency
One of the key issues with any form of 5G modulation scheme is the spectral efficiency. With spectrum being at a premium,
especially in frequencies below 3 GHz, it is essential that any modulation scheme adopted for 5G is able to provide a high
level of spectral efficiency.

There is often a balance between higher orders of modulation like 64 QAM as opposed to 16 QAM for example and noise
performance. Thus higher order modulation schemes tend to be only sued when there is a good signal to noise ratio.

Accordingly any 5G modulation scheme will need to accommodate high levels of performance under a variety of conditions.

5G modulation schemes
3G and 4G have used modulation schemes including PSK and QAM. These schemes provide excellent spectral efficiency
and have enabled the very high data rates to be carried but fall short in terms of their peak to average power ratio.

To overcome the PAPR issue, one option being considered for a 5G modulation scheme is APSK or amplitude Phase Shift
Keying.

However in view of the fact that amplitude components of a signal are more subject to noise, which is substantially
amplitude based, it is likely that any overall 5G modulation scheme will be adaptive, enabling the system to switch to the
most optimum for of modulation for the given situation.

Note on APSK - Amplitude & Phase Shift Keying:

Amplitude and Phase-Shift Keying, APSK, is a digital modulation scheme that uses both the amplitude and the phase changes to modulate the radio

frequency carrier. It has the advantage that the constellation diagram can be adjusted to optimise the signal, particaulrly in terms of reducing peak to

average power ratios.

Read more about APSK, Amplitude & Phase Shift Keying

Whilst APSK may provide many advantages in terms of reducing the PAPR, it is not the complete answer and may be used
as one option in an overall adaptive modulation scheme.

5G Multiple Access Schemes

- preliminary details and information about the multiple access schemes and technology being
developed for 5th generation or 5G mobile wireless or cellular telecommunications systems.
5G TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex

One key element of any cellular communications system is the multiple access technology that is used.

As a result the 5G multiple access schemes are being carefully considered and researched to ensure that the optimum
technique or techniques are adopted.
There are several candidate 5G multiple access schemes that are in the running. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages and as a result, no single technique is likely to meet all the requirements.

5G multiple access schemes

There are several candidate systems that are being considered as the 5G multiple access scheme. They include a variety of
different ideas.

Orthogonal frequency division multiple access, OFDMA: OFDMA has been widely used and very successful
for 4G and could be used as a 5G multiple access scheme. However it does require the use of OFDM and
requiring orthogonality between carriers and the use of a cyclic prefix has some drawbacks. As a result other
multiple access schemes are being investigated.

Sparse Code Multiple Access, SCMA: SCMA is another idea being considered as a 5G multiple access scheme
and it is effectively a combination of OFDMA and CDMA. Normally with OFDMA a carrier or carriers is allocated to
a given user. However if each carrier has a spreading code added to it, then it would be able to transmit data to or
from multiple users. This technique has been developed to use what are termed sparse code and in this way
significant numbers of users can be added while maintaining the spectral efficiency levels. Read more
about Sparse Code Multiple Access, SCMA

Non-orthogonal multiple access, NOMA: NOMA is one of the techniques being considered as a 5G multiple
access scheme. NOMA superposes multiple users in the power domain, using cancellation techniques to remove
the more powerful signal. NOMA could use orthogonal frequency division multiple access, OFDMA or the discrete
Fourier transform, DFT-spread OFDM. . Read more about Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access, NOMA

There are several multiple access schemes that could be used with 5G. The one or ones used will be chosen as a result of
the standardisation process which is currently onging.

5G Millimetre Wave
- preliminary details and information the millimetre wave technologies being developed for 5G
mobile communications
5G TECHNOLOGY TUTORIAL INCLUDES

5G technology

5G timescales

Requirements

5G waveforms

Modulation schemes

Multiple access schemes

Millimetre wave links

Full duplex
One of the options that is most likely to be incorporated into the 5G technologies that are being developed for the 5G cellular
telecommunications systems is a millimetre wave capability.

With spectrum being in short supply below 4GHz, frequencies extending up to 60GHz are being considered.

5G millimetre wave basics

One of the interfaces being considered for 5G mobile communications uses millimetre wave frequencies.

It is estimated that bandwidths of several GHz may be required by operators to provide some of the extremely high data
rates being forecast.

Currently frequency below 4GHz are being used by cellular communications systems, and by the very nature, these
frequencies could only offer a maximum bandwidth of 4 GHz, even if they were all clear for use which is obviously not
possible.

By having a 5G millimetre wave interface, much wider bandwidths are possible, and there are several candidate millimeter
bands that are being considered for allocation to this type of service.

5G millimeter wave propagation

The propagation characteristics of millimetre wave bands are very different to those below 4GHz. Typically distances that
can be achieved are very much less and the signals do not pass through walls and other objects in buildings.

Typically millimetre wave communication is likely to be used for outdoor coverage for dense networks - typically densely
used streets and the like. Here, ranges of up to 200 or 300 metres are possible.

One of the issues of using millimetre wave signals is that they can also be affected by natural changes such as rain. This
can cause a considerable reduction in signal levels for the duration of the precipitation. This may result in reduced coverage
for some periods.

Often these 5G millimetre wave small cells may use beamforming techniques to target the required user equipment and also
reduce the possibility of reflections, etc.

Millimetre wave coverage

Simulations have shown that when millimetre wave small cells are set up they provide a good level of coverage. Naturally,
typically being lower down than macro cells, the coverage will not be as good, but when considering the level of data they
can carry, they provide an excellent way forwards for meeting the needs of 5G systems.

A further issue to be considered when looking at 5G millimetre wave solutions is that they will incur a much greater number
of handovers than a normal macro cell. The additional signalling and control needs to be accommodated within the system.
Also backhaul issues need to be considered as well.