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32101 067399152
 BEQUEST OF
PRESIDENT Me COSH
 THE HISTORY
OF THE

ANCIENT BRITONS
AND

THEIR DESCENDANTS.

BY

THOMAS W. POWELL,
AUTHOR OF
-ANALYSIS OF AMERICAN LAW" and ''THE LAW OF APPELLATE
PROCEEDINGS."

T. c. O'KANE,
DELAWARE, OHIO.
1'8 8 2.
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by
THOMAS W. POWELL,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

P KK9S OK
GAZETTE PRINTING HOL-SE,
DELAWARE. OHIO.
 PREFATORY NOTICE.

The author desires to notify his friends and the public that this history was written
during the years 1875, 7 an^ 77 > '^at during 1878 and '79 he endeavored in various
ways to proeure its publication in vain; and that in iSSo hi1 so far lost his eye-sight
that he was unable to read any book or paper, and no optician or optical glass was
able to give him any aid. Though he was still able to write letters by merely being
able to see his paper and pen all else was the result of habit and guess, and such let
ters were sent off without reading or correction, as of necessity. In the fall of iSSo
arrangements were made with the publishers for the printing and publication of the
History at the responsibility of the author. Since then it has been slowly going
through the press, and is now in the process of binding and publication. While go
ing through the prest the author was unable, on account of his defective vision, to
correct the proof, except what he was able to do by hearing it read. The proof sheets
were corrected by some friends who volunteered their services to do so, to whom he
feels himself greatly obliged. He is happy to think that I he book is tolerably free
from typographical errors, and now only wishes to notice the following :
ist. Page 51, first column, figure 2 is omitted between the words "China" and "It
was from," &c.
2d. Page 116, second column, for marshes read marches
3d. Page 130, second column, for wishes read virtues.
4th. Page 206, first column, for Andredes Carter read Andredes Caster.
5th. Page 330, second column, for Edward III read Edward I.
6th. Page 461, second column, for Constantine Chlorus read Constantius Chlorus.
DELAWARE, OHIO, February 22, 1882.

MAR -i!9i 1 271632

 NOTE.The above picture is an exact
copy of one I received as a frontispiece in
a copy of Palgrave's History of the Anglo-
Saxons, sent me from Liverpool. It is in
scribed, "Conflict between the Romans and
the Saxons," while it is truly the well
known picture of the conflict between the
Romans and Ancient Britons, at Citsar's
first landing in Britain, five hundred years
before the Saxons came to Britain. It is a
true picture ot Cicsar's landing. There is
Ca-sar on the deck of his ship directing the
landing and conflict; there also is the
standard bearer of the tenth legion leaping
into the sea and calling upon his men to
follow. I do not charge this piece of false
hood upon Mr. Palgrave, but it is chargea
ble upon some one connected with the pub
lication of the book. And it is in character
with the misrepresentations constantly
making to impress upon the rising English
generation that there is nothing in British
history but what is due to the SAXONS.
 CONTENTS.
BOOK I.THE BRITISH PERIOD. CHAP. iv. Condition of the People
CHAP. i. The Inhabitants of Western Europe 51. The Condition of the Britons at the Ad
$1. The Cradle and Commencement of the vent of the Saxons _. 275
1. The Condition of the Saxous During this
Human Race 29 Period 380
2. The Races Who Settled West Europe.... 39 8. The Condition of the Britons During
8. The Cymry 44 t le Saxou Period 286
CHAP. II. The Britons as Noticcdjin Ancient 4. The Condition of the Saxons at the Close
History ." 51 of this Period _ S88
CHAP. in. The Romau]Invaaion by Ciesar 5. Condition of the Cymry at the Close of
$1. Caesar's Prior Operations in (Saul 72 the Period _ _ 298
2. Oesar's Invasion of Britain 7S BOOK IV.THE NORMAN PERIOD.
8. C:esar's c'inal Operations in Gaul 8*
4. Tlie Period after Ca-sar's Invasion 95 CHAP. I. The Norman Conquest to the Ac
CHAP. iv. Customs, Maners and Civilization cession of Edward 1. A. D.lOMto
of the Britons 1272
$1. Wlio were the Ancient Britons? 97 Jl. The Norman Conquest. A. D. 1066 S87
2. The Government of the Britons IOC 2. William the Conqueror, from his Coro
3. The Institution of the Druids 104 nation to his Death. A. I). 10681087... 306
4. The Triads 108 3. The Course of Events in English History
5. Civilization and Character of the An from the Death of William the Con
cient Britons 113 queror to that of Hunrv III. A. D. 1087
to 1272 .". 818
BOOK II.THE ROMAN PERIOD. 4. Governmental Matters of the Cymry.
CHAP. I. The Roman Rule from the Conquest A.D. lOtki 1272 318
to the Rtngu of Diocletian CHAP. ii. From the Accession of Edward I
41. The Conquest to Suetonius. A. D. 43 to to the Kud of the Period. A. D.
81 121 1272148'.
2. Suetonius to Agricola. A. D. 61 to 78... 12!) 41. The Reign of Edward I and the Con
8. Agricolato Severus. A. D. 78 to 193 134 quest ofWales 822
1. Severus to Diocletian. A. D. 193 to 284... 138 2. From the Accession of Kdwar-l II to that
of Henry VI. A. D. 11107 1422 8J8
CHAP. II . The Rule of Diocletian to the End 3. From the Accession of Henry VI to that
of the Period. A. D. 284420 of Henry VII. A. D. 1432-1485 834
41. The Times of Diocletian to the Death of
Constantius. A. D. 284306 189 CHAP. in. The Condition of the People
2. Constantino and his Time. A. D. 306 to $1. The Condition of the Cymry from the
867 142 Conquest of Wales bv Edward I. A. D.
8. Theodosras, the General, and hie Time 10661-276 , 338
to the Departure of the Romans. A. D. 2. Condition of the English from the Nor
887 to 42053 years 146 man Conquest to the Conquest of Wales
4. The Close of the Roman Period 14!) by Edward 1. A. D. lufiO127B 348
B. The Sequel of the Roman Period 150 3. The Condition of the People from the
Annexation of Wales to the Accession
CHAP. III. The Condition and Character of of the Tudurs. A. D. 128S1485 353
the People During the Roman Pe
riod, to the Accession of Dioele- BOOK V.THE MODERN PERIOD.
tian 158
CHAP. i. The Civil and Political Changes of
CHAP. IT. The Condition of the People from the Period
the Accession of Diocletian to the 41. The Tudor Dynasty. A. D. 14851603... 361
End of the Period. A. D. 284 to 2. The Stuart Dynasty. A. D. 16031714... 368
420 174 8. The Brunswick Dynasty.' A. D. 1714
BOOK III.THE SAXON PERIOD. 1837 874
CHAP. ii. The Condition of the People from
CHAP. I. The Saxon Conquest. A. D. 449 to the Accession of Henry VII to that
696 of Victoria. A . D . 14851837
41. The Saxons' First immigration, war, 41. The Condition of the Cymry ..... . 87>
and Settlement in Britain 195 2. The Condition of the English 885
1. The Saxon Immigration and the Times 3. Ethnology of the British People 88T
of Arthur. A. D. 477550 205
1. The Establishment of the Saxon States 'u 4i'. in. People Constituting the United
North of the Thames A. D. 530800.... 211 Kingdom
4. The Introduction of Christianity among 41. The English People 898
the Saxons _. _., 218 2. The Cymry or Welsh . 414
6. She Sequel of the Period _ 220 8. The Scots _ 421
4. The Irish _ __ 429
CH AP . ii . The Saxon Heptarchy from the Ac CHAP. iv. Conclusion or Epilogue. ....410
cession of Penda to the Death of
Egbert. A.D. 026336 223 APPENDIX
CHAP. in. The Saxon Kingdoms NOTB I. Errors in HistoryHelena's Birth-
41. From the Death of Egbert to that of PlaceMiss Jane Williams' Letter
Athelstan. A. D. 886940.._ _ 242 Manuscript ..... 457
1. From the Death of Athelatan to the Nor NOTE II. Errors in Dates from A. D. 878 to
man Conquest. A. D. 9101066 .. 260 430 ._ ^_ .... . 140
 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
Reference to Foregoing Map.
Map No. i is intended to aid the reader
in tracing the routes taken by the several
branches of the Aryan race in their migra
tions from their original and primitive
home, to where we now find them located
and fixed. This would be easier under
stood if it had been done on a map of a
larger scale, with fewer names omitted.
But this will be plain to most readers, with
only ordinary knowledge of geography ;
and any desired assistance can almost any
where be obtained.
Our history assumes to treat of this
Aryan migration from the cradle to the sev
eral places. where their descendants are
now nationally located.
Now, we have assumed that the Aryan
race had its primitive home in the valley
watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris ;
in the upper part of that interesting valley,
while the Hamitic and Shemitic races occu
pied the lower part, immediately above the
head of the Persian Gulf. There the residue
of the Aryans had been fixed for many
centuries, until their civilization and lan
guage had been cultivated to that extent,
that it is traced in their descendants to this
day. What was the cause of their emigra
tion is not known to history, but it is more
than probable that it was an attack by the
southern people on the Aryans of the
north. Whatever may have been the cause,
it seems that they departed thence in three
different streams, to settle and cultivate other
portions of the world. The first of these
departed directly to the west, and occupied
Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy; and have
been generally denominated the Javan or
Pelagean family, and more recently, the
Greek and Latin races. The secnd stream
is that which has been denominated the
descendants of Gomer, who went north,
and fixed their residence on the northern
shores of the Euxine sea, near the mouth
of the river Tyris, no-w in Southern Rus
sia, and near the city of Odessa, where they
were known to the Greeks as Cimmarians :
and everywhere claimed to have been the
progenitors of all the Celtic people ; and it
is there, on the ihores of the Euxine or
Black sea, we will leave them for the pres
ent.
The third stream passed off to the east,
along the northern declivity of the moun
tains which separate the valley of the Cas
pian sea from those of the great valley of
Persia, until they arrived in Bactria, where
they fixed their residence, fora considerable
time. But, sometime in early history, we
know not when, these residents of Bactria
separated into two divisions; the one to the
south, and the other to the northwest.
That which went to the south passed over
that extremely elevated pass, known as
Hindoo-KoOhh, to the volley at the head
waters ot the Indus, in which Cabul now
stands. Here they again divided, and one
division went west, and became known as
the Persians; while the other went to the
valleys of the Indus and Ganges, and be
came known as the Brahman and their lan
guage was Sanskrit of India.1 Those who
departed from Bactria to the northwest,
again divided, one taking the most northern
route through Russia, crossing the northern
extremity of the Baltic sea into Scandina
via; and then the main body of the Baltic
into Germany : this was known as the
Gothic line. "The other passed on, directly
west, into Germany; and this line was
known as the Teutonic.
We will now turn our attention to the
descendants of Gomer, known to the
Greeks, as the Cimmarians; whom we left
settled on the northern banks of the Eux
ine. From time to time these had sent out
colonies by the way of the Danube to
northeastern Italy, known as Umbria,
and to France, then known as Gaul. About
seven hundred years before the Christian
era the remainder of the Cimmarians re
maining in theiroriginal home, were driven
thence by a Scythian horde, to the east;
and followed around the eastern extremity
of the Euxine sea, and took possession of
a large and much civilized country in Asia
Minor, Lydia. There they remained sixty
or eighty years, when they were driven out
by the united efforts of the kings of Lydia
and that of Neneveh. They crossed the
Dardanelles, and went to the Danube, and
then to the Elbe, and down that river to its
mouth; and were there known to the Ro
mans, as the Cimbri. The main body still
passed on along the sea shore, through
Gaul to Armorica, and from thence to
Britain. This line may be traced from
their home in Cimmaria, to their final set
tlement in Britain, and is known as the
Cymric line. And here it is to be observed
that the Cimmarians of the Greeks are the
progenitors of all the Celtic race; whether
known as Celts, Gauls, Gaels or Cymry,
French, Welsh, Scots, Irish, or Britons.
When the reader has traced these several
lines on the map, he will be prepared to
duly appreciate what is said in my history
on this subject. (See pp. 20, 29, 31, 41 ; also
pp. 44 and 46.)
i . Ten Great Religions, p. 87.
GAUL '"BRITAIN
 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. vii
References to the Foregoing Maf.
Roman Names Modern Names British Names
1. Isca Exeter Caerwysg or Caerfynydd
2. Durinum Dorchester Caerdor
3. Sorbiodunum Old Sarum
4. Venta Belgarum Winchester Caerwynt
5. Vindonum Near Andover (Egbury
Camp, probably)
6. Durobrivae Rochester Caergraig
7. Cantiopolis Canterbury Caergaint
8. Rhutupis Richborough, Kent Forth, Rhwydon
9. Londinium London Llundain _j
10. Verulamium
n. Camalodunum Colchester Caercolden
12. Thermae Bath Caerbaddon
13. Corinium Cirencester Caercerri
14. Glevum Gloucester Caerlyw
15. Venta Silurum Caer Gwent, Mon. Same
16. Isca Silurum Oserleon on Usk Caerlleon ar Wysg
17. Maridunum Cacrmarthen Caerfyrddin
1 8. Camboricum Cambridge Caergrawnt
19. Duromagus Castoron-Neve, or Water
Newton
20. Ragae Leicester Caerleirion
21. Venta Iceni Caistor or Norwich Caercynan
22. Lindum Lincoln Caerliiytcocd
23. Deva Chester Caerlleon Gawr
24. Segontium Caer Sciont, Carnarvon Caernarfon
25. Cambodunum Slack, Yorkshire
26 Coccium Ribchester, Lancashire
27. Eroracum Eboracum, York Cacrefrog
28. Caturracton Catterick, Yorkshire
This map represents Britain and Gaul they are at this day. The BritishCym
duing the Roman period and the com ricnames of these cities are given above,
mencement of the Saxon period. The as well as the Roman and modern
above list of names of cities and great names. Many of these, with their British
towns in Britain at the advent of the Sax names, were known before the Roman pe
ons, which refer to their appropriate figure riod, and their names given in Greek by
on the map for their respective location. the geographer, Ptolemy.1
These were numerous in South Britain, I Besides (he ruins of some of these great cities,
and extending north as far as Dumbarton with Avcbury and Stonehenge. :is tlic antiquities of
Britain, there should be noticed also the great walls
in Scotland. For a more special account of Severus and Antonius across the island, built to
restrain the invasion of the northern people; see on
of these cities the reader is referred to our pages I3S and 139. These are now in utter ruins.
history, pages 153, 178 and 280. Many Severus wall was an astonishing work, about 74
miles long, consisting of a great stone wall with nu
of these cities were destroyed by the Sax merous towers, a deep foss on the north side, and a
military road on the south. It is represented by the
ons in their barbarous progress in their following sectional figure:
conquest. Others were left to exist, as
they were to be rebuilt in the course of
modern improvements This was special
North
ly the case with London, (which the Sax
Road
ons never possessed in their hostilities)
York, Winchester, Exeter. Caerleon on
the Usk, and others, which were then
known as the great cities of the land, as \iT
MOMMAP OF THE
fflfflSH /SLANDS.
UMTEDMNGDOM
or
GftEAr&flfTAM

NORTH SEA.
 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
References to the Foregoing Maf.
COUNTIES OF SCOTLAND. 9. Nottingham 10. Glamorgan
1. Berwick 10. Lincoln n. Carmarthen
2. Roxburgh 11. Rutland 12. Pembroke
3. Dumfries 12. Leicester COUNTIES OF IRELAND.
4. Kirkcudbright 13. Stafford
5. Wigton 14. Shropshire Province of Leinster
6. Ayr 15. Hereford 1. Dublin
7. Lanark 16. Worcester 2. Wicklow
8. Fecblce 17. Warwick 3. Wexford
9. Selkirk 18. Northampton 4. Kilkenny
10. Haddington 19. Huntingdon 5. Carlow
11. Edinburgh 20. Cambridge 6. Kildare
12. Linlithgow 21. Norfolk 7. Queens Co.
13. Stirling 22. Suffolk 8. Kings .Co.
14. Dumbarton 23. Es-sex 9. Westmeath
15. Renfrew 24. Hertford 10. Eastmeath
16. Bute 25. Bedford 11. Lowth
17. Clackmannan 26. Buckingham 12. Longford
1 8. Kinross 27. Oxford Province of Munster.
19. Fife 28. Gloucester 13. Waterford
20. Argyle 29. Monmouth 14. Tipperary
21. Perth 30. Wilts 15. Cork
22. Forfar 31. Berkshire 16. Kerry
23. Kincardine 32. Middlesex 17. Limerick
24. Aberdeen 33. Kent 18. Clare
25. Banff 34. Surry Province of Connaught
26. Moray 35. Sussex
27. Nairn 36. Hants or Hampshire 19. Galway
28. Inverness 37. Dorset 20. Roseommon
29. Ross 38. Somerset 21. Mayo
30. Orkney & Shetland Isles 39. Devon 22. SligO

Sutherfand 40. Cornwall 23. Leitrim

3'
3* Caithness COUNTIES OF WALES. Province of Ulster
COUNTIES OF ENGLAND. 1. Flint 24. Donegal.
1. Northumberland 2. Denbigh 25. Fermanagh
2. Cumberland 3. Carnarvon 26. Tyrone
3. Westmoreland 4. Anglesea 27. Londonderry
4. Durham 5. Merioneth 28. Antrim
5. York. 6. Montgomery 29. Down
6. Lancaster 7. Cardigan 30. Armagh
Chester 8. Radnor 31. Monaghan
I Derby 9. Brecknock 32. Cavan
This map represents the United King miles wide, its average breadth not exceed
dom of Great Britain and Ireland as it was ing 200; while between the mouth of the
at the accession of Queen Victoria. The Tyne and the Solway Firth, on the line of
counties are referred to by figures, and the Severus' wall, it is only 74 miles wide, and
names of all the important cities and places on the wall of Antonius, from the Firth of
are given on the map. More numerous Forth to that of the Clyde, it is only 40
names and references are given on the miles, and its average breadth about 20^
map found on page xi and the opposite which gives to Great Britain an area of
page to it containing reference, copied from
Murray's Encyclopedia of Geography. about 89,600 square miles. Ireland is in
Great Britain is, from the Isle of Wight an oval form, 250 miles long and 150 broad,
to the northern extremity of Scotland, 608 with an area of 32,518 square miles. For
miles long, and from the northeast extrem population see page 380.
ity of Norfolk to the Lands End in Corn The population is still increasing, so that
wall it is 330 miles wide. From the same for the whole kingdom of Great Britain
place in Norfolk to the western extremity and Ireland in the year 1872 it was 31,817-
of the island of Anglesea it is about 300 108.
 MAP Or THE U/V/7TD WWDOM
OF GREATBft/TAMAND /RELAND.
 References to the Foregmg Map,
ENGLAND. 85. Norwich 169. Battle 34 Fiscard 63 North Berwick 53 Longiord
i. Alnwick 86. Recpham 170. E Grinstead 25 St. David's 69 D unbar 54 Moynalty
. Rothbury 87. E. Derehara 171. Reigate 36 Pembroke 70 Berwick 55 Carrickma-
3. Morpeth 88. Diss 172. Horsham 37 Carmarthen 71 Kelaoe cron
4. Elythe 89. Thetford 173. Brighton 38 Cwyrgryg 72 Jed burgh 56 Dunleer
5. Newcastle 90. Ely 174. Arundel 39 Brecon 73 Ha wick 57 Dro^heda
6. Hexham 91. March 175. Pulborough 30 Monmouth 74 AsHkirk 58 Balbriggaa
7. Billingham 92. Peterborough^. Guildford 31 Uske 75 Biggar 59 Dublin
8. Carlisle 93. Oundle 177. Godaiming 32 Chepstow 76 Moffat oo Screen
Q. Cockermouth 94, Stamford 178. Petworth 33 Newport 77 Sanquhar 6 1 Trim
io- Egremont 95. Harborough 179. Chichester 34 Card iff 78 Lanark 62 Maynooth
n. Ravenglass 96. Leicester 180. Portsmouth 35 Landaff 79 Ki! in. 1 1 nock 03 Naas
13. Ul version 97. Coventry iSi. Southampton 36 Lhmtrissent So A^r 64 Tul hi more
13. Kendal 98. Tarn worth 182. Whitchurch 37 Swansea Si Girvan 65 Mullingar
14. Keswick 99. Lichfield 183. Andovcr . 82 Ballintrae 66 Athlonc
15. Penrith 100. Birmingham 184. Salisbury a Towey 83 Stranraer 67 Evrecourt
16. Appleby 101. Bridgenorth iSv Livmngton b Tievy 84 Port Patrick 68 Ballyfiiran
17. Aldstone 102. Shrewsbury iS6. Poole c Dee 85 Wigton 69 Newion Bel-
iS. Darlington 103. Plynlimmon 187. Shiiflesbury 86 Kircudbright lew
19. Durham 104. Ludloxv [88. Bath SCOTLAND 87 New Galloway 70 1 .i i- 1- - 1( r ea
3o. Sunder land 105. Tcnbury 189. Uxbridge i Durness 88 Monihive 71 Ormnorc
31. Stockton loo.-f-eominster 190. Wells 2 Tongue 89 Dumfries 72 Ougnlera
32. Stokesly 107. Bromford 191. Glastonbury 3 Reay 90 I-ingholra 73 Gafway
23. Guisborough loS. Tewkcsbury 192. Ilchester 4 Thurso 91 Ann:m 74 Gort
24. Whitby 109. Worcester 193. Tan n ton 5 Wick liivfrs 75 Inmsl vmoa
2>. Pickering 110. Alcester 191. Porlock 6 Dunbeath a Spey 76 Kilrush
36. Thirsk in. Warwick 195. South Barn- 7 Helmsdale b Don 77 Clare
37. N. Allerton 1 12. Evesham stipIt- 8 Dornoch c Dee 78 Ennis
38. Hawes 113. Towctrster 196. Bideford 9 Tain d Tav 79 Limerick
39. Ripon 114. Northampton 197. Torrington io Portinleik c Clyde So Porlumn
30. Kendal 115. Wtllingbor- 198. L:\unccston ii Uilapool f Ken 8 1 Nenagh
31. Lancaster ough 190. Bodinin '2 Poolew g Nith 82 Killaloe
32. Garslang 1 16, Thrapston 200. St. Agnes 13 Torridon n Annan 83 Thurle*
33. Poulton H7. Huntingdon 201. Pcnziince 14 Loch Carron i Tweed 84 Roscrea
34. Bradford iiS. Bedford 202. Falmoulh 15 Dingwall IRELAND 85 Durrow
35. Skipton 1 19. Cambridge 203. Tregonv 16 Bcauly i Belfast 86 Alh
3C-. Knaresboro* 120. MHdenhall 204. Tuvistock 17 Inverness 2 Antrim 87 Kildar
37. Leeds 121. Bury St. Ed -205. Plymouth 18 Grantown 3 Larnc S3 Car low
38. York munds 2on. Modburv 19 N;iiru 4 Glt-narm 89 TUnow
39. New Mai ton 122. Framlingham2o7. Dartmouth 20 HI gin 5 Ballvcastle 90 Raltinglass
40. Billinyton 123. Aldborough 30^. Ash burton 21 Inveraven 6 Ballymoncy 91 Blessingtoa
41. Scarborough I2^. Ipswich 200. Chumlcigh 22 Cullen 7 Coleraine 92 Togher
43. GreatDnffield.125. Sudhurv 210. Tiverton 23 Banff 8 Tubhermore 93 Wicklow
43. Hornst-a 126. Harwich 211. Exeter 24 Hunt ley 9 Strabane 94 Gorey
44, Hedon 127. Colchester 212. Sidmouth 25 Turrcff io Londonderry 95 Ballvcaaoe
4v Kingston on 213. Honiton 30 Frasersburgh n White Castle 90 Enniscorthy
Hull 129. Rovston 214. LVHK- Regis 27 Pctcrhead 12 Raphoe 07 Wexford
46. Barton 130. Bishop's 215. Dorchester 2^ Ncwburgh 13 Lifford 98 Fcthard
47. Grimsbv Stortford 2 if>. WL'V mouth 29 Aberdeen 14 Leitcrkenny 99 Wiiterford
48. Ravendale 131. Hertford Rivers 30 Stonehaven 15 Killybegs loo Thomas Town
49. Saltfleet 132. St. Albans a Tvne 31 Bcrvie 16 Donegal 101 Kilkenny
50. Thedloihornc 133. Avleshurv h Tees 32 Tulloch 17 Ballyhofy 102 Carrick OB
51. Boston 134.. Winslow" c Dcrwent 33 Brae mar 18 Omagh Suire
52. A 1 ford 135. Buckingham d Swale ^4 Fort Augnstusi9 Pomcroy 103 Clonmel
53. Horncastle 136. Woodstock e Wharfe 35 Gleneig ' 20 Clogher 104 Ballyporeon
54, Lincoln 137. Burford f Aire 36 Arasaig 2i Dunifaunon 105 Tipperary
. Gainsborough i. Gloucester g Don 37 Appin 22 Armagh 106 KiHmallock
56. Ashby 139. Hereford n Trent 38 Fort William 33 I , i : i :i 107 Askeyton
57. Doncaster 140. Ross i Otise 39 Perth 24 Donaghadee loS Ballylongford
58. Sheffield 141. Cotford L Thames 40 Dunkeld 35 Portaferry 109 Tralee
to. Pontefract i.j '.. Bristol Avon 41 Blair Athol 36 Downpatrick 1 10 Custle Ford
oo. Manchester 143. Melksham 1 Severn 42 Brcchin 27 Strevoy in Killaraey
61. Preston 144. Malmeshury m Dee 43 Montrose z's Newry ii3 Kcnmare
62. Liverpool 145. Cirencestcr WALES. 44 Forfar 29 Dundalk 113 Castlctown
63. Chester 146. Swindon i FKnt 45 Arbroath 30 Monaghan 114 Bantry
64. Newcastle 147. Hungcrford 2. St. Asanh 40 Dundee 31 Cavan 115 Castletowa
65. Newport 148. Kennel 3. Denbigh 47 St. Andrews .11 c.::.. hill 116 Ktnsale
66. Stafford 149. Abingdon 4. Aberconway 48 Anstruther 33 Enniskillen 1 17 Cork
67. Burton 150. Oxford 5. Bangor 49 Kinross 34 Churchill nSKilUdy
68. Derby 151. Wallingford 6. Beaumaris 50 Inverkeithing 35 Sligo iigTuchgeela
69. Ashbourn 152. Thame 7. Holvhead 51 Clackmannan 36 Drumcirn 1 20 Mallow
70. Chesterfield i5V Windsor 8. Caernarvon 52 Muthill 37 Ballymore 121 Rathcormnck
71. Mansfield 154. Uxhridge q. Llan Haiarn 53 Stirling 38 Colooney i22 Kildorey
73. Alfreton 155. Kingston 10. St. Mary's 5-1 Inverary 39 Ballina 123 Lismore
73. Nottingham 156. Croydon n. H,irlech 55 Oban 40 Killala 124 YoughaU
74. Melton Mow- 157. Greenwich 12. Bala 56 Dumbarton 41 Ballyglass 135 Dungarvan
bray 158. London 13. Corwen 57 Grecnock 43 Claggan 136 Tramore
7<. Grantham 159. Chelmsford 14. Montgomery 58 Paisley 43 Newport Rivtr*
76. Newark 160. Mai don 15. Ditiasmowd 59 Irvine 44 We siport a Ban
77. Slcaford 161. Maidstone 1 6. '""owyn 60 Hamilton 45 Kumor b Carlingford
78. Spalding 162. Canterbury 17. Abcrystwith Ai Glasgow 46 Ballinrobe c Boyne
79. Lvnn Regis 163. Margate 18. Rhainder 62 Falkirk 47 Castle Barr d Barrow
80. Wells 164. Ramsgate 19. Buult 63 Linhthgow .)' - Kilcolman e Nore
81. Cromer 165. Dover 20. Ti egarron 64 Whitburn 49 Tuam f Suire
Sa. Yarmouth 166. Rve 3i. Llanbear 65 Peebles 50 Elphin g Blackwater
83. Beccles 167. Hastings 22. Cardigaa 60 Edinburgh 51 Roscommon a Shaaaoa
4. Harleston 16$. SeaforcT 33. Newport 67 Haddinglon 52 Leitrim i Suck
 PLATE NO. I.

STONEHENGE RESTORED.

80.1

RUINS OF AVKBURY.
 PLATE NO. II.

THRKF. CELK11RATED CROMLECHS.

CIRCLES AND STANDING STONES.

ABARIS. ARCH D&UID.

 PLATE NO. III.

ANCIENT ARTICLES TAKEN FROM THB

MOUNDS.

VERY ANCIENT MONEY.

THREE STATUKS kl-.l'RESKNTING CKLTIC

DRESS,
 NOTKS AND OBSERVATIONS.
Notes and Explanations to Plates i, 2 and 3. cian writers. From the description given
Plate i represents Stonehenge and Ave of him there can be no question that he
bury, which remain as wonders among the was a British Druid from the two wing
relics of antiquity, and as the great works temple at Avebury. Herodotus represents
of ancient times, to be classed with the him as traveling through Greece on an ar
temples and Cyclopean walls ot" Greece row given him at the temple at home by
and the Pyramids of Egypt. The ruins of Apollo. The arrow was an allusion to the
Avebury are unquestionably the oldjst, long staff common among the Ancient
more rude, and in construction more like Britons. When asked by the Greeks what
that of Carmac in Armorica. It is on the was his name, he may have replied Ab
head waters of the Thames, on a plain Harris, and they took it to be and wrote it
watered by one of the southwest branches. Abaris; and if so, Harris is an older name
Stonehenge is a few miles farther south on than Herodotus. Gen. Harrison, the late
the Southern Avon. For a description of President, claimed his name was originally
these antiquities see our history, pages 57, 99, Ab Harris, but in Cromwell's time changed
113 and nS. to Jinarrison.
Plate No. 2 represents at the head of it The upper collection on plate 3 repre
three celebrated Cromlech: The one at the sents very ancient articles taken from the
left upper corner is a very large one found mounds, now collected in the British Mu-
in Cornwall; the next is a celebrated one \ 8em, of which these represent but a very
found in Kent, called Kits-Cotty House; sma11 Part They consist of tools of vari-
and that on the right being that "immense ous kinds, of bronze, iron and stone, of va-
Cromlech at Plass Newydd in the isle of ! rious articles of potter's ware, of ornaments
Anglesea. These monuments are all to be ; of various kinds, as necklaces, brooches,
classed with those of Avebury and Stone buttons, &c.; but the most curious and in
henge, and are scattered over the same re teresting article is that numbered 38, which
gion. The figures in the center of the plate is said to be the Druids' golden hook, with
are representations of standing stones and which they gathered the mistletoe. The
circles, and are undoubtedly the works of middle figure represents a collection of very
the same people. Page 113. ancient coined ring money, very different
Then comes the representation of three from the more recent British coined money
as on the next plate. This money is like
Interesting figures : The first is that of an
the Egyptian ancient money, and was prob
Arch Druid in his canonicals ; the next is
ably brought to Britain by the Phcenecians.
that of a Druid1 while addressing his peo
The three figures below are taken from
ple upon what is contained in their Triads,
Roman statues, representing ancient Celtic
as morality, law and justice. The last fig
dress, so very different from that of the
ure is Abaris,2 whose memory is com
Romans. Its greatest peculiarity is that it
memorated by Herodotus and othej Gre-
uniformly had the trowsers. The cap OB
the central figure is the Celtic cap, so cele
I See Druidl. brated in the French revolution as the Cap
a SeeAbari.. of Liberty.
 PLATE NO. IV.

ORNAMENTED CHARIOT. BRITISH CHARIOT. ASIATIC CHARIOT.

 fLATE Nil. V.

Htm of Brlianaia on a Eomon Cota, from 0 Cnppel

Coin of Affl.JBiuua I'uo, 111 llio BrilWi Museum,

ifiTRONOMlCJM. 1NSTHUMEHT

Eomaa Pig ollfad, from Bampshiraj

PHCENEC1AN PIG OF TIN

Greek and BrftiAdcfe*.

xvlii NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
Notes and Explanations to Plates Nos. 4 of many hundreds.*
and 5. The next are representations of two pigs
On the upper part of plate 4 are repre of metal, one of leada Romanand the '
sentations of ancient British coins, coined other of tina Phcenecian. What is pe
before the Roman period. They are very culiarly interesting in these is the sign of a
numerous, far more so than here represent cross at the end of the inscription on the
ed. They are somewhat rude, but certain Roman pig. This inscription would make
ly show great progress in arts and civiliza it of the time of Nero, but it may have been
tion for that day : Some of them having a few years later. I insist that this which
devices showing the inside of a house with represents the cross at the end of the in
chairs and furniture far in advance of that scription is the actual sign of the cross, and
age in Western Europe. The next figure not a Roman T. Admitting this pig was
represents potter's ware, executed alter Ro made in the time of Nero, if not later, there
man patterns, but undoubtedly manufac were at least seventeen years between the
tured in Britain during Roman times. time that Caractacus appeared before Claud
Then conies representations of chariots: ius and his interview with St. Paul and
The middle one is that of an ancient Brit conversion to Christianity. It is universal
ish chariot. It is not deemed to be a very- ly contended by the Ancient Britons that
fair one, tor the wheels are solid, while the he and his family became Christians under
chariots recently exhumed from British the influence of St. Paul and returned to
graves show spokes and tire. But every Britain. Paul frequently speaks in his
one will at once recognize its exact resem epistle of the cross as a well known ensign,
blance to the Asiatic, Lydian Chariot. and his interview with Caractacus' family
Plate 5. Here we have first a copy of a was towards the very close of his life.
Roman coin of the time of Antonius, rep Either from these Christians or from some
resenting Britannia. This is probably the others the sign of the cross may have been
oldest device of the kind, though the name taken to Britain and placed upon this pig.
of Britannia was familiar to Aristotle.1 The This matter is noticed here more with a
curious instrument just below, supposed to view of further investigation than evidence
be an astronomical instrument of British of a positive fact.
or Irish antiquities, is supposed to have Next are representations of Grecian and
belonged to the Druids, who paid much at British coins, showing how intimate were
tention to astronomy. Then comes next the relations of the two people, evidence of
two of the coini of Carausius, selected out which often occurs in ancient history.

See page i See History, p. 141 and note a.

 INTRODUCTION.
The sentiment of reverence and regard
of intelligent people for the memory and
history of their ancestors is natural and
patriotic. It is cherished by all people,
both barbarous and civilized, in proportion
to their intelligence. Whatever may be the
true historv of our ancestors, it is right and
proper that it should be revered and cher
ished, just as it really was in truth. "Paint
me just as I am," said Cromwell to his
painter," Paint me just as I am, with ail
my scars and blemishes," was an honora
ble and just sentiment, personally, as it
would also be in national history. History
should be true, just as it really existed, in
order to constitute its real virtues; or his
tory sinks to the low grade of fables and
romance. All people are entitled to the
history and character of their ancestors,
just as they really were, and not otherwise.
The Arab, whom all early history rep
resents as having had his hand against ev
ery man, and every man against him, has
no right to claim his ancestors to belong to
the brotherhood of peace and good- will;
nor, when the mother was an Egyptian
slave, to claim that they were of the pure
blood of Heber, though " Abraham was
their father." The truth should prevail;
and a people should stand up to that, what
ever subsequent reformation and progress
it mav have made, aided bv other civiliza
tion and humanity.
These thoughts originated and produced
the following history under peculiar cir
cumstances for the author left his native
land and came lo America now eighty vears
since, and, during that long life, has ever
lived on the verge of a new country, and
a new people, who have always been gen
erous and kind to him; still, he never lost
his love for his native land; nor regard for
the history of his ancestors the ancient
Britons. During that time, in the midst
of circumstances adverse to the study of
literature and history; and engaged in the
profession of the law, with a view to an
active practice, and its study as a science,
he did not neglect to devote what leisure
hours he could to the study of history ; and
especially that of his native land and peo
ple. Towards the close of a long life thus
devoted, in the midst of the duties of an
arduous profession, and more than the or
dinary struggles and conflicts in the bat
tle of life, he resolved to put into the form
of the following history the ideas he had
collected upon the subject in his formcr
hours of leisure or amusement; but still
under circumstances not very favorable to
the production of history, nor easy refer
ence to historial authorities
In the course of these studies, two ideas
particularly engaged his attention, as not
well developed in British history, though
still subjects in which every true Briton
must be deeply interested. These were :
First, Tne origin of the Ancient Brit
ons: whence and when they came to
Britain? and,
Secondly, What connection and part
had the Ancient Briton< in the formation
of the people who now constitute the na
tionality of tin.' United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland?
Upon both of tlvese subjects there h is
been great mystification, prejudice, ami
i misrepresentation manifested; which, in
some instances, have developed into bitter
' and unjust conflict.
I. As to the origin of the Ancient lirit-
1 ons, history furnishes us two or three con
 INTRODUCTION.
flicting accounts. Nennius, Geoflfrey of and migrations of a people which has an
Monmouth, and1 Richard of Cirencester, antiquity of above twenty-five hundred
as they gathered their history of the origin years, and has spread from the steppes of
of the ancient Britons from ancient legends the L'kraina to the mountains of Wales." *
or traditions derived their igin from the Inspired by this suggestion, and the hope
east; either connecting it with the classic of securing ultimate truth by searching for
story of /Eneas' flight from the destruc historical facts and circumstances, in il
tion of Troy, and lirutus' settlement in lustration of the subject, this book has been
Western Europe, or as being a part ot the produced in the faith that the question is
great emigration from the east, which set demonstrated.
tled its western shores. t II. The second subject referred to, as at
The destruction of Troy was the great tracting the attention of the author in
e.vent ^in history, and happened compara writing this history, is the treatment that
tively recent before the emigration of the the history of the ancient Britons has re
ancestors of the Britons from Asia, and ceived at the hands of some English his
was the great and most interesting event torians. In this respect these must be
in their traditions; and their acquaintance divided into two classes; while, one, with
with the Roman classics induced those his ample liberality and truthfulness, do full
torians to connect the history of the settle justice in their history to the ancient Brit
ment of Britain with that of Italy; and ons, their history, and character, the other
mingled it with the story of /Eneas, Bru misses no opportunity to misrepresent, or
tus, and Troy. falsify ; and what could not be thus treated,
The Cymric Britons avoided this story, was either ignored or traduced. Thus ev
and alleged in their Triads that their an- erything in the history of the ancient Brit-
cestors came from the Rummer country in I on.s which gave them any credit for their
the neighborhood of Constantinople: and ' intelligence and progress in arts and civil-
came by the way of the Blue Sea, or the ization, was either denied or controverted
German Ocean. This agrees with the and what they could not thus treat, it
more recent English and European his was then claimed that the vast population
tories,'* which assert that the Cymrv un of the British Islands, who were, by all
doubtedly were a part of the ancient Cim- fair evidence of history, proved to be the
bri who were once settled north of the descendants of the ancient Britons, were
mouth of tlie Elbe, and gave name to not such descendants, but emigrants sub
the C.iiahrira Che.rfonfss of Roman his sequent to the Saxon conquest, so as to
tory. This was strongly supported by the sever all the population from any connec
name and historical facts. But from tion or interest in their ancient history.
whence they came, and when they came to This was so done by that minor portion of
Jutland, was left an open question; only the English people, who supposed that
that they were supposed to be in some thev were themselves of a pure Saxon de
measure connected with the Cimmerians scent; that they could not I'orcgo their pre
of Greek history; but how, or in what judice and hatred to everything that was
manner, was left to conjecture. The most Celtic; though it is impossible to find an
interesting suggestion upon the subject ' Englishman who has not more or less Cel-
wa.s found in the verv learned and valua- | "c blood in his veins. Even the present
hie note- of Prof. George Kawlinson's late British Queen, and all the Georges, only
edition of Herodotus, in these words: : held their position as sovereign of the Brit-
' When ihe-e questions have been settled, I ish Government by virtue of their descent
it will be interesting to trace the history , fr'" ll'e Celtic Tudors and Stuarts, so

^av i to Monk iv. This essay, on the Cimmerian of

1 See Sharon Turner's IIistor\ ot the Anglo* ' Herodotus, and the migration of the C'ymric raee,
Saioii- vol. i. I!, i, fh. ii, pp. iS^ 1- ^'<'. i* very valuable and interesting.
 INTRODUCTION.
blood of the Celtic family -are all the pop arated by prejudice and hatred; and by the
ulation of the British Islands, now- consti great body of the English people they are
tuting the United Kingdom. not; that is left to another class of them,
While engaged, in his leisure hours, in who have that unreasonable Saxon pro-
studying British history under so unfavor- | clivityof supposing thnt they are endowed
able circumstances, the author could not with pure Saxon blood, uncontaminated
help observing the striking difference be with that of the Celt. Macaulay is open
tween two classes of English historians, in his expression of hatred to the Celtic
in the treatment they gave to the history people, though his Saxon origin is doubt
of the ancient Britons, and their descend ful; and his connection in ancestry to the
ants. The one giving it a fair, just, and Highland Scotch is certain; but then his
liberal exposition ; while the other class antipathies may have aided him to his peer
took every opportunity either to ignore, age, and upon the score of interest, rather
falsify, or traduce the subject of that his than truth, he may be excused.< But
tory. This is plainly to be seen when we Green, in his " Short History of the En
compare such historiansas Sharon Turner, glish People," developed his antipathy by
Whitaker, Prof. M. Arnold, Thierry, and denying all participation of the English
others, as constituting the first class, when people with the ancient Britons, and en
compared with such historians as Macau- deavored to show that the ancient Britons
lay, Green, Wright, and others as consti were all slaughtered, or lied before the Sax
tuting the other class. These latter, falsely ons, so that they had a new country, freed
imagining themselves to be of a pure from the ancient inhabitants, to raise a
Saxon descent, take pleasure in misrepre new nationality freed from all connection
senting, traducing, and calumniating their with the original inhabitants. This as
Celtic fellow-subjects, and countrymen, sertion had been frequently made before by
and, indeed, the whole Celtic race. this class of historians; but Mr. Green
It would be curious, as well as interest was determined to give the idea a new
ing, to trace toils origin this prejudice and force ; he says : " For the fatherland of
injustice done to the Celtic race, who con the English race we must look far away
stitute so great a portion of the British from England itself;" .... "for
people; and upon whom depends so much old English society." .... "The
of British glory and renown. England, one country now called Sleswick." And
indeed, can neither spare it, nor part with that was a small district then called An-
it. Celtic genius has added to English lit glia, and probably so called from its being
erature; Celtic eloquence and patriotism on the northwestern angle, of the Baltic
have shed fame and renown upon the Brit- Sea. But the name, England, and also,
ish parliament, and greatly aided in the de- Anglo-Saxon, were names of a very recent
velopment of its parliamentary rules and | invention, long after the Saxon conquest,
laws. No battle since the Roman con and not long before the Normans came.
quest has occurred, adding renown to her But when a new name for that part of Brit
name, in which the Celts took not a prom ain was wanted for the Saxon Heptarchy
incnt part. It was Robert Clive that es the name oi Anglia for the first time fur
tablished her empire in India; and Sir W. nished the means of procuring an accept
Jones developed to the English world its able name for England, about four hundred
literature and civilization; and made India years after the Saxon conquest. It is Lon
interesting to- the British people. Sir T. don, and not Anglia, that is the cradle of
Picton was called the right arm of Wei- everything that gives origin to the English
lington, and Bishop Coke the right arm of j
4 See :i severe pamphlet written hy Hu^h Miller
John Wesley, and a Celtic Stanley cut his ajrainst Maciuilay. on the account of this conduct
way and made a path through Africa, and antipathy to the Celtic people. He shows that
Macaulay derived his origin trom a Celtic family
never to be forgotten. Men who have'so from the Scotish Ishuids. This is not :m uncommon
manifestation of antipathy in unpatriotically deny
co-operated together should never be sep- ing their own origin.
 INTRODUCTION.
language and people;her language and
civilization, even that which is falsely
called Anglo-Saxon instead of Anglo-
Briton, which was the production of her
soil. Little or nothing that came with the
Saxon survived the conquest an hundred
years, but all passed off, and changed like
their pagan wooden religion, and became
new on British soil, and with British in
fluences. Saxon laws and customs became
gradually changed or modified by what
was found on the land in the cities of Brit
ain:and this is proved by the opinion of
the best British writers on the subject of
the origin of English laws, as Coke, Black-
stone, Cressev, Crabb, and Spence, all of
whom bear testimony to the change and
modification that the old British laws have
wrought upon the present laws of England ;
and made them so different from anything
found on the Continent.
Green, in language of triumph over
what, if true, would be the horrors of his-
tory, denies all this, and asserts:"Mas
sacre which followed the battle [of Ayles-
ford] indicated at once the merciless nature
of the struggle which has begun. While
the wealthier land-owners fled in panic
over sea, the poorer Britons took relugc in
hill and forest, till hunger drove them
from their lurking places to be cut down
or enslaved by their conquerors."-1' This
theory of Mr. Green has been adopted by
others, some of whom claimed that the
Britons were so completely exterminated
that the Saxons had a new, unoccupied
country in Britain to build up their own
institutions. But in truth the Saxons
came as warriors, with few or no females
with them, encountering hard-fought bat
tles at every step of their progress, taking
wives from the British females, and oc
cupying the country with their new-found
families; leaving the Britons generally in
possession of the towns, as under stipendi-
5 Sec Green's Short History of the English 1'eo-
ple, p. 46, ch. i, sec. II. Siinihir lan<fua^c is used residence may be placed north or south of
in other Kn^lish history; though abundantly con the Elbe, or anywhere, says Latham, but
troverted by Sharon Turner in his History of" the
Saxon Conquest, H. Ill, ch. v, p. 219, where'he says' wherever they be found " they are always
" Hut the Antrlo-Saxons did not, us some have fan
cied, exterminate the Britons. There can be no pirates." To make such a people the ori
doubt that u majority of the Itritish population was
preserved to he useful to their conquerors."
aries to furnish to the rude visitors such
stipulated articles as they stood in need
of. Thus the population were amalga
mated, and assimilated into a new popu
lation, since dcmominated the Anglo-
Saxon (instead as it should have been
Anglo Britons), forming a new state of
society, entirely different from that left on
the Continent; as the Danes (a kindred
race), differed from the Anglo-Saxons.
These retaining many of their rude insti
tutions, their love of war and battlr, and
especially their language, in a very modi
fied and improved form,with their do
mestic relation and household affairs, and
social characteristics, changed and im
proved by what they found in the previous
civilization of Britain. And then, as now,
they were constantly taking additions to-
their numbers from the Celtic population
that sourrounded them, and their inter
course with them; as we have ample evi
dence in the case of the important alliance
of Cadwallon with Penda, the king of
Mercia; the intercourse of Alfred the
great with Asser, the learned Cymro; and
of that of Geoffrey, of Moninouth, who
probably had as great and lasting an influ
ence on English literature as any man who
ever lived, previous to the time of the Tu-
dors. This intercourse between the Sax
ons and the Britons, when the hard fought
battle was over, is the only possible way ,
consistent with facts of history, to account
for the improvement made in the people
j of England as Saxons, from the time of
j
their conquest to that of the Norman,
which has since received the appellation
of Anglo-Saxon, which refers wholly to
the progress made in Britain, and none at
all to that on the Continent. The Saxons
in this respect were slow and stolid; pos
sessed of no literature, or of any of the
arts of civilization beyond the merest bar
barians. Their principal implement of use
was their battle-axe ; and war, piracy, and
plunder their vocation. Their original
gin of English civilization and improve
 INTRODUCTION.
mont, is a violation of history and nature; arguments which are unquestionably true
but rather make it the growth of British that the Ancient British people continued
soil, and London its cradle, by means of to reside in the country after the Saxon con-
the civilization left there by the Romans, quest, by mutual consent; thus says he:
among the Ancient Britons, and their "The Teutonic settlers established them
amalgamation with them. selves in the country, where they retained
In opposition to this theory of Mr. all their national feelings. We know that
Green an.l others,that th<> Saxons utterly they were averse to IxHng in towns, and,
exterminated the Ancient Britons, and, from a superstitious t'ecling, which let! them
therefore, their descendants can form no . to believe that the houses built bv other peo-
part of the English people,is the theory1 ' pie might !>e rendered dangerous for them
of Mr. Wright in his history of the Celt, by means of charms and magic, they pre
the Roman, and the Saxon:that the in ferred houses built by themselves. More-
habitants of Cornwall and Wales are not | over, the country villages of the Romans,
descendant-. of the Ancient Britons, but and the smaller and unfortunate towns, had
that of an. immigration from Brittany been mostlv burnt, or overthrown, ami their
(Armorica), who came there about the place and construction were not those to
same time with the Saxon settlement which the Saxons were accustomed."7 ....
in Britain. "Thus," says he, "I myself " The few historical facts relating to the con
feel very strongly the belief that the dition of our towns during the Saxon per
Welshmen of the present day are not the iod, preserved bv the older annualists, exhib
descendants of the ancient inhabitants of ited them in a state of importance and in-
our Island, hut a later Celtic colony from i dependence, which thev hardly could have
Armorica."' reached, hud it not been derived from munici
The object of Ixrth Green and Wright is pal constitutions already existing when the
to cut off tin1 Welsh people from all claim SaSons settled the country, and which is ob
of participation in the formation of the pop served most distinctly in those places which
ulation of Kngland. But they do this by are known to have occupied the sites of the
theories that are utterly hostile, and incon most powerful Roman towns "8 . . .
sistent with each other. Green claims that "In the absence of all contemporarv infor
the Ancient Britons were entirely destroyed, mation on the state of the Roman towns in
so that there were none, or next to none, of Britain after they had fallen under the sub
them lett to lie assimilated or consolidated jection of the Saxons, it i- only by these
with the Saxons, so that the English peo traces of their condition at a subseqent pe-
ple are free from any connection with the ruxl that we can perceive how the Roman
Ancient Britons, in blood or civilization. elements of civilization were preserved in
But Mr. Wright denies the relation upon them. They hold a very important place in
an entirely different state of facts. He the history of social development, inasmuch
claims that the Welsh are not the descend as, while the country itself underwent so
ants of the Ancient Britons, but that the many violent revolutions while Britons
Ancient Britons were Roman citizens who and Saxons, and Normans alternately gained
were consolidated with the Saxons, and possession of the soil the population of the
aided in forming a new people and a new towns continued to exist witlKuit any fur-
civilization; and constituted a large portion ther alteration than that gradual infusion of
of the English people He goes on to es foreign blood which must necessarily take
tablish the proportion bv various facts and place in the course of ages, and to which we
owe that due mixture of Saxon and Roman
6Writrht'f, History of the Celt, the Roman, and that forms the basis of modern civiliza
the Saxon; (fx>ndon ei!., iS7S) p. 219. Set: also
pp. 451, 461, 505. 510, <i.$, 5.32, and 5.55, which lullv tion."'
develops Mr. Xvfi^htV theoryth:it the area! body
of the Ancient Britons remained after the Saxon
conquest, and became combined with the Saxons, 7 Wright, p. 507. S \Vritjht, ut supra, p. 510.
and formed what eventually was called the An^lo-
Saxon people. g\Vri*fht. ffriif. p. 5.^
 INTRODUCTION.
This theory of Mr. Wright, that the Constantine the Great; and it would be
great body of the ancient Britons, after the just as reasonable and truthful to deny the
Saxon conquest and within the territory one as the other.
by them acquired, remained in the coun This is all admitted in Green's theory;
try, and eventually became mixed and but he cannot bear the idea that the blood
amalgamated wilh them; and at a subse of the ancient Britons should constitute
quent period formed what was denomin- any part of that of the English people;
ated the Anglo-Saxon pe( ple, is unques and, therefore, has them " massacred," or
tionably true, and perfectly consistent with expelled from the country : while Wright
all history. There is no other way to oil the other hand, seeing that it was im
account for the subsequent change and possible (historically) to deny the union ot
improvement in the people, who so greatly the Britons and Anglo-Saxons, admits it
differed and distinguish the Anglo-Saxon in its most ample terms, with the facts and
from their Saxon, and Teutonic ancestors; circumstances upon which it depends.
and which hits rendered the modern Hut then his hatred of the Welsh and
Englishman in his physical and moral Celtic people will no more than that ot
nature so much more like the Celtic de Green permit him to admit that the Welsh
scendant in the western counties of Eng are of the same race and nationality with
land and Wales; and so very different from what he cajls the Roman Britons, who
the characteristics of the Teuton, now furnished so large a portion of the En
living north and east of the Rhine. glish blood. lie, therefore, assumes
This theory of Mr. Wright annihilates contrary to all history that the Welsh
that of Mr. Green: and it is hoped that are not of the blood of the Ancient Britons,
the reader of our history will bear in mind but an emigration from Annorica a^. the
these facts and views of Mr. Wright, and time of the Saxon conquest.
observe how entirely his theory of the The theories of Messrs. Green and
formation of the English people, and our Wright are irreconcilable and inconsistent
history concur. It is the same theory with each other; and each the most fla
which all historians, and all reasoning on grant violation and falsification of history
the facts and circumstances tend to prove to be anywhere found That the Ancient
as inevitable. Equally clear is it that the | Britons were an immigration from Armor-
present inhabitants of Wales are the de ica is very true; but instead of its having
scendants ot the ancient Britons, who taken place about the time of the Saxon
possessed all South Britain from the time conquest, it was about yo B. C. Thi
of Julius Caesar until the Saxon conquest, will fully appear in the course of onr his
who are called by Mr. Wright- -the Roman tory. The Cymry first settled the north
Britons. This is fully admitted by Mr. west of Gaul and the south o( Britain;
Green. They were the Cvmrv who oc and in C;esar's time the people of Armo-
cupied all the north-west of Gaul, and the rica and South Britain were one and the
south of Britain. They were the fellow- same race ; and this was the pretext for
countrymen and followers of Caractacns, Ca;sar attacking the latter. The people
Boadicea, Arthur, Cadwallon and Llewel of the south of Scotland, afterwards
lyn, and their brave and patriotic contempo known to the Romans as Picts, and those
raries; continued over a space of more than of the north of Ireland in the same man
a thousand years of the most unquestion ner denominated Scots, were Cymry who
able, interesting and eventful history: fled from the Roman conquest, and sub
equally supported by classic, Saxon, and sequently united with the Picts in Scot
British historians; who demonstrate these land, and by that union formed the latter
people to be a continuation of the same kingdom.'0. So that long before the Sax -
race and nationality, one and the same
people; as much so as were the Romans rs' 10 Set1 a vi'ry fair article on this subject in Cham
bcrs1 Kncyclopedia, Amcr. ctl., vol. vii, p. 538. iirti-
from the time of Julius Caesar to that of Clc I'ICTS.'
 INTRODUCTION.
ons came, the Celtic Cymry were in ignation from a provincial name to that ol
possession of all England, all Scotland ex Britain; bv which the people have become
cept the Highland, and the south of Ire the British people, the government the
land; and these Celtic Cymrv, with the British Government, the parliament the
Celtic Gaels of the Highland, and the British Parliament, and the sovereign the
south of Ireland, were the ancestors of British Sovereign; which has confened
the great body of the people who now upon .ill the people the right of enjo\ ment
constitute the inhabitants of the United and protection of a common nationality
Kindom of Great Britain and Ireland. and country ; which enabled Lord Palmers-
Why the Celt should be so much the ton to announce in Parliament, with great
special object of Saxon hatred and ma applause, that the rights of every British
lignity, as to cause them to deny or pervert subject were put on the same ground as
every possible fact in history, that the the Old Roinancitix.cn, if he was a sub
former may claim to their credit; and sub ject of the Union, he was protected as <
ject them to misrepresentation, and calum Briton, and no one should injure him with
ny, would be unaccountable, if we did Impunity.
not know, that it was very natural for But then, notwithstanding this kind and
those who were conscious of the fact hopeful disposition on the part of the great
hate and calumniate the descendants body of the Knglish people to restore
those whom they supposed their own an peace and good will among all the people
cestors had robbed and injured. But one of the United Kingdom, still there are a
would suppose that any person, even of lew who claim themselves, par excellence,
such strong Saxon proclivities, might in the descendant of the Saxons, without
the present day withhold his hatred; and knowing the blood ot which rare courses
doubt as to whom his ancestors were; and in their veins, -who continue to hate and
query whether he could trace his ancestry abuse any and every thing claimed to be
so far as to be at all conscious that he was Celtic. Of these Mr. Pinkerton," a citi
responsible foi the conduct of the offend zen of London, about a hundred years
ing party : for the blood of the English since, was among the first to cRmmit his
people has been so often mixed, and "melt hatred to English literature; and Messrs.
ed down," that it is almost impossible in Green and Wright are amon ollow
any case to tell whose blood prevails, of ers. But every true Celt will with con
the several races who have occupied scious pride of his true history and char
England in succession;as the Ancient acterconsider these but an exception in
Briton, the Roman, the Saxon, the Dane, the great mass ol English people; and
the Norman, and still later immigration. with common charity look upon these in
By most Englishmen this is t'ranklv ad stances of hatred and enmity as the nat
mitted, and no such hatred or enmity ex ural conformation of such persons which
ists, but a most cordial friendship of a they can help, no more than the insane
fellow-citizen of a common country pre can help his insanity. And then there are
vails. This now should especially be the many English historians who do ample
case, since that glorious revolution which justice to the history and character of the
is of the highest honor to humanity,the Celt,as Sharon Turner, Whitaker, Leigh
Union,which has rendered the whole Hunt, Francis Thackery, Prof. M. Arnold,
British lands one common country, and na and numerous others,whose generous
tionality;the United Kingdom ot Great views and sentiments are fast acquiring the
Britain and Ireland. II See Chantoers's Encyclopedia, vol. vii, p. 550,
This Union was brought about by the Amer. nd., article PINKKKTON; in which it is said:
''In 17^7, appeared his once notable JJifSfr/tttion on
united efforts of the kind and friendly feel the origin and process of the Scvthians or Goths,
ings of the great body of the English peo in which, for the first time, appeared that jjrotusque-
Iv virulent hatred of the Britanno-Celtic race,
ple, uniting with those of Scotland, Wales Scotch, Highlanders, Welsh, and Irish,that reach
and Ireland ; which transferred their des ed its climax in his Inquiry into the history of Scot
land," &c.
 INTRODUCTION.
ascendant, and their opponents consigned to
the character of fanatics and the supersti
tious. It is the Southern Irish who are
made the butt of this hatred, without con
sidering that they have been the subject of
a crushing oppression for more than six
hundred years, which would have crushed
any other people inlo the earth,from the
time of Strongbow to Lord Strafford, and to
Cromwell, and to William III, and to the
rebellion of 1/yS. During that long period,
time after time were they crushed bv their
foreign invaders, who came onlv to plunder
them ;to take from them their land and
property : and bestow them on court favor
ites, and foreign speculators, who took from
the country all that its fertility produced,
leaving to the producers and toiling masses
the insufficient necessaries of life. Between
(he foreign land proprietor, and his bailiffs,
the country was robbed of its native riches,
and its toiling population left in poverty and
want, without the means of improvement,
education or progress. Uetwcen these up
per and nether mill-stones the people are
ground to powder. No other race could
stand their oppression better. When thev
emigrate to otlu'r countries where a fair
chance is given them, they are found
amongst the most prosperous; they flour
ish in all countries except in their own na
tive land. In France, Spain, South Amer-
ica, Mexico, and the United States, the
Irish or his descendant have risen to the
liighesl social and political position in the
gift of the country. The generous reader
is besought before he condemns the poor
.ind opprcs-cd Irish Ceil, to contumely and
hatred, that be will consider the helples
condition in which he has been placed for
generations p;isi, and what be has been able
Jo accomplish under other circumstances.
All liii- is fully appreciated by a large
portion of the English people, who sympa
thize for the unhappy condition of Ireland,
as the for other countries, and are
anxious to restore to it the benefit of its
rich production for the good of its own
people. When this is accomplished, when
the Celtic Iri.-b shall enjoy the fruit of their
own soil and industry, as they do when em
igrants to other countries, when the curse
of their oppression, which has borne them
down as slaves for centuries, shall be taken
off, and liberty restored to her rights,to
the enjoyment of the fruit of their labor,
to education and improvement, and its con
comitant progress,then the poor Irish,
with his native wit, his vivacity, and his en
durance for labor and exertion, will be re
stored to the position that Providence in
tended he should occupy,commensurate
with the beauty and fertility of his Island.
Such a restoration will be a greater boon
than a hostile independence. Let it be at
tained within the I'nion, by the native force,
justice and humanitv, and "the genius of
universal emancipation."
As to the character and position of the
Scots, who are principally the descendants
of the ancient British Scots and Picts, and
have never been conquered, nothing need
be said in vindication of them. Their posi
tion and great progress are too elevated and
palpable to the whole world to require it.
Their character and Celtic origin have been
fully vindicated by Sir Walter Scott, Hugh
Miller and others, and do not need it herc.
Their progress in the arts, sciences, and in
every thing that interests humanitv is equal
ly evident as it is an exalted example to the
rest of the world. But our friends in Wales
must still submit to take a good deal of the
Celtic abuse and hatred, against which we
have protested. They may, however, con
sole themselves, that while they are anathe
matized by those few who claim special
Saxon descent, the great mass of the En-
giish people are their good friends and syni-
pathi/i-rs We have sufficient evidence of
(hi.- to cover over and bury all the late
abuse and misrepresentations they have en
dured. They can well pass by all that
C;esar and Tacitus, and the ancient classics,
have said in favor of their ancient ancestors,
and come at once to the commendations of
modern Englishmen. Repeatedly have the
English Lord Presidents of Wales certified
to the character of the people of the Prin
cipality as the true representative of the
Ancient Britons, as remarkably good and
peaceful subjects, when well treated. One
Lord President, three hundred years since,
after many years' experience in the govern
 INTRODUCTION.
ment, said of them: "A better people to
govern, or better subjects Europe holdetli
not," which rendered Wales "a happy place
of government."12 In the same spirit of
truth and justice, Ben Jonson was induced
to remark: "The country has always been
fruitful of loyal hearts, and of honest minds
and men. What bights of learning has
Wales sent forth for your schools! What
industrious students of your laws! What
able ministers of your justice! Whence
hath the crown in all times better servitors,
more liberal of their lives and fortunes?"'*
Since the davs of these men, a different
spirit has been introduced by I'inkcrton,
and his followers, for the purpose of culti
vating entnitv and hatred, where there
should he fellowship and good will. All
those from abroad, who have visited these
people, and become acquainted with them
their honest hearts and minds,from the
davs of Giraldus Cambrensis to the present
day, have been uniform in their praise;
while their enemies calumniate them, or ig
nore their merits. S. Turner and 1'rof. M.
Arnold express their surprise at the neglect
Vhat the ancient Cymric literature, with its
great merits, has received by these op
ponents; while they and Wadswortli and
Southey are warm in its commendation.
Mrs. llcmans, Mr. Roscoe, Miss Castelo,
and others who hare visited them, and be
came acquainted with them, have commit
ted to writing in fervent terms of prose and
poetry their sympathy, confidence and ad
miration for these descendants of the An
cient Britons;and Leigh Hunt, also, with
enthusiasm expresses the same sentiment
in these admirable lines:
"I used to think of lliee and thine.
As one ol' an old faded line,
Still living in thy hills apart,
Whose pride I knew, hut not his heart:
Hut now that I have seen thy face,
Thy fields and ever youthful race.
12 Sir Henry Sidney, I-ord President. See Mis
Williams' History ol' Wales, and her authorities
Chap. xxvi.
H Ibidem. See also in Motley's United Nether
lan'd, where we might the least expect to find it tice; so that all might feel a hearty interest
his glow ing commendation of Welshmen under th
names of Roger Williams, Morgan and others, fo in a common prosperity and happiness;
their loyalty, honesty, bravery and fcilcnt, whlc
distinguished them LVL-O in a foreign service.
And woman's lips of rosiest words,
(So rich they open,) and have heard.
The harp still leaping in thy halls,
Quenchless as the waterfalls;
I know thee full of pride, as strong
As the Ocean's most ancient song,
And ol a sympathy as wide."
With these commendations in their favor,
he people of the Principality maywith
omplacency hold in contempt their cal-
imniators and traducers, as found in the
listorics of such men as Woodward, the
M-etended historian of Wales, and Green
and Wright, and pass them by as the "idle
vind." There may be instances of such
expression of hatred and vituperation,
which the warmth of the occasion would
excuse ;as the seething language of Lord
Nelson, expressed to his men on the eve of
he battle of Trafalgar, against the Celtic
French:and for that there is ample ex
cuse, for then he was at war with them, and
ust upon the eve of a deadly battle. But
what excuse is there for these modern men
of our day, who claim a Saxon origin,
though perhaps they cannot tell at all, how
much their blood may be mixed with that
of the Celt, for hating and calumniating
their fellow-subjects, neighbors and fellow-
citi/.ens? Is it consistent with patriotism,
civilization or justice? In time of war there
may be an excuse for this enmity ; and op
ponents mav hold their enemies,an Jeffer
son said in the Declaration of Independ
ence,"as they hold the rest of mankind;
enemies in war, in peace, friends " And
since the Union,since the United King
dom has made them nationally one people,
there should be peace and good will between
ail of its inhabitants. Mr. 1'itt "ardently
felt this, and with the good sense of a true
patriot labored faithfully for the UNION for
the common good of all ; and the union of
the hearts of its people for a common coun
try;and for common justice and equality.
And now, if the writer was as much an
Englishman, as at heart he is a Briton, he
would pray Providence to bring about that
national peace and good will ; and give to
the whole Union a common and equal jus
and a common destiny.
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS.
BOOK i.THE BRITISH PERIOD.
CHAPTER I.
THK INHABITANTS OF WESTERN El'HOI'K.
t) I. The Craif/c anil Commencement of the
Human Hare.
The facts and circumstances constituting
history may be grouped together in one or
the other of two |>oints of view; either it
may be the history of the country, with
whatever people that may have cx'cnpicd it;
or it may be of the people, without a partic
ular reference to the country in which, at
certain periods, they may have been estab
lished. The one is the history of the stage,
upon which various actors have performed
their several parts; the other is more prop
erly the biography of the actors, without
being confined to any particular stages upon
which they may have performed. The one
is the history of a country; the other is
more properly the history of a people
It is proposed in the following pages to
give a concise history of the Ancient Brit
ons and their descendants; commencing
with the earliest account of their origin,
founded upon authentic facts; and tracing
their progress down a long. vista of ages,
from the cradle of their race, in a remote
age and country,passing through Europe
from the far east to the west, until they es
tablish themselves in Britain, there encoun
tering the arts and |x>wcr of Rome, and re
ceiving the benefits of her improvements
and civilization ; there encountering the
shock that overwhelmed all Europe during
the dark ages, in the Saxon and Danish in
vasions; succeeded by the Norman con
questthese gradually uniting and assimi
lating with the more recent people of Brit
ain; and finally spreading themselves into
every country, and imparting to it their
courage, perseverance, and moral charac
ter, wherever Briiain has carried her arts
and civilization.
But the history of the Ancient Britons is
so intimately connected with that of the in
habitants of Western Europe, it becomes
proper, if not necessary, to consider, first,
who the inhabitants of Western Europe are,
whence they came, and the relation that
their various races and countries hear to
each other.
Assuming, for reasons which will appear
in our progress, that the human family had
a common origin, and that the Creator
placed their cradle in some delightful place
in the bonier of that great and fertile valley
in Western Asia, watered by those rivers,
so well known in connection with whatever
is most venerable in antiquity, the Tigris
and Euphrates' ; an effort shall be made to
trace the migration of the ancestors of the
i (. It .\\hn.--on -that great historian, who h:is so
well studied ancient historyjustly says, " Kcvcla-
tion, tradition, and the indications derivable from
ethnology and comparative philology, agree in
pointing lo this southwestern region as the cradle
of the human r,lce. The soil, climate, and naturaj
Creductions an1 such as would have suited man in
is intancv. Here, and in the adjoining parts of
Africa, large communities were first formed, cities
built, and government established. Here was the
birthplace of agriculture and the arts; and here
trade and commerce first acquired any considerable
development. Numerous streams, ' a rich soil,
abundant and most valuable natural productions,
among which the first plate must be assigned to the
wheat plant, here alone indigenous, rendered this
Kortion of the earth's surfaci- better tilted than, per-
aps, any other for encouraging and promoting civ-
ili/.ation. Here, accordingly, civil history com
menced, the earliest kingdoms and states being, all
of them, in this qiKlrtcr." Man. Anc. Hist., 28.
So Prof. J. I). Dana (Text Hook of Ecology, if,)
also says: " No place of origin better accords with
the conditions requisite for the species in its orig
inal state, and for the commencement of its develop
ment than that region in Western Asia, which is a
central point of radiation for the three great Ori
ental lands, Asia, Europe, and Africa, where the
Bible places Hts creation."
Sec also Guyot's " Harth and Man," Ix;cture xi,
page 2OJ. Ac.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
various inhabitants of Western Europe
from thence to the countries in which they
' arc now found.
The ancient and venerable writing found
in Genesis asserts the separation and dis
persion of mankind from this common
center, and forming distinct families and va
riety of people in different directions; which
wonderfully agrees with, and is corrobora
ted by, what is known as profane or secular
history. Although the Bible is to he relied
upon, as a sacred revelation as to things
spiritual and religious,as to our knowledge
of the true and living God, our duty to
Him, and to ourselves, and to each other,
yet it was not intended, nor is it to lie relied
upon, to teach us science, geology, ar chro
nology, or other tilings which are strictly
secular matters.2 But even in these mat
ters it is as much to be relied upon as any-
secular writing which next follows it. Jt
teaches us that the inhabitants of the earth
have descended from Noah and his three
sons, and their families. These were Sbein,
Ham, and Japheth,-"1 from whom it is suppos
ed that the various nations and races of men
have proceeded. The descendants of the
two first mentioned became known as the
Shemilic anil I lamitic races, and proceeded
to possess the southern part of Asia and all
Africa ; while the desendants of Japheth are
known as the Japhetic race, who have oc
cupied the northwestern part of Asia and
all Europe.
The Book of Genesis gives the names
ot the seven sons of Japheth as (joiner,
Magog, Madai, Tubal, Meshech. Tiras, and
Javan. " (iomer personifies the families
originally established on the northern coast
of the Euxine | Black sea] and north of
Greece. From these were, in due course of
time, to spring a people well known to the
Greek and Roman historians, as Cimmeri
ans, Cimbri, Cymry, who were for ages the
terror of Asia and Europe, and who even
made Rome tremble at the summit of her
power. Three sons of (iomer are men-
J Gemsjs, ch. x. i Kawl. Herodotus. 5.27, faf't.
3 See II. Miller's Testimony tit" the Kocks, sec. 3, At least Jerome says that in his day the .same lan-
pp. 141, iSo. Bacon's Novum Or^anum "V Causes Ijuai^e niiq-hl be heard at Ancyra as' at Treves; and
of Krrorin Philosophy." Miller's root-prints of the he is a good witness, for he himself had been at
Creator, 332.
[Book i
tinned : Ashkenaz, whose name seems com
posed of Gothic roots As airmis, ' the race
of Ases,' and which represents the Ger
manic and Scandinavian nations not yet sep
arated, and inhabiting a limited district to
the northwest of the Black Sea; Riphatb,
that is, the group of Celts or Gauls, then es
tablished in their first European settlement
on the Riphiean mountains,the presnt
Carpathian, before entering on their last mi
gration towards the France of our day; and
lastly, Togarmah, in whom tradition has al-
wavs rccogni/ed the Armenians."4
It has ever been claimed that the Cymry
were descendants of Gomer; and that Cim-
ri or Cimmeri were derived from Gomcr
or Gimeri bv mere change of sound in the
initial letter. These Gomerians or Cim
merians are considered as undoubtedly of
the Japhetic race, and occupied, when first
noticed in history, the most westward ly po
sition on the north side of the Euxine Sea,
where they have conferred their name on
many objects there, as Cimmerian Bospho-
rus, and Old Crim, on the Tauric Cherson
4 See Lcnorniauland Chcvallier, Ancient History,
U. i, ch. iv, sec. 3, p. 01 ; also, vol. t, p. 3; also, A
Mamial of Ancient History, by George Rawlinaon,
It. i, pt. i, p. 30.
5See Kawlmson's Herodotus, vol. i; Appendix
to 11. iv, Kssay i, 150, "Cimmerians" (Gunirrai);
see I I^cnor. An. Hist., 405; 2 il'id. 76. Cyclopaedia
ot" Brit. Theo. and Kccles. Literature, vol. iii, 7IO,
Art. GAI.ATIA; seen very interesting article, "Ga-
latia, !'/-/, is the same word with K.f'/.rat,
Ccl'.ica; and the Galatians were, in (heir origin, a
stream of that ijreat Celtic torrent (apparently
Cyuirv, and Gael), which poured into Macedonia
alvmt'H. C. 1*0 (Stralio IV. ]S7; VII, <//>; (.ivy
XXXVIII.ifi; Klnr.II.ii; Justin XXV.2; Appian,
Syr., \\XII.42). Some of Ihe.se invader* moved
into Thrace, and appeared on Ihe shores of the
Hellespont and Hosplmrus, u }u le N icomedcs I. Kiit
of Itithynia, bcinu then en^ai^cd in a civil war,
inviti-d them across into Asia Minor, to assist him
against Ins hrolhvr. Xyhcrtes, U. C. Cir., 270. Hav
ing accomplished thi\ object, they were unwilling to
retrace their steps; ami, strengthened by thf acces
sion of fresh hordes from Kurope, they overran tlwf
neighboring countries 'Irie (ialatiuns
were still settled in their three tribes, the Tccto-
satres, the Tolistobo^ii, and the Trocnii, Uie first of
which is identical in name with a tribe familiar to us
in the history of Gaul, as distributed over the Cev-
eiines near Toulouse (Ca-sar, Hell. Gall. iv. 24;
Comp. Jablnusky, IV lintcua I.yraonica, p. 23). The
three capitals were respectively Tavinm, I'essinus,
and Aricyra. The last of these (the modern An
gora) wa's the center ot the district, and may be re
garded as the ictropolis of the Galati:lns. These
eastern (Jauls preserved much of their ancie/nt char
acter, and somethiiuj of their ancient language.
Treves."
Chap, i.] THE INHABITANTS OK WESTERN EUROPE.
esus.s Next east were the Scythians, an pie whose descendants now occupy West
other Japhetic race,' and usually assigned as ern Europe. We may well suppose that for
the descendants of Magog. Still east and a long time Noah and his family resided
south of these were the descendants of Ma- there, in thefr original home,9 until their
dai, who occupied Media, Persia, Bactria, increasing population would require them
Hindoo Rush, and extending even into In to separate and emigrate. It seems that
dia. These have generally been denomi the She'nitic and Hamitic races were more
nated the Aryans proper, an appellation ap united and harmonized with each other
plied in common with that of Japhetic, and than with the Japhetic. The Hamitic took
Indo-European races, to all the descendants the lead in population, however, and civil
ofjaphcth, found settled in various countries ization. They built great cities on the
from India to the British Islands. The lower Euphrates and along the Persian
children of Tubal and Meshech peopled the Gulfthe Erythajan Sea, where they
country on the east and southeast of tne promoted commerce and navigation, and
Euxine. The descendants of Tiras and where they first became known in history
Javan proceeded west, occupying Asia Mi as the Chaldajans. At an early period in
nor and southeastern Europe; the first tak their history they sent a colony to EgypK
ing possession of the eastern and northern a country much like their own, upon the
part of Asia Minor, Thrace and Macedo lower Euphrates,very fertile,promot-
nia; and the latterthe descendants of Ja- j a rapid increase of population and civ-
vantaking possession of the southwestern ili/.ation. Subsequently another colony
part of Asia Minor, adjoining the yEgean passed from them, who had become ac
Sea, known as Ionia, and still proceeding quainted with navigation and commerce
west over the last-named sea, and occupying upon the Eryth;ean Sea, and planted them
Greece. selves upon the borders of the Mediterra
In Connection with, and as part of, these nean Sea ; and there became celebrated as
people should be noticed the Pelasgiuns, a the Phoenicians.10
people much noticed in ancient history, and The Shemitic race became distinguished
were undoubtedly of the same origin as in their descendants as the Hebrews and
those who arc considered the descendants the Arabs; and developed a great national
of Javan. They found a material, if not the ity in Assyria, Syria, Palestine, and Ara
larger, portion of the original inhabitants of bia.
Athens and other portions of Greece; and In the meantime the Japhetic race were
probably they were also the first settlers of forming their nationality higher up the val
Italy." leys of the Tigris and Euphrates; and
Taking, then, the valley of the Tigro-Eu- there establishing a language, customs and
phrates to have been the cradle of the hu habits which subsequently identified their
man race, and that the prominent and civ descendants in different families as the Ja
ilized part of it is represented by the three phetic, or Aryan, or Indo-European races."
families known in history as the Japhetic, But amidst all people there are a portion
Shemitic and Hamitic races, who had their
origin there, we are to trace thence the peo- 9 i Rawl. Hero. 461, where it is said: "The great
fertile tract at the foot of the Xaifros ranges, abund
antly watered by Tigris, the Euphrates, ;md the
6 Herod., H. iv, ch. 12. rivers descending1 from Zagross, and enclosed by the
7 The Scyths, as known in history, may he distiri Arabian and Syrian deserts on the west, the Arme
finished ;ts two separate races;the first and oldest nian mountain^ upon the north, and Xagros upon
were Turanians, but second; those who passed the east, was divided from very ancient times into
west to Kurope were Aryans. three principal countries, all nearly equally favored
by nature, and each in its turn the seat of a power
SSee Uawlinson's Herodotus, B. iv, App., Essav ful monarchy : Assyria, Susiana, and Babylonia.
ii. See also ilnd. B. i, ch. 56; ami also, 3 K:uvf. The high Kinds overlooking this reg-ion upon the
Iteroilo., 150, Kssay i, n. i. J*>.sephus identifies east ami north being1 occupied by three principal
Gnnicr and the Celts thus: " For (omer founded races, were likewise regarded as forming1 three
those whom the Greeks now call Galatians [Galls], great countries: Armenia, Media and Persia."
but Were then called Gomeritcs; M'as^ojf founded 10 i Rawl. Hcro.f 117.
those that from him were named Magugites, hut
who are by the Cireeks called Scythians." Ant. u See Ihc article, "Aryan," in Chamber's Ency
Jews, 11. i, ch. iv. clopedia, vol. i, p. 459.
 THE BRITISH I'ERIOD.
of mankind who are always disposed to
be erratic, to avoid the aggregation of pop
ulation, to seek the solitude of the wilder
ness or plains rather than the restraints of
society, and their civilizing influences.
Such as were thus disposed soon separated
from the three original families, in various
directions, and became the Nomads, and
the >avage of the wilderness. These be
came a numerous people outside of the
civilizing influences of the aggregation of
the original family in their improving and
cultivating homes. These outsiders, be
coming more and more savage, and dis
similar from their brethren of the original
families, became known to history as the
' Turanian " race. These soon traversed
the eastern world in various directions;
and we may well conceive that, at an early
day in their existence, they wandered to
Western Europe, and became settled in
France and Britain. Especially the valley
of the Somme became an enticing home
for them, and their necessities compelled
them to construct implements of flint in
large numbers. The funa of the former
and last geological period had not yet dis
appeared, and afforded a rich harvest for
the hunter, and great increase of popula
tion, and consequently a very rapid pro
duction ol those implements, for hunting,
for defence, and for domestic uses. In the
course of time at that day the shores 01
France arose above their former level, just
as we find it to have been the case in Scot
land, Norway, and other parts of the
world. Then the Somme would have to
change its bed, and form new channels and
gravel beds, into which the implements of
the inhabitants along its banks would be
imbedded, together with the bones of the
animals, relics of a former age, upon which,
perhaps, the inhabitants had been feeding.
This may have happened a thousand years
after the time of Japbet, and J.soo years or
more B. C. This would give sufficient time
for all the appearances at present repre
sented as found in the valley of the Sommc
and elsewhere, and more probable than that
it transpired many thousand years before, as
some geologists pretend to believe. This
may be accepted as a reasonable and prob
[Book i.
able theory of the question, until facts are
so developed as will otherwise establish
the truth beyond all question.
The Japhetic family remained in the up
per valley of the Tigro-Euphrates, while
the Hamitic and Shcmitic races occupied
the lower part, and there cultivated a fixed
language; cultivated agriculture, and the
necessary arts of primitive life.12 But the
time came at tenth when they were all---
at least the Japhetic portion of them
driven hence, and radiated from there in
various directions, as already indicated, in
various families or tribes, known by one
set of names a.- derived from Moses and
Josephus, and by another, as designated by
modern historians and ethnologists. These
have denominated the northernmost fam
ily as the descendants of Javan or the Pe-
largi,'3the ancestors of the Greeks and
Italians; and the northern families as the
Celts,the ancestors of the inhabitants of
France and the British Islands,the de
scendants of Gomer, Cimmerians, Cim-
bri and Cymry ; and these were followed by
the Teutons, the ancestors of the Ger-
12 It was here, ruthcr than in Bactria, where the
ancestors of the Aryan riict-, before their separation
anil dispersion east and west, the one towards Itac-
tria ana the other towards Kuropc, that the origi
nal family of the race were established long enough
to establish and fix as common to the whole race,
words anil terms which have distinguished and
identified them as the I Undo- European, or Aryan
race. In his interesting; essay, Professor Max
Mu Her on Comparative \Iythology has represented
the Aryan family, while yet one and undivided, in
which their language and habits as to religion, do
mestic affairs and civili/.ation nre made the founda
tion of that of the whole race. The same name for
an object or natinn being- found as cotntnon in the
wide-spread member* ol the faniilv is justlv claimed
that such names must have been familiarly used by
them, while yet residing together in their parental
home. Such similarity or identity of names is found
in the various brandies of the race as to all objects
of domestic relation, of agriculture and of building
of houses and towns. " It should be observed," he
says, ' that most of the terms connected with chase
and warfare differ in each of the Aryan dialects,
while words connected with more peaceful occupa
tion:- In-long generally to the common heirloom of
the Aryan language. '....*' This shows
that all the Aryan nations had led a long life of
pi-ace before they separated, and that their language
acquired individuality and nationality :is each col
ony started in search of new homes new genera
tions forming new terms connected with the war
like and adventurous life of their onward migra
tions. Hence it IN that not only Greek and I -itin,
but all Aryan languages, have- their jK-acefu] words
in common; and hence it is that they all differ si
strangely in their vvnrlike expressions. Thus th<
do stic animals are geiicr.illv known by the sainc
name in Knglandand in India, while the wild beasts
have different names, e\ un in the (Jreek and I,atin."
I,! See I-eormant, Ancient History, dr.
Chap. i.J THK INHABITANTS OK WESTERN EUROPE. 33
mans and Scandinavians; and also by the known in history- But either hypothesis
Sclaves,the representatives of the an m.iy be received as the true one, and that
cient Normatians and Scythians, and also those three celebrated names may be re
the eastern family, as the Aryans, who in ceived as those of the three original races.
clude the Medes, Persians, and the north When in the course of time the origin
ern Hindoo. All these have received the | of the present human family commenced,
appellation of the Aryan, and the Indo- must, in a great measure, be left to con-
European in common with that of the Ja- i jecture. There are no facts disclosed by
phetic race; and occupying a zone through I history or monuments, which are conclu-
Asia and Europe from the Ganges to the | sive upon the subject. Ancient history
British Islands. discloses facts, and especially inscriptions
What was the cause of their expulsion recently found in ruined cities of Assyria
from their original birthplace, and emigra and Babylonia, inscribed upon menu
tion east and west,11 is only left to conject menls, bricks, and tiles, discovered amidst
ure; but probably it was an hostile invas those ruins, afford us means of a rational
ion of one or both of the original families, conjecture. The most reliable materials
under the name of Assyrians or Chalde furnished us for ancient history and chro
ans. nology are those given us by Moses, com
mencing with the tenth chapter of Gene
All these names and divisions of the hu sis, and schedule of dynasties given us by
man race admirably agree with that given Berosus in his history of Babylonia and
by Moses in the tenth chapter of Genesis, Chaldii-a, as presented to us in mere frag
as well as that given by Josephus, and con ments in Josephus, and later historians.
firmed by all history. It must therefore These aid us so much in establishing the
be true that there were originally such commencement of the human family and
three families as those of Shorn, Ham chronology, that we must take them as the
and Japheth, or Moses had discovered this most reliable materials upon the subject.
division of mankind, and invented the The scheme of chronology founded upon
story of these three persons to agree with Berosus, as corrected and confirmed bv
the evident division of the human race. other historians, and inscriptions above re
The former hypothesis is not onlv the most ferred to, give us a tablet upon the subject,
natural, but harmonizes well with what is which may be thus repeated:
A'l'llff-* Time B. C.
Chalda-an 86 34.080 about
Median !l 8 2.4158 to 2,2334
BKKOM s Chaldaran ^ ... T ] 2,234 to I- 97"
Chulda-an '' 49 1,976 to i, ^18 '
Arabian O 45 i, 518 to i, ^73 ^
5^6 '< 573 tl) 747
\ IjOWLT Assyrian. , .. 8 122 747 to 625
I'TOI
i Halwlnnian?* . . 6 8/ 655 to ^38 3
Total 156 in all 1,920 years.

14 In Wine-hell's Sketches of (.'real on (.V> it is north to south. The. primeval inhabitants of North
said:" In all the tatter epoch*., even of tin- atje of America were Asiatics in their features, their lan-
stone, there w:is evidentiv :i eontinui vis migration g'uag'c, und their arts, anil tradition spunks of them
from ih direction of the Asiatic- line The move- as movintr from the direction of Asia. These
ment popu .1 ion us ,ima\: tin movements of human p()j>ulatioii, like radiating
been eastward in regions to thr eusl if the Orient. afford a presumption that the onlv people of whose
The westward wave overflowed liuro movement we 1ia\e neither history, tradition, nor
ter d:ivs crossed Ihe Atianlic. The eastward wavy buried monuments, jti eded also from the direc-
populated Tartary and C'hin:i, and, :i^ may be pre tion of the Orient." It seems reason
sumed, dashed across I lie straits of Henri ng", and able to Mippose that the Iberian tribe and the savage
flofxleil the American rontirient at a remote period. J-i^arians. subjugated by the Humans, and de
To say the least, till the American shores were. scribed by C;vsar as dwelling in caves, may have
reached by the. westward \\ave from Kurope. the been the southern representative of the primitive
lide of population in America had always sel from folk, while the Finns and Kapps. as Nilsson siiw
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
The Chald:ean dynasty thus given by
Berosns, containing 86 kings and embrac
ing 34,080 years, is a mere myth, and fab
ulous. It undoubtedly consisted of a dy
nasty of its own people, from their origin;
and may include Ham himself as the first.
No facts known in history would warrant
34,080 years to any dynasty of 86 kings.
Taking the residue of the column (exclud
ing the 8f>), it gives 136 kings in 1,920
years, or an average of 15 years to each.
To give the same average to the 86 kings,
would give 1,290 years; which, added to
the 1,920 years above given, would give
3,210 years as the duration of the whole
dynasties, which, added to the date of the
last ycar(538 B C), would give 3,748 B. C.
as the more probable date of the. com
mencement of the I lam or llamitic dy
nasty in Chalda-a; and the more probable
commencement of the present human
race, than any other date at which we can
arrive. As this, too, harmonizes well with
gcsts, may be the modern urul more northern repre
sentatives of the siune folk." TJv.it is, the Tur;mi-
niitns who first emigrated and peopled Kurope. As
to the age of mun on earth, see Sketches of Cre.,
3<3.
i This includes tin- time of Abraham and of Che-
dor -L,aomer, i Kawl. Herodotus, $56; Kawl. Man.
of Atic. History, 61 ; i I,enor. History of the Kast,
82; also 362.
aKxodus about the commencement of i.^th C.
honor. History of the East, 114, On these- dates
authors differ about 200 years.
3 See as to this tablet, i Uuwl. Hero., 345. As to
Egyptian chronology, see Rawl. Hero., 289. G.
Knwlinson, in his Manual of History, p. ^7, sets the
commencement of Egyptian history, under Moses,
their first king and dynasty, at 2,700 II. C. \Ve are
compelled to accent the dates here given as the
probable ones for Ktrypt, and 3,500 as that for the
commencement of the human race, or admit that
previous thereto there must have been the Deluge
or some other calamity that swept from the face of
the earth all antecedent inhabitants. If the evi
dences derived from the gravel pits on the Soniinc,
or the caves in the south of h'rance, or those of Hel-
^iuui, furnish conclusive facts to csuihli^h Liu- ex
istence ot a pre-existing race, that must be received
as the strongest evidence derived from n.ilunu his
tory (and perhaps the only one) of the De.luge. A
class of scientific men have In en in I lie li:i!>il <if de
ducing evidence of loo great antiquitv Irom fact-,
without making due allowance, that clnn^es iv ere
more rapid at an earlier period in the present yen
logical age; as those observations maue.it Ni.lg;ir:i
or the delta of the Nile. About 6^ 1. < ". i!u; ciiv
of Nineveh, the great, was utterly 'destroyed b\ the
Medes. About JJO years afterwards Xermphon, in
his retreat with the "10,000 tin-cks, passed over the
place without ever noticing it; because ot MS utter
ruin in lli.it lapse of time. So in .incit nt limes the
cit> of Miletus, in Ionia (A^ia Minor*, w:i - i sia-
pnrton a buy ^5 miles lng by 5 wide, al the mouth
ot" the M.tander river. Since tho^e ancient 1nne>
there has been a gradual but uiasionishiug change
in the situation of the cil\. " 'I'he soil brought
[Book i.
all other facts dcduciblc from history or
antiquities.
The last date given is the earliest that
tan be admitted as the commencement of
the present human nice, as in any wise
consistent with the known facts of history
It cannot be placed further hack in antiqui"
ty than between 3500 and 4000 B. C., with
out incurring insurmountable objections
arising from the well known increase of
population, and progress of civilization. It
is a well established fact, that the human
family is capable of increasing, and doubling
its numbers every twenty-five years; and
under favorable circumstance this ratio may
be greatly accelerated.15 Progress in civili
zation does not tend to increase this ratio,
but rather to diminish it. All that is want
ed to promote the most extreme increase of
population is sufficient subsistence, and the
absence of absolute restraints. These re
straints may be either physical or moral;
as the want of food or clothing, or the re
straints of a higher state of civilization.
All we know of geology and history assures
us, that the human family was not put upon
the earth, by its Great Creator, until it was
well prepared for him; and all the great
geological changes had gone bv. It mav
bo true that some of the animals,the funa
and flora, of the former age, may have for
some time remained upon the earth, and
down by the Ma-ander has filled up the gulf, so
that Mi fetus now stands on the outskirts of a great
alluvial plain, which extends even beyond Miletus
lour or five miles seaward." (See i llawl. Herod..
Ji^.) If the like calculation should be made as to
Xineveh or Miletus, based upon the accumulation
o( soil upon and around them, it i.s to he expected
they would put the dales of those cities at about
10,000 It. C.
a'l'his Median dynasty wasaTurariian race, prob
ably of the Scvlhian ran-, and nut the true Medes ol
the Arviin rate; but ca'Jed Medes for Ilie reaxn
they caitu ['mm I be country afteru ard railed .Media.
'1'lie Me.Ies (in! riot nuke their appcnrant e until
long alter w arils, about frx> H. C., ami onl\ about 155
.ears bei'ure the A,\an race (Meiles and "Persians),
under t.Vrus, ( ' -lupiere.! Itabx Ion. i Ilawl. Hero..
V*. and 11.7, vi. !-:>
b'l'his second C-liuldaan dyna>t\ \\ a- probably a
return of jiov\ er to Iheir O-A n people.
c'l'liis lliinl (.,'li.tidaan dyna>ty \\ a^ pru'iably that
(if t)u: JCIaiTiiie (H Siiriantan pet>ple, a kindred race,
;im! to \\ hicli (.'hedor- Laotn',-r hcionged.-See i Kawl
HITIP., .;5_- .J.V'. \'c.
15; Tl'i- is i lie nrdinary incre:isr .it' the pnpu]::liuii
of UK: I'nited St.iU-s. Tiial nt' the descendants ot
Jacub. and of tlie Mutineers of ifu linunty of Hit
cairn KUnul, exceeded this ratio. The "increase
maybe mucli greuter tiian double e\ery twenty
five years. See (irey's Knigma uf Life. p. 77.
Chap, i.] THE INHABITANTS OK WESTERN EUROPE.
have afforded to the first inhabitants addi
tional facilities for food, and the skins and
fur of the animals, clothing. These facili
ties, and the absence of restraints, mav, in
that age. have greatly facilitated the ordin
ary increase of its population.
Arithmetical calculation will show that
the family of Noah, upon the basis just
suggested, may have so increased, that in
500 years there may have been a popula
tion of fifteen hundred thousand, and this
may have been about 3000 U. C. To put
the origin of the human familv at a great
ly earlier period, would have so increased
the population of the earth as to interfere,
irreconcilably, with what is known in an
cient history.
If we should carry back the commence
ment of the human family to a pe> iod so
remote as contended for by some anti
quarians and geologists, the earth would
have been filled with people long Ijclbrc
the time that Europe became peopled.
From a period of about .3.s<x> B. C. the
earth has been gradually and constantly
filling up with a population, until now it
has reached the sum of 1.500 millions. It
is true that war has often retarded, and
sometimes diminished this increase, and
even exterminated some particular race or
nationality, but never has it exterminated
both the victors and the .quished to
gether. The earth has gradually and per
petually become filled with its present
people, notwithstanding it has sometimes
been retarded by war, pestilence or famine.
We must place the commencement of the
present race of man with Noah and his
family; but if we place that commence
ment, as some pretend to do, some 10,000
B. C., then we should have found the earth
as densely peopled at the very earliest
period in history as it is ut present.1'' On
16 Giles, in his History of Hie Ancient Britons, vol.
i, p. i, says: "The writings of Moses carry us back
no farther into the past than the space of almut six
thousand years, whereas there is the most conclu
sive evidence that the world has existed in its pres
ent state more than six times that limited period.
It appears, therefore, that our knowledge of the
past is confined to a very narrow compass, com
pared with the infinite duration of time which has
elapsed." This must be assented to by every well
informed :uul runclid mind. But thequestion when
man became an inhabitant of this world is a very
different question, from that, as to when "this
3
35
the contrary we are led from history to be
lieve that in Abraham's time Syria was
new and but sparsely peopled ; and that
from that time to that of Moses, there was
in Egypt a very great increase of people
and of civilization, and the whole popula
tion of those countries between Egypt and
the Upper Euphrates wonderfully in
creased. It is always the case as popula
tion becomes more dense and concentrated,
they seek a municipal life, and make pro
gress in civilization and refinement. This
is the order of Providence, and the instinct
of the human race. It is the conclusion
we draw from ancient history; and the
information we obtain from the histories
of the Mexicans, Peruvians, Tahitians, and
other people of the New World. In these
respects a constant improvement and pro
gress have been made, from the time of
the earliest history and evidence of man's
existence on the Euphrates to the present.
These are to be traced in their develop
ment from thence to every country, and
especially to Western Europe. From the
earliest, every five hundred years has pro
duced a marked if not an entire change in
every race, which may be noticed as a
period or epoch in their history, and in al
most every instance survives one or more
d\ nasty. Each of these periods marks a
progress in the condition, manners and
civilization of every "people. Thus the
first before 3000 15. C. witnessed the com
mencement of the present race of man in
a single family, and its increase to a nation
and numerous people. The next period"
world had its existence in its present state." Man
was placed here at comparatively a very recent
period; not until the great gcoloj/ical changes had
passed, and the earth prepared to receive him. If
man had existed on the earth one "six thousand
years" before the time ot the three great patriarchs
of the human race, the world would have been
tilled with people belore their advent or that of
their race; and tradition, and history, and antiqui
ties would have preserved greater evidence of tncir
existence, and of the war and conflict that this race
would have had with them, in acquiringa foot-hold,
than is in any manner disclosed that they have ever
had upon the earth. There is so little evidence of a
pre-existing race, that we are forced to believe the
tradition of Ham, Shem and Japheth to be the ances
tors of the race, or their names invented to corres
pond with the history of the three great races ot
the human family; and that if any previous race
existed, they must have been by some dire cahiimty
" wept from* the face of the earth.
17 From 3000 to 1500 B. C.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book
witnessed their dispersion;those who establishment of the Christian religion ,
were well disposed to civilization, toEgypt the subjection of Britain to Roman arms,
and other nationality; while those who the great development of the Roman em
were indisposed to social life, departed to pire under Constantine the (ireat; and the
various parts of the surrounding world to events approaching the reign of Justinian
become and to be known as the Turanian Then in the next period transpired the
race. In the eastern world, this would be darkest and gloomiest times in the history
probably the stone age. In the next of man jW when the civilization of Europe
period18 great progress was made ;great was entirely subverted by the northem
cities had their commencement and their barbarians, and properly called "the dark
foundation laid, along the valley of the ages," when civilization, and the progress
Tigro- Euphrates and that of the Nile; of humanity were turned back at least a.
and was probably the age of metal, bronze thousand years. Then commences a per
and iron The next period, (commencing iod of new events,^) beginning with the
with 2000 B. C.,) would include the time Norman Conquest of England; the cru
from Abraham to Moses, and produce sades against the infidels of the Holy
many of the facts now known in ancient Land; the establishment of the English
history;the rise of the Phoenician cities Constitution, and especially of the English
on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Parliament; the war of the Roses; and
Sea, and the extension of their commerce the union of Wales with England. Then
to the western worid. The next of such lastly comes the present period; the most
period of time would include19 the exodus wonderlul in the history of man, and en
of the Jews, the destruction of Troy, and tirely beyond his conception until devel
the establishment of the great kingdom of oped hv actual realities; as the discovery
Judah under David and Solomon. With and settlement of America; the invention
in the next would he comprehended some of the printing press; the establishment of
of the great events of history;'0 the great the protestant religion, the independence
conquests and empires of Assyria and of the United States, the French rcvolu
Egvpt; the appearance of the Mcdes and tion, the steam engine, the rail-road and
Persians as great conquering powers; the the telegraph. These have revolutionized
utter destruction of the great city of Nine the work and the destiny of the human
veh; the supremacy of Babylon the great; race.
and the building of Carthage and Koine. These periods follow each other, and in
Then comes the last period before thi such progressive improvement, as appear
Christian era,21 in which occurred some of to be the design and order of Providence
the greatest events of history : as the cap They appear to admit_and require no eat
ture of Babylon by the Mcdes and Persians Her commencement of the human race
under Cyrus; the attempted conquest of than the one stated, between the 3S1'1 alu'
Greece by Darius and Xerxes and the .joth centuries B. C. To place the begin
events that culminated in the battles of ning of these events at an earlier pcritxl
Marathon and Salamis; the conquest of would absolutely interfere with the rcgulai
the civilized world by Alexander; the as progress of events and the established facts
tonishing rise and success of the Roman of history. They require no greater period
empire, and its greatest splendor under of time, and seem absolutely to exclude
Augustus. Then great and new events any earlier period than that which has been
commences with the Christian era; the given; and if any facts establish a pre
existing race, then it must have been one,
i S From 2500 to iooo H. C. which had been entirely swept off the face
19 From 1500 to 1000 B. C.
30 From 1000 to 500 R. C.
of the earth, before the period which we
21 From 500 to o U. C. This period includes the
existence of the (Treat conquerors of the world, as From 500 tf> 1000 A. D.
Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, Alexander, Hannibal and
duai. From'looo to 1500 A. D.
Chap, i.] THE INHABITANTS OF WESTERN EUROPE. 37
have assigned as the commencement of Whether the evidences of a stone age car
the Japhetic race. ries us back to a time anterior to the com
Antiquarians and geologists have divid mencement of the Japhetic race, de
ed historical periods, as evidence of the age pends upon other, and surrounding cir
in which they severally existed, into the cumstances, which establishes the position
age of stone, of bronze, and of iron. This beyond a doubt; and is capable of refuting
division of time into pcricxls of the progress our present assumptions. Hut, on the
of civilization in the history of a country, contrary, we find that in Western Europe,
may assist in establishing the priority of where the Turanian race had first settled
one period or event, to that of another; and continued the longest, as in France
but chronologically it affords no aid in fix and Hritain, we find the greatest evidence
ing when in the course of time a particu anil development of the stone age, while-
lar event did happen. It may have trans in Greece and in the valleys of the Eu
pired in antiquity, rr in our own dav. This phrates and the Nile, there is but little of
depends upon the progress that civilization such evidences to be found; for the reason
has made in any given country; and not that the period of time between man's
upon the time when it commenced. It is origin and the metallic age was too short
a fact that in 1850 a tribe of Indians was for that purpose.
found in California who were, in every It has been suggested that the Turanian
particular, in the stone age, whose only race were the descendents of those who
implements consisted of stone, wood and early left the original family of man, pre-
bone. Elsewhere the age of stone exis'.s j ferring a wandering, savage life to social
at the present day. On the other hand, we j restraints These left the home of their
have historical evidence proving that the ] parents at an early day, for the woods, the
Chaldeans, at Ur on the Euphrates, from prairie, and the steppe. Each of the orig
the earliest times, were acquainted with the inal families furnished its quota; I lam (the
art of working metals, gold, bronze, lead sunburnt) furnished the colored race, and
and iron.31 On the walls of Karnak in through Cush (the black) furnished those
Egypt are inscriptions of the age of who, under the appellation of the Ethiopian
Thothmes III. (about 1600 B.C.), showing and the Negro, peopled the south part of
that wine, wheat, cattle, honey, and iron, Asia, and the east and south of Africa;
are mentioned among the tributes paid by and perhaps furnished also the red and
Code-Syria.a"' In those countries the age yellow races who emigrated to Northwest
of stone had passed by, and the age of iron ern Asia, as th;.1 Tartar and Mongolian,
existed at the earliest account we have of and thence to America. Shem >cnt forth
them; when perhaps the age of iron did I the wild Arab of the desert; and from
not exist in Western Europe until more . Japheth departed tho*e who carU peopled
than a thousand years later. the north and the west of Europe: as the
Nor do these distinctions of the stone I Iberians, the Finns, the Lapps, the Ilun-
and metalic ages, of themselves, at all aid j garians, and ihe elder Scythians. These
us in establishing a prehistoric a*je, which departed from the original family and
takes us back to an age far anterior to that stock, upon the paths \hich le.ul to their
which has been fixed upon, as the origin various destiny, and (hen in the infanev
of the present human race? Thev may aid of their race,3" more readily took on the
in fixing the relative age of civilization in peculiarity that their \\ild and savage life
anv given country; but not as to the de- l Kv:ins Aiir. Stunc Iinpl. of GriMt Britain,
gree of civilization in anv other country. I "When we ;itu-mpt any rhnHiolugitMl iuranicv
or the period of time in chronolo^^ | ^J F^hS^lS rf
found, we m.iy, indeed, safely infer that they repre
sent the lapse'of no inconsiderable interval of time.
24 I lA-'nor. History of the Mist, 359. Results of but how jfteat we know not."
Col. Taylor's excavation of the tombs at Ur.
27 Si-<- (Juvot's Karth and Man, j "At the time
j$ I Lcnor. Hist. East, 233. when the human race in their infim had still llu
J6 i Lcnor. Anc. Hist. East, n, 25, 36. See, ;il?o. flexible and plastic nature of the child."
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book
and exposures were inclined to impose up race, is built up on the fact that Sir Wil
on them. These exposures produced va liam Jones, about 1787, while in India, dis
rieties, and the variety became fixed in the covered the connection between the Sans
race; as in the Ethiopian, until the sun and crit and the European languages, which
sands of Africa had burned upon him his has been traced to Bactria, and from thence
color, and the exposure and hardship he to the Medes and Persians; and as a com
endured had imposed upon him the charac mon name to the language, it was called
teristics of the Negro. the Aryan; because that "Asiatic district
Thus we are led to believe, that before was specially called Aria. "2* When it was
the arrival of the Celt anil Teuton in West discovered that this Aryan languagcd pos
ern Europe, the Turanian races above men sessed so many things in common with
tioned had preceded them, ant! were hv the the German language it was called the
Celts either expel led, or amalgamated with ( Indo-German: but when it was discover-
them, 01 forced to occupy particular places ] cti tllat "'< Celtic and almost all the
by themselves, as the Iberians (or Uasques) European languages had the same connec-
occupving the northwest part of .Spain, in j tion and relation, it was denominated the
the Pyrennees, and the southwest of France Indo-European or Aryan family of lan-
or Aquitania; and the Finns ami Laps in guage; and admitted to be equally entitled
the north of Europe-. to be denominated the Japhetic language.
Before proceeding to notice more partic The appellation of Indo-European or
ularly the people of Western Europe, we Aryan was wholly because at that laleday
must first notice another theory of their it was discovered that there was the rela
cradle ar.d origin ; ;md that is, that they tion of a sister language subsisting between
were placed by Providence, not in the all those languages from India to Western
beautiful and noted valley of the Tigro- Europe; and thence concluded that it all
I-uphrates, but in the remote Bactria; or originated in Aria, as the mother country
Hindu Koosh. were true, we would of the common languages. This would
be lead to wonder at the choice of Provi be just as rational a conclusion, as it would
dence, and question His wisdom. In addi be, at some future period, when it would be
tion to what has already been said as forgotten where the English language
pointing out that xt!rJinUrv" "vallc'v as | riSi"atc'1- but it as discovered that a
the cradle of mankind, we may again refer dialect of it existed in Australia, in Hin-
to its e\lr.iordinar\ I'ertilitv and its ap- dostan, in Malta, in Gibralter, in Britain,
proach lo the sea.'-atibrding kllcll ^eat | d in America, to conclude it originated
facilities for the promotion of commerce in Australia, because that was the |xiint
ant! civ ili/.alion, when toinpared with the furthest east at which it was found.
narrow vnlkys, and extensive deserts of These considerations not only render rjr
Bactria; and ils \ ast distance from the sea. the supposition, that Bactria was the birth
We must siill insist that the cradle of man place of the race, improbable; but there
kind was pl.iced where we have indicated, are others which positively impugn it.
and that the Aryan, were that part of the ' After er thee firsl rs ^c""-'!-.! of the original
Japhetic family ' hn departed east and pro- Ar-v:lns in Bactria- the histor.v and inscri!>-
ceedcd lo ]>aclria. rather than the races 01 lions of Nineveh and Babylonia furnish no
Western Europe came tin. re from Bactria. vidence of any communication between
Whai is common in the language of the a people from Bactria and the vallev of the
Eastern and Western An ans is that which ! EuPhrates until aboilt SSo B. C, when an
was acquired and cultivated while they Assyrian monarch in an expedition to the
were lo'jjetluT in the vallev ot the Tigro- east first met the Medes emigrating west;2"
Knphrates before their separation, one to IS i Ixrnor. Anc, Hist, of the Kasl, 2.
the east ;m.l the other lo the west. The jy See l Rawl. Herodotus, 317, Kssav in: also,
whole theory of the Aryan being the dynasty Ibid. 319, ,{44; Ibid. jS6. n. 7; also.^j. The Median
mentioned by Berosu* us having taken
mother language of the whole Japhetic place in Babylon r^no years bclbre this date was
Chap, i.] THE INHABITANTS OF WESTERN EUROPE.
and the inscriptions of Nineveh assert that
in their eastern expeditions were the first
notice they had of the Aryan race; and
that in a subsequent expedition of Eser-
haddon into Media, it is said he had pene
trated to a land, "of which the kings, hi*
fathers, had never heard the name." The
Median power under Cyaxares was of a
sudden growth, like that of Attila and
Genghis Khan, at the head of an eastern
horde, who about 6j; B. C. attacked and
destroyed Nineveh. It was until about
540 B . C. that the Persians (the principal
Aryan race) under Cyrus entered the val
ley of the Euphrates and conquered the
Babylonian empire. The-.e historical facts
and dates exclude the idea that the Celts,
who must have entered France as early as
from a 1000 to 1600 B. C., could have been
an emigration from Bactria.
Besides these considerations, there is al
so the further one, that the Turanian
Scythians occupied a line of country due
north from the waters of the Tigris, and
presented a noted separation between the
two divisions of the Aryan races, those
who proceeded east toward Bactria, and
those who proceeded west toward Western
Europe, from their original home, the most
renowned valley of the world, watered by
the Tigris and the Euphrates. That these
Turanian races occupied this position and
separated the two kindred branches of the
Aryan or Japhetic races, is one of the most
observable facts in history. ''If Cyaxares
was, as we have supposed," says Rawlin-
son, "the successful leader who, at the
head of a great emigration from the east,
first established an Aryan supremacy
over the country known in history as
Media, he must have been engaged during
the early part of his reign in a struggle
with the Scythians. Scythic races occupied
Media and the whole chain of Zajjros un
til this period, and it was only bv their
probably a Marian arid not an Aryan race, i Rawl. tula and a line from its head to the Adri
Herod. 346, 319. "There is every reason to believe,"
says Kawlinson, "that the Medes of history hail atic; and the heart of the nationality may
not reached Media Maffnu fifteen hundred years af
ter the time when the Medes of Berosns, probably
a difierent race, conquered Babylon." Ut supra.
"Upon the whole there are strong grounds for be sonI Herod.
lieving that the great Median kingdom was first es
tablished by Cyuxares, about the year B. C. 633."
Ihid. 324.
39
being subdued or expelled that the Aryans
could obtain possession."3"
i. Thc lim-es Who Si-Itled Western Eu
rope.
The most ancient historical allusion to
the people of Western Europe, is that
given by Herodotus, who refers to them
and their country as a people but little
known, and in a country new and remote
from the then civilized world. What in
formation he had of them must have been
gathered previous 10450 B.C. He calls
them the Cells, and says they "live be
yond the pillars of Hercules, and border on
the Cynesians, who dwell at the extreme
west of Europe," and that the Ister (the
Danube) " has its source in the country of
the Celts." l Whatever is ancient and ven
erable in connection with Western Europe
is Celtic; and Genesis, Josephus, Herodo
tus, and all history assure us that they were
the first of the Japhetic race who emi
grated to Western Europe; and that their
first resting-place, after leaving their pa
rental home, was on the Euxine, or the
Black Sea.
When this emigration first took place
must, in a great measure, be left as a mat
ter of conjecture. But history will war
rant us in saying that some of the Celtic
race must have arrived in France (or Gaul)
previous to 1600 B. C., and gradually
spread themselves over the whole of it,
from the Cimbric Chersonesusto Spain and
Italv," and from the Alps and the Rhine
to Britain and Ireland.
The great nationalities of North and
Western Europe are these : i. The Celts,
occupying Western Europe, west of the
Rhine, and a line drawn from its head to
the head of the Adriatic; and the heart of
the nationality may be placed in the center
of France; 2. The Teutons, who occupy
the country north and east of the Rhine,
south of the Baltic, and west of the Vis
30 T Ka-wl. Herod., 326.
B. a. c. 33, and B. iv. c. \g. 2 Rawlin
Herod., 44.
a Michelet's Hist. "France, ch. i. Godwin's Hist.
France, 19, &c.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
be placed in the centre of Germany. 3.
The Sclavonians east of the Vistula and
north of what was formerly included as
part of Greece; and now principally in
eluded hi t'.ic Russian dominion; and 4.
The Scandinavians on the north of the
Baltic. These nationalities have held and
occupied their several positions from the
earliest times known in history, and amidst
every conflict of war and revolution have
maintained their characteristics as the basis
of the people to the present day. In the
midst of these there are here and there
other isolated nationality, as the Turani
ans already spoken of: the Italians in south
ern Italy; the Grecian in Greece; the Turks
in Thrace and Macedonia; the Hungarians
in eastern Germany ;the Sclavonians along
the southern borders of the Baltic from
the Vistula to the lower Elbe in northern
Germany ; the Northmen and Franks in
France, and the Saxons and Danes in
liritain. But almost in all instances the
invading people become more or less ab
sorbed and assimilated in the original na
tionality, and more like the original and sur
rounding people than their own forefath
ers.''
3 The general character of the inhabitants of Wes
tern Europe is well summed up in the New Amcr.
Cyclo. (vol. 7. .135.) Art. Europe; thus:"The in
habitants of Knrope area mixture jof many different
tribes, the most of whom belonirin^f to the great
Indo-Gcrinan [European] stock of thu Caucasian
race. Of the aborigines of Europe nothing is known
with any decree ot certainty, al'houjjh scientific
researches h.uv led to discoveries upon which the
most singular theories hjwe been based." . . . "We
find that in the wist of Kuropc the Itnrians appear
as the aboriginal inh.ihilants. [in Spain], of whom
the Masques are belu \v<l to Uc Ihc only extant re
At a very ch these aborigines
were intruded upon by people nf the Gallic or Celtic
stock, who acquired possession of all France, Hri-
tain, Ireland. Spain, and the north of Italy (Ga'liil
Cisalpina). Afterwards another kindled* people,
speaking a dinVnn* Jani^ua^r (the Cimbric. Cym-
bric, or Cambrian race), conquered the north of
France south and ea>r of Britain. and the north
western shores of Germany. tiir races,
Iberian*, (It:iMiues\ Celts, and Cvinry, are found in
possession ot" the \\csl!ind soulhv\ est of Europe at
the dawn of hi.-lory. In the east and northwest,
the Uyrians (Mongolian) races, (perhaps the Scyth
ians of the atvknt:-K of whom the Lapps, Finns,
Samoycds, and tile Magyars are the present remains,
seem to have been the original inhabitants. At an
early period the Sarmatians (Slavi) settled in the
countries north of the I'lack sea, and Jircssing north
west, gradually dispossessed the T. Brians of their
country. Between the UBrians and Sannatian races
of the east and the Cells and Cymrv of the west, the
Germanic races are found at the earliest period of
traditionary history pressing north to conquer Scan
dinavia and south against I'rancc and Italy." That
article in the X. America Cyclopedia is well worthy
of the readers attention.
[Book i.
At the earliest period in authentic histo
ry, as supported bv evidence arising from
reliable tradition and the monuments of
antiquity, we find Northern and Western
Europe, occupied by two contending; and
opposing races of men ; each claiming to
be the descendants of Japheth, and equally
admitted to be properly classed with the
Caucasian and Indo-European race of the
human family. These were distinguished
by the generic names of the Celtic, and the
Teutonic races of the European people;
whose descendants at this day give a de
cided difference ot character to the people
of the several portions of Europe inhabited
by them. In the west the Celtic prevail;4
in all the central parts, the Teutonic.
At the present day as we proceed west from
the Rhine, however much we find the peo
pie intermingled and amalgamated, we dis
cover the Celtic race and characteristics
more or less prevailing, as we find cast of
it the Teutonic; the Vistula is
reached, when another race prevails, known
as the Slavonian race, descendants of the
ancient Sarmatians, and belonging to the
Indo-European family. In receding from
these celebrated rivers, either east or west,
the distinguishing characteristic of these
three races of men become more and more
striking; placing the heart of the Celt in
Britain and France; that of the Teuton in
Germany, and the Slave in Russia.
It is with the Celt and Teuton, that the
history of Britain, as a people, has princi
pally to deal. It is strange that these two
races, each possessing many of the finest
characteristics of the human family, oc
cupying the first rank in the world, and
possessing so many things in common,
should still have been foes to each other
from the earliest period in their history.
Both came in the earliest period from their
original home in Western Asia: the Celt
first, being crowded by their enemies and
the pressure of incre.isins; population,
sought relief in an emigration to the west;
to find a m>rc hospitable home in a new
country found in the then Western Europe.
During this struggle to settle the west, the
4 Herodotus, B. iv, c. 93. Cxsar's Com., B. ltc. I.
 Chap, i.) THE INHABITANTS OF WESTERN EUROPE.
Teuton constantly pressed and encroached took possession of the most tempting
on the Celt; eacli facing the other until the parts of Great Britain and Ireland. At
farthest limits of Europe was attained. how early a day this took place, can hard
But so far as Britain and Ireland (or the ly be conjectured, but it must have been
British Islands) were concerned, until niter many centuries before thecomingof Ca^sarj
the commencement ot the Christian era, and before the advent of the Cymry. It is
all the people are to be included in one also probable that the Turanians had pre
general denomination, and that is the Cel ceded them, who have left marks of their
tic race. The people whom the Greeks existence there, in graves and mounds of
culled Celts and the country Celtica, the peculiar formation, but who soon entirely
Romans called Ihc inhabitants (lalli and disappeared.
the country dil/ia ,'"' which included all the In the earliest historical account we
country within the Rhine, the Alps, the havCj both in Gaul and Britain, the people
I'yrennees and the Atlantic or British were divided up into a multitude of inde
channel. C:esar says that in their own pendent tribes or states, under their sever
tongue they were called Celts; but it must al and respective chiefs and government,
ne that both names, Celts and Gauls, were still we have but very little of that which
common to them. It is claimed that both ! would afford us any correct notion of any
names are derived from the same root; ethnical distinction between them; and
and to this day a branch of the same peo only leave us impressed with the belief,
ple in the northwest of Scotland and Ire that the whole of the great body of the
land are called Gaels, a word derived from people were Celts. Caisar says:"The
Ihc same source." 1 1 must be that at an whole country of Gaul is divided into three
early day, the inhabitants of Gaul on the parts: of which the Belgians inhabit one;
shores of the Strait of Dover, observing the Aquitanians another; and a people call
the tall white cliffs on the opposite shore, ing themselves in iheir own language
were tempted to cross over, and gradually Celts, in ours Gauls, the third. These all
5 Cxsar's Coin., It. i, c. i. i. Godwin's Hist, of"
differ from each other in their language, cus
France, 14; Anthon's Class. Dictionary. Vaughn's toms and laws. The Gauls are divided from
Kevo. of Knglish History. 9. 3 Kawl. Herod., 150.
"Nicbuhr's conclusion, alter an elaborate analysis the Aquitanians by the river Garonne,
is, that 'the two nations, Cymry and G.lel, may he and bv the Marne and the Seine from the
properly comprised under the common name of
Cells." Also ^ I'richard's Physical I list. Mankind, Belgians. Of all these nations the Belgl-
<:h. 3, JS. Michelct (i Hist. France, 69,) after iden
tifying the language of all these countries, says: ans are the most warlike They
"A Frciicii word, found in frse infant rrwnlrtes,
now so isolifpn1 frn-n i'rumv, must he due to a period are also situated tux, to the GcrmrtiiH, who
in which Gaul, Great liritain, and Ireland were still inhabit beyond the Rhine, with whom they
.sisters, in which there was hctwrcii them identity
of race, religion, and language, and in which the are constantly engaged in war."' The
union uf the Celtic world was still unbroken." Britons he represents as being distin
6 Anthon in his Classical Dictionary says: "As
far back as we GUI pi-netralc into the history of the guished, those in the interior as being na
West, we find the race of the Gauls occupying that tives of the soil; but the sea coast was
part of the continent, as well as the two threat
feland
Island', opposite, situate to the northwest. Of peopled by Belgians, who were drawn over
these two Islands, the one nearest to the continent
was called Aib-in. 'White Islands,' (All) signifying by the love of war and plunder; and set
'hi^h' and 'white': and inn contracted from 'innis,' tling in the country, retaining the several
which means island). The other island bore the
name of Er-in. 'Island of the West,' (from Kir or states from whence they descended."
lar, 'the West.') The- continental terril'iry received
-the special appellation of Gtieltathd, 'land of the
(al!s.' The term (racUacftd.nr, more correctly. (rtiiJ- 7 Ca;sar's Com., B. i, c. i.
iea/lacfid,'is still applied to. the highlands of Scot 8 Com., B. v, chap, x. Cyclopedia of British
land. Kro:n the words Ihc Greeks formed I'tl/.ariu Theo. and Kccles. Literature, vol. iii, p. 710,
(Gttlatia) and from it the generic name of Ya/,UTin Art. G.M.ATIA; see a very interesting article,"Ga
latia, ['ii/M-at, is the same word with K/.r<l(,
. . . . Tile Romans called the inhabitants by one
jrencral name, Gulti, while the Greeks stvled them Celtica: and the Galatians were, in their origin, a
Celt*. The Greeks railed the country itseff Calatia, stream of that great Celtic torrent (apparently
Ctllica (Kf/'.r/wy). and Celto-Galatia; the last for Cymry, and Gael), which poured into Macedonia
about U. C. 2So (Straho IV, iS?; VII, 566; Livy
distinction* sake from Galatia in Asia Minor." An XXXVIII. 16; Flor. II, n; Justin XXV, 2; Appian,
thon's "Class. Diet., 530 i. Title Gallia. Sec also a Syr., XXXII, 42). Some of these invaders moved
very able and intcrc-sting article in the Introduction to into Thrace, and appeared on the shores of tlie
Webster's DicUuoary. t o. Hellespont and Bosphorus, whereNicomcdcsI, king;
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
That the Aquitanians south of the Ga the battles of Agricola with Caractacus in
ronne, were a people greatly differing from the west, and with Galgacus in the north
the rest of Gaul, is very true, for they were at the foot of the Grampian Hills, were all
principally made up of Iberians, emigrants alike as characteristic of one people and
from Spain. But the Belgians were also one general nationality,in their chariots
Celts and were not to be distinguished in and mode of battle; and in their general
this respect -from the rest of the Gaul.9 union in their own defence. All these
And it also must be very evident that the views assert that ethnically they were one
great mass of the people in South Britain people; and that all which appertain to
were Celts, though formerly residents of their history and character, demonstrated
Belgium, as we shall hereafter more fully that unity, and rendered it peculiarly
notice. But it may well be remarked here, British;no where else met with in Wes
that all we can gather from the most au tern Europe.
thentic history of that day, especially what Notwithstanding that great ethnic unity
we can gather from Ca;sar and Tacitus, in the ancient people of Gaul and the
demonstrate that the Britons, as found by British Islands, they were still divided into
Ca;sar from his landing in Kent, and his two great families of one origin :the elder
war with them the whole way until he had and the youngest branches of the Celtic
crossed the Thames into Middlesex and races. These two branches are: the
abandoned further pursuit of them, were Gauls, Galli, duel; and J. Cymri, C.ymry,
but one people; and that he saw nothing ('imbri. The language of the first called
but what was indicatix e of one nationality, Gallic and Gaelic, and that of the second.
in their mode of warfare, and in their cos Cymraeg or Cymric. Both agreeing as
tumes and habits, and their intercourse one family of language and people ; but de
with. one another. The same may he said cidedly differ from the rest of Western
of all that was observed there by Agricola. Europe.
The battles with Gesar on the Thames, The first branch of the Celtic race, must
of Hithynia, being then engaged in a civil war, have arrived in Gaul at a very early period,
invited them across into Asi:i Minor, in assist him as has been already suggested, but at vari
against his brother, Xy buries, H. C. Cir., 270. Hav
ing accomplished this object, they were unu tiling to ous times and in different emigration.
retrace their steps; ;iinl, strengthened by the acrcs-
sion of fresli hordes Ironi Kliropc, they overran the Their route has been pointed out by some
neighboring count r'u-.i The Galatian.s historians, as that from their original home,
were still ficttird in their three tribes, the Tccto-
sagcs, the Tolistohogii, and the Tronni, the first of (after leaving the cradle of the race), on the
which is identical In name with a tribe familiar to us north side of the Euxineor Black sea; thence
in the history 01" Gaul, as distributed over the Cev-
cnnes nc;ir Touliiu.M. ((. \vsar, Itcll. (Jail. i\. 2-j;
by the Carpathian mountains, (tie Danube,
Comp. JablousKy, Di1 lingua I-yraonica, p. a^). The
three capitals were respectively Ta\ inm, IVssinus, the foot of the Alps, and through Helvetia
and Ancyra. The last >f tliuvc (the modern An to Southern Gaul. Others by the valley of
gora) was the renter of the district, and mav be re
garded as the mi'tropolis oi t!ie (i.iiatiaiis. These the I'o, where some of their kindred re
eastern (iauls ])re>crv\-<l much of their ancient char
acter, and SOUK ilurti; o( their ancient language. mained and in after times known to the Ro
At Icasljerome says that in Iiis day the same Ian- mans as Cisalpine Gaul. Along these
ifiiajje nii-^ht be heard at Ancyra as at Tre\e>; and
he is a gornl witness, lor he himself had been at routes, thev left various names of places,
Trevcs."
rivers and mountains in their language,
9 See Godwin's France, 16; part 20, n. ^, An-
thon's Cl. Dirt. Art (ialha, j^S. Also Vaughn's giving sure indication who these people
Revolutions in RntflKh TIistor\,o, who says: "To were. It must have been in one of these
know tlie race ol the Helific (j.iuls in the tiini- of
C";usar, is to know the race of the Itriti<h at that movements, but at a later period, that oc
time. The rouimon opinion is, that the Hcltfic were
a branch of ihe great Celtic family. Nine-tenths of curred the incident narrated by Herodotus.
our most competent authorities are of this judgment, He represents that the Scythians of Asia be
and nine*-tenths <~>t the evidence on the case is with
them. That the Germans and C'clts bordered upon ing driven west by the Massagotic, entered
each other, and mixed in some degree together upon
the territory now known as the Jxiw Countries, may the land of the Cimmerians. "For the land
be admitted. Hut that circumstance is consistent
with the fact that the language of all the known
communities of Britain was found to be Celtic, and 10 On this subject see Rishnp Percy's Preface to
not Gern.an. The language of Wales is not the Mallet's Northern Antiquities, in Holm's Antiqua-
language of German." I rian library.
Chap, i.] THE INHABITANTS OF WESTERN EUROPE.
which is now inhabited by the Scyths," says
Herodotus, "was formerly the country of the
Cimmerians. On their corning, the natives,
who heard how numerous the invading
army was, held a council. At this meeting
opinion was divided, and both parties stiffly
maintained their own view, but the counsel
of the Royal tribe was the bravest. For
the others urged that the best thing to be
done was to leave the country and avoid a
contest with so vast a host; but the Royal
tribe advised remaining and fighting for the
soil to the last. As neither party chose to
give way, the one determined to retire
without a blow and yield their land to the
invaders; but the other, remembering the
good things which they had enjoyed in
their homes, and picturing to themselves
the evils which they had to expect if they
gave them up, resolved not to flee, but
rather to die and at least be buried in the
fatherland Having thus divided, they drew
apart in two bodies, the one as numerous as
the other, and fought together. All of the
Royal tribe were slain, and the people buried
them near the river Tyras, where their
grave is still to be seen. Then the rest of
the Cimmerians departed, and the Scythi
ans, on their coining, took possession of a
deserted land.""
How often history repeats itself. This
interesting story of Herodotus reminds us
of that of Cromwell and his party at an early
period in the English great revolution, hav
ing embarked on shipboard, determined to
leave their distracted country and go to
their brethren who had preceded them in
the new world. But the Royal party de
clared they should not go; and they were
compelled or consented to yield, and did
not depart Not so however with the Cim
merians. They were then on the river
Tyras, now the Dniester, in the north
western angle of the Black Sea ; and the
survivors departed on the same route pur
sued by their brethren in their prior emigra
tion to Western Europe.
Such were the emigrants from the north
western shores of the Euxine, who peopled
the west of Europe and became known to
Herodotus, H. iv. c. ii. I Ka\vl. Herod., 8 and
n. 7.
history as the Celts. These became what
we have denominated the elder branch of
that race. But the second or younger
branch came at a later date and were re
ceived in Gaul and Britain as friends and
brethren. They were permitted to settle
down in the midst ot the old Celts in both
countries; and became known to history
as the Cymry, and as the Cymric branch
of the Celtic family. At the time of the
Romans, these occupied in Britain, the
greater part from its southern shore to the
Murray Firth in the far north; and in Gaul
they possessed the country within the lines
commencing at the mouth of the Garonne,
and thence in a north-eastern direction to
Troges on the headwaters of the Seine,
and thence in the direction of Coblent/ on
the Rhine. This includes not only the
Cvmri, proper, but also Belgians whom we
consider as, ethnically, all one people.
This includes all of the northwest ot'Gaul.
That portion of it which was peculiarly
Cymric was south of the Seine, and de
nominated by the RomansArmarka; a
name derived from two Cymric words,
"Ar," on or by, and "Mor," sea ; which at
this day are well known Welsh words "
Of the Cymric Celts who have specially
retained their identity to our present day,
are the Welsh and the people of Cornwall
in the west of England, and Hie people in
the northeast of Scotland, in Great Britain ;
and the people of Armoriea, now Brittany
in France. These people still retain a
fond remembrance of their ancestors, and
maintain an elevated notion of their own
character for honesty and faithfulness.
u See (jodvvin, ^n. 15) who has well studied his
subject, says: "The Kymric division of the Kelts,
or tnc Armoricans, as they may be also called,
dwelt on the yea shore to Ihe west of the Gaels,
from the mouth of the Garonne to tiie mouth of the
Seine, and principally
pally in the rude
ru peninsula of Tirit-
tuny, where they made themselIvcs skillful and dar-
iti sailors. Among tin. luiuling tribes were the
Pictonrs. the J,ciiio~vikc the Sniitoncs, the Nan-
netes, the Carnutcs, whose capital, Autncum(Char-
tres), the reputed centre of Gaul, was the headquar
ters of'Druidism, and whose second city, Genabum,
was a place of considerable commerce; and the
I*inpons, Ccnomans and Scnones, whom we shall
hereafter mcetin Italy."
"The Hcl^ie Gains, whose native name, Bel-
ipaidd, is derived Irom the Kymric root bfl", signi-
V'nK w:lr'ikc, dwelt between the Seine, the Vospes,
the Khine, and the ocean," and arc represented as a
ruder people than the Gauls, "because, as Caesar
says complacently, of their distance from the Ro
man province."
44' THE BRITISH PERIOD.
3. The Cymry.
Now it becomes an interesting question :
Who weie this Cymric race, who, in the
midst of their brethren with whom they
agree in language and ethnical designa
tions, differed so much from the same race,
as to maintain characteristics so distinct as
to endure to the present day? Evidently
the same people and from the same origin,
how comes it that they have become so
distinguished from the rest of their kindred,
the Celtic race? We think this question
is satisfactorily answered, by circumstan
tial evidence drawn from undoubted facts
and circumstances, developed in history.
In judicial matters a satisfactory determi
nation is often produced from circumstan
tial evidence, and such evidence is as
-convincing, when only dependent upon
foot-prints, marks and other collateral cir
cumstances, as when sustained by direct
and positive evidence; and the same is the
case in history. It is so in relation to the
question put in regard to the history of the
.ancient Cymry. When all the evidence as
to the facts and toot-prints in relation to
the matter in issue are collected, it leaves
room only for one conviction; and it is
now proposed to produce such circumstan
tial evidence, and to show what is its ra
tional conclusion.
It seems that when the Scythians attack
ed the Cimmerians, who were at the north
western angle of the Black Sea on the
river Tyrns, and were driven thence to the
west, there was another branch of the same
people a great distance further east, on I he
^waters of the Pains Hfiaitis, now the sea
of Azof; who, some time afterwards, were
also attacked by the Scythians, and driven
further east. Herodotus represents that
these Scythians drove and pursued these
Cimmerians into Asia, around the east end
of the Ruxinc;1 and lurthcr says: "In the
reign of Ardys (king of Lydia) the Cim
merians, driven from their home by the
nomades ol Scythia, entered Asia, and
captured Sardis, all but the citadel. He
reigned forty-nine years, and was succeed
ed by his son, Sadyattes, who reigned
i Herodotus B. iv, ch. it. 3 R.iwl. Herod., o.
[Book i.
twelve years. At his death, his son,
Alyattes, mounted the throne. This prince
(the grandson of Ardys) drove the Cim
merians out of Asia."' This is about all the
information to be derived on the subject
from Herodotus, except in another place
he says: "The horde of Scythians burst
into Asia in pursuit of the Cimmerians
whom they had driven out of Europe, and
enteied the Median territory."3 And
again say : "The Scythians, it is plain, pur
sued them, [from the Cimmerian Bosphor
us, and Palus Mauotis], and missing their
road, poured into Media. For the Cim
merians kept the line which led along the
sea-shore, but the Scythians in their pursuit
held the Caucasus upon their right, thus
proceeding inland, and falling upon Media.
This account is one which is common both
to Greeks and barbarians. "<
This account leaves no doubt that this
body of Cimmerians, who had taken Sar
dis and were so long in Asia Minor, enter
ed it from the east and came there around
the east end of the Black Sea. How long
they were in Asia Minor is not very easy
to determine, from the different data given
In various authors. But to take those
given by Herodotus and Rawlinson, they
entered that country and remained there
during the parts of three reigns, and to
judge from Rawlinson, we might put the
lime between 6So and 6jo B. C. The length
of time that they remained there is some
what doubtlul, but it is generally admitted
to have been from fifty to seventy years.
But Lenormant, in his History of the
East, who assumes to be aided in his facts
bv matters recentlv disclosed by the in
scriptions found on monuments and tile in
the ruins of Nineveh, tells a somewhat
different story as to "M* ?nvnion of Asia
Minor. He states the invasion of the Cim
merians to have been in the reign of
2 Herodotus B. i., ch. isand 16; i Rawl. Herod.,
127. See also Kaawlinson's Kssay I. to Herod. B.
iv, in 3 vol., 150.
3 Herod. , B. i, ch. ioj; i Rawl. Herod., iSo, jgy.
N*. B. The north- western un^Ieof the Black Sea IB
in Kurojic ; Media is in Asia.
4 Herod., B. iv, eh. la. It is urobable that the
pussafje of these people was not by the sea, but
through the Caucasian CSate; after passing whicfc
the ScythLins kept to the left into Media, while the
Cimmerians kept to their right into Asia Minor.
Chap, i.) THE INHABITANTS OF 1 WESTERN EUROPE.
Gyges, the father of Ardys. Asshurbani-
pal, king of Nineveh, having previously
aided Gyges in his war with the Cimmer
ians, to punish a recent revolt of Gyges,
summoned the Cimmerians to invade the
kingdom of Gvges in Lydia again.
"Gyges was killed in this invasion: his
son, Ardys, who succeeded him, hastened
to make his sulimission to Aashurbanipal,
who then per-uadcd the Cimmerians to
depart."5 This concurs in the general
fact us to the invasion o[ Asia Minor
by the Cimmerians, as stated by Her
odotus, but it deranges dates and the
reigns of the Lydian monarchs in which
it occurred ; and put.s back the date
of the first invasion into the eighth cen
tury B. C., and the expulsion about 6S5,6
which would make it probable that the ex
pulsion of the Cimmerians from Asia
Minor was previous to 650 B.C., after they
had been in that country between fifty and
seventy years.
Lenormant further says that Lydia at
that time had two enemies to contend
with: "the Greeks who had established
themselves on the coast, and cut off the
access to the sea; and also the Cimmerians,
a last remnant of the Celts, who remained
after the migration of the others of their
race, and who, driven to the Caucasus by
the Scythians, passed its defiles from time
to time, and rushed, like a devastating tor
rent, into Asia Minor. For a long period
these people kept the Lydians in constant
terror by their sudden invasions."" "The
Cimmerian Bosphorus derived its name
from its Cello Cimmerian population, who
were settled there for some time, and, as
we have already said, made incursion into
Asia Minor."8
These "Cello-Cimmerians" about 650 B.
C. departed from Lydia, (Sardis), and the
question is. Where did they go to? They
did not return east, for that would bring
them in conflict with the Scythians and
5 I Lcnor. Hist, of the East, -joy.
6 Rawlmson stltcs tin: (lutes upon the l>esl author of the Welsh. They have no mind to pass over the
ities as follows:(Vy^es, It. C. 727 to f>So; Arclys, earth and be Forgotten. Their prop-ess must be
689 to 640. Sec I Uawl. Herod. 178.
7 2 I.cnor. Hist, of the Kant. 76.
S Ibid., .35.
45 '
the Assyrian.- of Nineveh, who had done
so much to oppose and expel them. The
answer must be, that they crossed the
Hellespont, or the Thracian Bosphorus, on
their wav to their brethren in Western
Europe. We claim that this was so, and
we shall proceed to adduce facts and cir
cumstances to demonstrate it; and to prove
that these were the true ancestors of the
Cymry.
When the Cimmerians were expelled
from Asia Minor, they proceeded through
Thrace to the Danube, and up that river
to some place near where Vienna or Lint/.
has since been built; and there crossed and
Icll the path pursued by their former broth
rcn, and took a less mountainous way over
to the Elbe and down that river to its
mouth ; where they fixed their residence
for some time, and became known to the
Romans by the name of Cimbri, instead of
the Greek appellation of Cimmerians.
Here they conferred upon the country of
their residence the name in ancient geogra
phy of Cimbricti Chersonesus. On their
I way they left a colony between the Elbe
and the Baltic long afterwards noticed as
being there by Tacitus, by the name of
Ccestii," and who, he affirmed, spoke the
same language as the Britons. The main
body of the Cimbri, however, did not long
remain there, but leaving a colony there
passed south, seeking a warmer and more
genial climate, to which they had been ac
customed. They proceeded, through Bel
gium, where they left a belligerent but less
cultivated portion of their people, to the
south of the Seine and to Armorica, (IJrit
tany);10 where a large portion of their
people became permanently fixed; but the
main body of them, carrying with them
the most striking part of their charactcris-
9 Tacitus DC Mor. Germ. Turner says if this be
true, the CiL-stii must have been a Kimmerian tribe.
Sec Turner's Hist. Anjjlo-Saions, vol. i, chap, ii,
where much is found in support o< this view of the
history of the Cyiury.
10 "From the north" says Michejet in his Hist.
France, vol. i, p. 66, "sweep down in j^ood lime the
obstinate Cvmry, the ancestors of the Bretons and
marked by monuments. They rear the needles of
Loc Maria Kcr and trace the lines of Carnac."
This emigration of the Cymry he puts about 600
n. c.
4*5 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
tics, learning and improvements, to
Britain; especially retaining with them
their institution of the Druids, and their
chariots.
This accords with every thing known in
history, and not impugned by a single fact.
All candid historians have over and over
again admitted the fact, that the Cymry of
Britain were the descendants of the ancient
Cimbri." This is in conformity with the
claim that the Cymry themselves have
ever set up,that their ancestors came
from the far east, "the country of summer
near Constantinople, and were lead by
Hu the Great, through the hazy ocean to
the island of Britain and to Llydaw (Ar
morica or Brittany) where they have ever
remained.' '-
Without at present referring to all the
ancient authorities which would aid us in
our position, we may say in general terms,
that almost all history, both ancient and
modern, in addition to what the Cymry
claim for themselves, shows that the Cim
merians of the Greek, and the Cimbri of
the Romans were one and the same people;
and that they were Celts. The first home
of the race, after their ancestors left the
cradle of mankind, was on the north side of
the Euxine Sea, where they were known to
exist before the time of Homer, for he men
tions them. The next we find them in the
possession of almost all Western Europe,
under the name of Celts; and this is the
name, as Cajsar says, they acknowledged
for themselves in Gaul. As historians as
sert that they were in Gaul as early as
1600 B. C. some of the race, as already sug
gested, must have left their original home
on the Euxine before that date. These un
doubtedly went directly west by the route
of the Danube and the foot of the Alps to
Southern France. This was accomplished
11 Sec I Sharon Turner's Hist. Ang-lo-Saxons,
41, VTc. : A. Thierry's Norman Conquest; Anthon's
Class. Diet., titles" Galli and Cimmerians ; and es
pecially set- 3 Rawlison's Herod. Essay i, 150, "Iden
tity of the Clmmerii with Cymry."
12 See the Welsh triads in the Archaeology of
Wales, vol. ii: "First, Hit Gadani, who led the na
tion of the Cyrnry first to the i.sle of Britain; 'find
from the country of Summer, which is called l>efT-
robani, thev came; this is where Constantinople is:
and through the ha/.y ocean they came to the island
of Britain and to I.lydaw, where they have remain
ed." Llydaw is Armorica or Brittany.
[Book i.
in repeated emigration, and some of them
long before they wei e attacked by the Scyth
ians- The name of Cimmerian (Ktfiptpiot)
was given and imposed upon them by the
Greeks, and was not recognized by them
selves; but that branch, who had been in
Asia Minor sixty or seventy years, in the
midst of the Greeks, had been so distinc
tively denominated Cimmerians, that it was
in a measure fixed upon them ; and being in
accordance with what they claimed for
themselves as Gomerians or Cimmerians,
they recognized the name, and became
known as Cimbri, and called themselves
Cymry, although that name was not familiar
to their original brethren in Gaul. As al-
ready stated, these took a different route in
going to their brethren in Western Europe,
and by a more northern passage, taking the
Cimbrian Chersonesus on their way and
giving to it its name. Leaving some of
their people there, the main body soon de
parted south for Gaul and Armorica. Ac
cordingly, Michelet in his history of France
says:13 "A new Celtic tribe, the Cymry or
Cainry, (Cimmerii) came to join the Gauls
(B. C. 631-58.) The new-comers, who set
tled for the most part in the centre of
France, on the Seine and the Loire, were,
it appears, of more serious and stable char
acter. Less indisposed to restraint, they
were governed by a sacerdotal corporation
the Druids." Besides all what may be
cited from ancient authorities, hereafter
referred to in support of this theory of the
history of the Cymry, there is no other
way to account how it was, that the Cym
ry had so many things connected with their
history, so very different from any other
people in Western Europe,'4 which was in
common wilh those of Asia Minor. On
H . as follows:"Appian
, . ,
authorities (Illy., p. ni/Sand
de Bell. Civil, p. 6*5) and Diodorus (i v., p. .509) say
that the Celts were Cimmerians. Plutarch (in
Mario) agrees with them."The Cimmerians,"
says Kpporus, (Straho I, p. 375,) "inhabit suhter-
ancan dwellings, which they call nrjrillas." In the
poetry of the Welsh Cymry, argel signifies :l sub
tcrancous place."
14 See a very interesting article confirmatory of
these views in the New Amer. Cyclopedia, 1858,
vol. 3. Title, Briton. It assumes that there were
two distinct Celtic races. the Gallic and Cymric,
and cites the ancient authorities to sustain the posi
tion.
Chap. i.J THE INHABITANTS OK WESTERN EUROPE. 47
this subject we may refer: i. To their him, and watching his movement?."
chariots. In no country out of Egypt was ; The question here attempted to be illuci-
the war chariot so extensively used as by the | dated, is one which has been much involved
Lydians and the Assyrians, with whom the by authors, and upon which a great deal of
Cimmerians came mostlv in conflict while difficulty has been thrown into history;
in Asia Minor. There are but few things conflicting opinions, principally arising
that can be mentioned which would re from not observing, that Gaul derived its
quire so much skill in mechanism and the Celtic population from two sources; the
arts in general as the construction and one by the direct route from Tyras in Cim-
management ot the war chariot. It re meria,17 as related by Herodotus; and the
quired the skill of the agriculturist in the other from the same race, but at a different
raising and management of the horse; then time and by a different route that from
there is the harness which also would re- | the Cimbri from Lvdia in Asia Minor, by
quire much artistic knowledge and skill ; the way of the Baltic. By observing these
there is also required the mechanical arts I two sources of i>o[>ulation, of a kindred
necessary in the working the wood and ; race, differing only in dialect of their Ian-
iron in the construction of I he chariot. 2. guage, and in their learning and habits, ac-
Thf; Cymry brought with them into Gaul quired in their long stay and education
the institution of the Druids, Druidism and while at Sardis in Lydia, and other places
its system of religion and theology. In in Asia Minor; the subject is divested of
connection with this, it has long been no- its source of difficulty, and accounts for the
ticeJ, that they had much which was in i otherwise unaccountable diflicuitv, the dif-
common with them and I'vthagoras1 system ' terence between the old Celts of Guul and
of philosophy and theology, and it has been their more recent immigrant brethren, who
a wonder among the learned how the took possession, at a more recent date, of
Druids came hv it. The only answer is, i Central Gaul, Armorica and Britain."
they learned it while in that school of sixty These imparted to their brethren on the
or seventy years in Asia Minor, j. Their ! continent much of their distinctive acquire-
acquaintancu with, and skill in many of nicnls and habits before going to Britain,
the arts and sciences: as their skill in but still Ciesar says that the Gauls were in
working iron and other metals, and actual- th? habit of sending their sons to Britain
ly coining money. And also their knowl- to be educated by the Druids.1'-1 Even in
edge in astronomy, philosophy and medi- the time of C;esar, great difference was ob-
cine; nor must their acquaintance with servablc between Gaul and Britain in these
music and the harp he forgotten. respects, for it was in Britain that Ca,-sar
That the ancient Cvmrv posted all was so astonished bv the jjreat number of
this knowledge and arts, "before Ca-sar's Chariot* that was brought against him, the
time, the proof, it not as ample a. it might ski11 with wllil'h th re manured, and
be desirable, is still quite satisfactory. the extraordinary learning and theology of
Nothing so astoni-hed Ciesar and his le
gions,15 as the number of war chario's that ih d:sar's (Join., J,. v. ch. xv.
~ . . .17 17 See
Sec Godwin's France, 27, where this
Ihis co
oxitiirt o*
the Britons brought against them, and the oppression may in sonic measure he seen.
skill with which they \verj constructed and iS Ant!mn in his most udmirahlc article on "(ial-
managed Ca_'sar declares that they, atone lia" in his Classical Diet, after a thorough exami-
n:llion of the Cymrii 1. intrude, conrluiles liy s:l\ ini(:
time, disbanded all other forces, and re "i. The Gallic poptihition,
population, properly
]>n>jn so called,
w.is divided mt< Gnlh :ind Cvmri.
tained only four thousand chariots against h;id precede.! the Cymri on the soil of Britain, and
prohuhly iilso <n thut t <ul; und, .^. The ( i.illi a.nd
the Cymri tbrmed_ two races, belonijinj; to one and
the same human family."
15 In rt-iidin^ Ca;s:ir, the student should be re
inindt-d lh;it the [j;trt th:it C':us;ir s;uv of liritain w;i^ l,> Ovsar's Com., I., vi. rli. xiii. u-here it is said:
the newer part (>l il -tlu- oldest uiul most improved j "Their institution, (the Druids ot" Gaul), is suppose '
of it wux that on the Souihern Avon, where Ave- ! to come originally from Hrit;iin, whence1 it passid.
bury mid Stondnjiiife \vere, and where \'esj>asian | into (i;iul, and even at this day, snrli as arc desirous
afterwards conquered, and found so many towns, of hein^ perfected in it, travel thither for iristruc-
Scc part IJ. ii, ch. , . lion."
.48 THE BRITISH PERIOD. (Book i.
the Druids. Nor should we, in meditating Professor George Rawlinsnn in his edi
upon this subject, overlook the fact that tion of Herodotus, Appendix to Book IV,
wherever we find those monuments of ex Essay I, vol. Ill, page 150, has an elaborate
traordinary labor, skill iiral industry of the review of the question, who the Cimbri
Druids, as at Carnac in Brittany, at Stone- were, and whence they came. His con
hcnge and Avebury in Wiltshire in En clusion of the question is that they were
gland, and at Stennis in Orkney, and simi the ancestors of the Cymry, and the de
lar monuments in Eastern .Scotland, all scendants of the more ancient Cimmerians.
evidently the work of one and same people, After collecting together all that the histori
there the name and memory of the Cym ans would aflord him, and coming to the
rv have been more concentrated and intensi conclusion indicated, he say s :"When thcs
fied.*) questions have teen settled, it will be inter
In connecting the Cymry with Asia esting to trace the history and migrations of
Minor, we may refer to the fact that the a people which has an antiquity of above
British coracle,21 and the ancient boats de twenty-five hundred years, and has spread
scribed by Herodotus on the Euphrates, as from the steppes of the Ukraine to the
by him described, may be considered one j mountains of Wales.
and the same invention by a kindred peo- j ''The identity of the Cymry of Wale"
pie-" And may we not imagine that the I with the Cimbri of the Romans seeinK
Celtic G;ui!s, who were led by Brennus in I wortlu oi' being accepted as a historic fact
their atack on Greece and Asia Minor, and upon tin.- grounds stated by Niebuhr an<l
who in the latter country about 278 B. C. Arnold. M The historical connection ot"
established themselves as Galatians, (in these latter with the Cimmerii of Herodo
Gallo-Gr;ecia or Galatia.) were claiming to tus has strong probabilities, and the opin
be returning to the country of their ances ion of Posidonius is in its favor; but can
tors." These conquerors of Galatia, have not, it must be admitted, in I lie strict
been frequently identified as Cvmry hv the sen.^e oi the word, be proved."
names of their chiefs and people; and "In the British Islands, the Anglo-
Jerome, (one of the church fathers in the Saxon Teutons, in their earlier conquests,
4th century) says that in his time th Galla- diplaced the Cynirv, and drove them be
tians spoke the same language as in Bel yond their borders; but these last main
gium," with which he was acquainted.25 tained themselves in various places in
Cornwall, Wales, tbc Scotch Highlands,
2O See the title "Carnac," ''Standing- Stone,"
;iml "Stonchcnge." Chambers's Km-yclopiedia. See and Ireland until the" inauguration of a
also I-ogan's Antiquities, Arc., of Scotland, 450. new policy. When the Cynirv ol Wales
z\ See the article ''Currarh, Courach and Cora and Cornwall, the Gaels in Scotland, and
cle," in Cha. Knclo.
the Erse in Ireland, submitted to Anglo-
22 Herod.. B i, ch. 194. and i Rawl. Herod., ^59
and fio. Saxon supremacy, they retained their
2^ In speaking of this return r.f the CYmrv to thv lanc]S llieir lj ige, and even their name.
Hellespont :ind Asia Minor Michek-t says, (i Hist. Amalgamation ot race has since been ef
France, yj.) "H^n- we see our G.tuls restored to the
rradU' of th-.: C'vniryt not f.ir from Ihu Cimmerian Bos- fected to a certain extent, but still in munv
phorus here are. they s;'ttled on the ruins of Troy, parts of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, the
and in the mountains of Asia Minor."
24 In connection wilh tiiii reference In Belgium, \ve ma>s of the p is main! v or en-
would again refer to Anlh. Cl. Diet., ^S, art. G.illiit, ) tirelv Cclti- Kour Celtic dialectsthe
where he m vest ijpitcs the (juestion of tlc Bclirae Ian- I
jfuaije;and concludes:"We niav hence boldly cun- Manx, the (iaelic, the Krse. and the Welsh
rlude, th'.tt tnc Armoricans and tne Ik-l^je werv i\vo are spoken in our country; and the pure
communilies or confederation of the s;inie rat e, which
had arrived ciinii at two different period
periods. \\ e Celtic type survive in the Bretons, the
may infer still further: I 'Flint the nortth and west ot
(r.uil. and the south of Britain, were peopled by one Welsh, the native Irish, the people of the
aod ihc same race, forming the second brunch of the
tiallic population properly so railed. 2. That tht:
lani^uaue of" i his race was one. the fragments of which (onn ot C'vmn."
are preserved in two Clintons of Armor ica and in the 35 See Godwin's France, ,33. Also article Gallo
island of Britain. 3. That llu- generic n.tme of the
nice is entirely unknown lo us, as f.ir as history is graccta or Galatia in Anthon'.s Class. Diet.
(rticernt-d : but that philulog-y g-ives it to u< under the ^6 Hislnrv if Home. . i. pp.
Chap i.] THE INHABITANTS OF WESTERN EUROPE.
Isle of Man, and the Scottish Highlanders,
of whom the two former represent the
Cimbric, and the three latter the non-
Cimbric branch of the nation. The Welsh
is akin to the Breton and the Cornish dia
lects ; the Gaelic and the Erse, w hicli are
closely allied, differ considerably from the
three first-mentioned."2"
Strong as Prof. Rawlinson is in proving
that the Cimmerians and Cimbri were the
ancestors of the Cymry, and that the lat
ter traced their route from the Ukraine to
the mountains of Wales; still he entirely
overlooks the strong probability, nay, the
almost certainty that the Cymry are that
branch of the Celto-Ciminerians who
passed through Asia Minor and the Cim
bric Chersonesus on their way to Britain.**
In doing so, he overlooked the greatest
probability, and the greatest and most
striking argument in its favor. In this
connection we might refer to the fact that
all the words left to us of the ancient
Cimbri, and used by historians to prove
their identity, are Cimbric, Cymric, Cym-
raeg, or Welsh words, rather than Gallic.
The most ancient writer who makes men
tion of the Cimbri, is Philemon, who says,
which is repeated by Pliny,2'1 that the
Cimbri called- their ocean "Mori-Afarusa";
and the north cape beyond, "/fit/was,'' and
beyond that the frozen sea they called
"Cronittm." All these words are latinized,
hut their roots are true Cimric and Cym-
raeg : thus Afor is sea, and Afarw (the w
Rounded as u) means dead ; and therefore
Mori-Marusa is rendered the drad sra, then
a very appropriate appellation to those
northern seas. But further, the words, Ifu-
bcas and Cranium, are subject to the same
kind of translation, and as appropriate
jy i Kawl. Herod. 1507.
28Ti;rnerin his History of the Anglo-Saxons,
R. i, ch. a, p. 44, says:''The Danish tradition oi*
expeditions and conquests in Hrilain. from Jutland
and its vicinity, long before our Savior's birth,
which Saxo Grammaticus lias incorporated into his
history may be noticed. An authority too vague to
be trusted alone ; he is evidence of tne tradition of
his countrymen, and these may claim that attention.
when they coincide with the ancient Hrilish, which article "Pinkerton" in Chambers'* Hnclyclopedia.
they would not otherwise deserve. They add Also 11. 11. \VixlwardV History of Wale. See also
something to the probability of an early migration i Michelet's History of Krance.'lJ. i, chap. 4, p. f>5.
from these regions into our islands, although they
must not be confounded with historical facts."
19 Plin. 4, It; see also Anth. Clas. Die. 540: also
Craik's Pictorial History of Kngland, Jo.
49
names to the actual facts : thus the first of
these words is from rewi or rhyallyd, which
means frozen or cold ; and the second word,
Cronium, is from caledu, cculrdig, or caen-
rew, (which words mean respectively, cold,
congealed, ice,) or from their derivatives;
but probably from the last word, caenrcw,
which make it the Ice-Sea. On the whole
route from Asia to the Cimbric peninsula,
and Britain, frequent names of the same
kind are found, and of the like significance
and application.
Here we readily admit that our theory of
the origin of the Cymry,though support
ed by the best historical authorityis
violently contested by a class of writers;
and like everything else, connected with
the history of the Cymry, true or fabulous,
has been equally attacked with a tierce, if
not a vindictive, opposition; and that want
oftYf//r/fr which should characterize history.
This has sometimes been done, from an un
kind, if not a malignant, feeling towards the
whole Celtic race j30 and sometimes the con
test is sustained with a view of showing
that the Cymry are not Celts, but Teutons.
This has never been done by a true Cam
brian ; for they have ever vindicated their
true relation to the Celtic race. In Craik's
Pictorial History of England,!" the theory
is maintained that the Welsh were not
Celts, but of the Teutonic race. He ad
mitted, nay contended, that they were the
descendants and representatives of the Cim
bri ; but then he further contended that the
ancient Picts and the Welsh were two
branches of the same family of people,
(which is undoubtedly true.) the Picts hav
ing come from the Cimbri, who came from
the north of Germany, and therefore must
be Teutons. And after that these Picts
passed south by the western side of Britain
to Wales; and there became Welshmen and
Cymry
All history confutes the proposition that
the Cymry were Teutons;32 and equally af-
.50 See Pinkerton's History of Scotland. Also the
}l I Vol., p. iS.
32 See Itishop PiercyTs Introduction to Mallet's
Northern Antiquities.
 THE HRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
firm that the Cimbri were Celts as we have Pendcnnis in Cornwall and the like names
endeavored to show. But that the Picts in other places in Cymric country; gwal
were originally Cimric Celts is a proposition means wall, '.<-., Pengwal, which means the
that we equally contend for. All Southern head of the wall; and Penfahel, of Bede, is
Britain in Cxsur's time were Cymric Britons, only another orthography of it. These
no difference of nationality or language facts, as well as the opinion of all candid
could be discovered, except those on the historians, demonstrate the unity of the
southern shores wore more recent immi Celtic character of the whole of the ancient
grants from Belgium. Everything else was British people. That the Celtic Gael now
indicative of one nationality and race, only occupy the northwest of Scotland, and the
they were divided into trihos. Their lan Saxon the east and southeast of England,
guage and characteristics were the same; does not militate against it*
and all were governed by the institution of In conclusion let us notice how the Cym
the Druids. Thev all fought alike with ric race, in their peregrination from Asia to
chariots, a-, their most striking arm of de- | Britain, have identified themselves with the
lense. When Agricola fought the Britons i horns of the earth,the prominent peninsu-
on the Thames, in the west and the north of las on their route: tho Cimmerian Cher-
Britain at the foot of the Grampian Hills; sonesus, Sinope in Asia Minor, Thracian
whether he met Caractacus in the south- Chersonesus in Europe, Cimbric Chersone-
weitt, or Galgacus in the far north, he found j sus, the peninsula of Brittany, the peninsulas
everywhere the same people and character- j of Cornwall and of Wales. They thus more
istics33 But afterwards a portion of these distinctly indentity themselves with time
people were pushed to the northeast part of and the world, than any other nationality
North Britain, who, after two or three except the Hebrews. Thev may. therefore,
hundred years, while their southern breth- ' lay claim to what Rawlinson says is inter-
ren become Romanized, became Picts. esting, "in tracing the history and migration
From the south and west of Britain to the of a people who have an antiquity of above
northeast of Scotland we everywhere meet twenty-five hundred years, and have .spread
with words, and the name of places and themselves from Asia to the mountains of
things everywhere occurring, common to Wales."
both people, that are clearly Cymric; as While there has been so many allusions
Avon, A6cr,3t Dee, Don, Pol or lien, Mon\ by historians to the connection there is be
(or Afamr, great,) du (black), words and tween the Cvmry and Asia Minor, no one
names repeatedly used in the southwest of > refers to them as being the Cimmerians of
England, in Wales and the northeast of i Lydia and Sardis. Both Michelet and
Scotland, everywhere receiving the same , Rawlinson refer to the Cymrv's connection
meaning and application, and affording with Asi.i Minor, hut they make no allusion
striking evidence of their being used and to their connection with Lydia: and yet,
applied by one and the same people, having it is insisted upon, that no fact in history is
a common language. Two words are giwn better sustained by historical facts and cir-
to us by Bede, when speaking of the Picts cumstances, than this hypothesis, that the
and in their language, as designating the Cymry are descendants of the people who
place of the beginning of the Roman wall < -
.i..^.i
across -^ the
ih . country
..fioiitrt- , as
-i ADercui
A K,>r<.iti-Mio- -mil fen-
nig ana Pi-n fli->i**Cvmn.
As evidence thatfrom
w|)() |)erf me Ulc
Picts were
Koin descendants Wl.
l;1 0.1|>rl:ssi(m, of
label." In Cymric, Pen means head, as n-fir to Richard of Cirencester (II. i, en. vi. $5.1) in
describing the people of the northeast c'Kist ot Scot
land, nor'h of Cromartv, and cast purl ot" Ross and
J.J Sc'j Tacitus Vita A,jTicola. SuUlcrLind, says: ""'I'hen the river Ha, near which
lived the Carnalm, the most remote of the Britons.
it Sic i Vaughn s Revolutions in bullish I list , p. I iilest. mimic hi-iiM* subdued In the propraetor, Ostor
10, wh.T.- it is >.iid: "From Hi.: remains ol their Ian-- ius> ,lml leniently benrin:- Hie Roman yoke, join-.-d
Kiiajfe, ;,s well us Iroin other circumstances, the mo,t ,|u. fantiv. as the tradition ri-l.ili.-s,
. and crossing the
-
_, an.l now tlu: inosl "-nner.il opinion, is that ^ hl;n. fixi.j lhe|r ri:siaence." Richard in this sec-
the ; WLTL* iroifi llu' foinimii CVltii- stofk, ittid for lion also spe.ik> ot' a river there called Ahona (which
the rnosl purt Unions.'1 the Cymry would pronounce Avon; a name so com
,K Itede's liccli siastical History, p. to; Holm's mon lo rivers in countries once inhabited by thctn)
li.di. which is now the Dornoch.
Chap, n.j THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
took Sardis. The tarts in support ot' tliis I thither by the love of war and plunder."1
are striking: i No other people, except And Tacitus2 expresses the opinion that
the Cvmry, made use of the war chariot in the German* were an indigenous race, the
Europe, not even the ancient Gauls; and original natives of their country. No con
their chariotthe British chariot was sistent theory as to the origin of the hu
iruxleled after the celebrated Lvdian chariot. , man race was adopted until the writings of
Caesar was astonished at the British Moses became known ?1 aided and modified
chariot;their great numbers, and the skill by Christianity and science. The history
of the Britons in their management. If given by Moses of the three original fami-
anv one was then asked where the idea of! lies of the human race, is one which stands
such chariot came from, he would have to i the test of criticism and science. The
reply, Lydia; as a person in our day upon j classification thus made, was admirably
seeing a junk in New York harbor was I sustained by Josephus< at the commence-
asked, where it came from, would answer : | ment ot our era. unaffected by Christian
from China. It was from the Greeks of doctrine; and no ancient author at the
Asia Minor, that the name of Cimmerian commencement of the Christian era, pos
(Cimri) was put upon them, different from sessed so many advantages of being aided
the Celts of Gaul, and there is no other way by all the learning of the civilized world
of accounting for this. 3. The universal Greek and Roman, asjosephus; much of
acknowledged fact in history, that the Cim which has been entirely lost to the world.
merians of the Greeks, Cimbri of the Ro The theory we have adopted accords with
mans, and Cvmry of Britain were all a that, and assumes that the inhabitants of
kindred race. 4. The institution of the the British Islands, who became known to
Druids has ever been acknowledged to be the Roman world about the commence
a. Cymric institution, which with their ment ol the present era, were of the Ja
Pythagorian philosophy, their astronomical phetic or Aryan race; and were all of the
knowledge, their music, their harp, and the Celtic family, divided into two branches;
like matter, have ever been acknowledged that in the south part of Great Britain
as evidence of their connection with Asia were of the Cymric, and those in the north
Minor;and when all these point to one and northwest, and in Ireland, were of
result, it pnxiuces a conviction of the truth Gaelic branch of the race. Modern inves-
of the proposition, as conclusive as in any i tigations have established the position, that
case of circumstantial evidence, and ex- I these people, as well as the German race,
eludes every other hypothesis. Thus the belonged to the Aryan or Indo-European
origin of the Cvmry,the Ancient Britons, races ;' and it would appear that where
is established, as to time and place, and, these two races have united, the Celtic
approximately, their arrival in Britain. and the Teutonic, the result is that there
has been no evidence of deterioration, but
CHAPTER II. a happier development than in the union
of any other two races.
THE BRITON'S AS NOTICED IN" ANCIENT
Britain became known to the ancients,
HISTORY.
at a very remote period, by very slow
The ancient writers, who at an early day degrees. Previous to Csesar's time the
noticed Britain, atVord us a very imperfect
! Cesar's Coin., II. v. 10.
Account, as to whom the people were and 2 Gcrinania j.
whence they came. They were generally ,$ Genesis, ch. x.
considered to be autochtonic the produc 4 Jewish Antiquities, It. i. ch. vi. See his two
Books against Apion, which shows him to have been
tion of the soil children of mother earth. tlic most learned historian ot his day: having access
Caesar said that "the inland parts of Brit to all the ancient historians. As to the desct-ndanls
ot' Japheth. see, also, Jonathan Edward's works.
ain are inhabited bv those whom fame re Joscphus say.s that the Gahitians (Gauls) were GOMUT-
ports to be the natives of the soil. The Ucs, Ul supra., ch. vi.
p Ut supra., B. i. ch. i, p. 39. Also, Palsgrave's
sea coast is peopled with Belgians, drawn Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, ch. i.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. (Book i.
whole group of Islands were known to period the Phoenicians had traffic with
the ancient classics as firittimricte Insul&fl Britain for tin; and the name firitannia at
and it is said that Qesar was the first to an early date hecame familiar to the classic-
confer upon Great Britain the name of writers; but probably before Caesar's time
Britannia, which we anglici/e Britain. was not used by the natives themselves.
But this is doubtful, for that name was They called the island Alban or Albion;
used by Aristotle three hundred years he but the Romans called the north part of
fore Ca-sar's time, and from him it found it, Caledonia; and Ireland they called Hi-
its way into various ancient geographies. hernia or lerne."
Various theories have been had as to the There can be but little doubt, that the
derivation of the name; most of which Phoenicians were the first to extend their
are fanciful and mythical; but the most commercial pursuits from the Eastern
probable is that it is a name derived World to Britain; and it is credibly said
from the Phoenicians, who it seems were that this intercourse with the British
accustomed to visit the islands more Islands for tin, existed more than a thou
than a thousand years B. C. It is said sand vears before the Christian era. The
that brit and bruit, or a word of history of this people, with their enterprise
that sound, signified tin in both the Phoeni and commercial pursuits, is one of the
cian and the Celtic languages;" and it is most interesting, if not astonishing, chap
probable that it is a Phoenician name, and ters in the history of man. They possess
that Aristotle derived the name from that ed a narrow margin of land on the Levant,
source, by adding to that term, that of tan, the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
so common in all Aryan languages, added Sea, where they were distinguished for
to other words to denominate land or i their manufacture* and commerce; devot-
country. Thus by adding these two words ing much attention to the affairs of the sea,
t ogether Hrit-tanas in the like instances and but little to agriculture. Their em
of Mauri- tnn-ia, Aqui-lan-ia, Lusi-tan-ia, pire was on the sea and not on the land.
Kurdis-tan, Hindos-tan, and the like, we When asked where they were originally
obtain the appellation of Britain, or the from, Jhey replied that they were from the
tin-Iand ; which corresponds with the old Erythsen Sea, a sure indication that they
est Greek name,"the Cassiterides (Tin came there as a seafaring people and not
Islands) whence," says Herodotus, "the tin given to agriculture or the land. Their
comes which we use."'* At a very remote country possessed a few good commercial
advantages. Their sea-ports and shipping
ft 2 Chambers's Encyclopedia .555. were improved and cultivated to the aston
7 Sec Cniik's i Pictorial England 9 1 It-rod., H. Hi, ishment of the world. Xenophon in the
ill. 115.
Hurtx!., B. Hi, 115. Kawlinsou's Hi-rod. fourth century B. C-, when on a visit to
416, and n. 7. Herodotus further says: "Of the
trcmu of En ropy towards tin- west I cannot sj>cak Tyre, was utterly astonished at the perfec
with any certainty; .... nor do I know of any tion to which this people had brought their
islands called the CassiIt-rides." See also i Turner's
Anglo-Saxon^, ch. 3, p. 54, n. a, and he rites Bornart's hipping and commercial affairs.
Canaan, lib. i, ch. 39, p. 262, where it is said:"Hani- | __
lanac," fin Hebrew and Phoenician/ ''which means
the land of tin." Ser also Anthon's Clas. Diet., elude that the ct\i , ih iK-ri\i-s the word
"Britannia," p. 266. See al.so i Giles' History of the from IJrnlus, and from "Ijrydain" and "Ilrvthon," and
Ancient Hrituns, p. S; who quotes from An&totlc: the. like fancies, is all a mvtK Undoubtedly the first
"Heyond the pillars of Hercules is the ocean which name given lo the island by U C'\mry as Alba
flow's round the earth. In it are two islands, and froin the high while dirts as seen from Gaul; and
those arc- very large: called Hritannic- Albion and then Cymru. The [H-nple wen; calle.l /in the nltiruU
lernc, which are larger lh:in those I before mention Cymry, uf which Cvinro was the singular number.
ed, and lie beyond tin- Cells." I)e Mundo, $3, who
wrote about 340 II. C. and a hundred years after u It <<UITI* that in old Gallic or C\ llic Hritain was
Herodotus. It is claimed that Hritain and its tin cU nominatfd Alhinn; that is, Alb, \\ bite or hi^h \
traffic was kno\\ n to the Phoenicians 1000 U. C. The and Imiis, i^lund, or White Ishmd: :md thi- Cyinrv
Greeks wrote the word HptTTflt^/, (see i Oiles' An called it Innis-Wi-n, which signified the s.uue tlnnii.
Tliey usualiv dt-nominatcd Hritain. Pryd.iin; S-t
cient Hritons, p. 00-91, from Plutarch vita: Ca.*s. ) land. C:elydtl.>n, and Ireland, Iwrrddon. ' 'Hie Welsh
Aristotle wrote it \1 ptratHKai. The word was by called their country Cymru; themselvis, C\mry; a
the Greeks variously sprit; sometimes only with one Welshman, C^j'ttiro; the lanifiiape, Cymraeij. Sec i
t, and sometimes with the Hrst vowel changed from Craik's Pictorial Knj*l:im1. Introduction, i^. $jii.
a n e to an i, as in Ialin and English. \Ve must con- (irant's Thoughts on the G.irl, 207.
 Chap. 1 1.] THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 53
This was the work and enterprise of a and the opposition of the Greeks. Unfor
few cities within the distance of about one tunately the report of the voyage is lost,
hundred and fifty miles, commencing at and historians are dependant for its contents
the north with Aradus, then Tripolis, Bery- upon fragments translated and incorporated
tus, Sidon and Tyre. These Phoenician in a Latin poem of Kestus Avienus. The
cities, alike distinguished for their manu voyage lasted four months, coasting along
facturing and commercial enterprises, sent the shores of Spain and Gaul to the British
their shipping and colonies to various dis Islands and hack. The account we have of
tant places, as Carthage in Africa, Cadi/, in this voyage, enumerate', many interesting
.Spain, and other places, in the promotion observations made, which affords us more
and advantage of their commerce and in information upon the subject, than any
dustry. Hut one of their oldest enterprises other source of history. On their way from
was that of extending their commerce to Gades to the promontory Sacrum (Cape
Britain, in order to procure tin, which was St. Vincent) they found many PhoMiician
then so necessary for their manufacturing colonies established during the time of
operations in bronze, which was then more Tvrian prosperity. None were found on
extensively used, wherever commercial the northern coast ol' Spain, but the inhabi
traffic existed, than iron; and for this ex tants were friendly, and their ports open to
tensive business tin was necessary. The them. Along the coast of the Bav of
British Islands were almost the only coun Biscay, navigation was dangerous; they
try where this article was then procured in therefore steered directly for Nantes. There
sufficient quantity. In this lucrative trade at the mouth of the Loire, they found a safe
their colony, Carthage, early participated. port, where they could take shelter, refit
From the Carthaginians we derive the and revictual, before continuing their voy
best information ofAncient Hritain,10 though age. They found the commerce of the
such information comes to us, as borrowed, place very considerable. The river brought
for the original report is lost. About 510" down the productions of Central Gaul in
B. C. the enterprising Carthaginians sent large quantities; and there the shippers
two expeditions of discovery with a view to from either Gades or Carthage found shel
colonization, com merce and trade. The one ter and traffic on their way to the Tin Is
was under the command of Hanno, who lands. The city enjoyed a large trade, and
was to sail with a fleet of sixty fifty-oared possessed much importance from its having
galleys, with a body of thirty thousand men been frequented by the Phoenician mer
and women, by the Pillars of Hercules to chants and traders from Gades ever since
the Atlantic, for the purpose of discovery the commencement of that commerce.
on the north-western coast of Africa, with They coasted along the shores of Armorica
a view to colonization and commerce The from Nantes to the Veneti (Vannes) where
other expedition was under llimilco, who they were hospitably received, anil stopped
was also to sail to the Atlantic, and then for the last time before setting out upon the
proceed in an opposite direction, to recon- open sea. While passing through the Bay
noiter the coast of Spain and Gaul, as far as ol' Biscay t!u'v observed nunu'rous whales
the British Islands. The object was to re spouting. The Veneti also carried on" a
open the trade with the tin producing coun considerable trade and were acquainted
try, and recover the once lucrative traffic of with the art of na\ Station, which was ac-
the Tyrians of Phoenicia, which had been I quired in their former intercourse with the
dcstroN eil by the war with the Assyrians, I Tyrians and Carthaginians. They pos
sessed great riches, and capable ut torming
10 i Turner's Ani;!o-S.ixons, H. i, rh. iii, p. $3. '. and managing great Hect. which was after
n This dalf is -issumcd by I.'-nnnnatit, 2 AmuMit
Jlisl. 366; hut in It-nvlinsnn's llrnxl. .(i', n. 7, sets wards fully demonstrated in Ca>ar's time.
the voynife of Illmiico iKitwccn^iu ami \^>. Viuiijhim From the Gulf of Morbihan llimilco
in his hjslnry of England scls it at t$r*> It. (.'. Tin*
later date is assumed as the inusl probable: :nu] isalso sailed for the Cassiterides, (supposed to be
most probable that Ilimilco's vny.u^e was some time
after thai of Ilamiu. \vliirh mav h.ive been in ^10 H. C'. the Scillv Islands on the coast ot Corn.
 TDK BRITISH PERIOD. | Book I-
54
wall) a country rich in metals and especial from which thev vork out the ore. which
ly in tin. The inhabitants were found to thev fuse and reduce to a metal. When
be numerous and industrious, occupying thev have formed it into cubical shapes,
themselves in commercial affairs, and went thev convey it to a certain island lying off
to sen in vessels covered with skins. In a the coast of Britain, named Ictis; where at
few days the expedition went to the Holy low tides, the intervening space being dry
Island (Hibernia or Ireland) and then on land, thev carry it thither in great abund-
their wav back to the coast of Albion 1 ance in wagons. There the merchants pur-
( Britain). From the neighboring countries chase the tin from the natives, and then
the natives brought to them the metals carry it across into Gaul, whence it is con
there found, in touts, w hieh were exchanged veyed on horses, through the intervening
with the Carthaginian merchants for their Celtic land to the people of Massalia, and
wares, consisting principally of cloth, bronze to the city called Narhonne." This ac
implements, pottery and salt. Such is the count substantially agrees with that given
interesting abstract given of this celebrated by Himilco some centuries before.
expedition of Himilco, so important in de Strabo describes the Cassilerides as is
veloping the ancient history of Britain at lands, ten in number. "One of them is a
so early a period.1-' desert, but the others are inhabited by men
This commerce and traffic of the Cartha- in black cloaks, clad in tunics, reaching to
ginians with Britain continued until de- the feet, and girt about the breast. Walk-
stroyed by the Greeks and Romans. These ing with staves, and bearded like goats,
foi cceeded in this intercourse they subsist by their cattle, leading tor the
with Britain, and it is from the Greek most part a wandering life. And having
writers we obtain the interesting and relia metals of tin and lead, these and skins they
ble account of it. I'olvbius, who wrote his barter with these merchants for earthen
history more than a hundred years before ware, and salt, and bra/en vessels. For
Ca'sar's time, and traveled through Spain merly the Plui-nicians alone carried on
and Gaul, speaks of "the Britanic Islands this traffic, and concealing their passage
and tile working of tin," but little, however, from everv one: and when the Romans
is to be obtained of Britain and its people followed a certain shipmaster, that they
from him. But it is from the Greek writers also might find the mart, the shipmaster,
Diodorus, the historian, and Strabo, thfr out of jealousy, puqxjsely ran his vessel
geographer, who wrote al>out Caesar's time, upon a shoal, and leading on those who
but founded upon previous information, followed him into the same destruction, he
that we derive the most satisfactory ac himself escaped by means of a fragment of
count ol Britain and its people, of that early \ the shiP> and recovered from the state the
date, though 'hat is fragmentary and scanty value of the cargo he had Iost."n
enough. When the voyage of Himilco to Britain
Diodorus writes that "the Britons,13 who tl)(>k l'laci' is somewhat doubtful.
dwell on the promontory called Belerium ! Lenormant puts it about Mo B. C., but
(the Land's End) were tomi ol strangers, i Vaughan at .360; and the question might be
and, from their intercourse with foreign 1 asked, had the Cvinrv at that time arrived
merchants, civilized in their manners. in Britain- There is about 140 years be
These people obtain tin b\ skillfully work tween the time they left Lydia in Asia
ing the earth which prixluccs it. The soil Minor and the visit of Himilco. if we should
being rockv, h;i^ crc\ ices in the hard earth take the date of Lenormant; and about
300 years if we take the date given bv
12 Luii'inn nil Hist, ol the Ivist. j/*>. SL-C I Vaughan.14 Either date would enable them
V. Indian's Kv\o. in liri^. ili.-tory. 4. Tni- s;nm-
rotmr i< .iNn uivcii in Hrrron's Aiirii-nt Nations. 1 to have been there before that time. The
., Si- Vumh-in-s Rwn in Kujrlisli IK-i., H. i, ch. ., i>lvmrmth colony of Massachusetts came
p. n, whit riti-s DiiKlnruts I,ib. \.. ch. 21, .'_. $-. Stv
:iNc,.tl1 this .iiu'ii-nt hir.ti>r\ of Itritiin m<t inlcri. stilly- '
l\ i-iilli-i-tuil In Mr. J.. ilium in his Kthn.ilojry <if tho 1 1 Si.v Vaujfli.in ul supri. Str:iho Lib. iii, cl). v.
firili-.li Ul.mils. i-h. ii. 15 L'tsnpni., p. 5.j. n. II.
Chap, ii.] THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
to New England in 1620; their descendants
in less than 1 50 years had spread them
selves into all the other colonies from
Massachusetts to Georgia. But Vaughan's
date woidd give the Cymry more than
ample time to have been the people who
left Lydia about 650 B. C. as the Cimmer
ians, and passed by the way of the Danube
and the Elbe to the Cimbric Chersonesus
and to B ritain ; taking with them their war
chariots, which they had learned to con
struct and manage while in that school ot
arts and science of fifty or seventy years
in Asia Minor; taking with them the
know ledge they had acquired of working
metals, especially bronze and iron; also
their notion of religion and theology, as
well as whatever might be then known
and learned in Asia Minor, the most en
lightened and civilized part of the world.
This enabled the Cymry to form that ex
traordinary institution the Druids which
was the remarkable characteristic that dis
tinguished them from all other people ol
Western Europe, as well as their war
chariots. As already suggested, they must
have soon left their stay in the neighbor
hood of the mouth of the Elbe, for the
south: taking with them the heart of the
nation, but leaving there, as part of their
number, two colonies, which afterwards
became known to the Romans as the Cim-
bri and the Cctstii;'6 who were seceders
from the main body of the people, and who
were more rude and less cultivated. On
their way the same thing was done in Bel
gium, and the Belgac became separated
from the nation. When they arrived in
Nustria, or Armorica, (now Brittany), a
more permanent stay was made, and they
impressed upon the country, more decided
ly, their own characteristics; and identified
those who remained there, more intimately
with themselves. The main part of the
nation, however, soon passed over to Brit
ain; taking with them whatever peculiari
ty distinguished them from the old Gallic
Celtic race, who for so long a time had
preceded them in Gaul. But ever after
wards there subsisted between the Cymry
16 Ut supra., rh. i , $3, pp. 15
55
of Britain and Armorica the relation of
one people, and brethren, with similar in
stitutions, only the Armoricans looked to
the Britains as their master.- in the learning
of the Druids and their arts.1' For the Brit
ish Cvmry were the more distinguished for
their Druidical institution, and for their
advancement in the arts.18
It is believed that the Cymry arrived in
Armorica, and probably in Britain, before
the voyage of Himilco, not only from the
dates given, but also from a fact stated in
the fragment we have of his report, that
on his way from the Gulf of Morbihan in
Armorica, to the British Islands, he reach
ed the island of Sena, now L' Isle Do
Sein, not far from Brest, where there was a
celebrated institution of the Druids. Then
the account given of the Britons, that they
mined the tin ore from the earth,reduced
it to metal in cubes, and brought it to the
shore tor sale in wagons; all of which
shows a great advancement in the arts and
habits of industry, showing great progress
in civilization.
By the investigation and discoveries
made in the antiquities of Britain, we are
warranted in assuming that the Turanian
race had preceded the Celts both in Gaul
and Britain. This has been so particularly
demonstrated by the mounds and barrows
opened and examined, of a more ancient
date in all their appearances, the work of a
pre-celtic race, in which were found imple
ments of stone and bone, but none of
metal ; and the skulls of those buried were
of rounder heads than those of the Celtic
race of Western Europe. These were the
relics ot the Turanian race,those people
who left the parent family of mankind be
fore the habits and language of the Aryan
race were formed and fixed,who were
the first to wander to distant parts, and
their habits and appearance would become
more and more savage and barbarous, than
those who were improved by association
in society. These, therefore, would be
17 Ca'sar's Bel. Gal. vi. Jij.
iS Jii this connection should be remembered the
Kkill with which the Vcnitlans had constructed Iheii
^riMl naval power in the lime of Crcsar.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
specially represented by the stone, and the race had long before the arrival of the
pre-historical ages. Cymry, taken possession of Britain, and
These people, from evidence found, in were in the occupancy of the most enticing
these relics, of their habits and customs, valleys and places on the Island. It is
are supposed to have been horribly savage probable that when the Cymrv arrived in
and even cannibals. Their mounds and Britain they were received by their Celtic
burying places are found to be entirely dif brethren, as they had teen in Gaul, as
ferent from those of the second race of friends and brethren. They were received
people, which undoubtedly were the Celts as brethren who had received better oppor
from Gaul; which may have been as early tunities, and higher education, during their
as a thousand year* before Christ, or even residence in Asia Minor; and were there
earlier. But the Cvinrv did not arrive in fore received as members of the same fam
Britain until about 550 B. C." The Celtic ily who would be of service to them in
race found the Turanian and [ire-occupying teaching arts, science and religion. In Gaul
race so very different from themselves, the two varieties of the Celtic race readily
that they entirely disappeared before them. united and amalgamated as one people, and
When two races meet in the saiue country, had so extended their power and influence
who have an affinity between each other, that by Ca;sar's time, the central part of
and similarity of personal appearance, as Gaul and all the northwest, had liecome
between the Celt and the German or the Cymric; so that Autricum (now Chartres)
Italian and the like, they readily unite and was their capital, and Gcnribum (called by
amalgamate, and the one, the most numer the Romans Aurelian, now Orleans) be
ous, absorbs the other; or the union forms came a considerable place in their commer
a new variety; as we every day see in our cial operations.20 But it was at the mouth
experience with the diversity of races in of the Loire, probably Nantes, was their
the United States; or as witnessed in the great commercial depot and operations of
Franks and the Celts in France, or the the Armorican Cvinry, where Himilco
Northmen with Celts of Nu.slria or Nor found much shipping and commercial traf
mandy ; or the Saxon with the Briton in fic; probably first encouraged by the
England. But where one of such two Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and who
races arc so inferior as to be degraded and carried on much of the tin trade between
hateful, then such race* do not so readily Britain and the overland route, by the way
unite or amalgamate; but such inferior of the Garonne, and thence by land to Nar-
race soon entirely disappear before the su Ix>nnc2i on the Mediterranean, as testified
perior race; as is the case with the Ameri by Diodorus. And I'olybins.23 the Greek
can Indians, the Mongol-,, the Negroes or historian who traveled into Gaul about a
Hottentots, except where they are suffi century or more before Ca;s,ir's time, speaks
ciently numerous l protect themselves of the "Britanic lies and their working in
against the influence of the opposing race.
It must be true, I hat the Gallic Celtic tlu-20middle
"'tin* (; HUH- branch, of the Keltic race possessed
ol" (;.iul.M Sms (Jodwin, (Ifistory of
l-'r.mre, i.| inV "Amonif their (eadini; tribes were
!Iie I'u-tniK's, tne l,emovikcs, the Sanloncs, the Nan
19 Sec JMISI ch. iv; and Ilichatd of Circnn;ster, 1!. netes, the Carnutes, whose capital, Autricum (Chur
ii, ch. j. s; :mt1 o, in Holm'.-. 1-M.. p. d''}. The date of tri's), the reputed centre of Haul, was the hcaduuar-
550 B. (.'. jjivi- ll'e C'\nir) ainiilc IJIMI- to accomplish U-rs of Drnidism, and whose second city, (it-nalmm,
Ineir emigration frr>n' Asia Minor to Briliiin, ;tntl of (called Aureiian by the Kom.in>, ami now Orleans),
course thev \\erc in Britain before Ihe arrival of Him- was a place of considerable coir.ru rce; and the
ilco. Mit lielt-t pits 111" :;rri\ i] ." the (')mrv in G-ml Lin^ons, C'enomans and Senones, whom we shall
at ono It. C. ; and :l nart ol' them may have immediate hereatter meet in Italy. In spite of a MipjKWed com
ly p.issi-<l over to Hril.iin: which would he so or 60 munity of origin, the Kymri difiYr from the Gaels to
years :i!Vr their e\odi;s from J.ydia. TIK- distance many respects, both physical and morj'l. The Kymri
by the Danube and lilhe is lcs tliaii xx> miles. The were smaller, darker, and more reserved, not so tur
distnm e from tin- Mississippi Kivcr to California is bulent and enthusiastic us the Gael, and remarkable
about the same. The first emigrants on this route. for their attachment to their country, their customs,
with their (locks ami hi-nlf., over thu Kocky Motin- atid their creeds."
tains -ind (lit desert, ;ici umplislicd Ihuir journey in
six or eight ni>>ni1i>. 'Hie uini(jralion fnmi Iydia to 21 See Vaug-han's Kni<. His!., 6, whocites Diodorus
Britain could IK; accnrnplUhcd in five years, and allow Lib. v, ch. 21, *2, jS.
for every contingency, c-vcn raising th'.'ir crops of 32 lab. iii, eh. 5 ; Turner's Amjlo-Saxon-s, B. i, ch.
jfruin mi the way! 4, P- .
Chap. u.J THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
tin" as though the commerce was large and
the traffic of importance to the Greek and
Roman world.
It was here, too, among the Veneti of
Armorica, that grew up that great naval
power, which in the time of Caisar was
ahle to present .against him a large and
well equipped fleet, which gave Cresar great
anxiety as to the success of his campaign,
and required all his skill, aided by all of
the Roman power, to meet and conquer.2'
And here it may he remarked as a matter
contrary to the assertion of most of the
English historians, that the Ancient Britons
were incapable of becoming seamen, and
were only acquainted with their coracle,21
but it should be remembered that Oesar
complained of them that they had contrib
uted to the fleet of the Veneti, that had
fought him in the : eat naval battle in the
Gulf of Morbiban That battle, for that
time al least, annihilated the Cymric naval
power; vet it may l>c with truth claimed,
that no people have ever produced more
daring, courageous and hardy seamen, than
the Cymry of Brittany and Wales.
Diodorus, on the authority of Hecatajus,
a Milesian historian, gives us this interest
ing account, which cannot apply to any
other country than Uritain. "Over against
Gaul, in the great ocean stream, is an is
land, not less in extent than Sicily, stretch
ing towards the north. The inhabitants
are called Hyperboreans, because their
abode is more remote from us than that
wind which we call Boreas. It is said that
the soil is very rich and fruitful, and the
climate so favorable, that there are two
harvests in every year. Their fables say
that Latona was lx>rn in tlm island, and on
that account they worship Apollo before
all other divinities, and celebrate his praise
in daily hvmns; conferring the highest
honors upon their bards, as being his
priests. There is in this island a magnifi
cent temple to this god, circular in form,
and adorned with many splendid offerings.
And there is a city also, sacred to Apollo,
inhabited principally by harpers, who in
2$ See 2 Bonaparte's Cn'sur. 11. iii, ch. vi, p. 141.
24 Sec Palgrave's History of the Aiiijio-Saxon-s \vell as the first wrote about Abaris, Hyperborei, tic.
P-4-
57
his temple sing sacred verses to the god,
accompanied b\ the harp, in honor of his
deeds."
"The language ot the 1 1 v perboreans is
peculiar, and they are singularly well af
fected towards the Greeks; and they have
been so from the remotest times, especially
to those of Athens and Delos. It is even
said that some Greeks have traveled
thither, and presented offering* at their
temple, inscribed with Grecian characters.
They also say that Aharis, in former days,
went thence into Greece, to renew their
ancient friendship with the Delians."25
This account of the Hyperbole! and their
island can apply to no other country and
people except Britain and the Unions; and
their circular temple must have been what
we now call Stonehenge, with its bards and
priests as the Druids. The account in the
main must be true, and making some al
lowance for what we may say is fabulous,
it is precisely the description we would ex-
pect. The hospitality of the people is in
accordance with all other accounts given of
them, except when they met enemies in
war"enemies in war, in peace friends.'
It is very probable that at that early lime,
the Greeks only knew of the inhabitants
of Britain as Hyperborei ; for the first in
formation received at Athens that the
Gauls had taken Rome, was that it had
been taken by an army of Hyperboreans.
The name of Abaris and the Hyperbore
ans so often occur in the ancient classics,
25 Diodorus, Sic. ii, i. HecaUeu.-,, ot' Miletus in
A^i.i Minor, referred tony Herodotus, whose history
is lost, except the fragments copied in some more re
cent writers, ;is Dio3orus I'tiny ;ind others. Il is
said he died about 470 before Christ. In order to
make these d:ites liarmonize it is necessary that the
Cynirv, who left Asia Minor about (-50 or '675 B. C.,
then they must have been in Britainn aou
about 500
00 B.. C..,
in about 150 or 175 years, time which would
have allowed them to have built Stonehenge;
hut the circular temple may have been one of
the ruder circular temples in the Aveburv to which
Mecaljcus referred to, and Stonehenge, a better
architectural work, may be a later erection. Hither
the temple at Avebury or that of Stonehenge may
have been the temple referred to. Abaris has been
claimed as a Druid, and the priests and burds de-
scribed may well be Ui Dn See Davles*
Celtic Researches, iSt, &c. As to Abaris see Bayles1
Dictionary. HecaliEUS may have received some of
his information directly from Abaris, on his visit to
Greece. There was another HeraUvus, a historian
and known as Hccntrcns of Abdera (j Uawl. Herod.
23, n. 8; Anthon's Cl. Dirt., title Hccatxus) who as
' Diodorus and Strabo collected from both of these;
 TIIK BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
that we are compelled to admit, though been received as a solution of the myth
they may he accompanied hv myth and fa and fable on the subject."
ble, that they refer to an aetual person and The (jreek writer? have many allusions
a real people. Herodotus^ writes of the to the Hyperboreans which can only be re
Hyperboreans; and says with extreme cau ferable to the Celts and Britons. Thus
tion as to what he was not fully informed, they represented Abaris as a high priest of
"as for that tale of Aharis, who is said to that people; and that he passed around the
have been a 1 lyperborean, and to have gone world, aided by a magic arrow he had re
with his arrow around the world, I shall ceived from Apollo, lie is represented as
pass by in silence." . . . "Nor do I clad in Celtic costume, with pantaloons
know of the islands called the Cassiterides, ! am' plaid mantle. His people lived on a
whence the tin comes, which we use."" i 'ar!<e island; used their own proper lan-
Although he speaks thus cautiously of his guage; woi shipped in groves and a circular
information, yet he fully admits that there temple erected to the service of Apollo;
was an island from whence came the tin and played on the harp. They were kind
they commonly used. He puts the llyper- and hospitable, and had great esteem for
boreans and Abaris in the same predica- ' "u' Greeks, between whom from ancient
ment as to his definite knowledge of them; l'"neK there existed an intercourse in rela-
but refers to them as well known subjects of l'" to ma'ujrs Of religion and philosophy,
inquiry. They have been a theme with all "' wbifh that of Abaris is the most noted.
Greek geographers and historians from The first of these Grecian writers was
llerat:eus to lamhlichus.'^ as a real subject, IlecatccuK, a native of Miletus, who was
but much distorted by the imagination of i followed more fully, about a century and a
the poets. The term Hyperboreans was I half subsequent by He.catieus ol' Abdera in
first applied to people living far north or ! tne t'lnc ? Alexander the Great, when
west, whose particular residence and char- mort-' vvas known of Britain and its people.
acter were unknown, and a mere myth or From these sources Diodorus, .Strabo, and
table At length the term was defmiteh I'linv drew much of their information con
applied to the Celts of Western Europe cerning Britain and it- inhabitants, and the
and of Britain. The taking of Rome by land of tin. All represent that Aharis and
the Gauls was reported at Athens as hav Pythagoras met, and interchanged with
ing been accomplished by an army ol IIv- each other their several information as to-
perboreans. Diodorus places them on an the artairs of the world, religion and mor
island as large as Sicily, in the ocean op- ality, upon which was built their notions
posite the coast of Gaul ; and which Raw I of theology and philosophy. No two men
inson and Logan say, must he recognized w<-'rc better qualified to meet. They were
from the description as Britain This has \ botn mcn ol extraordinary genius, great
travelers in their respective parts of the
whose original works are lost, and we have ,>n]v world, everywhere received with
fra(fluents quoted by others. TV latter I lecaums great con-
was a colemporarv of Alexander the Great, and sideration and kindness; and as extraordi
therefore aboul 150 years alter the time of the other
Heralams. 7 he lir,t was a cotemporary of All-iris, nary magicians and physicians, who effected
and perhaps only wrote of him. But Die hitter tnav
have written of the island as laryu as Sicily over wonderful acts and cures. After Abaris
against Gaul, when Britain and its inhabitants and had received the instructions of Pythagoras,
their circular temple, &c., were better known 1" the
Greeks, than in the time of Abaris and (he first Iter and added them to his own, he returned to
ators and Herodotus. Ambon's Clas. Diet., title his own country, bearing the gifts of Greece
Abaris; Ili-rixloius, B. iv, 56; } Uawl. Ilcrod. IS, n ;
i Pict. History of England, p. 12, <;; Logan's Antiq. to be consecrated in the temple of his peo
15(1; Anthon's Cl. Diet., title Hyperborei; ) Uawl.
I It-rod., p. 9, 23; Ijji^in's Antiq. 23, 41. ple. From these historical legends, it has
20 B. iv. ,5.,-y,. and n. s and 9, by Kawlinson. been claimed with great force that Abaris
27 Herod., B. iii. 115:.ind Kawlinson, n o and -, I was a British druid. He was an Hyper-
vol. ii, p. 415.
o .,-. . , >9 l-'ur-i" s Antiq. of Scotland ji, 41, ic6; Anthon's
18 I-his includes a period from about 500 H. C. to Clas. Diet., title Hyperborei; 3 Rawlmson's Herod, y,
J.o A D. See Anlhon's Clas. Diet; also , Bawl. ' 2;. n. S, 25; I'lmv Nat. History iv., ,1- Mel-i i *
Herod., p. 25. n. 5: lupin's Antiq. 23. 156. I strabo ,, p. (o; DiJxloru^ Siculu7ii 3
Chap n. | THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 59
borean o( the island ; his attire was had mercantile transaction with
Celtic dress; and the arrow with which Britain before Ca'sar's time.
the Grecian writers relate he traveled, We have no definite account of the
and was the gift of Apollo, was in Britons as they appeared in the interior
reality the usual lonjj staff of the Druids. and far north until Oesar came. All before
This too will account for so many tilings that were casual and fragmentary accounts
being found in the religion and philosophy of what was seen at the sea-shore. B ut in
of the Druids in common with the disci C;esar's Commentaries and in Tacitus'
ples of Pythagoras. These were added to Life of Agricola, we have a fuller account
those that the Cymry had previously ac of the Britons over the whole Island, as
quired during their residence in Asia they appeared as Ancient Britons previous
Minor.*) to the Roman conquest. Even the ac
From Straho31 we learn that the Romans counts given by these very competent men.
early became acquainted with the tin trade I though very able as far as they go, are
and Britain, by following the route pursued i still the accounts of the country and peo-
by the Carthaginians. He says that Hub- pie as given of them in a soldier's point of
lius Crassus found his wav thither; and view, in time of conquest. Ca:&ar's Corn-
discovered that the metals were easily ob- mentaries are unequaled in point of com-
talned, that the people were undisturbed by j position, and as to military operation en-
war, and fond of maritime affairs.*! He ! tirelv reliable; but as to other matters are
pointed out to them the advantage of the i often hasty and of doubtful accuracy. They
passage on which he came, though it was were written for the purpose of creating a
a longer passage to Britain, than the direct favorable impression of his operations, and
one through Gaul. This quotation from create a sensation at home ; and they were
Strabo, and that from Caesar's Commenta undoubtedly extensively copied and read
ries, in which he alleges against the Britons at Koine. What we are able to gather
that they had aided the Venetians in fitting ' from Tacitus is more satisfactory. But
up their great naval armament against the I they entirely ignore manv things that an
Romans. These passages contradict the ethnologist and traveler of the present day
unfriendly assertion sometimes made, that would give us. They tell us that the peo
tfie Ancient Britons were unacquainted ple of the country are divided up into
with maritime affairs: and had no aptitude numerous tribe.- or nations, constituting
for sea-faring life, and were acquainted on various stales, and give us their locations ;
ly with their coracle and boats covered but they do not tell us how those people
with hides. This proves, also, that the Ro- i differed from each other in language or
- j speech. They give us none of their words
30 It is well to observe the dates of these events and except names, which the\ always Latin-
see how they harmonize with the facts claimed. We J
have stated that the most provable dale of the exodus ! ixed ; and this is to be regretted, as by such
of the ancestors of the Cymry from Asia Minor to he information we could judge whether their
at least as
us early as (175
'75 B.C.
Is. C . Pythagoras, it is said,
died in 49') B. C. ut the :i^e of 75 or So, and was of the
language was radically different or merely
^e of about <o when he returned from his easten
travels. So that the meeting of as anda different dialect of the same language.
Abaris must have been about 500 B. C. ami soon after
the rui.ijfn of Crossus which terminated about <aS B. C.The great works of the nation are Kiipcr-
Therefore Pythagoras, Abaris and Croesus of Lydia ticiallv overlooked, such as their mounds
po
must have hcen cotemporarics. Hecateus of Miletu
lived :md wrote soon afterwards, but sonic lime before and barrows, their roads and highways,
Herodotus, who flourished about 450. Hc<at;iMis of
Abdera, who wrote of the Hyperboreans arid Abderis, their towns and villages, those great works
flourished about 335, and wa's coteniporary of Aristo at Stonehenge and Avcbury ; as well as the
tle and Alexander the Great. See the previous notes
in this chapter. shops and manner in which were construct
ed and manufactured the many thousands
31 B. iii. See, also, Giles1 Ant. Brit., vol. i, p. u;
vol. ii, 32; i Pict. Hist. Kn#., p. SS. of chariots, which these historians say were
attrac'talTess'TttSiu'oi^ ' brought into the field against the Romans.
both as toi the early intercourse with the Romans, and Nor do they inform us as to the manner
the attention of the Unions tn Maritime aflatrs and
traffic. thev procured and wrought the iron and
 TUB BRITISH PERIOD. [Book
other metals necessary lor the construction ments when examined give clear indication
of those chariots; or the harness necessary of being the work of a different race, but
to gear their horses to them. As to most of one people divided ' into two branches,
of those matters, so very important to the the elder and the more recent branches.
development of these questions, the evi The elder of these Celtic monuments con
dence they would afford is left principally tain evidence, upon examination, that the
in the dark ; and only partially relieved by | people still lingered somewhat in the stone
subsequent historians, but mostly by exam age, but with them are found bronze and
ination of the antiquities of the country. iron implements,sure indication that the
It is from these latter sources of informa people were connected, at least distantly,
tion that we derive the most satisfactory with civilization. The second class of these
and desired information upon these inter Celtic monuments disclose clear evidence
esting questions, of which we will treat in of a more advanced period in their history.
a subsequent chapter. In them are found metals of various kind;
But as already said, all we can gather ! as tin' bronze, iron, in various forms, as the
from Ciesar Tacitus satisfy us that at warriors' arms, the domestic utensils, orna
their lime, with all the diversity of tribes, ments of skilled and refined workmanship;
and states, there was but one ethnic race; warriors buried in their glory with their
the Celtic, and this was represented by two arms around them, and in some instances
branches, or families or dialect, the old their horse and chariot, giving full evidence
(jaulic or Gaelic and the later Cymric fam how the chariot was constructed, wood
ilies, of the one original race, language and and iron, how the horse was geared to it,
people. The first occupied at that time I showing the harness, with its buckles and
the north part of the Island and were known fastenings, bringing into history of the
by the name of the Caledonians, the lat- times the undoubted evidence of the ad
ter In the common name of Britons.3-" This vancement that the people had made in the
is confirmed by both historical researches progress of civilization, which the written
and investigation into the antiquities of the histories of those times almost entirely ig-
country. And in advance of the fuller de
scription of the antiquities of the country, j W<- now bri"S on to the stand a most
it may be said that the most satisfactory ! unwilling witness, but one well informed
evidence is produced of progress in the arts upon the subject; who testifies thus:3*
and civilization by the investigation of the "The sepulchral mounds or tumuli the
ancient mounds, barrows and burial places; cromlechs, and the language of Wales,
and which also most satisfactorily disclose furnish the grounds on which we can de
three distinct periods in their construction. termine the origin of the Welsh nation.
The first and oldest bear the evidence of a We shall notice each in turn ; and it will
very rude and uncultivated people, if not be seen that the fullest testimony is given
the most unmitigated savages. Their in this case by the language; and that
mounds are generally of a different form, ' though similarity in this respect is regard-
and when opened, disclose that the people j cd b.v ethnologists as establishing only a
were in the stone age; all the implements j supposition in favor of relationship between
found were of stone or bone, with no cvi- ationN the result obtained in this manner
dence ol any metals; and the skulls of the is so supported by the evidence derived
persons buried, were round compared with from other sources, that no doubt can re
those of the Celtic race. This proves con main that the Kvmrv are one of the most
clusively that these people were of the el
M II. B. Woodward,History of Wales, B. i, ch.
der population of Western Europe, the 2, p|t. .ti, !<>, 31. This witness is introduced, Uioilh
Turanian race. an unwilling one, for we wish to draAv our evidence
from sources th:it cannot be called too partial to us.
Vet we must here say that Mr. Woodward has in his
The other mounds and artificial monu- history manifested a bitter enmity and hatred of the
Cymry:that lie has been the detractor anil calumni
ator of iiis subject; more so tlian any person who lias
il I'' supra.. <-h. i , |>. 40. been the historian of u people.
Chap. n. 1 THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
ancient people of Europe, and that they
are no unworthy branch of the great and
widely spread family which has been de
nominated, from its geographical range,
Indo-European'."
"We begin with the sepulchral mounds.
. . . . Dr. Prichard states that the
form of the skulls discovered in these rude
tombs, [first class or Turanian], which
have been examined, is rounder than that
of the true Caucasian variety, and ap-
proaches the Mongolian type
Mingled with these mounds, and undis
tinguished from them in outward appear
ance, are others which .show a very con
siderable progress in civilization. In some
of these are found ornaments, implements,
and weapons, of bronze, silver, and gold,
as well as of bone and flint; while in oth
ers, besides articles made of those metals,
are implements and weapons of iron.
There seems thus to be two distinct ad
vances clearly marked during the time that
this mode of burial was practiced by this
people; that indicated by the use of
rnetals, and the farther one of which the
use of iron is the sign."
"Yet even in language," continues this
witness, "there is a diversity sufficient
to establish a subdivision; the language
spoken bv the ancient Erse or Irish, the
Gaelic of the Highlands of .Scotland, and
that by the natives of the Isle of Man,
called the Manx, lonn the first division ;
and that by the Welsh, the provincial dia
lect of Cornwall, and that of Brctagne in
France, the second division, has proved
the close connection of the different people
using them ; and the languages and people
are generally denominated Celtic ; the three
first named being classed together as the
Gaelic; and the three last named as the
Cymric, dialect."
After making a thorough review of the
mounds and the languages, he concludes:
"From this examination we derive these
results:that the inhabitants of Wales
migrated thither directly from the great
fountain-head of the nations, the land of
the Euphrates and the Tigris; that thev
went in successive bands, each in a more
advanced stage of civilization than its pre-
decessor; that they carried with them a
peculiar language, and peculiar arts and
superstitions, by which it appears that their
settlement in this island was both begun
and completed at a very early period ; and
that they are immediately related to those
races which have played the most distin
guished part in the history of human pro
grcss and civilization ; but became a distinct
people before the difference between that
family and others of less eminence had be
come so strongly pronounced as now we
find them."
In addition to this testimony, and the
concurrent course of history, we have the
equally strong testimony of Miehelet in
his history of France, of the whole West
ern Europe, France and the British Islands
being peopled by one race, the Celtic, but
being divided, as stated, into two branches,
the Gaulic, and the Cymric race; .ind
states about the time of their coming the
Cymry, as a newer branch of the elder Cel
tic, and settling amongst them as brethren
of the same family/*5
In this connection we are not to over
look the ancient historical accounts given
by the Cymry themselves. They consist
of traditions the most ancient, but we
know not how early committed to writing,
but were undoubtedly the work of the an
cient Druids. These were, in their com
position, embodied in their Triads,38 which
have come to us in manuscripts of a more
recent period, like all other books of an
cient times. But they have been woven
and copied into history,recited in poetry
and song as undoubted and reliable as the
traditional history of any people. They
confirm the theory that they came3' from
Asia, from the Land of Summer near Con
stantinople, and were led hence by Hugh
the Great, to Britain and Armorica; and
through the Hazv Ocean to this Island.
They represent that they came and settled
in Britain in peace; no one opposing them.
3SCh.i,S3,p.46.
36 For an account of the Triads, sec the last chap
ter of this lx>ok.
37 Woodward's History of Wales, 1J. i, ch. 3, p.
>|; Historical Triads, 5; Turner's Anj^lo Saxons, B.
1, rh. 2; I'aljjrave's Arti^lo-Saxons, 3; Davics* Celtic
Researches, 153; Thierry's Norman Conquest, p. 2.
62 THE BRITISH PERIOD. (Book i.
Among the followers of Hugh was Aedd tranquillity ; and these three tribes were
Mawr (the Great) and his son, Prydain; sprung from the same origin, and were of
who first established government
' and set the same language and speech."
up royalty in the Isle of Britain. For be- Such is an abstract ot the most ancient
fore his time there no justice, but historical account given by the Cymry of
every tiling was done through favor; and themselves, as taken from their Triads,
there was no law, but that of the strongest. which was undoubtedly composed by the
Prydain, benificent sovereign, joined all ancient Druids. It is so much in harmony
the tribes of Britain in a system of federal with all the accounts we have from all
ism, and regulated the affairs of each tribe other historical sources, that little or no
both within itself and with its neighlxirs; doubt can be thrown over it. As such
therefore was he made monarch within the Turner in his History of the Anglo-Saxons
whole limits of the Cymrv, by the conven refers to it with approbation, and recites
tion of the country and border country ; many historical facts in support of the his
and the Island was called after him, Ynys tory thus deduced from the Triads; and
Prydain. Thus this land was governed says they may be read without incredulity
under a monarchy and the voice of the as to this claim of the Cymry;"their
country; and to this nation belongs the Druids are certainly evidence that a part
establishing of the monarchy by the voice of the population had made some intellec
of country and people, according to priv tual progress. The facts connected with
ilege and original right And every royalty the analogy of the language satisfactorily
ought to be under the protection of the prove that our earliest population came
voice of the country ; for it is said as a prov from Kimmerian and Keltic stock."
erb, "a country is mightier than a prince." The Cymric historical works in reference
"And Dyfnwal Moelmud, his son (Ail to the time of Ca;sar, divide Britain into
Prydain), destroyed the oppression which three parts. They then confined the name
sprang from the frenzy of the country un of A Iban to what is now Scotland ; they
der the pressure of the violence and law called the south and east Lioegyr (Loegria),
lessness of princes, by framing an equita where the late immigrants from Armorica
ble system of mutual obligation, between and Gascony were permitted to settle, and
societies, and princes, and countries; so the west of the Severn and the southern
that right and justice might be obtained by Avon and the central ridge of Britain, was
every one in the land, small as well as denominated Cymru, more decidedly the
great, under the protection of God and his country of the Cymry. But they were all.
peace; and the benificent sovereign, Dyfn at least the two southern portions, essen
wal Moclmud, was reckoned the 'third tially one people, amalgamated as one, in
pillar' of the nation ot the Cyrhry. language, in their institution of the Druids,
"The three Social tribes of the isle of in their mode and manner of warfare, and
Britain. The first was the nation of the their federal organization. They were all
Cymry. that came with Hugh the Mighty Cymryfrom the same original stock, and
into the isle of Britain, who would not received as brethren; and their only dis
possess the land by lighting and oppres tinction between thorn was founded upon
sion, but through justice and in peace. that of tribe and locality. The elder branch
The second was the tribe of the Lloegrwys, of the Cymry first settled the south, made
(Loegrians) who came from the land of improvements, and probably built Avebury
Gwasgwyn, (Gascony), being descendants and Stonehenge; and in a later generation,
from the primitive nation of the Cymry. by consent, agreement of sale and purchase,
The third were the Brython, who came disposed of their possessions to a new
from the land of Armoi ica, and had their comer, and moved to the west or north, un
descent from the same stock. These were til the population connected by the nearest
called the three tribes of peace, because affinity were changed in their locality with
they came by mutual consent, in peace and out actual change in their nationality. In
Chap, n-1 THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
the United States and in all new countries, Britons, mixed up with interesting legends
such changes arc frequently witnessed. A and myths about Troy. ^'Eneas, and the
town in Pennsylvania, perhaps, known as posterity of Helenus, son of 1'riam the
of a people of one denomination, will dis king of Trov, and the like fables in poetic
pose of their possession perhaps to a New fancy; very different in style from those
England immigration, and in the course of contained in Triads of the ancient Druids.
a generation or two the denomination of And this would give an idea that these
the population has changed without any stories had been somewhat tinged with
change of their nationality. In this man Latin literature. Hut Nennius, an old
ner a town of European emigrants lias been Cambrian writer, who wrote his History of
known to change, in a generation, to that the Britons*) about A. D. 860, alter giving
of a New England population. All the in this Trojan and Brutus account of the ori
dications ;uv that the immigrants who came gin of the Ancient Britons, says:"I have
from Armorica and Gascony were an im learned another account of this Brutus from
migration of a very recent date compared the ancient books of our ancestors;" and
with that of the original Cymrv,a second gives the whole of Europe to the descend
immigration of the same people. ants of Japheth, and deduces the descent
The history given hy the Ancient Unions of Brutus, by a genealogical table, fro-.n
of themselves, as stated in the Triads, be- ! Japheth. "We have obtained this intbrma-
ing onlv sententious statements or facts, is i tion," he continues, "respecting the original
more satisfactory and reliable than tiie same inhabitants of Britain from ancient tradi
history as narrated by subsequent chroni tion. The Britons were thus called from
clers, bards and historians. The Druids in Brutus. But Japheth had seven
their Triads are more satisfactory than the sons; from the first, named Gomer, de
subsequent writers of the nation. The scended the Galli; from the second, Magog,
latter are more legendary and fabulous, the Scythi and Gothi; from the third,
with more of that which is sensational and Madai, the Medi ; from the fourth, Javan,
poetical worked into the original matter. | the Greeks; from the fifth, Tuba], arose the
A II agree that the ancestors of the race Hebrei, Hispani, and Itali; from the sixth,
came from Western Asia. One statement Meshech, sprung the Cappadoces; and from
is, that they came from the land of Sum the seventh, named Tiras, descended the
mer, near Constantinople, and were led Th races.'1*1
from thence by Hugh, the Mighty, by the These traditionary histories of the An
way of the hazy ocean to Britain. The cient Britons, previous to the Roman
other is, that it \\as Brutus, a descendant period, though much involved in legends,
of the refugees from Troy, who lead a colo myths and fable, must still contain in them
ny of bis people from Italy and Greece, a nucleus of truth upon which they rest.
first to Gaul, where they built the city of
Tours, which was so named from Turonus. jy Hi.-,toria Hritoiium. Sec Bohn's Six Okl Kn-
one of their leaders, who had fallen in a llish Chronicles.
battle and was buried there. Alter that found 40 L't supra Si v Old Chrnn. In that collection we
four British histories which are well worthy the
Brutus, with the descendant of the Tro- i attention of the histtn-ian and antiquarian, i. e, Giidas,
,.,'>, , . who wrote about A. D. 546; Xennius, between 7u6
jan,-, came to "this island, named Irom him ;lnu S(o;
and s,0; (ieoftrcy
Gcoftrcv of
of Monmotith
Monmouth who
who Nourished
flo,,n..hrd about
about
Britannia," anil built a city, which "he called 1 152, and Kichard of Cirencester from 'jSj tii i $99.
All these are inlere-stinir b(xks by these authors.
New 'Iroy, hut afterwards designated ' <;ildas is the U-a-u deserving the place. Instead of
; us (lie fat Is of history, hi.* history is dislortecl
Trinovantuin; and when King Ludd had by a tirade of Monkish abuse of his people in the
surrounded it with stately walls, it was after >lvle of the anru'Mt prophet denouncing his people
whenever Ihe limes turned against them. These au
him called Caer I,udd.:l"or London." Such thors and histories are strictly Cymric, and the best
is the story frequently found incorporated informed ol the history of their people in the day in
which they lived. (Jeoffrev's book though, as a com
into the Cymric history of the Ancient position, is tile most interesting an! well written
hook of Kuropu of that day, is too legendary and
fabulous for historical truths. As a hook it must be
,<S Holm's Six Ol.l Chronicles: Geoffrey of Mon- noiiri-J in a subsequent chapter, when speaking of its
nuulh, |>. loS. literary merits.
 THH I5RITISH PERIOD. [Hook i.
It is hut seldom a tradition exists, though origin, as evidence corroborative of the
much covered up by legendary and fabu same matter. But this is objected to, be
lous myths, but that which is founded upon cause the matter is shrouded and disguised
some truth and real faet. In ascertaining by traditional legends, fables and myths
the truth the story must be analyzed, and which render it so doubtful if not incredi
we should ascertain what is consistent, and ble. This objection to such tradition when
and corroborated by other known and es used by itself is legitimate, but not so when
tablished facts and circumstances; or where used merely to corroborate authentic facts
two or more independent stone.-* and facts and circumstances.
unite in sustaining the same hypothesis, j Bm H.,K.n lhis tr:uiiliomi| history is ex
Where such corroboration exist or union amined, we find in it a nucleus., which agrees
of independent facts tending to prove and with, and is a part of, our proposition. The
sustain the same thing, it is to be received story of Brutus and his descent from
as evidence and as morally sustaining the yEneas, and his people being descendants
proposition, unless refuted by other facts of the ancient Trojans is by itself a myth,
and circumstances equally strong. entirely incredible. But this story was al
Now the proposition assumed is this, ways accompanied by the uniform declara
that the Ancient Britains are the descend tion of the Cymry, that they were the
ants of a people once settled on the north descendants of Gomer, and that they came
side of the Euxinc claimed to be the de from Asia, near to Constantinople, and
scendants of Gomer, and known to the that they came by the way of the hazy
ancient Greeks as the Cimmerii; that these ocean. Now when the story of Brutus
people in various bodies, and at various and the Trojans came to be mixed up with
times emigrated west, and settled in Gaul the true story, by poets and bards, who
and Britain, and at an early day became cared more to be sensational and poetic
known to the Greeks and Romans as the than truthful, we know not, but the story
Celts. At a subsequent day the last of the of Troy might have been learned while
Cimmerii were driven by the Scythians they were in Lydia. When the ancestors
around the east end of the Euxine into of the Cymry were in Asia Minor they
Asia Minor, where they remained fifty or were in the immediate vicinity of the ruins
eighty years as conquerors of the country of Troy, which had been destroyed about
for the time, and had taken Sardis the cap four or five hundred years previous, and its
ital of Lydia. These afterwards, about destruction was the great event of the
650 B. C. left Asia Minor and went west world; and was constantly referred to in
and north until on their way they became all their subsequent narratives and poetrv.
settled in the Cimbric Chersonesus, and It was carried with them as the most nota
subsequently known to the Romans as the ble event in history. Nothing was more
Cimbri. They moved on, leaving colonies natural than to connect their own history
as they progressed, near the mouth of the with it; and when they became acquainted
Elbe and the Baltic; also in Belgium, in with the Roman classics it was quite as
Armoriea in Gaul, to Britain : calling them natural to tinge their story with the Latin
selves the Cymry ; but other historians fay dress. But when stripped of such foreign
ing they were the descendants of the an- garb, the truth nucleus of their history
cient Cimhri. We have endeavored to j still remains; and Gomer, Asia Minor, near
prove this by references to ancientauthors, j Constantinople, the Hazy Ocean, and Ar-
and the opinion of modern historians; and I morica still remain; and come up as un-
this is corroborated bv the express declara- questionable evidence in support of that
tion of the Triads of the ancient Druids as which has preceded it. And we find noth-
statcd by themselves. We have quoted ing in history that militates against it:
the declarations of ancient British authors, but all bringing up the fool-marks in the
as to the traditions received from their an- patn of history, which leaves little or no
ccstor> and ancient authors, as to their room to doubt the conclusion to which it
Chap. n.J THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
carries us, and to which we ai rive. Then
when we connect all this with Oliver facts
which admit of no other hypothesis, as the
Druids and their learning, their chariots;
all of which directly connects them with
Asia Minor, without any other manner of
rationally accounting for them; we
claim our proposition is proved.
Between 390 B. C. and Civsar's time, the
the history of Europe is filled with the ac
count of various movements and expedi
tions of the Gauls and Cimhri, from West
ern Europe to the south and east, into
Italy, Greece, Thrace and Asia Minor.
This history uniformly shows that these
people were one and the same race. Ac
cording to Roman history, though often
called Gauls, especially in the earliest part
of it, yet we see that they were all brethren
of the same race with the Cimbri. None
of these movements and expeditions com
menced in or proceeded from Britain; yet
tradition, the Triads and history connect
the Cymry of Britain with them. It is,
therefore, proper that we should notice
these, in connection with the history of the
Ancient Britons.
The history and character of the Cimbri
is more at large spoken ol by Tacitus, than
by any of the ancient historians. He speaks
of them as having been settled in the Cim-
hric Chersonesus and conferred upon it its
name. In the immediate vicinity of these
he places the ^Estyans, and says they were
a people, who in dress and manners re
sembled the Sucvians, hut in language they
had more affinity to the dialect of Britain.*'
It is probable that these were a part of the
Cymry, left there by the parent stock, in
their migration to Hritain.42 Posidonius
thought the Cimbri were the original peo
ple of the Cimmeri extending their arms
eastward, giving their name to the Bosphor-
us,-<3 an opinion in which Strabo seems to
concur.** Although the history of most
of these expeditions come to us under the
41 Tac. Germ., XI-V.
43 Ut supra, ch. i.
43 This is frequently the case with ancient historians, will l>o seen that Micht'lct :ind 'Iliicrry ( Amad.) put
in consequence of the^r not understanding that all the this date at ubout ifioo U. C. But it is uncertain.
jjrcat migrations were to the west, those to the east
were only secondary.
44 I.ib. vii, p. 293; Login's Celt. M.. p. 24.
name of Gauls, yet we find abundance of
traces in history that they were Cimbri;
and that Cymric Celts took a leading part
in them. Under the name of Cimbri,
Tacitus passes upon them a high eulogy,
anil represents them as "a people then of
small consequence*, though their glory can
never die. Monuments of their former
strength and importance arc still to be seen.
on either shore.*' Their camp- and lines of
circumvallfLtions are not \ el erased. Krom
the extent of ground which they occupied,
you may even now form an estimate of
the force and resources of the state, and
the account of their grand army, which
consisted of such prodigious numbers,
seems to be verified" . "and which
renders their glory and renown ever to be
remembered. "<fl
At some early period, and before the
Cymry left Asia Minor, the Celts of Gaul
invaded Spain.4" Spain, it is supposed, was
first settled by the Iberians, whose origin
is unknown ; but it is thought that they
were Turanians, and progenitors of the
modern Basques in the Western Pyrenees,
and the ancient Iberians in Acquitania, the
southwest corner of Gaul; and also of the
Ligurians in the northwest part of Italy, in
the midst of the Mediterranean Alps. This
movement of the Gauls into Spain, appears
to have been the first of the Celtic race. It
appears to have had an important effect
upon Central Spain, for its inhabitants af
ter that were denominated Celtiberi; or
Celt-Iberians, who were a mixture of the
two people; and occupied the centre of the
peninsula.
At a subsequent, but still an early, date,
tiie (iauls invaded Italy,4" and took posses
sion of the whole of the valley of the Po,
and the shores of the Adriatic Sea. The
country thus taken in Italy was known as
Ombria (or Umbria); and afterwards called
by the Romans (ittllia Cisiilfinti, to dis-
45 ' f*. the (Jernuin (xx-an ;md tlic Italtic.
46 Tacitus' Germ., xxxvii.
47 See Godwin's France, 20; und n. 3, hby which ii
vill be
48 Sec Godwin's Franc*!, 2026, Also Antfion's
Clas. Diet,, yS; 1'liny 2, 14 ; 2 Livy (Lib. ix, 36, &i-. .
(09, Bonn's Ed.
66 THE HKITISII PERIOD. [Book i.
tinguish it from (iollia Transalfina. or j the most of them, if not all, are known to
Gaul over or beyond the Alps. But these he Cymric states. He says, that Ambiga-
were movements of the Celts before the tus, who held the supreme government of
time of the Cymry; and though there j the Celts, was very much distinguished by
were frequent invasions of Italy by the I his merit, both as to his great prosperity in
Gauls previous to the taking of Rome un- j his own affairs, and in those of Ihe public,
der Brennus there is no circumstance in J Under his administration Gaul was so
history, that will enable us to suppose the fruitful and so well peopled, that it became
Cymry to be connected with them until : very difficult to restrain and govern so
the expedition connected with that event; i great a population. He was now advanced
which is generally ascribed to 31/1 B. C. in years, and anxious to relieve his country
The arrival of the Cymry in A rmorica, i of so oppressive a crowd; declared his in-
must have been many years before;** and i tention to send his sister's sons, Bcllovcsus
though they came peaceably and as breth and Sigovesuo, two enterprising youths, in
ren of the ancient Celts in Gaul, yet that to whatever settlements the gods, by
event would increase the population, so as augury, should >end them. They were
to stimulate the expeditions and migration permitted to take with them as many men
to Italy. as they pleased; so that no nation would be
The Cymry had now been so Ion;/ settled able to obstruct them in their progress.
in Gaul and Britain, that between them and ' By the oracle, to the latter of these young
the original Celts the country had become men, was assigned the Hercynian forest;
largely tilled with people. They had taken but to the former was assigned the much
possession of the central portion of Gaul ; cheering route into Italy. NVith Bellovesus
and the country, on the Loire and between j there went out whatever superfluous popu-
it and the Seine, had become Cymric terri- i lation they had. from the Biturigians, the
tory and divided up into a number of small Arvernians, the Senonians, the ^Eduans,
states. Between the time ot their advent i the Ambarrians, the Carnutians, and the
into Gaul,50 and the period now under con Aulcrcians. These were all, or nearly all
sideration, they had become a numerous Cymric Celts. They passed over the Alps
and powerful people, besides those who through unknown and difficult passes, and
were left on the Baltic and in Belgium, and met on the head waters of Ihe I'o, where
those who had gone to Britain. Gaul had now stands a tower, known as Milan the
already furnished frequent expeditions ol beautiful. Others came after them until
her elder Celts, in quest of new land and j the valley of the Po was filled with inhabi-
country to settle on; and in that they had : tants, and then, as above stated, passed on
been extremely successful in Northern [ towards Southern Italy along the western
Italy on the Po. "Lastly." says Michelet," shores of the Adriatic.
"the Cymry. becoming jealous of the con- j After these came the Senonians, the last
quests of the Gauls, passed the Alps in ()|- t,1L.sl. e,,^,^ who arc undollbtedly
their tun,; but linding the valley of the Po Cymrv. and are the Gauls noticed in Ro'-
already occupied, they are forced lo pro- [ lnan h'utorV( us thosc who attacked Clusi-
ceecl as far as the Adriatic, and tound Bo- um and ^c]lcd Romc lmde,. Brcnnus.
logna and Simgaglia." Livy enumerates VVhether in this they were alone, or aided
the states in Gaul, whose people had fur by others of the Cisalpine Gaul, says Livy,
nished recruits to these expeditions?-' and ] is not dll|v astel.tained.M This js a
interesting story, and the most terrible to
jg Srr Godwin's !''r:mri? .17, who thc'tv ciks
Thierry Ili-t. uV-i Gaul, T. i, I., i, ch. r. Rome, of any in her eventful history. The
50 IlL-twcun foo null ,v/> B. t'. Sri- i MichHH'.s Senonians attacked Clusium. and demand
Ili-st. I'Vuncc, p. ,,tv Also Godwin's Hist.
Knmrc 27, n. ^, \\ IUTL- Thierry is rufcrrcd to in rcla- ed of them land upon which to settle. This
the Cyinrii- invasion of'Cr.iul. was refused, and the Clusian> sent to Rome
^i I't snprii, p. yi.
51 II. v, i . jj. i:i supra, p. .i''j. 5,1 IJv\ H. v, i-h. 35. Godwin's Hist. Kr.incc,
Chap. 11.] THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 67
for aid in their .icfcnce. The Romans I ble The Gauls were indisposed to relin-
cautiously sent no army, but in its stead. ! quish their position upon easy terms, but
sent three envoys to mediate and settle tfie at length the Romans were able to arrange
matter if. possible. with Brennus, the Celtic chief, their ran
The envoys to C'hisiiim failed in their som in if"'1'- When the money was being
object, and a battle ensued between the weighed the audacious Brennus cast his
contending parties; in which the envoys, sword into the scales, claiming it should be
contrary to their duty and international weighed down with gold, and exclaiming
law, incautiously took a part and with great without remorse, his. famous exclamation,
spirit fought with the Clnsians, who were j rw TiV/Ys/ (wo to the vanquished), which
defeated, and one of the envoys was taken the Romans in after years returned with
prisoner in the battle. This rash conduct of terrible retribution, which so often happens
the envoys greatly otfcndcd the Celts, who in the ways ot Providence.
demanded satisfaction of their principal. Other bands of Cymric Gauls, which
This not being conceded, they immediately tradition connects with those of Sigovesus,
marched upon Rome itself. The Romans were, in the meantime, pursuing in the
met them on the banks of a small stream east the same success with their brethren.
nlxnit twelve miles from the city, called the l-'rom the 1 lercynian forest, they pursued
Allia; where they were defeated with great a triumphal course down the Danube and
slaughter; and the Gauls pushed on to the into Thrace, threatening Greece and Asia
capital. The multitude tied the city in Minor, as though determined to return to
terror and dismay. The gates of the city the land where theii ancestors once
oven were not closed. and the enemy triumphed. After some years, about 335
marched in without opposition. Souie of B. C., they were met by that renowned
the more courageous and -pirited voung hero, Alexander of Macedonia, whose syni-
men, however, took possession of the cita pathv for their fearless adventure and en
del with a resolution to defend it. The terprise induced him to receive them with
hostile army on entering the city with so kindness: and asked them, what they most
little opposition were themselves amazed, feared, simply replied, nothing but the fall
for the fear of some strategem, so strange ing ot the skies. Pleased with their swag
and unusual were all appearances. The gering answer, he took some of them into
senators finding themselves helpless, de his pay : who probably afterwards assisted
termined to abide the result, and sacrifice him in subsequent conquest of the
themselves if necessary, took their positions world.
in the forum sitting in their ivory chairs, These adventurers remained quiet during
with the usual dignity of the Senate, de Alexander's time and for some years after
termined with honor and devotion to abide wards; perhaps restrained by his character
the event of their country. The Gaul- and renown. But thev soon discovered
while admiring them as statues, were struck the incompetent and inefficient character of
by one of the Roman officials, in the ex his successors in Macedonia and Greece.
citement of receiving an insult; then the About 281 B. C. these were re-enforced by
Gauls in resentment commenced the new bands of Cymric Celts from Gaul anil
slaughter of those who remained, and the Belgium, under the name of the Trocmi,
conflagration of the city. In their attempt- the Tectosages, and the Tolistoboii. Mace
to capture the citadel they failed, but every donia and Greece were fearfully invaded,
where else they triumphantly plundered and ravaged. The Greeks, though dispir
and destroyed whatever they would. Af ited by their numerous misfortunes and
ter some time of horror, suffering and reverses, were aroused to a momentary res
want, those in the citadel, rather than any olution, by the recollection of the glory of
longer endure their suffering and death, ' their ancestors, and determined in the like
insisted that there should be a surrender or ; manner to repeat their defence at Ther-
the enemy bought oft" on any terms possi- ! mopyl;c. But the Gauls with skill evaded
6S THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
Thermopylae, and passed over the moun nin, which in Cymraeg means a king or
tains, and made their way to the temple of chief; '. <?., when these Romans and Greci-
the Grecian god at Delphi; which they in ai)s enquired who he was, were answered
tended to plunder of its vast wealth, dedi he was the "Brenhin," the king or chief.
cated to that oracle. But the legend is that St. Jerome also testifies that "the dialect of
the oracle promised to defend itself, and the Tectosages was the same as that of
when the Gauls attempted to take the sa Treves," the capital of Belgium.''4
cred offerings, the thunder of the deity's Another instance of the Gauls in Italy,
wrath fell from the skies, the rocks tremb mentioned by Livy.*5 should not be over
led, and the earth opened. Either this or looked in this connection; being connect
the valor of the Greeks caused the Gauls ed with the name of the -Senones, a name
here great reverses. Their Brennus, in ut equally known and celebrated in Britain,
ter despair and in order to facilitate their Gaul and Italy. They were everywhere
retreat, advised them to burn their booty, accepted and acknowledged as Cymric
:md cut the throats of their many thousand Celts, and as described bv Livy in the mat
prisoners; which advice, it is said, they fol ter alluded to, must be claimed, from their
lowed, except that they kept the baggage, modc of warfare in chariots, as specially
and barely escaped with their lives into connected with the Cymry of Britain/"
Macedonia; but Brennus, in his despair in Livy says that in the year of Rome 457,
consequence of these rreat reverses, killed which would be ^96 B. C., the Senonian
himself. Gauls came in a vast body to Clusium to
Another body of these Gauls crossed the | attack the Roman legion and camp. In a
Bosphorus and threw themselves with ! battle which ensued between the Romans
terrible force upon the people of Asia : and these Senones and their Italian allies
Minor, and with great success took what- Scipio, the proprietor, was terribly defeated,
ever they demanded. They partitioned the of which Livy gives a distracted and con
country among themselves, and for many flicting account. After that the consuls,
years held it against the feeble successors Kabius and Decius crossed over with the
of Alexander. They were gradually com Roman army to the east side of the Apen
pelled in later times to reduce their terri nines, and came upon their enemy in the
tory, and with difficulty maintained their territory of Sentinum. Then another bat
nationality against the Romans. But tle occurred, one of the most desperate and
eventually thev were able to establish famous in the Roman history of that dav.
themselves permanently as a people and "The Gauls were posted on the right wing,
nation ; their country as Galatia (or Gallo- the Samnites (their allies) on the left.
Gnecia), and themselves asGalatians. with Against the latter, Fabius drew up, as his
a civilization partaking of the three ele right wing, the first and third legions;
mentsthe Gallic, tne Grecian and the against the Gauls. Decius formed the left
Roman : and acquired an honorable name wing of the fifth and sixth." For a minute
as the Galatians in the New Testament, account of this terrible battle we must refer
and as such known to the Christian world. the reader to Livy : but we particularly
"There," says Michelet, '-we see our Gauls ' call attention to what is aid of the Gauls
restored to the cradle of the Cymry. not far I fi;,rhti"S ">'" their chariot which everv
from the Cimmerian Bosphorushere are where in Europe has been confined to the
they settled on the ruins of Troy, and in Cymric Celts. -Deems, more impetuous.
the mountains of Asia Minor." That thev '*mg in the prime of life and full now of
were Cvmrv is the general behel from their i
54 Miduilut > Hi: of FniTicr. |>. .17; Am.
names, language and traditions. 1 he names i ry i, 131.
of their tribes are known to be Cymric, and 55 D. x, th. jA iS.
the same with those in Armorica. The says: 56 Stx- Kichard of C'irencester, U. ii. tli. i. \vln>
"3600 [400 B. C". | The Senoiu-s, having i-nti-
name Brennus, so often repeated in Roman grilled from Hritain. passed through G:iul, wtlh thr
inlL-nt tr> invade Italy, and .tltark Rome," As to
and (irecian history, is derived from Brcn- this sec fartht-r in cli. iv.
Chap, ii.] THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY.
spirits," says Livy, "exerted whatever force their usual tribute, but to the Gauls they
he had to the utmost in the first encounter; i owed a deep resentment, and especially so
and thinking the infantry not sufficiently to the Senonians, who had captured Rome.
energetic, brought up the cavalry to the The terrible battle of Allia and the burning
fight. Putting himself at the head of a of Rome were never to be forgotten or for-
troop of young horsemen of distinguished given. For more than three hundred years
bravery, he besought those youths, the . was the strife carried on, between the Ro-
rlower of the army, to charge the enemy man and Gaul, in repeated battles won and
with him; telling them, "they would reap lost. But the Roman, with the advantage
a double share of glory, if the victory that civ Miration and the arts .gave him,
should commence on thV left wing, and gradually gained until all Italy, even Cis-
through their means.' Twice they com- alpine Gaul itself, were his. To the Gauls
pel led the Gallic cavalry to give \\ ay. At ol Italy, the privileges of Roman citizens
the second charge, when they advanced could be eventually grunted: but when
farther and were briskly engaged in the Sena was taken, the residence on the
midst of the enemy's squadrons, by a Adriatic of the Cymric Sehones, the whole
method of fighting new to them, they were tribe living there was exterminated to
thrown into dismay. A number of the avenge Allia, and so that there should not
enemy, mounted on chariots, made to- remain a single descendant of those who
wards them with such a prodigious clatter could boast of ha\ ing burnt Rome."*
from the trampling of the cattle and rolling But another day ol terrible fright was
of the wheels, as affrighted the horses of the fast approaching Rome. Some cause un-
Romans, unaccustomed to such tumultu- known produced a movement with the
ous operations. By this means the Cimbri, who were left behind, north of the
torious cavalry were dispersed, through a Elbe, by their Cymric brethren when they
panic, and men and horses, in thier head- moved south to Armorica and Britain,
long Might, were tumbled promiscuously What produced this movement is unoer-
on the ground. Hence, also, the battalions tain, but several and distinct causes have
of the legions were thrown into disorder: been alleged. Some attributed it to some
through the impetuosity of the horses, and convulsions of nature by which the coun-
of the carriages which they dragged try became inundated and the inhabitants
through the ranks, many of the soldiers in driven out; others, to another race of peo-
the van were trodden or bruised to death: pie pressing from the east, compelling them
the Gallic line, a* soon as the)' saw their to leave; and others again, that both the
enemy in confusion, pushed the advantage, Cymry and Teutons had friends at Sena,
nor allowed them time to take breath or among the Senones, whose death thev were
recover themselves." Thus the battle determined l< A residence there
raged; and after Decius had purposely sac- for about four centuries since their better
riticed himsell in hopes of saving the arniv : informed brethren had lett them, did not
Kahius, on the other wing of the army, at- tend to improve them. They were reputed
ter extreme exertion and management to be the most ferocious and war-like peo-
gained a dear bought victory. This battle pie that the Romans hud to contend with,
was fourteen \ ears before the Romans They were acconfpanied by a like number
wreaked their vengeance on that part of of Teutons, either as allies or confederates,
the Senones who had settled at Sena, by and pressed on towards the Roman domin
the destruction of their town and slaughter ion in a vast horde of five or six hundred
of its peopl thousand, with at least three hundred
The Roman power gradually increased, thousand fighting men.*' They were called
until it brought within its grasp the whole the Cimbri ami Teutons, and caused terror
of Italy. Its general policy was to treat , llml devastation wherever they went. In
its conquered people kindly, >o thev paid
I Mii'hclet's Hist, of Knl . p. .$
57 Sec Anthon's Clas. Dirt., mo. litlc Scn.t. Mk-liL-lrt, ul slipru.. to.
;<. THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
passing through Belgium and Gaul thev I soldiers and half of that number of camp
found some Cymry whom they claimed as followers and slaves, only ten men are said
brethren, and left with them some of their to have escaped, of whom Ca?pio was one.
baggage for safekeeping: hut as thev pa-*- The barbarians religiously kept their oath ;
cd along, the people often fled from their ' slaving every living creature they found,
approach, and the country was stripped of and taking the immense booty found in
all means of sustenance, and famine and' the enemy's camp; but with their rude vir-
distress were left in their course"" Their tne of the barbarian, they only selected the
progress seemed to he irresistible, and arms, and threw the gold, silver and use-
having gained a number of victories, they ' '<> valuables into the Rhone.151 This vic-
spread terror and dismay to even Rome it- | tory of the Cimbri was as terrible to the
self. For about ten vears thev vacil- Romans as that of the .Mlia or Canute, and
lated backwards and forwards on the bor- ' brought to their recollection what they
der of the Roman republic, from Xoricum ! knew of the frightful day of the sacking
on the Danube to the Pyrenees and Spain. ! of Rome. The way to Rome was now
trving to overcome the difficulty of cross- opened; but the good fortune of Rome
ing the Alps into Italv. After a number ! kept their enemies in the provinces west
of victories over Roman armies sent against of the Alps, and gave them time to breathe,
them, they found themselves on the banks , In almost despair, thev turned to the re-
of the Rhone, demanding of the Romans nowned Marius, as the only man who
an assignment of land to settle upon. The ; could save them, but whose habits and vir-
Romaiis had been for some years engaged j tues were as rude as those of the barbari-
in subjecting that part of Southern Gaul " ^'ith unlimited confidence in his
bordering on the Mediterranean to their abilities, be was sent to the Rhone, to meet
dominion. This was called the -Narbon- and hold in check their dreaded enemy,
ensis," and embraced within it Narbo and ; In the meantime the Cimbri and Teutons
Tolosa. The latter city was a settlement ''ad separated, to take different routes into
of thcCvmricTccloxagcs.and was then the Italy; the former by a more easterly one,
wealthiest city of Gaul, having within it , but the latter to take one more direct, and
the rich plunder taken In their brethren at to ""-'et at a given lime and place on the
Delphi in Greece. The inhabitant- of To- I P- Thus each W.IR to receive the benefit
losa(now Toulouse) recognixed the Cim- of collecting subsistence on different ways
bri as brethren, and called on ihein to aid to their place of destination.
them in a revolt. Having thrown off the Marius was then holding the Teutons in
Roman vokc. the Roman Consul, C. Ser- check on the Rhone, with as large an army
viliiis Civpio, stormed the town and sacked as Rome then could collect. With the
it; taking an immense lxiot\ in gold and skill of an experienced general, he fora
silver: which, instead of being sent home, long time avoided any general battle until
was fraudulently eml>e//led bv the officers he should be well prepared for the event,
and army, before the Cimbri could come I le spent his time in bringing the country
to the relief of the town. Oi'pio, emlxild- around kjm into proper subjection, in dis-
en bv his corruption and success, detenu- ciplining his army and thoroughly prepar-
ined upon an immediate attack upon the ing for the final i-sue. No taunt or strata-
Cimbri. He in-ulted the deputies which gem of the Teutons could bring him to
they had sent to him. which induced them battle until he found him-elf ready. So-
again to swear v engeance against the Ro- cured in his intrenched cam]), from which
mans. A terrible buttle ensued, brought he watched his enemv at first near Aries,
on by the vanit\, impudence and impru- i then under the walls of Aijtiiv Scxtia,',
deuce of C;cpio. The victory of the Cim- (Aix). Marius persi-ted in declining battle.
bri was complete. Outofeightv thousand Alter much delav in this wav. considerable.

fit Their iiiovcmcnl \v:is Itctvvci'n I i,i :in<l 101 It. C'. ( 'i Miclick-t's Hist, (if l-'ntnc*-, 40 (i.
Chap, u.] THE BRITONS IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 71
skirmishing was had, and a partial battle be decided to whom Italy belonged. An
was fought, in which the Romans were swering that Rome did not counsel with
victorious. Two days afterwards, Marius her enemies as to the time or place in
drew on the final engagement by means ol | which she might choose to defend herself,
his cavalrv. The enemy, carried away by J he vet condescended lo indicate to them
their courage in attempting to cross the | the third dav thereafter, and the Rhaudian
river in an ill advised attack upon the Ro Plain a< the titling place."
mans, were overwhelmed in its bed, while For that celebrated battle, Marius had
a bodv of three thousand Romans attacked prepared his army with his usual skill.
them in the rear and completely decided The Cimbri did not exercise equal care, a^
the fate of the day. if depending more upon their great force
In this battle Marius had entirely anni and terrific appearance than u]x>n skillful
hilated the Teutons; according to accounts, maneuver. Thev had formed their infan
a hundred thousand of the barbarians were try in an enormous square; supported by
either slaughtered or taken prisoners. The their cavalrv, fifteen thousand strong.
vallev wa> so enriched with their blood and 1 which in appearance, according to the his
bones, as to become celebrated in the cul torians of the day. presented barbaric ter
ture of the vine in after times. ror. The Romans hail the advantage of
Marius was now relieved to go to meet the wind, and the heat of the day : and the
the Cimhri in the vallev of the I'o. With i wind and dust contributed much to the de
great energy and resolution they had cross feat of the Cimbri. The wing commanded
ed the Alps amidst its snow-- and difficul by Marius, soon after the battle had began,
ties. The change they met upon coming fancied that the enemy's cavalry had taken
to the vallev of the I'o was enervating and : flight, spurred on in pursuit, and were soon
fatal to them. The wine and abundance of , lost lo the sight in the dust. The enemy's
Northern Italy prepared them lor a com infantry, like the waves of the sea. roiled
plete destruction by Marius. When he ar I on and were broken on the centre, where
rived from the Rhone, Catulus was with Catulus and Svlla commanded; and then
hi* army in front of the Cimbri ready for all became an undistinguishablc mass of
his command. "As he halted,'' says God dust and carnage, until complete victory
win,1''-' "the Kvmri sent a deputation to him was acquired bv the Romans. But to the
to ask land both lor themselves and their ! heat of the day and the dust mu~t be as
brothers, the Teutons (of whose extinc signed much of the honor of the victory.
tion they had not yet heard). Marius re When the news of the defeat reached the
plied, with sardonic irony, 'Oh! don't j camp of the Cimhri all w.i* consternation,
trouble yourselves about the Teutons; and determination not to survive its dis
thev have land enough, which they are grace. The women upon the approach ot
likely to keep forever!' Perceiving that the enemv determined to defend them-
he dissembled some jest, the envoys of the I selves, and fought like the men; but when
Kvmri threatened him with the conse all was lost but their honor, they first killed
quence of a speedy arrival of the Teu their children and then themselves. Of
tons. -The Teutons,' he rejoined, some their army, the most were slaughtered on
what dramatically, 'thev are here already;' the field or in the pursuit; all \\howere
and caused several of their captured chiefs taken prisoners were distributed among the
to be brought forth. Nothing daunted by ! towns as public slaves, or devoted to glad
the discovery of a fact, which was now but iatorial shows. Thus ended this terrible
too apparent, the envoys retired to consult conflict, which for many years, like a
their people, who then sent a second em frightful storm, had threatened the destruc-
bassy to him to ask him to appoint the ! tion of Rome, and of w Inch they were now
place where and the time when it should ! relieved, by the utter destruction of these
I Cimbri and their allies. To Marius was
62 lllstnrv of Frani-f, p. 65. conferred all honors and praise; who was
 THK BRITISH PERIOD. [Book I.
hailed as the preserver of their country, is just what we find in the ancient history
and the second founder of Rome of Britain, as recorded in the Triads, and
This defeat of the Cimhri was repeated in tradition. The Triad is this:
plete and exterminating, and so joyful to "In the days of Cadial there came from
the Romans, one would suppose
suppose that they ' Scandinavia I'rb Lluyddawg, son of Erin,
could ha\ afforded to forsjet Allia and the to seek assistance in a great expedition
burning of Rome. But it was not so; af- which he had planned. And it was agreed
ter a few years of peace, that ambitious to grant him aid thus he took
and revengeful spirit, which had decreed awav with him (he flower of the nation of
the destruction of Carthage renewed the the Cymry, three score and one thousand;
war against the Celt, and was not satisfied and there remained behind only children
until Gaul was made their province and and old people, for it \va.- through over-
tributary. Still it may be a serious ques sight that this demand was granted under
tion, whether such ambitious and unjust an irrevocable condition. And of this
acquisitions are not far more injurious in mighty host there returned not one, nor of
the end, than beneficial; whether in the their children or posterity; lor he led them
inscrutable ways of Providence such un as far as the sea of Greece, there remain
just and wjcked deed* are not alwavs re- ing, in the land of Galas [Galatia] and
lurnecl with a vengeance; and whether the Afena, to this day; they have become
vaulting ambition and conquest of the ; Greeks. And this was the first of the
Romans did not in after years induce the three "Unwise Armament," for thereby
terrible return of the barbarian in the ut was the Island so greatly weakened."*8
ter overthrow of the Roman empire, as a This account is so entirely consistent
rctributi\ e measure of' justice and provi- | with all we know of history, and taking
dence into consideration the antiquity of the
In all these expeditions of the Gauls and Triads, that it carries with it conviction of
Cimbri, tradition and history have very its truth. It shows that the expedition
generally attributed them to the Cymry, which terminated in Galatia was not of
and, undoubtedly, rightfully so: but then British origin, but that the Cymry of
it is a question, how far the Cymry of Britain furnished men for that which start-
Britain were connected with them? They ' ed from the continent, which went east as
have generally been considered as leaders ' <"ar as Galatia and never returned; but were
in them. But I think this is not support- restored, as Michelet says, "to the cradle of
ed by historical fact-, It was so alleged, their ancestors."
principally from the fact that in so manv
instances the Greek and Roman historians CHAPTER III.
alleged that the leader s name was Brennus. THK ROMAN INVASION BY C.SAR.
and brenhin in the Welsh and Cymric
language was the word for king; and this ^l^Ctfsaf\f Prior Operation* in teirttl.
etvmologv of the word agreed with tradi- For some years previous to the Cim-
tion and history. Bui the same words ! brian invasion the Romans had taken pos-
were common to the Cymry of Gaul, as session of some part of southern Gaul, and
well as Britain : and it is believed that had commenced their Transalpine con
everv one of those expeditions were raised quest. But their dominion was confined
and put in motion on the continent, as we to the borders of the Meditcrranian, and
know the first and-the last of them actual- ! Narbonne and Toulouse were their princi-
Iv were, as that stalled In Ambigatus and pal cities. After Marius had defeated the
the la-tbv the Cimbri and Teutons. Such Cimbri, for forty-three years, up to La-sar's
expeditions were usually gotteji up by vol time, they were relieved from the appre
untary enlistment, of all who were disposed hension of anv serious enemy in that di
to join them, as was the case with William
the Conqueror, or the crusaders. And this 6.3 See also ante ch. j. n. 56. Richard of Circncestcr
Chap ni.]j THE ROMAN INVASION BY CAESAR.
rection, and no doubt, that during that rnestic dissensions and the threatened in-
time, Gaul and Britain opened up to the ; vasion from these neighboring countries,
visions of the ambitious men of Rome new Just at that time Helvetia was overstocked
fields of conquest and plunder. But the with people, who were seeking a more ex
east then occupied the attention of their tensive territory and congenial country,
great men, as Sylla, Pompey and others; and determined to emigrate in a body into
which in Asia presented to their ambition some part of Gaul. Csi'sar opposed them;
a more inviting field, and a more luxurious but the Helvetians, notwithstanding, made
and submissive conquest. But the time their escape from the Rhone just below
had now arrived lien the Roman mind Geneva over to the Saone through the
was turned towards the conquest of Gaul, gorges of the Jura mountains, and thence
and was lead in thai arduous task bv the to near Autun, where they were finally de
ambition and activity of Julius Ciesar. In feated, after almost incredible exertion to
a vigorous war of eight years,' C;csarwas accomplish their object, with much fight
able, when aided by the arts and discipline ing and losses on both sides. The emigra
of Roman power, to reduce Gaul to the tion started with an immense train and
subjection of Rome, against the resistance 386,000 people, of whom 9J,ooo were com
of a gallant people, who made every exer batants. In the various battles and con
tion to preserve their accustomed freedom. flicts they lost more than two-thirds of
But neither the gallantry of her people, their people, and were compelled to return to
nor thcir_ patriotism and love of freedom their old homes in Helvetia with their num
could save Gaul from the consequences of bers reduced to 1 10,000. less than one-
the superior arts and discipline of the am third of their original number.2
bitious and unscrupulous Roman. In the Immediately upon this repulse of the
native qualities and talent of the Celtic Helvetians, Gaul was threatened by an-
leader. known in history as Vercingetorix vasion of the Germans across the Rhine;
(general-in-chief), the Roman found his and the Celts, grateful for the repulse of
equal; and. although unfortunate, perhaps the Helvetians, were soliciting Caesar's aid
the better man. in repelling the invasion of the Germans.
In tjie year 58 B. C., Ca'sar obtained the Taking advantage of the dissensions be
government of the province of Cisalpine tween some of the states in Gaul, Ariovis-
Gaul, by a vote of the Roman people, to tus, the king of the Germans, claimed some
which the senate added that of Transalpine rights in Gaul, and was preparing with an
Gaul, and he commenced one of those immense army of both foot and cavalry to
splendid campaigns, which, independ enforce his claims, had crossed the Upper
ent of other deeds, would immortalize him, Rhine, and advanced into the country fifty
and have tendered his name and that of miles. Caesar advanced to resist him, and
Gaul and Britain forever famous in history. required him to return, and -nakc repara-
In his first campaign he found all Gaul, ex- ' tion tor a" the injury he had inflicted upon
cept the narrow border on the Mediter- the allies of Rome, and bring no more bar
ranean, already a Roman province, in a barians across the Rhine. All negotiations
most distracted state either from assumed proved unsuccessful, and a great battle en
national divisions among themselves or sued. Ariovistus was completely defeated,
the threatened invasion of powerful ene- and his whole army put into a panic strick-
mieson the outside. Helvetia was not en retreat, in endeavoring to attain. the
Gaul, and the Rhine divided Germany from German side of the Rhine.3 It is said he
Gaul. From both of these countries lost in this disastrous battle and retreat
invasions \\ere imminent; and Caesar 80,000 men, who perished before he at-
was received into Gaul more as an 2 Crcsar's Com., I,., i, S^i. See also Godwin's
ally than an enemy, on account of their do- Francf, 7S; ~ Konapurtc's Caesar, B. iii, ch. HI, $7, p.
-*
} Bonaparte's Ca-sar, vol. 2, B. iii, ch. iv; Com.
i From 58 ti 5; B. C. inclusive. Bel. Gal., B. i; Plutarch, Ciesar.
 74 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
tained his own side of the river. The re- j their warlike projects the Suessiones aiul
port of this glorious battle spread beyond other Belga>, who were united with them
In community of origin, laws and interest.
present of all apprehensions of any further j C:esar unintimidated by this show of op-
attacks from that quarter. Thus ended | position, marched immediately to the banks
this glorious campaign j and such decided , of the Aisne, the northern limits of ihe
triumphs over lioth the Helvetians and | territory of the Remi; ihrtifving him-elf
Germans gave cause for great rejoicing at i there,sought to distract and sever the in-
Rome, and additional renown for Ca-sar, terest of the confederates, and induced
who then retired into winter quarters: re- Di\ iliacus, his tried friend, to bring the
turned over the Alps to Cisalpine Gaul to .Eduans from the south to his aid; in all
preside over the assembly of the states, and j of which he was quite successful. After
to prepare for the next campaign. j much labor, many skirmishes, battles and
During the winter previous to the second , sieges, without any great and decisive bat-
campaign, the Belga.' became jealous of the j "<-' most ol'the Belg;c opposed to lie re-
great success of the Romans, and enter- duced to .-ubjection. But not so with
tained great fears that as soon as Ciesar i ^rvii, who, under a chief named Brodi-
had completely gotten Celtic Gaul into his ; Snnilt- "r the >on of Victory, rallied what he
power, either bv negotiation or war, thev i could ol the confederates, and determined
would he the next to lie attacked. Thev [ to maintain their ground until the last man
therefore formed formidable leagues to op- | snollld perish. These Nervii' were the
pose the Roman advances. The news of ; mst ferocious ot"the Cymry: allowing no
this gave just cause of alarm to C:i-sar, for I foreign intercourse, drank no wine, and ac-
the Belga: would be formidable enemies;_ | customed to form fortification*., by weaving
being surrounded bv enemies on the north ''1e branches of trees and shrubs into an
and east side of the Rhine, thev had been impenetrable hedge. They claimed never
kept in constant apprehension and hoslili- to ll;lvc' 'ten subdued. C;esar came upon
ties, and inured to war. Thev were, con- tntn1 "" '"e Sambre where thev were set-
sequently, the hardiest, rudest and most ''"" UP '"I'ir peculiar intrenchment. but
warlike people of Gaul. C.';csar thereupon probably unawares, for they fell upon him,
made all preparation for the coming cam- "'lli'u nc Nvas mtrcncing himself, wiNi the
paign, and to meet them. He charged the i greatest impetuosity and ardor. Hi* men
Senones and other Cvmric Cells, border- llacl ll:|rdly time to arm or put themselves
ing upon Belgic Gaul, to watch what thev | '" order of battle before the Ner\ ii had put
weredoingand to inform him. Reports soon ' n's l'amP in terrible confusion. A bloods
came that they were raising troops and as- i 'lilr|d to hand tight ensued, and twice was
sembling an army. This determined him '"' " tlu' point ot'losing every thing: the
at once to open the campaign. He had as- llrst time '1L' saved himself by hi> own in-
sembleil an army of at least 60,000 soldiers, trepidity, in snatching the shield of a
besides a large retinue of laborers, servants "'"'""led soldier and rushing at the head
and others, and in May left Besancon, and ot his troPs. calling to the rescue: and the
marched directly to the territory of the second l>mc .V the seasonable arrival of
Remi, who were the first Belgic people he lieutenant and re-enforcement. After
met. They -informed him that all the being almost terror stricken and overcome,
Belg;e were in armsthat they had formed his men now rallied, even the camp retain-
extensive coalition with the Germans, and ers- and 'ed the fate of the day. Still
their Celtic brethren, by means of which ' tnc N~crvii. undaunted hy the change of
the allies would be able to bring into the , fortune, fought on like tigers. If a man in
field an overwhelming army against him. ! tlie foremost rank fell, the man behind him
For themselves they had refused to take I "'ounted his place and esumed the battle;
any part, but the excitement was so great,
they had been unable to dissuade from See .i!so Mich.
Chap, in.] THE ROMAN INVASION BY C.ESAR.
and when the slain were heaped up in i out resistance, the town taken possession
front, those behind (ought ovr a rampart of, and fifty-three thousand of the inhabi-
of dead bodies. The fame that these peo ! tants sold for slaves/' In the meantime
ple had already acquired for their bravery Coesar had sent I'. Crassus with a legion
and fortitude did not desert them, and they against the Venetian and other maritine
now eclipsed that, which Leonidas and his t states on the coast of Armorica. From
Spartans had gained at Thermopylae. The whom Ciesar had now received messengers.
battle being ended, and this brave nation : to advise him that all thoe nation- had
almost exterminated, the old men, who hail I submitted to the dominion and authority
been left in some safe place, with the wo of the Romans. Thus ended this war and
men and children, now considered that all ; the second campaign in Gaul.
was lost, resolved, with the consent of all After the second campaign had thus
that survived, to send deputies to C;var. terminated, Ca'sar departed for Italy, be
and surrender themselves. These, in re lieving all safe for the u inter. The lielgi-
citing their calamities, said that of six nun ans had been overcome, the Germans ex-
dred senators, three only remained, and 1 pelled, and the inhabitants of the western
that from sixty thousand fighting men they Alps forced to submit; he thought it safe
were reduced to five hundred. Ciesar, in i to take a progress in the beginning of win-
compassion upon these brave, hut unfor j ter through his dominion in Illyricum.
tunate people, took them under his protec But the submission of Gaul was onl\ ap
tion, allowing them the free use of their parent or treacherous. Galba, one of his
towns and territory, and commanding all lieutenants, with a considerable army was
to abstain from \\rongsor injuries towards to protect and keep open the roads in the
them.5 Alpine country at the entrance to Gaul,
The last of these unfortunate people were lie was soon attacked by great numbers of
the Atuatici, who were the descendants ul the people of the country. At great peril he
the Cymbri, with whom they left much of was able to defeat them and save his com
their baggage, when passing witli the Teu- mand. I! ul lie soon became convinced
tones on their way towards Italy. These that it was advisable to leave so dangerou-
Atuatici were on their way to aid the a position, and remove south into the Ro
Nervii, when informed of their calamitous man province," where he would be safe.
defeat; they returned home to their fortifi 1 Crassus, another lieutenant, w ith another
cation, and made a resolute defence. Civsar, large detachment of troops, was stationed
with immense labor raised around them in Armorica, on the sea shore and in the
astonishing circum vallationn,and was bring midst of the Cymric Gauls. Mis officers
ing against them movable towers, in order who were sent out to forage and gather
to surmount and enfilade their \\orks. grain for the army, were resisted, and sup
They now saw no hopes and sent deputic- plies refused. Ca-sar upon receiving the
to Caesar, begging for quarters, which he news of this hostility, at once ordered a
granted to them upon condition of their 1 vigorous campaign, and instead of concen
immediate surrender, which was done: and trating his forces in one body, and attack -
the same terms given to them as he had ' ing each of the hostile localities, and bring
granted to the Nervii. Hut in the follow ing them into subjection one after another
ing night, these Belgians took advantage in detail, he ordered his troops to be di-
of an opportunity they thought they had j vided into three divisions, to march into
for a treacherous assault on the Romans. different parts of the country, and attack
A light ensued, in which the Atuatici were the hostile parties separately before they
defeated, and about four thousand slain on could combine, and before they could be
the spot,the rest fleeing to the town. i fully prepared. These orders and plans
The next day. the gates were Ibrced with-
f> Ca-sar's Com., B. ii, 33.
5 Cssar's Corn. B. G., B. ii, JiS. 7 C'a-sar's Com.. B. iii, 3- (.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book r
were carried out by his lieutenants with them, in Gaul and Britain. Ca;sar foresaw
great ability and success. Labienus was the capacity of this naval power, and the
sent with the cavalry to the frontier of the necessity of meeting in order to secure the
Rhine; Cassus with twelve legionary co objects of his ambition; and hence his or
horts and a large body of Cavalry was or ders to Brutus. Brutus had faithfully per
dered south, into Aquitania, to control formed the orders he had received, and had
and manage affairs in that quarter, Q. T. collected for his principal a vast naval
.Sabinus at the head of three legions was to power at the mouth of the Loire. In addi
proceed to the north into what is now tion to the sailors he was able to collect
Normandy ; and toyoungD. Brutus was as from the coast of Gaul, the fleet was
signed the duty to collect a fleet among the manned by officers, sailors and_rowers from
people south of the Loire, and the friendly the Mediterranean; and the command of
Santoncs; urging upon him the greatest the whole was given to him as Admiral of
dispatch, and to sail with the fleet he could the fleet. In the meantime Ca-sar himself
collect or construct, with as much dispatch [ had attempted to conquer the Venetian
as possible, to the mouth of the Loire, to | towns by an attack of his army on the land
operate against the Venetians. To him side. But these were so defended both
self, C:usar reserved the post of the great bv nature and art that it was attended
est opposition and danger, that of Armor- with no success. They were generally on
ica, where the Venetians were the principal islands along the sea shore, and surrounded
people. ! bv the tide water, so that it wa- a very dil-
As soon as the season would permit, I ficult matter to invest them and reduce
Ca?sar came on with his reinforcements, them by a siege. By land he made no
determined upon the conquest of the Bre- progress, and became convinced thai his
tpns of Armorica; and the Venetians to success must depend upon the result of a
he the titst object of his attack. These naval battle. His lieutenants with their
people were directly connected with those divisions in the interior of the country, had
of Britain;the same in race, language, continued their success in reducing the
institutions and religion; and Ciesar was country and bringing the people into sub
constantly complaining of the sympathy jection to the Roman power, yet in Ar
and aid they ottered to each other. The morica and the sea coast there was but
Venetians had made progress in the arts little evidence of success, except what
and in commerce, and had a large amount would result from the great collection of
t>l' shipping, which had grown up in the naval power at the mouth of the Loire. At
business and traffic between Britain and the the distance of but little over forty mile-,
Garonne, and the overland trade from the Venetians had collected their naval
thence to the Mediterranean. In this com power, at the mouth of the river Aunty
mercial business these people possessed a and the outlet to the gulf of Morbihan.
large navy, which Ca?sar had determined Each of these fleets was a powerful collec
to annihilate as a necessary measure to his tion, and for that day astonishingly such.
operation against Britain" as well as Gaul. I The season was now well spent without uc-
For the purpose of meeting the Romans, complishing much in Armorica. Cu-sar
the Venetians had collected not only all the became anxious, and well knew that his
shipping of their own, but all they could own success dejicnded upon that of the
obtain from their allies to the north of fleet.9 The approaching naval battle, like
s Straho say .-, "The Venetians fought at sea against 1 9 Ca-sar's Coin., B. iii, $n. C'itsar complains of
Ca'sar; they had made their disposition to prevent ! the Rival difficult} he had to encounter in carrying
his passage into the i.Jt of Britain, bceause they were ] on thi> war with the Venetians. Their towns l>vinkf
in posM-ssum of the commerce of that country. And generally on the sea coast and surrounded by the
Bonaparte in his Life of Cajsur says. "Ami on the tide, so that it became very difficult to take them by
other hand, Ciesar could not attempt the dangerous siege, and it at the same time gave them opportunities
enterprise of a descent on England till alter he had to CM-apc by sea; and then says: -"In this manner
destroyed the fleet of the Venetians, the sole masters did they chide all Caesar's attempts during a great
ot the ocean." B. iii, ch. vi. See C'a^-ar's Com., H. part of the summer, and that with so much more suc
iii. J7-IO. cess, because our fleet was kept back by tempests,
 Chap, in.] THE ROMAN INVASION II Y CVKSAR.
that of Salami's, Lepanto and Trafalgar, j hundred and twenty of their best ships,"
was to decide for the time being the course well equipped for service, and furnished
of events in the civilized world. The fatal with all kind of weapons, stood out for sea,
day had come and the Roman fleet went and drew up in order of battle against us.
forth to attack the Venetian, which, upon Neither Hrttus, who commanded the fleet,
seeing the Roman fleet, went forth to meet i nor the centurions and military tribunes
it at sea. Thev- were still so near shore as ! who had the charge of particular vessels,
to be in full view of C:esar and his armv ; I knew what course to take, or in what inan-
and the hills aMut were tilled with people i ncr to conduct the tight: for thev were no
looking on with anxiety, and praving for strangers to the strength and firmness of
the success of their friends and the salva the Venetian shipping, which rendered
tion of their country. All knew that this them proof against our beaks: and when
battle involved the future fate of Gaul and they had even raised turrets upon decks,
Britain ; and the Druids, in the only religion ' yet being still overtopped by the lofty
they knew, were offering their prayers to sterns of the enemy, the Romans could
their god for the safety of their country not with anv advantage thcow in their
and the freedom of their people. The two : darts: whereas those sent by the Gauls,
navies met, each in line, and in that order I coming from above, descended with great
that the most skillful naval officer of this violence on our men. In this exigence a
day would have exulted to have seen. The particular kind ol instruments, used bv the
wind was oft" shore, and equally fair for, mariners, proved of signal service, in giv-
each.'* The battle commenced in the ing a favorable issue to the combat. Thev
morning about y o'clock, and raged with had provided themselves with long poles,
fearful strife until the night caused it to j armed at one end with long scythes, not
cease. unlike those made use of in attacking the
In describing the battle Ca-sar himself "'alls of towns. With them thev laid hold
says:"The Venetians with about two of the enemy's tackle, and drawing off the
galley by the extreme force of our oars, cut
and found the- navigation extremely dangerous in thai
asimder the ropes that fastened the sail-
vast and boundless ocean, where the tides are great, ' vards to the mast. These giving way, the
and the havens both few in number, and at consider- j , .:] v.,rHs npr-ocuai-iK- .--imp rlnu-n " ,'n.m
able distance one from the other. Kor the Venetian '''' necessariM came down, msO-
ships were buill and fitted out in this manner : Their i much that as all the hopes and exneCta-
bottoms were somewhat flatter than ours, the better I .. c .t r- i j j u i
to adapt themselves to the shallows, and sustain "Ons ot the Gauls depended entirely on
wL*vertahh!i'K their ~ails ;11Kt r'KK'n. bv depriving them
bear the hugeness of tin billows and violence of the of this resource we at the same time ren
tempests, f'he hodv of the vessel was entirely of
oak. to stand ihe shocks and assaults of the tcmpcslu. dered their vessels wholly unserviceable.
ous ocean. The benches of the rowers were made of
strong beams ot about a foot in breadth, and fastened The rest depended altogether upon the
with iron nailv an inch thick. Instead .if cables, they valor of the troops, ill which the Roi
secured their anchors \vith , hains of iron : and made i ti_ ',
il<e of skins. .,,,,1 a son ol thin pliant leather, by way ll!ld greatl.V the advantage.
of sails, either because they wanted canvass, and
were ignorant of the art of making sail-cloth, or, "The enemy's sail-yards being cut down,
which is not probable, because they imagined that and many of their ships singly surround
canvass sails were not so proper to bear the violence
of lempests, the rage ami fury ot Ihe winds, arid to ed by two or three of ours at a time, the
govern ships of that bulk and burthen. Between
our Heel and vessels of .such make, the nature of the Romans used their utmost endeavors to
encounter was this : that in agility and a ready com- I hoard them : which the Venetians observ
mand ot oars, we had indeed the advantnge, 'but in
other respects, regarding ihe situation of the coasl ing, and that we had already made our
and assaults of storms, all things ran very much in
their favor: for neither could our ships injure them selves masters of a great part of their fleet,
with their beaks, so great was their strength and as thev could not tall upon anv expedient to
rirmncss: nor could we easily throw our darts, be
cause of their height above u-; which also was (he prevent so great a misfortune, they began
to think of providing for their safety by
N. B. fa-sir's description of the Venetian navy \ flight. Accordingly thev tacked about, ill
wmnd lead one to imagine he was describing a I
British navy at an early day.
10 Bonaparte's Cajsar. B. iii. ch. vi. jf iii. p. 141. 1 1 CVvsar's Com., B. (i.. B. ili, $14.
78 1'ME BRITISH PERIOD. [Hook i.
order to have the advantage of the wind. asked for mercy. Thai mercy was only
When all of a sudden so dead a calin en that of a heartless lion. Ca'sar often
sued, that not a vessel eould stir out of' its showed generositv and kindness to a fallen
place; nor could anything have fallen out enemy, hut it was always dependent upon
more opportunely towards putting at once what was the best policy, more the result
a final period to the war; for the Romans of shrewd calculation of interest, than of
attacking their ships one after another, took sympathv. In this case he thought it prop
them with ease, insomuch that of all that er to impress upon the Gallic mind an ex
vast number that came out against us, but ample of his power and disposition to pun-
a very fe\\, under the favor of the night, ish his enemii-s. who continued obdurent
escaped to land, alter a conflict that con- to his will: he caused all the Venetian sen-
tinued from nine in the morning until sun ators to be put to death, and ordered the
set."^ people to be sold for shi\ es. This was done
Such is Ciesar's description of this great under pretense that thfv had violated in-
battle, which shows at once his opinion of! ternationul law, in the treatment ol cmbas-
its great importance to him, and to the sal- ', sadors who had been sent to them ; but this
vation of the'country from a Roman con- | excuse was more to lustily himself at
quest; and also the great advancement the home, where his cruelty in Gaul had been
natives had made in their shipping, the called in question by Cato and others. But
skill they had attained in naval affairs; and it was in accordance with the disregard he
consequently, the progress they had made had shown for human suffering and life.
in all the arts; for all the arts and sciences ' and the reckless contempt for the rights of
are so connected and dependent on each ' others.
other, that no great progress can be made ' This event produced discouragement and
in one direction without a corresponding terror throughout all Gaul: in a measure
improvement in all others. So that we terminated the war and the campaign;
can judge of the general progress a people leaving the Roman power safe and triumph
have made in their condition, by knowing ant for the season. Otsar's lieutenants
what they have accomplished in any one had been equall v successful, alter hard
of the great departments of human indus fought battles, in carrying the sword and
try, or the necessary arts of civilized life. fire into the towns of the natives, and
A people who could show the skill and the slaughter and carnage among the people.
necessary arts to bring forth such a navy And this only for the reason that these
as the Venetians did upon this occasion, brave people claimed their freedom and a
constructed with such art and skill as right to govern themselves.
C;esar testifies to in this case, with iron
cables and all the concomitant evidence of j dnuir's 1
their progress in civilized life as developed Ciesar commenced his fourth campaign
here by the Venetians, in being able thus in Gaul in ;; B.C. During all the time he
to contest with the Roman power, and its had been in Gaul, he was continually
advantages, puts Ihem in a situation which ! nrikjnll inquiries about Britain: and com
little deserves the appellation of barbari plaining of the Britons having furnished
ans. men and aid to the Gauls in general, and
This battle, so fatal to the Venetians, at particularly the assistance they had given
once striking down their naval power and the Venetians in their naval operations
exhausting their resources of men and against him.1 They had undoubtedly turn
means, put an end to the war in that part
of Gaul. The Venetians, by their misfor vadinK i Whatever reason C;esar may have given lor ni-
Britain, we may 1>L sure that he could readily
tunes being rendered utterly helpless, sur furnish one with perfect indifference as to its heinjr
true or just. Dion Cassias says: "There ran be no
rendered to Ocsar at discretion, and only doubt, if he had not the ptea"i;i\en, mat he would
. I have found another." (H'=>t- xl, $'> Aml Professor
| Giles thereupon says'. "But his mighty preparations
12 Ca-sar's Com , B. O. G., B. iii, $14 and 15. I were baffled; and another hundred \ears \vere dt's-
Chap, in.] Till-; ROMAN INVASION BY CAESAR. T)
ished some ol" the shipping sent them from Rhine was the line between Gaul and Ger-
the north in making up that naval force manv. After making what he considered
against the Romans, lie hail inquired of to lie a proper demonstration there, having
merchants and others ahout the country . in his march burned all the houses and
hut complained lie could obtain no inform towns and destroyed the corn, as an usual
ation of the si/e of the island, nor how lesson of his sense of right and justice, he
powerful the nations were who inhabited returned, and destroying the bridge, which
it The pmhahilitv is that in some in- he considered to be of no further use to
stances thev did not choose to inform him, i him. He then marched directly to the sea
or CVsar may. in some instances, misrep- shore opposite to Britain, with a view of
resent his difficulty. | carrying out his long contemplated expe-
The Britons, in the meantime being in dition against that country.
formed of Oi'sar's designs upon them, and Although a considerable portion of the
desirous of peace, sent to him ambassadors, season had alreadv been spent, yet Ciesar
with offers of hostages and submission to wiis determined upon the invasion of Brit-
the authority ot Rome. To ibe-e he gave ;,)_ alld resolved that the minor matters in
a favorable response, but evaded making ! Ciaul should no longer delav him. For the
anv definite arrangements, but exhorted purpose of this expedition, he had ordered
them to maintain their peaceable intention ; the necessary shipping to be assembled at a
evidently intending to keep open the way i post on what is now known as the strait of
to make a raid upon their country, when it Dover; and the place is said to have been
should become convenient for him to do the same as is now known as Boulogne. -
1 lere he embarked, having eighty trans-
In the meantime Civsar was delayed in porls, his army consisting of two le
his intended blow upon Britain, by the in gions, the yth and toth, being about 1.2,000
formation that a people from Germany in strong, with some galleys, which were dis
a vast body of 430,000 men, women and tributed to the i|uestor, the lieutenants and
children, were crossing the lower Rhine. ' other officers. Besides these he had a
intending to invade and settle in Gaul. ravalrv force of 450, which embarked on
This induced a delay of hi* intended de eighteen transports at another post
scent u|x>n Britain ; for he wished first to about eight miles to the north, which
instruct the Gauls that he was able to pro- | were detained bv contrary Bein"
Uvt them from anv invasion from the other thus, himself, ready with the eighty trans
skle of the Rhine ell to clear the ports and gallevs, Carsar took advantage of
sea from the opposing navy of the Yene- ' a favorable wind, started on the expedition
tiiins. This he soon accomplished by a on the night of the J4th of August, about
terrible deleat and carnage of the German one in the morning, and arrived off of
invader-: and driving all back again across ]>over about ten in the forenoon. lie there
the Rhine, that survived the terrible re- I saw the high white cliffs covered with bos-
pulse that thev had met. But to render | tile forces ready to receive him as they
hi- work more complete, he determined 10 thought an invader of their country should
strike a blow on the other side of the Rhine: ; be. lie -aw that at this place the sea was
and for that purpose, in ten days, built his hound bv the cliffs, so that it would be easv
celebrated bridge over that river, and sue- for his enemies, if he attempted to land, to
ccs-fullv passed his armv over, with Ihe in- i throw their javelins upon them from above,
teiition of satisfying the Germans thai the lie. therefore, considered the place unsafe
Roman- could maintain an army on either for landing.laid by until three in the af
side, and to teach the Germans that the ternoon, and in the meantime called a
- | council of his officers, laid before them the
tim-il t,, dapsc Ix-torc our I ami hitfli-spiriicd ; i,,|Orm;1ti()n |lc |,.,(| received from Volusen-
am-i:stors lioiit tltclr mvks in sub ission to tin-
^ix-atcst JMIWLT t1i:lt Iv.is t'MT M't t'n sutlTi:tl to
n'U1 :iud tyrannize over mankind." (Jill's1 Anc.
Britons, p'. 5.$, t'h- v* - Bonai>artc'sC'.-vsar, Vol. ii, H. iii, eh. 7, p. 17,1.
So THE HRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
us;:j informed them as to the part they j spurring on their horses, well trained to
were to act, and exhorted them to strict the service, even rushing upon their ene-
discipline, and impressed upon them the mies into the waves of the sea; spreading
necessity of promptness in sea affairs, j terror and dismay among the Roman sol
Then finding the wind and tide favorable, diers. C:vsar, observing this, ordered some
he signaled to weigh anchor, and moved galleys, a kind oi shipping more easily
north about eight miles, against a plain and governed and put in motion, to advance
open shore, where he determined todisem- and attack the Britons in Hank, and. In
bark, i the means of their engines, slings and ar-
Ca'sar having arrived with his transports j rows, to drive them to some distance from
at the open country where he intended to : the shore. This movement proved to be
land, began to arrange his debarkation.1 : of some service to the Romans, for the
The Britons, in the meantime, having per surprise produced upon their opponents, by
ceived his designs, sent their cavalry and the unusual make of the galleys, the mo
chariots in advance, and followed up with tion of the oars, and the playing of the
the rest of their forces, intending to op- engines.5 forced them to slacken their ar-
pose the landing. They arrived in time to j dor and opposition. .Still the Romans hes-
do so, and Ca'sar confesses that he found : itated to leap into the sea, and surmount
the opposition and difficulty very great, these dangers, when the standard-bearer of
The ships being large, when nearest to land ! the loth legion, having first invoked the
were still in deep water, and when the sol- | gods for success, cried out aloud: "Follow
diers leaped into the sea to reach the shore me, fellow-soldiers, unless you will betrav
were still breast deep in the water. The the Roman eagle into the hands of the
waves, the weight of their armor, and the enemy; for my part, I am resolved to dis
determined resolution of the Britons to op charge my duty to C;esar and the Com
pose them,boldly casting their darts, and monwealth." L'pon this he jumped into
the sea and ad \ aneed with his eagle; his
I For must of our particulars hen we are in- ' m*-'nj encouraged by his example, exhorted
dented to Ca-sar's Commentaries, which are very each other and followed him. Thi> was
j*enerally reliable; but occasionally we meet wirli a
misrepn/MjiiMtion, or a matter represented in the gen followed by all the soldiers in the other
eral when only true in the particular. Ci.'sar wrote
to create a f:i\orah)e impression at home, Generally ships, while Civsar, standing in full view on
his statements arc very ai;eur:ite and truthful; but the bow of his vessel, exciting andencour-
sometimes he states mailers for llie sake of the nov- i
eltv, or the sensation it would create: when he had j aging his men. The battle was tierce and
I sufficient opportunity lo Kno v thj actual truth, or | obstinate. The Romans were able bv
investigate the matter. NY in the rase bef
he has labored to induce the reader to believe that In- means of some light galleys to-enlbrce
had been unable to obtain a reasonable amount of in
ilain and its people, either '.lirnuyh when their line was in the greatest peril.
formation about Hrilain
lingness of the people to dhuljrc
or unwillin The Briton^ performed every act of valor
in some instances. But so far the information he that heroism Could suggest, to save their
could and did obtain, it was a misrepresentation. He I . ' .
had the information of hi* tried Iricml, Divitiaoi country from the contaminating foot-steps
the -'Kdiiafi us hi- called him. but who undoubtedly if a foreign foe; and rushed into the waves
Kriiisli Dmid, whom he found with (he .Mini,
probably as an emigrant priest, but who it was said of the sea to meet and oppose them. But
had rulvd in Britain. (Com., B. (i.. B. i. jjio, also -.,...
B. ii, S( and 5.) Then he had with him C'ommius, after many acts of individual valor, the

people. T)r,:n there were the merchants of Gaul and the advantage of superior armors and
Britain, nvinv of whom were favorablv inclined to
the
the Kotnan
Kotnan ixm-er.
ixm-er. Also
Also he
he hid
hid sent
:nt out
o Voiusem.s weapons nt length prevailed over patriot-
l.,oht:iiniii!riii.ilinn.(H.u . J.M ,^, and j._ ! ism and courage; and the Britons were
was upon thU information he chanifed hi*, point of
attack from Dover to i i-rht miles north. He h id also forced to \ ield. But the Romans did not
with him Maiiduhratius. the Trinobantean, who had , , .'
lied from Britain to him. in. v. fti6.i Heiherefore nave their cavaln to take advantage ol
did possess ill! the information about the country and
people he reasonably could obtain from others and '
without a personal insiK-ction. We ma\ have other 5 It may be it it had not been for the :uUantagt*
occasions to refer to this note, in relation to other thu> gained by llie^e i-.illevs, and the i-n^ines by
matters asserted by C\vsar in his Commentaries, llu'in brought i" be.ir upon tin- Britoiii, t'a,'s,ir may
j Any.is! JStJi. 55 It. C". not have hct'ii able lo land in Biitain.
Chap, in.] THE ROMAN INVASION BY C/ESAR. 81
their retreat, for they had been detained by I make but a short stay, and return before
the adverse winds and storms. I winter; he, therefore, had with him but a.
Cii'sar, having obtained full possession of very limited amount of supplies. He now
the shore, established his camp in a suita not only stood in need of means to repair,
ble position, and fortified it in such manner j but actually in need of the means of sub
as to protect at once both the men on land sistence. The Britons "thought that the
and the shipping The Britons upon rally elements as well MS their patriotism were
ing after their defeat, concluded to sue for calling upon them lo arouse and make an
peace, and in this they were aided by some other effort to save themselves and coun
of the natives from the continent, who try. Thev thought that if Ciesar was fully
were their friends, though in the Roman defeated with all the adverse circumstances
Commius, who had been sent to ' found attending this invasion, they would be
them as a friend from Gaul, to forward Ibrever tree from the attacks of a foreign foe.
Citsar's interest with them, had been im- It seemed to be a favorable opportunity to
prisoned as an enemv, was now liberated i "it off a" -upplies, and to detain the enemy
and joined them in their suit for peace. | on the shores without the means of retreat
L'pon receiving this solicitation for peace, ! until winter, would be fatal to him. Then
Ca,-sar, under a hollow pretense, reproached I no Roman army in the future would dare
them for receiving him as an enemy, when to trust themselves in an invasion of Brit
he sought to visit them in peace. Never ain. The British chiets who had been
theless he forgave their offense, granted preparing to comply with Ca^ar's demands,
their request, and required them to deliver nw, upon seeing his disaster, the small
to him certain number of hostages Some
of these were delivered, and the residue to size of their camp, were induced to make
be in a few days. While matters were in ! another effort to save themselves from the
this condition, and prospects of a peaceful ' Roman yoke. New combinations were
arrangement being accomplished, on the i formed lorthis P"'T-ose. All supplies were
night of the fourth dav after the battle of withheld, and intercourse with the camp
the landing, while the transports were Iv- I withdrawn. <->sar saw the designs of the
** Yl . _ !__. ; , ' '
ing off the shore at anchor in apparent Britons, and immediately proceeded to
safety, the gallevs having been drawn up counteract them. His first objects were to
on shore, and all in apparent security, there | ^-cure provisions, and next to repair his
came on an extremelv high tide, with i "hipping Everv day he sent a portion ot
which the Romans were utterly unac his troops into the country to reap some ot
quainted, accompanied by a terrific storm. the grain which wa- left standing ungath-
The waves of the sea soon submerged the ered bv the nati\cs; and he sut others vig-
.,
galleys . beach:
on the , , the
, fierce
.. . , and, :! orouslv
winds " to work to. repair his shipping, bv
waves broke the shipping from their moor- i toaring so""; to I"* to ohtai"
ings, dashing them against each other and j| with which to repair the rest, lie was
the shore, and some were broken to pieces, i *o<)" ahk' "> dispatch a gallev t" the other
Consternation and dismay prevailed in the other necessary
Roman camp. The eighteen transports material- and subsistence. By the /.eal
with the cavalry, which had been detained and labor of the soldiers the shipping was
bv the former" storm, had attempted to ' rePaired alld P|l lltloa.1 """i"' llu-ir 'U"nbei'
cross over in the recent calm, were caught jnlv reduced from eighty to about >ixly
in the last storm and dispersed. All now hips.
appeared almost hopeless for the Romans: During these transactions, one day while
and the Britons in their prayers claimed i a part of the army was out as usual t'orag-
that the heavens were coming to their re- i ing and another part at their labors on the
lief, and to revenge their wrong repairs; and of those who were out, some
Caisar at once seemed to he in want of | were engaged in cutting and gathering the
everything. He intended from the first to j grain while others were carrying it away.
S-- THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
this foraging was in the only Held of: thus again defeated, renewed their applica-
grain not harvested by the natives, and not tion for terms of peace: which were favor -
at a very great distance from camp.none ably received, and onlv double the amount
expecting an attack ; but the Britons hav- of hostages required.
ing prepared themselves for it, by antici Ca'sar now, as he had previous! v intend
pating it. made an attack upon them by a ed, was not to winter in Britain, prepared
surprise, with their cavalry and chariots, to leave and return to the continent. He
which would have been successful and a embarked all his forces and provisions, and
complete rout ensued, had it not been for had a prosperous voyage to the opposite
the fortunate relief afforded them. Qcsar shore from whence he came over. Upon
was informed that there was an unusual Ca-sar's return" to Gaul, lie found the
cloud of dust rising in the direction where country in his absence had been tolerably
his men had gone foraging, lie immediate- 1 quiet, and his lieutenants had been success-
Iv suspected the cause, and ordered the j ful in maintaining peace. The onlv nota-
troops at hand to follow him, and others to [ ble exceptions was the attack the Morini
guard the cam]). He found, as he antici- | made upon some three hundred of his men
paled, that the foraging party, which con- I upon their landing from Britain at adifter-
sistcd very nearly of one-half of his troops, ] ent post from himself, which resulted in a
were thus attacked by a surprise and nearly j severe fight: but these men were relieved
overcome. It was a fierce combat in which j by re-enforcements sent bv Cfcsar, who
the natives astonished the Roman soldiers punished the Morini for this offense in his
bv the skill and dexterity with which thev usual style. The other exception was that
conducted the attack with their horses and of some difficulty his lieutenants had with
chariots, and nothing but Oesar's timely j the Menapii. who evaded the Romans bv
arrival saved them'from utter defeat. This j retiring into impenetrable forests; but
rescue caused the Britons to withdraw and whose "territories were laid waste with
come to a stand. But it seems that Oesar fire and sword, and their habitations plun
was satisfied with this repulse of the na dered," by these officers, who then returned
tives, and the protection of his own men. to Ca-sar. This ended this campaign;
did not choose to brine n a more decided : Oesar complaining that only two of the
engagement, but stood on the defensive and Uritish slates sent hostages to Gaul as
led his men back to the camp. agreed upon, the rest neglecting to perform
The Britons still conceived that the Ro the conditions of the treaty. For these
mans were in a critical, if not a desperate successes of Oesar the Roman senate dc-
situatiou; collected their forces from all creed H thanksgiving of twenty days,
the neighboring suites, for an attack on the | If it be inquired at the end of this cam-
camp, with the hopes of a signal victory, paign, what good had been accomplished,
and freeing the country forever of a foreign the answer is palpable: millions of people
foe, and of their rapacious grasp. Accord- had been slaughtered; want, pain and suf-
inglv a vigorous assault was made, with a fering had been produced and multiplied
large body of men, horses and chariots, beyond calculation: thousands if not mil-
Bui Ca-sar having been re-enforced, and lions of people sold into slavery; territor-
snpplied with thirty horses, which L'ommius ics bad been laid waste with fire and sword,
had obtained lor him from (iaul, thought and towns reduced to ashes, that Rome
it advisable to make a rally, ami hoped in | might boast of her empty glory, and call
case he could defeat his assailants, he would I other countries her conquered territory:
be able to use what cavalry he had to ad- > while at the same time, the growing coin-
\antagc. Again the better armor and d is- ', merce and civilization of Venetia and
liplineol his veteran troops prevailed, and ; Britain, the va~t shipping interest of the
the Britons were defeated and dispersed,
with great loss in the fight and in the pur fi September uth, ;s B. (.'.. year of Rome cxw. Srr
Bonuparte'H Civsar, \ ol. a, II. iii, ch. vii: Cwsar's
suit by the cavalry. The Britons being ] Com.. H. i
Chap, in.] T1IK ROMAN INVASION BY C-ESAR. 83
one and the tin trade of the other ; the arts j supplies and forward them to Hritain-
:ind science which was called in requisition j Having quieted Gaul, and the storm- of
in the ship building in the former country, I the season having passed, Caesar signaled
and that which was necessarily developed the departure of his rtect, which consisted
in the mining interest and building char- | of six hundred transport* and twenty-eight
iots in the latter,a sure guaranty of a galleys; and with a favorable w hid. set sail
progress and civilisation of their own, were ' for the same place on the shore of liritain
stricken down if not annihilated. Per- j at which he landed the previous vear. I It-
haps, too, that improvement, progress and I started at sunset, and after a favorable pro-
civili/ation would have been superior to ] gress, at midnight he was becalmed, and
fhat of Rome if if had l>een permitted to the tide carried him too far north, which he-
progress. But in order that Oesar might perceived at daylight. The .-oldiers with
be great, and Rome Ixiast of her devasta- great /eal made ev erv exertion -with their
tion and conquest, all this progress and oars to attain the intended place of landing
subjects of hope must be retarded or anni- in due time. The whole fleet arrived then-
hilated. about noon, and at once proceeded to land
Alter his usual absence during the win- | the rill.v 'llul -tores, withoul any oppo-i-
ter, in a visit tu Italy and Illyria, Ca'sar tion from the natives, who, upon feing thr
returned earlv in the season lo (jaul and to vast armament, concluded if was u-clc-
a port on the British channel, then called "Pl)ost; '' landing, but with a large armv
Itius, and now supposed to be Boulogne, from sight to some place of safel v .
the same he occupied during the last cam- l" "wait a more favorable opportunity to.
paign: still determined upon the conquest oppose their enemies.
of Britain. During the winter he had or- Max ing landed' and selected a proper
dered his lieutenant* to build a- mam new place for his camp, Uesar began to inquire,
ships as possible, and repair such as were and desirous to know, something about the
old. lie was gratified lo find that these armv of the native-. Thcv were this time-
orders had been so fully performed, which > determined lo await the advance f tin-
enabled him to assemble a fleet of upwards Romans into the country, w hen they knevv
of six hundred -hips, of a larger si/e. and '. their annv mii-l he divided, or their camp
modeled in accordance to hi- own instruc- at the shore would l>e exposed to be UiLeii-
tion, so as to be the lx;st adapted to his pur- Having obtained his nece--arv information
pose. While the expedition wa- getting , as to the situation of the oppo-iiig army.
readv, his attention was called toditlicullies Ca-sar immcdiatelv |repared to march in
in the territory of the Treveri, bordering search of his opponents. I le set out aboul
upon the Rhine. In hi- Usual style, he midnight with the main bod\ of his artm ,
soon settled this complication of" his affairs. v ing at the landing ten cohorts and
and hastened back lo the- post, from whence j three hundred of hi- cavalry, to con-truct
he was to -ail upon his contemplated ex- ! the camp and guard his -hipping at anchor,
pedition. Here he assembled the leading These he thought would Ix- left in *afet_\
men of (iaul. determined to take with him ' under the command of Q. Alriu- iu whose
all the disaffected spirits, anil leave behind -kill and experience he hail full contidence.
him in his absence only -uch a- he had During the night he marched with hi-,
confidence in, so as to secure the peace of forces about twelve mile-, and flu- next
(iaul, if possible, in his absence. All being day before noon came in -ight of the I'ril
now ready he embarked his troop- and is'n force-, draw n up on flu- oppu-ite -idi-
store- lor the expedition. His army eon- of a river, adv anlagcou-lv po-ted upon
sisted of live legion-. about jo.ooo and hiyh ground-, with ineir eav alrv and char-
two thousand cavalrv, leaving with Labi io!-. readv to oppose his cro ing. While-
ciuis. his lieutenant, at Ibis port three 'he Roman- vv ere making the pa-sage flu-
legion- and the -ame number of' cavalrv, to . :
;Jnlv Jlsl, i) B. C. Sw Uun:i|Kirti-'s C;rsar. lit
jjuard and proteci the place: and to gather | -up j>. .;.(. '
6
Sq THE BRITISH 1'KRIOl). jBooki.
native troopi. made an advantageous, attack everything heron- it. The fleet was ap-
upon them from the hills* but being linal- pan-nil v ruined; the storm hiid driven al-
Iv repulsed b\ I heir cnemv's horse, they most all the ships ashore; that neither the
suece-slnlh retreated to a place iu-;ir hv. cables nor anchors were able to stand the
strongh; protected both hv nature and art. i violence of the storm, nor could the skill
It v\a- situated adjoining the wood-, and of the seamen save the vessel* from strik-
all Hie a\enue- leading tn it were secured ing against each oilier and being wrecked
bv strong Ivirricades of fallen timber. In upon the shore. All had received great
tin- situation they deemed it advisable not damage and were in great confusion. I'p-
lo -allv forth in a strong hodv ol' the annv, on receiving this unfavorable intelligence,
hut make their attack upon their enemy in Oc-ar ordered his troop- into their present
small parties, which seemed to di-concerl camp, and to -uspend pursuit and opcra-
them. The Romans pushed their main tions in his absence; and then immediate-
hod v to the approaches of the works, com- ly departed tor the camp at the seashore,
pclling the Britons to drau within their where he found everything in the had con-
forces, and detV--d themselves behind their dilion that it had been reported to him.
work- lint the enemy, upon finding this Me found forty of his ships destroyed, and
decided opposition. nVtcrmincd upon cap- the rest almost irreparable, lie. however,
luring the place, for that purpo-c Ihcv cast set bis men to work :md the carpenters of
up a mound, from which the soldiers of the 'be anm to repair the -hipping, and to re-
-evenlh legion advanced under rover of store thing- as far as possible, lleal-oor-
Iheir shields, forced the inlrenehment-. and dcn-n from the continent to be -ent to him
obliged the Briton- to abandon their posi- -neb aid and assistance a- were there to be
lion. Oi'-ar. deeming it inadv isahle then ll:"'- To secure matters from another Kiich
lo follow their retreating lorces. forbade all , disaster, he ordered his shipping to be
pursuit, for the reason, as he said, both be- ; bauled u|> on shore, and -ecured within the
cau-c In -was unaci|uainted with the nature | fortification ol hi- cam;.. These works
of the country, and the day being far spent. ere arduous, and required the constant
he resolved to enmlov the rest of it in tor- ll>1""" "' his '"en day and night lor the
'.living the camp where he was." space of ten day-.
Karl\ the next morning, he divided hi- These works being accomplished, and
troops into three divisions, ami sent them bis camp here l>cing put in a safe anil sat
in pursuit of the native lorces. Thev had ' isfaetory condition, Oesar returned to his
come up with them and just upon the eve camp and troop- in the country; leaving
ot making an attack, when thcv were with hi- lieutenant, in tin- camp on the
called back. This wa- caused b\ new- that shore, the same troops a- when he left on
C:r-ar bad insi received Iron: the camp he the lormer occasion. I'pon his return he
bad left on the -ea-hore. Soon after hi- tound the Briton- had con-iderabl\ inereas-
troop- bad left lor the pursuit, a partv of ed tin- number of their troop-: the difler-
cavalrv came in -jreal baste from .\lrin-. ent states in the vicinity had united and
to announce that in the preceding night conlederated for a common defense; and
there had been a \ iolcnt tempest, sw ceping bail conferred upon Cas-iv ellannn- the chief
command and the administration of the
s IWip;n-u- ..,,,,-],,,l,.s U,.il Ihi- ..!:. :is what is .. -rhu pl.j|u.t. Nv;l> ., ,., ,' ,,,.,, ,x.
HUM kni>\\ ii .1- Kin^slon, on :i lillfi- s)r,-;nn knn\\ n
.is iiu- I.itii! St. JHI. I'l supr.i. perience )>oth in war and ci\ il administra-
, i It is priiliiliU- ili-.ii i';<-s:ir \\;i iiiiu h siii|>riscil lion, and the adjoining states cordial! v
\\ ith tin rt sisl.in. i lit- im-1 uitll lu-!r; ill-ll tll.lt UK- .. ..." . .
Kutu :i- niui-h limn- -i-viTt- than u. "-.<ilu-r li\ a ""'ted in conlerring upon him Ihecoin-
.a>ual i.Milin; .,i l-i- n-|niri. It i- proKihlt- ih:ii ilu- maiul in chief. His own states were sit-
!..ss ,,r me ii \\.is .is -i,.,i ui:h Hi, lii.nuiiis ;is M w.is
\\iih tin- r.riions. 't'liis ir-isi;ui,., in,lin-rii t';\>;u-t.i uate on the north side ot the Thames, at
!n.T'"l"i\iVftmi'i"^^^ tlu' distance of about eighty mile- from
v;ini;ia,-..r_lii- ;inn> in :i l.n.l\ . with thi- pn;iii ad Oe-ar'- landing.
\.uilaur ril Tlu-ir supi-riiit arinni1 am! discipliiK . I
\:.n-^. I'i, -ic,ri.,i Ilisini-v. p. .. \\hen La--ar attempted hi- forward
Chap, in.) THE ROMAN INVASION BYC.KSAR. 85
movement again, he t'oimil the Britons j them and returned without loss. Some
everywhere watching his movements, and } fresh cohort- wen.1 -ent forward to their
readv to oppose him. Although the Ro- ' relief, when the Britons were repulsed,
man veteran soldier- with their superior In this action Q. Laberius Durus, a Roman
armor, weapons and discipline, were over- niilitarv tribune, was killed.1"
match to the Britons in their great battles. "By lliis action." savs Ciesar, "which
vet they \\ere surprised, and put to hcsita- happened within view of the camp, and of
tioti and astonishment when thev saw the I which the whole armv were spectators, it
skill and bravery with which the Britons evidently appeared, that our heavy armed
managed and fought with, their cavalrv legions, who could neither pursue those
and chariots. In none of their other wars that retired, nor durst venture to forsake
in the west of Europe, did the Romans ap- , their standards, were by no means a match
pear to be <o constantly upon apprehension | for such an enemy: nor could even the
of surprise and unexpected reverses; cavalrv engage without great danger, it
therefore they kept their forces well guard being usual for the Britons to counterfeit
ed from such attacks; depending for suc a retreat, until they had drawn them a con
cess upon their union in mass, and their siderable wav from the legions, when sud-
discipline. Ciesar himself appears to have , denly quitting their chariots, they charged
been grcatlv surprised 1" the number of i them on ibot,andbv this unequal mannerof
their chariots and the skill with which thev lighting made it alike dangerous to pursue
managed Ilieni in their attack ami dcten-e. or retire. Add to all this, thai thev never
The Romans in their forward move- ' 'ought in a hod;, but in small pai ties, and
ment. In Keeping themselves in compact, ! with considerable intervals between. They
and well guarded masse-, were able alvvav s had likewise their detachments s<, placed, as
lo drive the Britons before them to the easilv to protect their riving troops, and
woods and fastness, hut were continually send fresh supplies where needed." This
under fear of unexpected reverses or at evidently was a severe battle, in which the
tacks, in which their chariots were alwavs Britons manifested much skill and man
conspicuous and dreaded. Though com agement; and in which the Romans must
pelled to retreat before the Roman army have been surprised by the hold lighting of
when thus in mass, yet they were contin- their opponent- ; and have sustained con-
ually making their attacks, whenever a sidernhle loss, as clearly appears by Un
fair opportunity occurred, by the vigorous : death of Durus.
charge of their cavalrv supported hv their The next day after this action the Britons
chariots. \VheiieverthcRomansvcnturod took a more -ecure station on the hill-, at
too tar. thev were sure tn he cut otV. and an a considerable distance from the Roman
advantage taken of their position. Soon camp. became more reserved, and only
after the commencement of tin- advance, appeared to their eiiemie- in .-mall bodies,
while the Romans were laboring without ">!n I'"-1 hopes to draw them oul. where
apprehension at their intreiiehments. the they would not have the protection of their
Britons suddenly is-ued from their cover, united mass. But finding, about noon, the
and attacked an advance post: when a Roman* out of their rump foraging, with
-harp and oh-tinate combat en-ued. and three legiop- and all their cavalry, under
L'ii>ar was compelled to send two cohorts to j the command of C. Trebonius, C:csars
their relief. Those in turn were also at- lieutenant, they fell suddenly upon the
tacked bv the Briton-, and became -o sur- ! foragers on all side-, and even witli vigor
prised and intimidated In their boldiu , attacked the legion- and standard-. After
and maneuvering with their chariots, in i a fierce fight they were repulsed, and -o
so strange a mode of fighting to the Ro vigorously pursued that thev found no op
mans; that the Britons struck and broke portunity to rally, descend from their char-
through the cohorts, passing and repa-sing m Set1 C'ajsar's Cum.. l> (J. H. v, $11: Biui:i|Mrlr's
I'.rsilr. ill supni, p. ju.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i
iots, or face about to make a stand. 'J'his and his men, that thev came to the conclu
repulse produced some discouragement, by sion that thev could !io longer keep the
tlie losses they had sustained in the fight ; field; he disbanded the main portion of
and some of the allied Britons returned to his armv, retaining onlv (bur thousand
their homes, which considerably reduced chariots1 1 and a select body of men, l<>
the forces of Cassivellaumis, and compelled watch the movements of his enemy, al-
him to remain entirely on the dcfensivt ways
keeping at a distance and shelterinsj
Ciesar, perceiving that Cassivellaunu s' himself in the woods and inaccessible
forces had l>een reduced, and not able to : places. The inhabitant- on the route also
make the stand and opposition he had been i >Klt -nch retreats and security for them
doing, was now determined to bring the | Delves, cattle and property, and thus gen-
campaign to a close. He therefore decided ! erall.v kePl ollt "'" the ".v '>'" t'"-1 enemy.
to pursue and attack him in his own terri- stil1 Ciesar did not find himself either at
torv. In order to do this it was necessary ease or in safety while in the country : for
to march further into the interior, aiid | he himselt -av If at any time our cav-
cross the Thames. Accordingly this line I alr.v ventured upon a tree excursion into
of march was taken up, and pursued with- j tlu' "elils.1* to plunder and lay waste the
out opposition until they came to the croim- country: a- he was perfectly acquainted
ing of that river. Here upon the north 'ith the road- and defile-, he would sally
bank of the Thames Cassivellaumis deter- ! '""" tllc ''- 't'> some of hi- chariots.
mined to make a stand, with the lu)|usof a aiul fall on our men, dispersed and in dis
successful resistance, It was expected thit order. These frequent alarms obliged us
Ciesar would not be able to select a more to be much upon our guard; nor would
practicable ford than the one Delected for Ciesar sutler the cavalry to remove to an\
him. Here on the left bank of the river distance from the legions, or to pillage and
the Britons had collected considerable destroy the country, unless where the foot
army with their cavalry and chariots I was at hand to sustain them." This would
ready to meet their foe. Thev had forti induce the belief that the war was becom
fied the bank on I heir side of the river with ing not \ crv satisfactory for either partx .
stakes and picket" ; and a large numlier of It would also appear that Ciesar thought
stakes were also dri\ en into the river under that "to pillage and destroy the country."
water, so as to obstruct the lord and render were the legitimate object- of a war; and
it dangerou-. l_';e-ar upon coming up to a commendable operation, whenever it
the river, was informed of all this prepara could Ix1 salelv done, without inrurring too
tion to obstruct his crossing, by some pris- much risk and danger from their oppo-
oners and deserters, he therefore ordered I nen
his cavalry to cross the river, either alwn e I '" ''"' ""-'""time Ca-sar was taking ad-
or below, and attack the Britons in flank ) vantae '"' lhc "Position and dissension
and distract their attention, while the iu- existing between the different states. Some
fantry cross the ri\ er at the ford and attack time previous there had been a war bet ween
them in front. The Roman soldiers ac- I Cassivellaunus and hi* neighlxiring people.
romplished their orders with great resolu- \ the Trinobanlcs. a powerful state, in which
lion. The men crossed the river where the j their chk'f hd been killed; and his son.
water was breast deep, removed' the -takes I Mandubratius. a prince who claimed to
and pickets, under showers of their oppo succeed him. had fled to C;e-ar on the con
nents' weapons. The Britons were now tinent, soliciting aid to be restored and to
placed between two attack the cavalry revenge his lather's death. With the in
on one side and the residue of the Roman fluence of this \oung prince, the Trino-
armv on the other; they found it impossi bantes were induced to send deputies to of-
ble to withstand this shock, abandoned
l I'zsar's CVmi., B. (i.. B. v. i;.
their position, and fled. i Cesar's linn.. It. <;., B. \. Jn: Bonapar1f'>
This defeat >odiscouraged Cas-ivellaunus .ur m -up p jm
Chap I n. | TIIK ROMAN INVASION UY C.ttSAR.
fer their submission, and demand the young
prince as their kin;;. These the Roman
received kindly, and consented to their re
quests, ;it the same time exacting of them
fortv hostages, ;md grain for the list- of his
army. This dissension among the Britons,
and the favorable reception of the Trino-
buntGx induced other neighboring states to
follow their example. These gave to the
Romans their aid and assistance; and es
pecially the infonnation which C;esar was
<lesirou- of obtaining. In addition to
pledging their submission. the\' informed
him that the capital and depot of stores of
Cassivellaunus were not far oft', situated in
and protected by woods and marshes.
where a great number of his men rind cat
tle were retired and protected.
This information induced C.'esar to strike
an immediate blow in that quarter, and
thither In- marched with his legions. He
found the place apparently strong, both bv
art and nature;fortified In a ditch and
rampart. Nevertheless he resolved to at
tack it in two several quarters, which were
successful. The Dritons, after a .stand for,
some time and a sharp conflict, were
obliged at last to give wa\ and retreat lo
some other place of safety. This defeat
was attended with great loss; for a vast
number of cattle were taken in the place,
and in the retreat main of the Uritons
were either laken as prisoners or lost their
In es.
While these transaction* were passing
north of the Thames, Cassivcllaunus had
dispatched messengers to Kent, which was
then under the go\ eminent of four differ
ent states, and their respective kings or
chiefs. These were ordered to collect their
forces, and fall suddeiilv upon the Roman
na\al camp. The attack was accordinglv
made: but the men sallied out in great
force, defeated them, with great slaughter,
and took Cingetorix. one of their kings
and leaders, prisoner. This diversion was,
therefore, entirely defeated without anv
good result. Cassivellauniis, upon the re
ceipt of the news of this late disaster, he-
came so discouraged bv so main losses,
the devastation of his territory, and es-
peciallv the revolt and disaffection of so
87
man\r of the provinces, sent cmbassadors
to Cifsar. with the mediation of Comius, to
sue for peace. Ca'sar now began, in the
midst of his successes, to appreciate his
difficulties. The Uritons. notwithstanding
their reverses, were showing stubborn op
position to coming under a Roman voke ;
and \\ere never so far subdued and deject
ed as that they could not arouse them
selves and rallv. whenever an opportunity
offered itself, to recover their independence
and freedom. The season was coming too
clc i i |i >pe to th
of the war before winter; and a winter
campaign in the midst ot such opposition
from Ihe people, and difficulty in obtaining
subsistence, would be highU unlavoaable,
and encourage a protracted war. I le re-
fleeted also upon ihe difficulties he might
encounter upon the continent; their stub
born opposition and frequent commotions.
These matters induced him to wish some
settlement, h\ which he could plausibly
withdraw and return to Gau'i before win
ter. 1 le therefore listened to Cassivellaunus'
proposition for peace with great compla-
ccncv and upon the most favorable terms,
lie onlv required hostages, a certain an
nual tribute to lie paid to the Roman peo
ple, and that Cas.-ivellaunus should refrain
from all hostilities upon Mandubratius and
the Trinobnntes.
These terms being settled, Ca-sar imme-
diatelv returned to his shipping, glad of an
opportunity w ithout the appearance of a
positive defeat, to return to Gaul with his
iirmy before winter would set in. On re
turning to his shipping he found it repair
ed, and ready for him. He ordered it to lie
launched and prepared for his embarka
tion. The number of his transports hav
ing been much reduced bv the injuries re
ceived in the late storm, and the number
of his armv and prisoners being so great,
he at first intended to puss over in two
vovagcs; but fear of the equinox, and the
great delav if would cause, induced him to
change this arrangement and to pass over
at one trip. He found he could do so by
risking the loading of his transports hcav-
ilv ; and the great good luck his shipping
met with in passing the channel, induced
88 Till-: BRITISH I'KRIOU. |Book i.
him to venture it. Taking advantage "I" I days, this was looked upon bv the Roman*
tin; opportunity afforded bv an extraordin- ! as the evidence of victory and gain.
arv calm, he set sail about ten at night, I When Cii'sar left Britain, the last time,
and bv daybreak brought his whole tleet . whether lie hail changed his determination
sale into his destined port in Gaul. as to the conquest ot that country and eon-
At this time Oesar had been in Britain i sidered it not worth the COM: and aban-
about sixty davs;i.i and in the former cxpe ; doncd the idea he hud entertained in his
dition about eighteen dax s. lie was now j mind for *ome years, at all hazard to conquer
compelled, whether he so intended it or it: or for the present to delay that object
not, to bid that country a farewell forever. 1 with a determination to return lo it at some
The whole must have been a great disap- , more convenient time, we do not know,
pointment to him. lie gained nothing, 15ut however that mav be, it i- certain
except having seen the country, having that for the next three years Grtul gave
landed on its shore, and the last time, was him enough to do in keeping down that
able to march into the country about one | spirited and brave people: in subjecting
hundred miles and back. Took no booty them to Roman rule: and his subsequent
except, perhaps, some inferior pearls. '< ] time was too iruch occupied in his civil
Witnessed some hard fighting, and ;is an 'and domestic war to think again ot the
adversary, admired and eulogized the vast , conquest of Britain. Although he and his
number of chariots the Britons \\ere able | friends, and the Romans in general, had an
to bring into the Held; and the skill and i exalted idea of the glory and gain in the
art with which they were constructed and i acquisition of that country; yet from the
managed. The expeditions cost him a time that Cii'sar let't it in 54 B. L'. ti>^3 A.
good main ships, and men lost in battle;, I). ninety-seven vear* when Aulu< Plan-
with a thorough conviction that the island tins bv orders of the Roman emperor,
was not to lie gained in one battle, but de- I Claudius, again invaded it, Britain was left
fended bv a people whose endurance, spirit ! to itself free from an\ foreign invasion,
and perseverance would enable them to
arise once more, as often as stricken down . -;,_( v/-.v,r\ /.,/ O^ralioiif in (itinl.
in battle. It is true he slaughtered many
of their people; destroyed and consumed The intimate connection that the Britons
many of their cattle and properu : burned | had with Celtic Ciaul. and the immediate
and destroyed some of their towns and | relation that Cajsar's invasion of the latter
man y of their houses; hut then, in those I country had with the former, ha\ e induced
13 Kroin July Jisl to Sept. jisl. 51 H, t'., and tin reader will now [mrticipiite intlu- st'iiliineiit: and re-
ycar TTJO of Rome. Set- Bon.iparte's l_'.vs;ir. p. 224. i oret that we no\v nave not such letters describing
vol. _-d. [ Britain as it tlu-n was: as .1 modern letter writer
,. , . . would describe it; nol.only vvhcrc Ca'sar savv it. hut
r4,",en"^ ssTuc; I'v Mr ilc> A cc li i" In-colder pans the Isle of Wi-fh, MK nci^hl-.r-
oJ, ,4. &c. which passc-J at ll,i> tim,- l,L-lwCt-,, l"1 '" IW.MMo.nh. .! !,,s.,llcvot the Avon. .,ml
Citiir n<l his nfflcor. in lirilain. and llu orator Ci.-i- ; "' "mr^ Stonchunue and .W-lmrv.
rr> antl fricntls al K'ltiu-. It then took frotn fnur lo But ttu-se Roman UMtt-rs \vcrt- lillt-d \\ilhan.\irt\
six wi-L-ks for :i U-ltt-r to ijass; an<l inttrli anxiety ;i:ui , about Ihc booty and if.iin wliich \vi-rt- to he ohtaincd
-iiriositv was inanitVstcd at Roiiu- as 'o the resiilt ot" j fnim lirilain. rallur tliaii sueii >l>iecl.s <,f hunianit\ ;
tht expedition air-.tinsl BritJlin, then hut a little known --rather allusions to Iht- hopes (f plunder, than to a
island. Their prineipal solicitation ilnd anxiuly were , d.'srription of the i-imntrv ami its |),-ojili . KM-II tin-
to know the |irns|iri-l t'nr "hooty:" very much as it 1 irrcat C'leiio expresses his lear.s. that Iherc is not a
was tonnrrlv will] the llrilish army in India, as to I scrup|.- of ^old or silver in the island, and no hopes
"lootinit." In one of Ciri;ro's letters lo his brother, . of making hooty, cxcetil from slaves: and 1 lancv vou
On'"'"*, in the army with C.TSiir. Ihere is a scntem-e , hardly expeet to linil any M-holars or inu-iciaus
more commendable' and consisU-nt with his rluinie- i amonif them." And also. "The country liail been
trr. and humanity, than the rest. Ur says: "How j n-duccd lo submission, hoslaifes were delivi red. and
delighted I was to receive your letter froin Kritain' j thou'^h no booty had been amassed, they hail imposed
I'or I liad Kreal fear about you troiu the si-a and the 1 payment ot" money on the natives." "Take
ruiori-il ecKisl ot" that island.' There were other oil - I rare that alter you have so oft, 11 cautioned others,
cumslancrs of equal importanee t> influence me. but thai vou are nol taken by surprise yourself, tw one ol
thev raised rather my hopes than my fears. What ! the British war-chariots." "If then- he no
a noble subject you "now have for employing your tjold nor silver in liritain, I advise vou lo catch one
pen! What descriptions you may now tndul);e in . of their chariots, and come hack ;imon(;-t u> as soon
about the things and the places vriu have sten: their ] as vou can." These letters disclose the motives and
situations, the tribes vnn have been amongst, their sentiments that actuate the Romans in their attempts
inani'.Lis. ar.d the battles you have been in." ICvcrv ; upon Britain. .
Chap, in.] THE ROMAN INV A.SION I!V C.KSAR. Sy
the narratives of his campaigns in Gaul, the nearest legion while thcv could, and
ami the same reasons will compel u- lo before the enemv should receive all the re-
follow him in tin.1 three following cam en furceinents thev were expecting. Cotta.
paigns, until that gallant people were com for various reasons and upon general prin
pelled to settle down with their countrv as ciple-, contended thev should defend their
a Roman pro\ incc. position to the la-l.or until thev should rc-
C;c-ar's absence from (iaul while in ceive order- from C;esar. Sabinus' opinion
Hritain, did not in the least tend to recon j prevailed, and the next morning at dav-
cile its people to a Roman rule. Dissatis 1 break the garrison started out to join the
faction and a -ense of the injustice and nearest legion, under tne command of Q
oppression thev endured, kept them con Cicero. Thev had not proceeded far on
stantly in a spirit of revolt, with the hopes their vvav. when in a de-tile between high
that thev would \ el he ahle to drive out hills, covered with woods, with a -Ireamoi
their oppressors. I'pon his return to the ! water running through it, all lavorahie
continent, this disaffection was so great for an amhu-cade. thev were surrounded
tiiat \var was readv to break out ane\\ in bv their enemv at a verv great disadvan
various places. The difficulties were so tage. Thev were surrounded on all side-,
great, and the spirit of revolt so imminent, and the light -oon became desperate. Sa-
that he dared not during that winter take binu- became greatlv alarmed and appear
his usual trip lo Jtalv. Soon after his re ed to lo-e all confidence in him-elf. though
turn, with the hopes of reconciling affairs, he continued to order anil do hi- dutv .
he culled an assembly- of the notables of Cotta having foreseen the difficulty of
Gaul to meet him at Amiens iSamarohri- their undertaking, neglected nothing for
va): and to awe the people, he quartered their general safety, did even thing in his
his legions in various places of the greatest i power both as officer and soldier in the
danger, within a circle of a hundred miles ranks. The lighting and their situation be
north of the Seine and southwest of the came so desperate, that the baggage wa-
Rhine, so as to be within striking distance ahandoncd. and a circle formed for their
of each other in case of difficult v ; and to dclen-e. Whenever the cohm t- made a
enable themselves the easier to obtain sup charge upon the barbarian- thev were quite
plies; making his o\\n headquarters at : succe-sful. and made great -laughter. I'hi-
Amiens. Notwithstanding these precau Ix'ing perceived bv their commander, Am-
tion* great difficulties arose; first 10 the biorix. a native of great skill and exper
north with the Carnule- whose head ience, having been much with Romans, he
quarters were where Chartre- now is, ordered1 his men to keep at good distance,
one of the most important slates of the lo light with their missile, to retreat a- the
Cymric Celts, which required great :id- Romans advanced, and attack them in
dress to quiet it; but slill greater difficulty turn a- tlu-v retreated. Thi- mode of
arose to the north among the Melgic. To fighting proved a -ucccs- In ilu- lJclg;e. and
meet this a large force was sent under discouragement lo the Roman-. The bat-
Sabinus and Cotta, two generals in whom ; tie was thus continued with desperate
Cii'sar had full confidence, to the Eburones lighting from earlv in tin morning to the
whose territories were between the Meuse middle of the afternoon, while as_vet noth
and the Rhine. There thev were soon en- ing was vielded or done nnvvorthv of a
vamped and apparent!;, -ate, when thev Roman soldier. l>ul In tin- time thev had
found the people of the surrounding states j lost niuiiv of their men. Several of their
roused against them, and unexpectedly be best officers were either killed or dcsper-
sieging their camp. While in the dittlcui- atelv wounded: and Cotta. himself', wu-
tv of their situation, a controversv arose severelv wounded in the mouth bv a blow
between the two generals as to what was i from a sling. A parlev wa- now held.
best to be clone, .Sabinus contending thev Ambiorix offered to grant a conference;
should abandon their camp and retreat to and pledged himself to use his influence lc>
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. I Book i.
spare the Romans, and no hurt should he made on both sides in th attack and de-
done Sabinus. I'pon this the latter pro tense. with extreme difficulty notice of the
posed to Cotta to leave the battle and go to ; situation was sent to Ca>ar, who inime-
confer with Ambioiix. Cotta absolutely diatelv ordered all the forces he could
refused to treat with an armed enemy : and spare, and hastened to the relict of the l>e-
persisted in his resolution. Sabinus and j sieged camp. When within a few miles of
some of the officers went over to Ambiorix . the camp, the Nervians having received in
to hold a conference. Upon request thev formation of his approach, immediately
laid down their arms and a conference was j raised the siege and proceeded with an
begun. Some altercation took place, while anm of sixty thousand or more to attack
in the meantime they were surrounded bv Cesar unawares on the way. He iinme-
ihe, barbarians and slain. The latter now i diatelv prepared to receive them, and for-
with great shout fiercely attacked the Ro- p titled himself in a camp: and he himself
mans, who defended themselves with vigor, < now became licsicged. Here every art and
Cotta, lighting to the last, was slain. A , strategy "were used on either side to obtain
great slaughter ensued, and only a rein- the advantage. The natives had over-
nant of them succeeded in making a retreat whelming advantage in numbers: Cesar
hack to the camp they had left in the morn- therefore abided his time, fortifying his po-
ing. Here thev were again attacked, with- ! sition with great labor and security; de-
out the hopes of escape. In their desper- termined to wait for the lime when he
.ition, in the course of the night, rather could make an attack on his enemy with
than fall into the hands of their enemies, certainty of success. That time soon came.
Ihey killed each other. Onlv a few made He pretended to be verv fearful of the con-
Iheir escape from the light, and carried the sequences of his situation in order to draw
jicws to the nearest Roman his enemv on to make an incautious at-
This probably was the most disastrous tock- One morning their cavalry crossed
jirtairof thv war. Its success enabled Am- j lhe vallc.v ;"ui br(>ok tllat la.v 'x.'ti-en
hiorix to arouse the lielgie in a determined : tlK'm ilml ""acked U"-' Roman horse.
resolution in free the country from the Ro- 'l''1^ were ordered to withdraw as though
man yoke. An immediate attack was in great fear. This sO invited the natives
made on sCv eral camps hetore Cesar could that tllc-v cr"-setl m ^r '" a ffc-1' body, and
be informed of the late disaster. The near- were posted in a vcn disadvantageous po-
vsi ramp tor Anihiorix to attack was that s'ti"- iid in the most contemptuous inan-
..f Cicero, in the territory of the Nerviaiis, ner attacking the camp, as though those
which he immediately besieged, holding within were afraid to come to a battle: and
out everv inducement to surrender, and \ daring them to do so. Hut when they had
Coasting of the success of his operations I bt-c" entirely deceived bv this counterfeit
against Sabinus. To this Cicero onlv re- lciir- <>*' :" 'u'c sallied out bv all his
plied that the people of Rome did not treat -ilk's- illlj charged them brisklv with his
with an armed enemy, but if they would ! cavalry, and put them to Mich precipitate
lav down their he would send em- lhat thev to make anv resisl-
has~adors to C;esai . from whose justice i"ll'e aild Ho(1 in a P'<-- ('rt'at "umbers
they mighl reasonably expect redress. This ' Werc >lail1- :>m! tho ri-'st tllrcw dow" lllcir
only called forth -r.'ater etlbrts to forward an"s' He was then soon able to join
the siege: and l eircuim elate the camp *-''*-'ero in his camp: and was struck with
with a fos-e fifteen feet deep and a rampart astonishment at the entrenchment, towers
vle\en feel high, such iniprovenients were !lnd "lher works that the natnes had con-
these natives able to make "in the art of i strncted for the purpose of carrying on
war. Thev next built numerous towers ! t'10 slf!c'
from which to overlook and enfilade the A number of other similar attempts were
camp, and set tire to the barracks. After j made hv the Northern Gaul or Belgiv. dur-
more than a week of e.xtreme exertion | ing this winter, to defeat the Romans- and
Chap. 1 1 1. 1 TIIK ROMAN INVASION BY C.ESAR. 91
drive them from the country, which after I once. At one- time he is found, having- as-
great exertion tiirnei! out to be fruitless. scmbled a diet at I'aris, then an infant city,
Thev Ix'fame discouraged, and a calm in endeavoring to reconcile the people to
the affairs of Ihe countr\ followed. Be- j Roman rule; at another thin;; into one of
fore the close of winter Cicsar called aji- j the divisions of the country, devastating
other meeting of the principal noblemen with the sword and fire, in subduing a re-
of everv state lo attend him. Sonic ac- volt: and still at another time he is again
cordingh attended, which had its good ef found crossing the Rhine to chastise the
fect; but others refused, and became re- Germans for the aid tlv furnished the
fractory, who were soon compelled to (iauls. This activity and the resulting
submit w ith great loss, >o that before ' cruelty with w-hich he punished the re-
spring Gaul became in a measure ijuiet tor \-olts. compelled the people to a tem[x>r-
the season. ' ary submission; but the tire was only
Fur the next campaign Oesar anticipated ; smoulderednot quenched. At the end of
trouble-, and therefore made arrangements I the campaign a calm, an apparent peace,
in Italy to recruit, and to greatly sircngth- : was produced, which enabled Oesar again
en his force in Gaul, Belgic (iaul \\as to return to spend the winter in Italy,
giving him great trouble in reducing them Thl, approaching campaign- -the seventh
to submission, and settling the affairs of , (ja-sar in Gaul, became at once the most
Ihe country in accordance with Roman , terrilic of either, and also the most inter-
wishes. The Tivveri, whose territory bor- , L.SIJIIK jn history, for the astonishing effort
dered on the lower Rhine, were making n,.,(|c ],v t|le (;iu,|s for t|,L. recovery of
arrangements tor further resistance, and theil independence and freedom. One
this time negotiating with some German would suppose that Roman supremacy had
states over tin- Rhine for a large body of already crushed out all energ\ and vitality
horsemen to come to their assistance. from the Celtic race. Armorica, with her
Other neighboring states uniting with the (Venetian) great progress in commerce and
Trcvcri in preparing lor resistance, induced civilization, had been crushed with her im-
C;esar at an early day in the season to open mensc shipping: which, at the time ap-
Ihe i-ampaign before this coalition could be- pc.lrw| l() ]. ;ll,le It, cope with Rome and
come ready, and crush it in its preparation, j to t.ai| f(trih sllch progress j,, UK. artK and
lie fell upon them before they could as civilization, was no more, her senators
semble in a bodv for defense, or -ccurc slaughtered and many of her people sold
themselves by a retreat ; and "having car into slavery.'- Belgic (iaul, with bra\ e
ried off a great number of men and cattle, and ruder determination, were again and
enriched hi- soldiers with the bootv, and again stricken down, with their country de
laid waste the country; he compelled them vastated with tire and sword. a large por
to -ubmit and give hostages and then led tion of her people either slaughtered or sold
hack his legions to their (jnaiter."1 into slavery. Such misfortune and adver
During ihis campaign revolts were con- sity would seem to leave no hopes; but it
tin ualh breaking out in various directions, was not so, for southern Gaulthe old
in which it appeared olten as though all Gaulic Celtwas now to be aroused anew.
(iaul. the Gaulic. Cymric and liclgic Thev had already made efforts to resist,
tes were united as one ,1^ delerm- i ''lit nad been somewhat divided. Now a
ined upon re-i-tance and freedom, lint the I recurring sense of their wrongs was again
like measures on the part of the Roman rallving them to an union and new efforts
general produced the like results, compel to expel the cruel and relentless invaders
ling the people to -ubmit and sue for jxjacc. A native Arverni, a southern Gaul,a
Hi- activity seemed to meet everv enier- voung man of extraordinary gifts ot na-
gcnc\, and carrv him in all directions at. j lure, and of equai social position, whose

r's Com., H. vi. $ J Cajsur's C'oni.. M. iii, jjT<i.

 Till-: MR1TISII PKRIOI). [Book i.
name we do not know, but whomCa/sar This Iiold aiul rapid movement of the Ro
<alis Verringetorix (in Celtic" general-in- man general enabled him to command hi-
cb.ic.-f) comes forward to unite and rail his |>osition : wlm. placing his garrison in
people to action. I Ic i- eloquent and win Arverni in a goxl -rate of defense. pro
ning. Intelligent, wise and sagacious, ceeded to collect hN other forces, and went
endowed with extraordinary personal at- north attacking, besieging and taking one
traction, and seemed bv nature called to town after another. This produced a change
lead and control great events for his race of the plan of operation at the instance of
and people. With burning eloquence he : the Ar\ ernian chief. Me urged upon the
denounces the ambition, crueltv anil wick- people the policv of burning e\cr\ town,
cdness of Knme, and in \ ivid pathos called desolating the country where their enemies
to mind the injustice and tvranju of their were, so that the Romans could obtain no
oppressors, and their own undoubted right [ supplies This terrible though patriotic
l their self-government and freedom. , resolution was carried into effect by the-e
From the bills and \allc\s of Gaul from devoted people, as the only means of conn-
the Ccvennes to the Seine he aroused with teraeting the skill and machinery wielded
a new ardor the natural enthusiasm of his h\ the Romans. Accordingly in one clay
people, uniting, in his holv cause, the i were -een t \\cntv towns and villages ot" the
Gallic and Cymric Celt without distinction, j Bituriges wrapt in dames and levelled with
and rallied all to a revolution to sacrifice i the ground by their own patriotic people.
everything, wile, children and home, and Other states followed the example. Uut at
even life itself,-1 to regain their inde|K-nd- the earnest pravcrs ot the Bituriges, their
enee and freedom : and dri\ e their oppres- capital. A varicnm (the modern liourgcs),
sors from the land. The Carnntes and was spared, contrary to the advice of their
Ceno-nani. and their Druids forgot their patriotic chief, lor thev recoiled from the
prejudice*, and united with the Arverni as , sucralice ot their fairest city. -the bulwark
brethren of one people and race, under the and ornament of their state.' Being stored
inspiring patriotism ot this heaven-born w it h corn and other supplies, it would be a
leader. ' great pri/e in the hands of their enemies.
Outside circumstances favored their j *'r this }n'in' :l ~k'S ot extreme labor and
combinations. News was received that fierceness was commenced bv the Roman
C:esar was meeting with great dissension ' general. All the art and -kill in the. attack
at Rome, which was likelv to break out in ' '"ui defense of a fortified town were used
civil war; and would not be able to return, and exhausted on both sides. C;c-ar testi
at least with his expected re-enforcement. fies that their own efforts were "in a great
The plan ot this Gaulic chief was to at- ! measure rendered ineffectual, b-. the ad-
tack at once the Roman Province in the ! dress and contrivance of the GauU. 1-V.r
south, and the quarter-, of the legions in they are a people of singular ingenuity, ex-
the north Measures were taken to secure ! tremely quick of apprehension, and very
this result before the breaking up of the [ happy in imitnting what they see prac-
winter. Cajsar was informed of these ' tieed.' < After such a siege of about thir-
measiires, and at once took steps to antici- ; t.x "ays, when every man on both sides
pate and thwart them. 1 le was immediate- j l'lx' hnosl exhausted, the town w as taken.
ly in Gaul, crossing the Cevennes in snow '" "ight, in the midst of a tempest of
six feet deep lie appears with his. troops rain, by storm. To the horrors ot that
unexpectedly in the midst of the Arverni. < night must be added that of the slaughter
The rapidity of his movements brought that followed. Of the forty thousand in-
consternation with it. The Arvernian habitants of the place, only eight hundred''
chief was at the north, and his people made their escape from the sword of their
prayed for bis return to their defense. ! vindictive conquerors. Those who^

3 Sic (iiMlwin's Fr.iru p. 'M: M'uh-'Ut's Knmcr ^ L'il'sur's (.mi. It. (i.. H. vii. (i-r
It. i, cli. J, p. ty. q I 'I supra. S-'7.
Chap. in. I TIIK ROMAN INVASION UY C.ESAR. 9.?
cajK-d made their \\av to the camp of Ver- ' Colts,'1 with instructions to quell such rc-
cingetoris. not far off. The Romans found volt and keep them in subjection. lli~
in Avaricum plenty of corn and other pro- lirst operation was against I.utctia, then a
visions, which gave them great relief. It ! town of the Parisians, confined to an island
was now evident that the Bituriges coin- in the Seine, now Paris. In this evpedi-
initted great error in not following the ad- lion great opposition \va- encountered,
viee of their chief, in neglecting to burn hut the skill and stratagem^ oi' f.ahienii-
Avariciiin with their other towns. But , succeeded in accomplishing his objects,
even this disaster tended to raise their cs- .\l"ter various expedition-, battles and
timation of the wisdom and sagacity of skirmishes, in which, against great efforts
their general. ,llu| <)p])<>sition. the experience and kill of
The taking-of Avaricum required new the Roman veterans gradually won its wa\ .
efforts to he made, to sustain the resolution [ these battles Ycrcingetorix and hU peo-
of the Gauls under -uch misfortune. The pie left no means untried either in the at-
address and sagacity of Vcrcingetorix was ! t-,^ ,- defense: but Mill in many of them
able to accomplish this. Me represented they had sustained great los-.es. and in some
to liis people that their misfortunes were , instances terrible slaughter: in which the
the result of the bad policy of attempting Romans were aided In a large body oi
to defend the town instead of burning it. ; German cavalry, who a- mercenaries had
Where the Romans bad theadumtage was | been brought imo the Roman -crvice. weiv
in being better acquainted with siegeo, and active instruments in perpetrating these
the use of engines to aid them in their 'slaughters when an opportunity offered.'
operations: but in courage and bravery Amidst some reverse- the Arvernian chief
they were not superior. Me showed the thought it best to retreat to Alesia. an ap-
resonable hope of uniting all (iaul in a panntly impregnable fortress, situated on
general confederacy against their common the top of a high hill near I he head of the
enemy; and against their united strength Seine,a place strong bv nature, washed
the whole world would no! lu- able to pre- on two sides bv streams, and now still
v:"'- j stronger by art Mere Cft'sar besieged hK
Ciesar next attacked (jergovia, tlie prin- , indefatigable opponent, and the operations
cipal town and de|V)t of the Arverni. A in its attack and defense, became the cul-
siege here was commenced and conducted i minating point in the final conquest of
with equal exertion and ahilitv on both ' Gaul, and as a war -ceiic the wonder and
sides svith that of Avaricum. hut which ' admiration of the world. The chief dis-
the Roman general was eventually induced missed his cavalry to various parts of Gaul
to give up: being compelled to relieve and | calling his people to the rescue, and for re-
protect other important points. The ! enforcements and supplies. Within lhL
ylCduans had long been the allies of the defenses of Alesia the Gauls had a \ cry
Romans, and were now sympathizing with large army: hut the Roman general did
their countrymen, in their noble efforts to , not hesitate to invest it. Mere probably
preserve their independence. C;esar and ! the chief committed a great error, and
the Arvernian chief were exerting equal , violated the plan and principles of his own
skill and address in keeping the .Kduans operations, in permitting himself thus to
in their several interests with verv divided j be cooped up. instead of operating in the
success. In the meantime revolts to the I field, wasting the country around his oppo-
Roman interest were becoming alarming i ncnt. and destroying his supplies. In
in the north of Gaul. While Ca:sar was ' the decision he had made he risked the
openting amidst the Arverni, Lemovices . final destiny of (iaul in the result of this
and other states in the the south.the an single siege. Hut at this day we cannot
cient Gauls, Labienus was sent with a
large armv to the north amidst the Car- Stan- HSc-i-i Michfk-l's llisl. nf l-'nim-f. jQ. "I'dliliijl
of Cuul. 155 H. C.": *t*. !ili, p. 45, (i:illic
nutes, Senones, and other states of Cvinric L';mip:titfii> of I'ivsur, ^S- ft> II. ('."
 v4 THE BRITISH HKRIOIX |Booki.
know all tlu- arguments or motive that I slaughter filled the besieged with utter di.s,
operated on his mind to produce so great | may and despair.
change in his plans. We on I v can judge , ,. , , , . ,
.,nj concleinn
"" ,.,,, Iromsuperftcful
.. a , , appearances.
' , In ,,
their despair
. the. brave defenders
were
i. . the
ut ., siege and. its . gigantic
. . operations, ' about, to send an .. embassy . to ,.Ciesar to ne-
,,.:,:
on boll, sides,i . ,r , commenced.
iinincdintelv goliate
,.,, terrng...of surrender. , , Vereinjretorix,
. .
\-n ,,].., lor
No plm-e , ...
a lortivss , have been
could "ill preservinirhui mind and magnanimity,
....-,
Yvttrr .. i -.1 ,
nettei selected witli a chance ol success; though his. hopes
. ...were withered, offered to
. ,, nothing
inn ,, ,.,,. i ,-, undone
was lefl i ,
that art could, ,.surrender
, . himself to La-sar as a ransom
;,,...,., , . .
invent to strengthen IN natural defenses. tor
, Ins people.
. Ca-sar,,' less
magnanimous,
,
Tlic
'e !.;,.) i equal, to his task, so demanded
u . an unconditioned surrender of
chief appears to be . ,
i-.... .,.,,.,.
till a talent and ability ere concerned ; "".. Being conscious . ol havino
, ,, been the
I,... the
lull .., ^eniii- and. uiulorin success of active
.,,,.,. mover of the war. and still anxious
iv-iri.-i-
V.Kiir wax againct him, i! !
Ihe Romanncir- ,to, do all , in his power to , favor
,,.,,. . - , and relieve
..,,,..,; , i the
innnallalcil ,, town and. camp with ast llls'.I'eoplc.
,, , the dallii- chief.., clothed hmi-
...(M.i...
works; consisting .. ,
ol three dtc.es each st'lt in all the gav ,, ' armor , of his rank, and
fifteen or twent, fee, wide, and as ma ,v mou"l'"a "nl ""P'"''Kl"v
leep: a rampari twelve lee, hiKh. and ei-^ht , "" ^ " ^ C*r' """^ "
.
smaller few*, with their bottoms hristlTn-, * ""' '" "'V'" ' "'"^ *"'
w-itli pointed
with iu', t i -lakes,
. i ,
and palisade*, of five" nionnls and cast?
,.-.< i i-his armor and , weapons
......
rows ,,, ol ,,. ... their
trees with , . boughs
, , interlaced. < al. the feet ol the, Roman
,. general, without
l\,,
"utside of,- this,
., . at some distance from the ulteriii"
A a word, lie was taken a prisoner
town, so as to inclose. . a circumference of and
... sent
.. .to Rome,
.ft , \\hatwastheiitimale
.;,.,., late of this gifted and great, but unfortunate
lilteen miles, was constructed a counter
..,,,.,, ,.. erection
work of similar . to de end againBt ..man,
IB not for a certainty known.
... Hut it
.,...,,,:,,.,
an* outside attacks;, and all this was- tin- it is reported that
, six 'vears afterwards
, he
iislied
i,.vl ;.in less
i .1.
than .-
five weeks. In an armv wa" compelled ,- to grace , , a ,
triumphal
, pro-
.
..,- ..... ,,, i , cession lor C:esar, and In him ordered to
ot not over mxb thousand men. i. . . ,, .. "
In Hie meantime, while the garrison, con- :I be
I, ,,, , ... . ., put .,,
to death. II this , report , , were true,
:.;.. ol,- eights
listing , , thousand men, were con- it , should
. . have
, conniirned the alter to ever-
.. , . lastine infamv.
slantlv fighting and counteractin.r ihesc
works, the stales of (Ja.,1 were responding Tllc Wilr fbr thc sllllJ-li"'1 '" "' 1-
to their call, and sending , their aid 280,- minated '" the ege<>f Alesia. 'I'lie (Jauls
'xv men levied from the ditferenl Mates sli" colltinued the "J"' '" n'tfl11 nd hope-
The gairison was ,,,,w upon the point of losK exertio" l" "orr,v '"" th enemies,
famishing, on account of the exhaustion of illul Oxpcl thcl" fl"Om thecountrv. During
Hieir supplies; and being compelled to re- the rcmailuler of tlli!- "eason, and the next,
sort to feeding upon the rlesh of the dead: wh!l'h Wils Ca'sar's eighth and last cam-
when a jovfulcrv \\ as heard, running from Pa'Kn- ht' c"ntillued his usual activitv to
rank to rank, that (he expected armv on bring the war and Conquenl to a close, in
the out-idc had arrived, 'i'hese. with the " '"' '' lu' """ l'ltilnau'1.v entirelv success-
ardor of ih.,| people, were throwing them- '"'' Aftl''' "''S """ aPP:irt'tl.v acc-omplish-
-elveMi]K>n those outeide works of the Ro- | cd C!CSarchangcd his polil'-v tou'ar(ls lllt-
mans in an nnreniitted attack tor three ' ('auls : :m(1 '"' kindness and favors shown
davs and nights, i,, ,;,( endeavor^ to car- "lc'ln- lu' Nllt-Cl-t-cll in making them fast
rv them. In the repulse of each attack, a ll'k'Mti'-: and discovered that a bra\e people
lerrible slaughter ensued, in which the Ger- arl' "llen 0:lsit'r lciul than l'oncluer': -\^r
man ca\alr\ acted a prominent but mien - :1 tillK' (i:'ui recover>--d fr'"" th^ terrible
\iahle pan. So thN ev|vcled relief |>roved lievastilti"" i[ ll:ld ""'Vered during the war,
a failure. These repulses, dispersion and !lml '" "R''r' woder(I &'<""* ad talent,
--- thev became one of the most prosperous
7 f>rr i>s:ir's Com.. II. vii. cli. i>; :i|so lluiui- i provinces of the Roman empiie.
r-<rlf s L'l'sar, \',,l. j. B. jji, c|,. Io. j,A .
Chap, in.] THE ROMAN INVASION BY C.KSAR. '>5
654 The Period After ('irxar's Im-asiou. ', in Spain and Ciaul, the veterans who were
Britain, Iron, the time Osar abandoned at 1'harsalia, and overrun Asia,
her shore, until she was again invaded bv j EK-VP1 Northern Africa, under the
command of the emperor Claudius, a period it is no wonder, that no Ro-
of nearly a hundred years, was this
Durin.' tree j! ^"n>n-c.
left Ion" man of that time was w tiling to repeat the
Thcv w ere unwilling to under
from foreign invasion.1
time her inhabitants were permitted to en- j ^ "hl're Ca--"r collld not 8in an-v 'rilit
joy theii country,, and their natural rights | r victoria, nor a Uphold in tin-
unmolested bv robbers or plunderers from I colm:r-v ; W|KTC |M; t'01"u! tlK' l'el)k- s"
abroad. The severe reception given bv the i able, determinate and persevering in liatllc,
Britons to Caesar was a wholesome lesson aiui dangerous to be pursued w hen beaten.
to those who succeeded him. Although These considerations gave the Britons
the Roman )>eople were generally disposed peace for that long lapse of time, and kept
to laud Cavsar's exploits in Hritain. vet in- the conquerors of (iaul on their side nf
tclligent men looked upon them as empty : the channel.
of gain, and that C;csar had only touched i This peaceful period was well improved
her shores, and had seen no important part h.v lllu Britons in renewing their commerce
of the island; the fame and the importance ; ilh ('il11'- ilml ""K'r l"irlsof the commer-
of the expedition is greatly diminished, cial world: and in making a general pro-
Such was the opinion of Tacitus and oth- : g'''-"> i" civili/ation. The Cymric navx
ers.* When it is taken into account, the | 'hich had been stricken down with tin-
character of Ciesar and his usual success in ; Venetians was now renewed and built up
turning to his own advantage whatever he ' " lllt' s'""Vs of Britain.- London was a
touched, the great armament he lilted out , commercial city before Ca-sar's time, who
for his final conquest, no less formidable , w:ls ltd off ''rol seeing it by thedemonstra-
than that of the Norman conqueror, with '. tioils niiult' -(>l"h '"' !t h.v Cassivellaunus.
troops so superiorthe best the world ever1 Welearn l>th from Cii-sar and Tacitus
saw, those who had gained such victories that the towns were numerous; as were al
so the houses scattered through the coun
i From 54 K. C., 1043 A. I).. -07 years. The prom try; many of which, Ca-sar informs u-.
iiient dates of this |M-riod are .is follows:
were burnt and dotroved In him.
t
\mitff- and Pacts. A. C. l~. Knt. The country wa> ili\ ided up l>etween
t ';f-sar"s l;iv,t retreat t'rui llritiiin...... <* 54 B. t'.
" ;iss;issm;ition :ll Home. . . 71111 ; numerous tribes, and nationalities of va
Augustus ufter the liuttle ir" Act:
t>cc(nllcssole ruler ut" Koine, ~12 rious sixes; governed by a king, prince, or
" dies and is succeeded t>> chief, whom they called Brenhin. Each
Til>erus 767
C'uliffuht {tucreeda ujwn the tic:ith nf i chose their own independence and elf-
llbertis 7yu \ government in this lorm, rather than a
ulion of Caliiiula 71)4 ! consolidation, as most conducive to their
\\"hifh wii.s two \eiirs hefore his in-
vasi.i i of Brilnin hv Auhis Hl:ni- freedom and happiness. But still thev
tis 7yi 1 w ei'e Mthiect to a federal union, tor the pur-
Uurin^ rhe sine ptriol, the British i-i
;)s follows: ' po>e of promoting their general interest
-renu:inttii> succeeded C.';issivell;iuiui* , and welfare, and secure themselves against
7 yeurs after C;es.tr's departure. . . .700 47 II- f.
L ynibcline. hi> s'in am] ^r;iml nephru foreign aggression. For this purpose, in
of Cassivellaunus, succeeds 740
( iuiderius succeeds arid the death ol" their General Assemblies, they selected or
t'vinheline 775 appointed one of their most prominent
Which iji\i-s l^inlu'liln: a rein of !^
leaves to transpire
transnfre ln-twecn d'-ath and the Koinau ' princes the president
between his tit-all presivlent or generalissimo of
invu.Mon in A. J). 41, t\venlv-oiie \ears to Ix1 m-citpiei! , , .
' by the sovereignty
eiKnty o!
.,1 Guiderins
(iuiderius ami
;.,,<l Arviraans,
Arvir..a his till' whole, called In them, the PendragOtl ;
two BOOK; -which gives 7, ;tnd .14, :iml ^. ;uul -'
s, which makt* 07 vrar> in ti - iK.
I "Tin- lirihsh rii- . ;i> urh-iirn Iroin
j [ Turner's Ari^ln-S;ixori, p. 70. and n. c. C'.r-ar Ro;i(licc:i, tn I)im (.'a.^siii^. s \vrpt lln
saw l>nt litllt- of Rrilnin. "Me [msst-tl throuyli Kcnl Thi> pnil!iltl\ rftrr ol to the limr <it* tin
.inri Sussex, which wcr then e.xccctHnjrly poor, ;m*J [ C':i!ig\tht, when tin- Itritish flei-t under f,lyr, thr
lutd neither gold or silver.'1 _> Nifhimf's l.t-cl. 40. | brother of King C'vmbclim.1, ;is Admiral of lti<- H? ii
(IxTturc, xcv. [ i i<li iiii\\. protected her shores from th;it invasion,
 TIIK KKITIS1I 1'ERIOI). [Book i.
.and in imitation ol' tlii- tin.- Anglo-Saxons these IricTuis. which induced the Roman
of the I leptarchv afterwards appointed a K in peror to threaten Britain with invasion,
supreme sovereign, called 1J rot \valda. Such which was judicious! \ settled liv a wise ar-
was the I'endragon Cassivellaunus in the ' rangemenl, it' not an advantageous treaty,
time of Ca-sar; and between him and the j with the usual skill of British di|)loniiicv.
time of the conquest of' liritain by the I Bv the arrangement the Kmperor not only
Romans under the orders of Claudius, he abandoned certain tributes formerly de-
was followed by the four following pen- ! manded, but the heavi duties previously
<lragons: Tenuantius, Cvmbeline, (iuider ; levied on British goods introduced to the
his. and Caractacus ; nor should the name , continent were reduced to a verv light
<>f the \irtuous .\rviragus IK- forgotten, tariff." It lias been represented bv some
Thev were, all of them, men deservedly ; that these duties \\crc collected by Roman
held in great estimation, and well known j officers on British shores. Hut it plainly
both in classic and British histories ,-* and ' appears that this assertion must be a mis-
tbeir names will stand on account of their | take. They must have been collected on
prowess and patriotism as long as those ,' the shores of (iiiul. as the vessels arrived
histories shall endure. or departed.
During this time it would But after a time new dilliculties inter
candid review of British and Roman his vened. From the time of Ca'sar the gov
tory, that Britain had made great progress ernment of Britain had had difficulties in
in prosperitx and > securing the faithful allegiance of the
tercourse of British merchants and princes Coritanj" and Brigantes. two states some
\\ith Rome was frequent and intimate.-"' distance north of London, who frec|iientlv
The ail in in 1st rat ion of the general all'.tirs hv favored the Roman interest. At length in
these pendragoiis \\as conducted with July A. D. -)J, (juiderius sent an embassy
ability and prosperity. From history and to Rome, complainjng of the cncourage-
the remains of antii|iiit\ we haxc abund- [ mcnt given by the Roman court to the in-
ance of evidence that Ions; before Ca:sar's trigues of these people, being then detected
lime the Britons had made great progress | in a correspondence with Caligula in his
in the arts, sciences, and general learning, j late threatened invasion. This uas when
as well as in their intercourse with other | Caligula had collected a formidable army,
people in commercial affair*. AfterCa-sar's ' for the invasion, on the opposite coast of
retreat they soon recovered of the injury ' Ciaul, but finding the preparation of Britain
done them, and became a prosperous peo- I to give him a C;esar's reception, and seeing
pie. Two of the so\ eroigiif ol lliis peiicHl that the British Admiral, l.lvr, was sueep-
Tenuanlius and CMiibeline were each '"-' I'"1 coa-t itb bjs na\ y, he abandoned
of them distinguished for a long reign ol his enterprise, bill ordered his men to
over thirty years, eminently successful in charge upon sea and gather shells from the
the prosperity of the country and the ad shore, as ilu- meritorious trophies of their
ministration of justice. Their negotiations \iclorv. Such \\ as the occasion upon
with the Roman Kmperors ere charac \\bich happened the treason complained of
terized with ability and success. Cvmbe- b\ the embassy. Claudius, the new Km
line had been educated at Rome, and was peror. vouched no satisfaction to this em-
personally acquainted with Augustus. At!n;|ss%. who returned dissatisfied, This
one time a misunderstanding as to their
go\ernmcntal affairs took place between (i Sti-.ilui. II. ^. i-ll. s.
7 The Corilaiii. or Iht- <.'or;ii<la-. \vurt- >:tii1 In Itc
f Tlu-sc six Itrilisli -.mcrrii.n,;, \\rri-knu nf :i Inri-iirii y\lr.u-liini Ironi :i MTV imricnl rolotu.
history hv Itu-ir t'yniric n:inu*s, r<'spix-li In I hi- linu- nl" C;i^:n- llK-ir iillfuiiincr to tin- British
railst; <r.l\(- (.';( s,i vcl hulnus ( i. ';l.s\\ ;l| loll 1 ^n-llf IrOtlhk-
lu\v>: I'.isu .illon. "l\-ini.nit. C'\ri\vl\n, (iucUlvr. t.':lr- Ihrou-^h MaiuUiltralius. liu-ir priiu-r. whei \vas cailtul
;ii'K-. Arilii". Thi-st n.uiu-s ]i;i\t- hi-i-n \:triinis]v An- 1\\ the Hrilons A\arw>. TlK-v WITC also arciist-d of
ulit-i-i-il ;iml l,;tlini/i-il. St-r \Viirriiiylinrs Mlstnrv lavoritiir tli-.- Kouiaiis. and unfaithful tolhc Hrilons in
-)[ \\'.I!L-S: shiiks|K-:ux-'s pl:i\ ol' t 'ymU'liiir. Act iii. t'lautlius' <-oni|iu'sl. This fact and t-ircuinstiint\-
u-nd stronj;l\ to sho\\ lio\\p uniform vv.is thr rt-sl if
llu Krilnns in raT and nationality.
 Chap, iv. | CUSTOMS. MANNKRS AM) CI VI L1ZATIOV
breach of amity was kept up as a pretense | citadel.1 After rcmainini; there between
lor tlu- cominj; war. Tlie Roman j;ov em fiftv and eighty vears, thev were ujfain ex
inent had then abandoned the wise policy pelled- bv the joint act of the Lvdiaiis and
til' Augustus. to fix definite boundaries to i the As-vriaiis about A. I). 050, and made
liis dominion**, rcfu-c to extend them. but ; their way west, by the l)anul>e. the Kibe
In cultivate and improve what he had. and the Cimhric Chersonesus lo (ianl,
This .lied h p. vv bere tlu-\ were received as friends and
which required tliat the government -hould brethren. This emigration of Celts l>c-
find, as a matter of safety, sufficient em- came known as Cvmrv/1 a name which
plovment for the vast and idle armv then thev. themseh es, recognized; hut were
on hand; for no danger wa- so much to he known to the Greeks as Cimmerian-, and
dreaded hv a despotic government as an to the Romans as Cimbri. They them
idle and therefore licentious soldiery. Ac selves claimed to be the sons of (joiner,
cording' v the next year Claudius o-dered' which the Greeks and Romans corrupted
the invasion of Britain to he made, which to their respective names, and which be
closes this period of our history . , came fixed upon tile Cytnry while I hey
were in the midst of the Greeks in Asia
CMAl'TKR IV. Minor.
I'l STUMS. MAXXKRN AMI I'l VI MZATIOX <)!' [ When the Cvmrv came into Gaul they
TIIK HK1TDXS. took possession of the principal part of
central Gaul, which was probahlv then less
j settled than southern parts ot the country;
:-i ll'/tn r.-i'i-r Ilic Audi tit liriti'iif.
so that Northern Gaul became principally
We have said that the Ancient Britons Cv tnric, and the southern principally Gallic
were called, by the general term. Celts; or Celtic Gaul; and the line between them
and. In the special one. Cymry; thai is. would be found in about the direction of
1he\ were Cv mrv of tin1 Celtic familv. one drawn from the mouth of the Garonne
We are disposed to review the question '. to Coblentx on the Rhine. It i- probable
conciselv ; tor, to understand the customs, that these two families of Celts became
manner* and civilization of a people well, i considerably mixed and a-similaled with
we -tumid know who they were etlinicallv. each each other: the southern di-tin-
The Ceils w ere a part of the great Arvan, miishcd a- the old or southern Gauls or
or Japhetic, or Indo-European latnily. Celts, and the northern or Cymric (iauls
who constitute about all the inhabitants of Gauls or Celts. That portion which be
Knropf: and in the earlu -t ;iccounr we came most intensified Cymric, was found
have of \Vestern Kuropc. they occupied all between the Loire and the Seine, and from
Gaul anil \\hat is no\\ Frame. It r- Paris lo Hrcst : and cspeciallv in Armorica.
claimed thcv catne hv various emigration North of the Seine it was called licl^ium,
from Cimmeria, on the north side of the ami tin people Ueljjian- or lielyie; but still
Knxine or Black ,.Sea. It is churned Ilu-v 1lu4v w i. re Cvmrv.1 onl\ tin1 countrv and
were in France hefore 1000 l> C : lor about
this date thev hail made eruption- and set i IKTixInliii.. H. i. i-li. 15. S- :nili- I!, i. , !i. il.
tlements in Spain and Northern Italv. : I It-2 rollouts, . \nllion'- t'!;tss. l>in.. p. .^o. TitK'. t'imim-rii.
supr.i. I^enormimt'fi Anrirtit Ills!, of
When the last of ihes enii^ranl- cann1 to l llif Ivisl. 4os (,. K iv . cli. iii. $ iii.
; This II;I:IK- \v ;is HrM i^ivfll lo tht-ni hv tlu- (Jri-rks:
(7:111) hefore the Cv inn VM. do nut knovv. 1 lull it w:is not ktio\M] to :inv ((' lite CVlls \vlto i-nii-
but ]>os-ihlv not lon.i; before. About fxxi ^riilfd diri-i-llv tVoin t'lniiiR-i-iii lit Until.
vear- before our pre-ent era. the Cvmrv tiittlI Sr iinlc. rli. . $ --. (ioiivviii'- l-'r:mrr p. 16
it. (>. i, Nii-t'tilir's I.iTt.. \rv. p. ^.;. i <iil-s An-
came there, having Ix en expelled hv ihe fit-ttt firilons. .^7. n. !'. I.oirm'- Antiquity of Stotlund,
>t. I'iU-itit-' Aijricola. rh. \i. t';i-s;ir cullc-cl tin- prn-
Sivlhians from Iheir nativ e countrv north pli- of Kfitl Itflt;i-.tii.-. tnr:nt>r In- li-nnifd tVoin t'lti-ul
of the I'-usine, and driven around the ea-l tlti-v rsiiiu- llu-u- t'riiili I hi' opposiu- i-.KisI ot'(i:ntl. ll:il
llu-v \\t.-i\l t'vttirv. Thry \vi-rt- lilt- <;mu- in hm:pi:t^ir
end of that sea into A-ia Minor: took :intl ih.ittin.-r-. 'V:n ilns1 Ayri.. i\i. tlii-ltitril ot' t'ir.,
It. i. rli. .' )il :iml n. ;. stty- : -\Vu ili>c-i.vi-r it t'c-w
I.vdia. and Sardi- the capital, all but the 1 rilii-s in (iattl | hi-li^iinii | t-;iriit lltu -LIIII*- tip]HTlnti<ni
 THE BRITISH J'KRIOIJ. [Book i.
people were more rude, and some mixed In the time ol'Carsar, alKnit 55 B. C.. the
up witli the Germans, with whom they localitv of the Celtic race had heroine sot-
e in constant war in keeping them on j tied and fixed. Thev were then (bund to
their side of the Rhine. occupy a large part of Kurope and a poi
Soon alter the Cvmrv came to (jaul. the tion of Asia Minor. The. territory then l>
main or ruling part of them passed over to them occupied extended from Sinigaglia
Britain, from Armorica and the opposite : on the Adriatic,1' including Northern
coast of Gaul. The island thus became ' Italy, the """cat valley of the Po, all Ciaul,
settled with the Cvmrv, and the previous to Denmark and the Baltic: and from
Celtic population who had settled there ' the Rhine and the Alps to the Atlantic, in-
I'roni (Jaul gradually withdrew to the eluding all th<: British Islands. In addi-
northwent, or were absorbed and assimilated ' tion to these, there \\ere portions of them
with them. The Cvmrv therefore occu- in Spain known there as the ('rlfitvri;'! an-
pied a large portion of Western Europe: ; other in Kaslern Kurope called Crlto-
not onh Central and Northern Gaul, 1 Scythians; and another in Asia Minor
most all Britain, but we have seen them in known MN the Galalians of the New Testa-
Italy, -A*, the Senones. from (ruiil and inent."
Britain, who burnt Rome, fought at Senti- We have already endeavored to demon -
num. and were slaughtered at Smigaglia strate when anil how the Cvmrv came to
on the Adriatic, for the purpose of satisfy- Gaul, and occupied a part of it: and thence
ing Roman \engeance, that they might passed over to Britain and occupied that
boast that not a descendant of those who ' also. This caused great -imilarilv bc-
Imrnt Rome survived.'' ' tween the people of these two countries
in their language, institutions and habits.
A^^^M^ ..articularlv noticed In C;e>ar
Menupli, and the Uhemi.'' and Tacit iif*. '1 hcv noticed that in each
\ieouhr sttV:- "The t'imbri were- not real (iauls. ; . ... .. . . ,
i.ui (>mri, or ihe-im.c siock as that t.. which ht- country, the people \\crculike divided up
|o,1L;,-;i the \\Ylsh. the Itoahritoiw, the curly inluibi. int<) millR.roi,.s tribe* or states, with sim-
Uitits <>t tumberbind (which derives its name from
them, n ml where truces of the Ciitimerinn lan^ua-jc ilaritv ol iianu'". and sometimes identical,
existed
- UN about 100 years
... ^if'!,
, -md tin- ivhnk*' wes
wes- . ,, ,,., . . ..
tern coast of Knifland. Whether I'lslrr ' war* inhabi < ^Olll Countries. I heir institution* \\iTC
ted In t'\niri is uncertain. 'Hie l*icts of Scotland t]ie ^anu. . aiu| thuir laiv'iiaifc diflVrcd ><i
were likewise C'vinri. and 'lie llcfifa1 also belonged
to the same race; they were, to some extent, mixed little UK hardlv to Ix* another dialect. TheHi?
with the (i.iel. but the'C'ymri must lia\e predominat . i
ed unions them. Iitthrir -treat migration, the fourth matters were noticed hy thetn ;c- c-vklence
and fifth cenlurie-. 11. C\ thev went as tar as the that thev wore identically the same people.
I'kraim', and under tin- name of CVIto-S-vlhne. ex
tended eastward as f:ir as or even In-yonil the ri\er Cii'sar also mention^ inculentallx. I he in-
l>nie|HT where they were culled (la)atian-."
"That the Tfiiloncs were (wnnans, as even tlu-ir tiniatf relation existing hctwecn the N'ene-
na:ne indicates, is a.s certain as ilia I I he I'ymhri were tians >( Armorica and the Britons, in their
I'vinri, or, more arm-rally speaking. (iniiK" \k--
In'ilir's l-ertuies. Iv.xxi, \ol. J. p. ^.-7 X. ibrmer commercial relations, and the ;iid
5 Set' ante, ch. ii. $- . Arnold in his lii-h.ry ol
Home ipatfc .^411. Amr. HA!. M'i describing the battle
of Seiitiiimn, say*: -"The Homaiis in their second S-e Arnold'- History of Home. rh. \\i\. j>. '*;; *i"
rlury-e were encomttertxl by a force uholl\ strauye
tn ihe-ii, the \\.ir chariots ot" the enemy, which broke
in upon them at full speed, and uitii the rattling of Aiilhon'- Oa-. Diet., p. 54.4. lilk <iaU<>'(;n<.viH.
their wheels, and thrir unwnnted appcar.uvr < M tho*^.- stale- or tribe- nunu-r.iled l.n t\i>ar in
M Ills Coimneiitaries on tin- (J.iHic war < M. *!i. n. the

Ihe Sen. >nes. or that tht-v were t'\mrir (iauls. as in , tells, or the- NMII|ITII CiiniN. 1 lio>- aii\e nann-d
fairnes- and truth he mii;ht to have done; .nul thai marked with an *'. are llclie -tales; thoti^l, i|u-v
noolhcr iK-ople in KurcMH; except the C'vnir* made are aKo f\mri, \V<- claim all the lleliaiis ol
usx-of the chariot as an engine !" war. The war that da\ lo be undouhtedU (.\mr>. >e. litNlwin -
< hariot wa- unknown lo the Koman- and all other- l-'ntncc. i'. ;ind n. '>; Niebuhr s I.ertun-s, +i; A N ie
t \renl the fvinr\. Set- I.iv v. H. \.ch. J'v **. <i<Hl buhr. ibid. ;-*7^: -""I Ihe Hrst .-hapter ol Micnelct -
win'- France, j; and 10. Al-o Arnold'- IliMnrx nf Mistorx of Trance. It will In- found tlutl maii> r.l
Home. un.. A*c., ch. \vi\. nuines are Ihe .is tho-r in Uritain.
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION. 99
the Britons furnished the Venetians in does in the United States for the natives of
men and shipping against him. But there the British Islands to come in since the
were other matters he did not notice or revolution. They are of the same lineage
know, which go as strongly to prove this as those who were there before them.
identity: the similarity in the construction When the Romans came, they found in
of those great stone monuments of Carnac Britain no national difference of people:
in Arrnorica, and those of Avebury and those who fought under Boadecia near
Stonehenge,10 and elsewhere in the British London, under Caractacus in Wales, or
Islands ; which exist nowhere, except where under Galgacus in Scotland, were nation
it is known the Cymry have been. ally one people, with one language, one re
In ancient times previous to the Roman ligion, with the same institutions Druids
conquest, as already stated, Britain became and chariots.
conventionally designated into three di From what Cicsar and Tacitus say about
visions by the names of Albion, Loegria, the people of Britain, we see no difference
and Cymru." Albion was in the north, of nationality or characteristics, only they
and was since called Caledonia, and since were divided into different states or tribes.
Scotland; Loegria in the east and Cymru The only exception to this is that C:esar
in the west The line between the two says, that those in the south were emigrants
last divisions was not very distinctly mark from Belgium, or Belgre: and those- far in
ed ; and it is probable it often changed, and the interior were less civilized. He savs:
-
that the people of each run into each oth "The inland parts of Britain are inhabited
er, without any distinction between them; by those whom fame reports to he the na
but it is most probable, that this line was tives of the soil. The sea coast is peopled
drawn from the north with the central with the Belgians, drawn thither by the
ridge of the islandthe British Apennines love of war and plunder."'2 All Oesar says
extended south to the Isle of Wight, but about the Britons shows he knew but little
leaving Aveburv and Stonehcnge on the about them, except what he personally ob
west of it. The whole island was divided served where he came in conflict with them
into numerous states or tribes, with great in war. He aids us but little in knowing
difference in the size of territory; and ap- the Britons ethnically. What he says does
parentlv without regard to the line separ not militate against what we claim, that
ating Cymru and Loegria; just as we find they were Cymry and came there from
in the United States settlements of New Asia Minor. Such is the account given of
Englanders and southern people in adjoin themselves, and it agrees with all historical
ing localities, without reference to state line. facts, and excludes every other hypothesis.
This was because ethnically they were the When these came to Britain as stated, it is
same people, and no enmity or war exist more than probable that they were preced
ing between them : they -were all known as ed by some of the elder Celts from Gaul;
Cymry. Cassivellaunus, Caractacus and but they were received "peaceably." The
other federal chiefs, commanded and ruled, first name by which they knew the
from the mouth of the Thames to the island was Alhan, and this name was
Irish Sea, just as the President of the crowded off with the people to the north
United States would, from the Atlantic to part of the island. At a later period, ac
the Rockv Mountains. The one mav have cording to the ancient annals and triads of
been by birth a Cassian and the other a the Cymry, there came to Britain from the
Silurian, but that made no difference in western coast of Gaul another immigra
national questions. The tact that the tion of a people, known as the Lloegyr or
Loegrians came as friends and relatives, Loegrians. These were received by the
made no more difference nationally than it first Cymry as kindred and friends, and
descendants of the original stock, with
10 Chambers' Encyclopedia, Vol. 2, p. 623, title
C.irnac; Logan's Antiquities of Scotland, p. 452.
1 1 Sec ;inte cli. ii. u Cxs^r's Com., B. v, 10.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
whom they could readily converse, who
were permitted to settle in the south and
east parts of Britain, while the former in
habitants peaceably and voluntarily with
drew to the west, or were amalgamated
with them.13
Another kindred tribe came from the
same country and were also received
peaceably, and known as Brython, and who
were permitted to settle in the far north.
It is probable that these two last immigra
tions, the Lloegyr and Brython, came from
that part of Gaul called by the Romans
Armorica and Nustria, and included in
their provinces of Lugdunensis and Bcl-
gica; where the original Cymry settled
who permanently remained in France.
The Loegrians were probably from Ar
morica, and the Brython from Belgium.
These three families of the Celtic people
caused the Ancient Britons to divide Brit
ain into three divisions accordingly, each
giving a name to their respective portions;
as Alban to the north, Lloegyr to the east.
and Cymru to the west; and these names
have been latinized and anglicized respect
ively as Albion, Loegria and Cambria. The
first would be included in Scotland, the
second in the eastern part of England, and
the last to the west of it, divided by a line
running with the central ridge of the
islandthe Apennines of Britaincontin
ued south to the English channel in the
neighborhood of Southampton.
2. The Cm-eminent of the Britons.
The first subject to be noticed in relation
to the customs of a people, is their govern
ment. During the long time, from the
first arrival of the Cymry in Britain to
their subjection to the Roman power, the
government from time to time was, proba
bly, somewhat changed ; but we may as
sume that it remained substantially the
same as it was at the time of Crcsar. The
three divisions of the island above spoken
of, were only a conventional distinction
Cymry and Loegrianswhich did not en-
13 Sec i Thierry's Norman Conquest, 3, <vc.; I
Turner's Anfflo-Saxon, 56; Miss Williams History claimed, as embodied in the triads, hereafter ex
ot Wales, a, <tc.
[Book i.
ter into governmental affairs. Without
reference to that division the country was
divided up into numerous states, tribes, or
principalities; some say forty-five,1 of dif
ferent dimensions; some quite small as
Cantium, others quite large as Brigantium,
which include all England north of the
Humber. These states were organized
very similar to those in Cymric Gaul, and
the same names were found among some
of those in Britain. Their governmental
organization, civil and religious, were so
much alike that C;esar in describing them
made no distinction between them, but
seemed to confound them together. This
is only another evidence of the similarity
of their origin, and that they were one and
the same people.
Each of these states had at the head of
their government as its executive officer or
generalissimo, an officer, as a king, prince,
or chief, whom they called brcnhin. His
office was considered hereditary in his fam
ily, but subject to the control of the gener
al assembly of the state, who frequently
changed it from one member of the family
to another, as great defects or merits might
indicate, or the good of the people and cir
cumstances might require. This power
was sometimes exercised because the prince
was defective in intellect, or was deformed
in his physical development, or in his mor
al qualities, as being tyrannical, or unjust;
or was subject to any such qualities as ren
dered him seriously objectionable as a
prince to a free, martial and spirited peo
ple. The Brenhin was not an arbitrary
monarch, but controlled by -the general as
sembly ot the state, restrained by well es
tablished laws and maxims embodied in
their triads, which contained the most am
ple code of lawcivil, moral and religious,
found as a rule to govern any people.*
The sovereignty was generally considered
hereditary in the male line of the family,
but fiequently females were permitted to
exercise it, subject to the control of the
1 If we enumerate forty-five, nearly one-half of
them would be within the present hounds of Scot
land, i Turner's Anplo-Saxon History, p. 6a.
2 Such laws will be found to include all here
plained.
Chap iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION.
general assembly of the states, as we wit
nessed in the case of Cartismandua, the
queen of the Brigantes, and of Boadicea,
the patriotic widow. But it is probable
that these instances were exceptional cases,
controlled by the will of the state as ex
pressed through the general assembly.
There was no general law which excluded
females from exercising sovereignty, like
the German Salic lav,7.
With the exception of the hereditary
character of the chief or brenhin, their
form of government partook more of a re
public than a limited monarchy. There
was in it a limited aristocracy, but the gov
ernment was principally controlled by the
people at large, in which every freeman
had his suffrage; in which, it is said, every
man that had a beard, and every married
woman were admitted. There was, there
fore, the appearance of a very limited mon
archy, and the uniota of a republic as ex
ercised by their nobility and the great body
of the people who were of sufficient intel
ligence to exercise an influence in political
affairs.3 Although Britain was divided up
into so many states and tribes, vet we can
discover no difference of race or nationali
ty south of the Caledonians, nor but that
the Cymry and the Loegrians were one
and the same people, with the same form
of government; each having the institu
tion of the Druids, the war chariots as their
great weapon in war, and time of danger,
united in a confederacy, with one sovereign
over the whole whom they called their
3 "It is not easy," says Richard of Cirencester, (B.
ch. 3, jjio. Six Old English Chronicles, 446,) "to de
termine the form of government in Hritam previous
to the coining of the Romans. It is, however, cer
tain that before their times there was no vestige of a
monarchy, but rather a deiiK>cracy, unless perhaps it
mav seem to have resembled an aristocracy. The
authority of the Druids in attair* of the greatest mo
ment was considerable. Some chiefs are commemo
rated in their ancient records, vet these appear to
have possessed no permanent power; hut to have
been created, like the Roman dictators, in limes of
imminent danger." To this I. A. Giles, D. C. I~,
the editor, adds: "The government of the Ancient
Britons may be denominated patriarchal. Each com
munity was governed by its elders. * * * * the
elders of the different communities were subordinate
tothe ciders of the tribes.. Hut in limes of public
danger, as is recorded in the Triads, some chief of
distinguished abilities was entrusted wilh the su
preme authority over the tribes or communities, who
united in common defense. Such were Caswallon
(Cassivellaunus), Caradwg(Caractacusi, and Owain,
son of Macsen.
101
Pendragon or U'lnlig. This is confirmed
by the extensive command that Cassivel-
launus had over so many states during
Caesar's invasion*; as well by the same state
of things in Caractacus' lime.
Caractacus was a near relative of Cym-
bcline, whose hereditary dominions were in
the east on the Thames, and it was there
where Caractacus commenced his career
of opposition to the Romans. After op
posing and fighting the Romans for nine
years in the east he retreated across the
island to Caer Car.tdoc in Shropshire, the
scene of his last battle, where he addressed
his army, composed principally of the
Silures of whom he was prince, and said:
"This day must decide the fate of Britain.
The era of liberty or eternal bondage be
gins from this hour! Remember your
brave ancestors who drove the great Ciesar
himself from these shores, and preserved
their freedom, their property, and the per
sons and honor of their wives and chil
dren. "! This is the strongest evidence that
the country was all one in people and gov
ernment. The distinction between the
Loegriuns and the Cymry specially so-
called, was like that which is sometimes
made between the people of New England
and those of the Middle States in the union
of the United States:- -they were all Brit
ons. It was a mere difference of dialect,
without any difference of language, race
or habits. But they all had the same form
and principles of government; with the
Druids, and the doctrines and maxims of
the triads pervading all. F.ach of the
larger states, for the purpose of managing
its own affairs and protecting its local in
terests, were divided into tribes and clans,
and also into districts and hundreds; and
these last they called canln-f. They pre
ferred these local and sectional govern
ments to a central or consolidated govern
ment; and then resorted for ;t protection
atfd welfare of the whole, to the formation
of a federal union, by the election of some
one of their local or state princes as a para
mount sovereign or generalissimo over the
whole; or over so many as would enter in
4 This is so staled by Tacitus and Dion Cassius.
102 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
to the confederacy. Triads. That the government was limited
In every division of the government the and controlled by the people, is evidenced
execution of the laws and police regulation bv the fact that Ciesar more than once in
were attended to by elders appointed by his commentaries says, that the rulers ex
the people; and nothing was officially done cused themselves for what was done,
except in accordance with established laws, was not by their advice or consent, hut
which were only altered or controlled In that the government was of such a nature
the general assemblies. The king or prince that the people had as much power over
was only the generalissimo of the army the government as it had over them. It
and general executive officer of the state. seems, by an examination of the triads,
Their government was divided into three that the limits of the government and the
departments will be more lullv shown rights and liberties of the people were fixed
when we come to speak more fully of the and established, by general maxims and
Triads, the executive, the legislative and principles, as constitutional law, so that
the judicial. The executive was the prince not only were the rulers constrained bv
and his officer.-. The general assembly them, but even the general assembly itself
consisted of the prince (who probably pre was controlled by its restrictions, in favor
sided), the nobles, the Druids, and the wise of freedom, and to secure to every person
and influential men of the nation. These his life, limbs, property, and the pursuit of
established and amended the laws when his lawful business; very much in the same
required, and all were bound by the law, way as is now davs done bv a bill of rights.
and no one was authorized to alter or It is from these source's, the declarations,
amend them except by the general assem maxims and principles contained in these
bly at a regular session. The judiciary was triads, were drawn the wholesome laws
confided to the Druids, as being constituted and principles of the present laws of En
of all the learned professions. Of them gland. This is shown by a reference made
were constituted the judges of the land, by Lord Chief Justice Coke, in the preface
who were bound to hold their courts at to the third \olume of the Reports, in
regular terms, when parties were brought j which he says;"the original laws of this
before them bv due process, and upon land were composed of such elements as
which after a due hearing of the case, the Brutus first selected from the ancient
judges were bound to decide the case ac Greek and Trojan institutes." This refer
cording to law. The court had a iury of ence to Brutus and Troy was made because
select men, consisting of any number from the Britons universally claimed that their
seven to seventy, to be agreed upon and institution originated with Brutus, who
selected by the parties,called assessors, brought them with him from Troy and
(brawdwyr). These determined and found Greece. It was also, undoubtedly in refer
the facts in question, upon which the judge ence to these old laws of the Britons,
pronounced the law which determined the , which peremptorily prohibited slavery, that
case. The finding of the assessors was j Lord Mansfield in 1772 in the negro Sum-
called r ;'//<///// instead of the ipr/Y//r/. These ersct's case was enabled to declare, "that
proceedings were very much like that of as soon as a slave set his foot on British
an English jury, except the number of the soil he was free. ' Kor bv Saxon laws,
assessors might be anv number agreed up- slavery was every where tolerated.
on from seven to seventy; but a jury must I Thosi_. nulxilm and principles of the
be twelve, which rendered the former more j British laws as derived from the triads,
like the Judice of the Civil Law than an | ,,ere undoubtedly the work and philosophy
English jury. | ot- lhe i)rujds. Th.e triads and their ,ys-
It is astonishing to what degree of tern of law and philosophy, were peculiar
minuteness and refinement the laws in | to them. They existed no where else.
regulation of the government, and the ad- Still the Druids were no necessary part of
ministration of justice, were carried in the the government, no more than the learned
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS
professions were a part of the government
in any other coimtrv. They furnished the
lawyers and judges; but they could neither
make a new law nor alter an old one. That
could only he done by the general assem
bly, in which the Druids were admitted,
not as a body but as any other wise and
learned man, and his being a Druid was
evidence of his being entitled to an admit
tance as a member; and where his learning
and philosophy would have its influence;
but then, the question would be determjned
b\ the vote of the assembly. They were
the counsellors and advisers of the govern
ment, but were not a necessary part of it,
or its executive officers. They were a
body of the people, only separated from
them as the learned professions, and as '
such held their separate sessions and col
leges; and furnished 4or the people and the
government the priest, the lawyer, the
physician, and the learned man in every
department of science. As such they
were entrusted with the instructions of the
vouth, and with giving information to the
people, in the same manner as such mat
ters are disposed of in other countries.
The supposition that the Druids were a
necessary part of the government and con
trolled it as is frequently represented, N an
error; for their only control over the gov- j
eminent arose solely from their reputed
learning and wisdom. This will more
fully appear when we come to consider
the Druids and the triads separately.
These laws were embodied in a code at
an early period in the tradition and history
of the Britons. The law triads of the An
cient Britons arc generally ascribed to
Dyvnwal Moehnud, a prince or king ol the
Cornish Britons, who lived about three
hundred years before the Christian era.
They were probably revised from time to
time, as all ancient writings have been in
the course of being transcribed, during that
long period. It is said that there has been
two thorough revisions of the code; the
first occurred under Bran Vendigaid,
(Brennus, the blessed,) the father of Carac-
tacus, and therefore before the Roman
conquest had any influence upon them;
and the next was under Howell the good.
AND CIVILIZATION.
These laws, as we have already suggested,
regulated and limited every department of
the government, and formed checks and
balances upon each, and upon one another,
as protection to freedom against the gov
ernment, and as a guaranty to the rights
and privileges of the private person. It
has been observed that the great point in
this legislation was the protection and ben
efit of the individual man. lie had natu
ral and indefeasible rights of which the law
could not deprive him, which were guar
antied to him by fundamental maxims in
the triads, as constitutional principles.
These were his personal security and lib
erty to be protected by due process of law;
and also secured to him, against all process
and demands, a certain homestead, his cat
tle and grain, the implements of his calling,
his hooks and military equipments: "be
cause," says the triad, "it is unjust, in the
law to unman the man, or uncall the call
ing." When these "triads of the la-'.' tint!
t/ic focinl fttiti" are examined, we are sur
prised to find so many personal, civil and
political rights, so effectually secured as in
violable rights, in exact conformity with
the more advanced enactments, for the pro
tection of human happiness and freedom
in our own day. And ma\ it not with
justice be claimed, that whatever of these
liberal principles are found in the English
and American laws and constitution, they
arc the growth of British soil, from the
seeds of these ancient laws and maxims.
What is specially noticeable in the^-e in
stitutions is the protection they always
render to the freedom of thought and the
right of conscience. There is no evidence
that the Druids ever enforced their pecu
liar thought or doctrine, by force, or pow
er, or persecution. The Druids taught the
people; "that it was the duty of all men to
seek after the truth, and to receive it
against the whole world." From which
they adopted the maxim: "The truth
against the world." It was from this
foundation that Roger Williams adopted
his principles of tolerance, and protection
of religion from persecution, and from re
straint upon conscience.5 lie advocated
5 There \v:ts no persecution by the Druids apuinst
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
the freedom of conscience, and that every
man should he permitted to worship God
according to the dictates of his own con
science; and this has become the fun
damental doctrine of the American gov
ernment.
^3 The Institution of llir Druids.
The Druids were an institution of the
Ancient Briton*, greatly misunderstood,
and misrepresented by the Roman and
other historians. Thev were some times
represented as a part of the government,
controlling and overshadowing the execu
tive and legislative oranches of the civil
and political organization. This was not
the case as has alreadv been stated. They
convention, (gorscdd,) or con
gress assembled, but such assembly was
not a governmental or political affair, but
like a religious or scientific convention of
our own day. Thev were considered to be
of great dignity and held in high estima
tion, on account of their religious and scien
tific knowledge and wisdom. They were
the conservators of all religious and scien
tific knowledge, whose dutv it was to teach
and instruct the people; and in their ses
sions to investigate the truth, and promote
religion, morals, science and the arts; and
whatever promoted the welfare of the peo
ple. Tliev, therefore, possessed great in-
fluencc, in the same manner as the learned
men of our o\\ n day ; and though they had
no power to make or alter a law, hut on
account of their knowledge and attain
ments were the persons who were to de
termine what the law was, and to decide
all conti overted cases, both civil, criminal
and national, and were the judges of the
land; but the law it-elf and the action of
the government was always subject to the
control of the general assembly. The ses
sion of the gorsedd was one thing, but the
session of the general assembly was an en-
tirelv different thing: the first was only
private and conventional, the latter was
legal and governmental. A Druid might
the Christ!. ins; nor bv the e.staiilishetl Christianity
against UK- IYl:ini.inv; no instniinrn:-. of restraint
used ai^ilinst them except argument ;ul reason.
[Book
be a member of the general assembly, but
there he was only as a membera man,
having no extra influence or control, ex
cept what influence his knowledge and
wisdom would give him. In the decision
of judicial cases, the jurisdiction did not
appertain to them as a body, but to such as
were assigned tor that purpose as judges;
and when a decision was made, when nee
essary, in aid of the executive authority,
they would enforce the execution of the
decision by proscription of the recusant
party, and interdict him from the civil and
religious rights, which was looked upon as
a terrible punishment.
The Druids were not a cast, but a class
to which all classes of the people were ad
mitted, who could show sufficient talents,
genius and attainments to entitle them to
the privilege. The sons of the nobility
were the most frequent successful candi
dates, from their greater opportunities for
improvements and acquirements. But no
one was admitted without an examination,
and being found by an impartial decision
to be entitled to the distinction on the ac
count of his talents and acquirements.
No distinction was made on account of
birth; nor was it at all hereditary. The
applicant was also bound to procure the
recommendation of a certain number of
his people and of the Druids in order to en
title him to an examination.
They were divided into classes, accord
ing to their several genius and acquire
ments, or according to their several pro
fessional pursuits. The name of Druid
was a nomen generalisimum, which included
all. But in accordance with their usual
preference for a division by three or a
triad, into three classes: i. The Druids
proper; j. the Bards; and 3. the Ovvdd,
Ovates or Vales. The term Druid, as in
cluding the whole, was derived from
ilcrivfii, plural tier-;:; the Cymric word lor
oak, lor which they had great partiality, as
the favorite tree of their groves; and as the
only tree worthy from which to gather the
mistletoe lor their religious and medical
purposes.
Druidism was undoubtedly brought by
the Cymry into Western Europe, and trom
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION.
them passed into all the Celtic people in
Ireland, Britain, Gaul and Northern Italy.
It was part ot" the institutions and learning
they acquired in Asia Minor, and was car
ried by them into Britain, where it was
said by Ca?sar it was particularly cultivated;
and where the Ciauls resorted to perfect
themseves in doctrines and principles.' It
is there where Abaris on his return from
Greece and Asia Minor, imparted to it (lie
doctrines of Pythagoras, and perfected it in
those doctrines, which in the opinion of
the learned, always connected it with
Pythagoras and Asia Minor. They car
ried it with them as they did the chariot,
the harp and other matters which so evi
dently connected them with the east, and
which in this manner the mystery of it is
plainly solved, and can be in no other
manner. From this class were deputed
those who were to officiate as judges, and
discharge the higher duties of the priest
hood. And from them were to be elected
those who were to officiate over the Order j
as their chief, as the Arch-Druid;, preside j
over their general congress as their pre
siding officer. The great object of ambi
tion with the two inferior classes was to
become entitled to be admitted to the
highest honors of the order.
The next or second class was the Bards,
who were specially the literarv class;the
poet, historian, orator and instructor of the
people in poetry and patriotic songs;to
eulogize the virtuous and honorable, and
to inspire all with patriotism and love free
dom. It was also their dutv to keep the
annals and history of their people and
country,to recite them to the people and
instruct them as to whatever might be of
interest in such production. The third
class, some times called Ovatcs, were the
prophets, and had the immediate care of
the sacrifices, They were professors and
instructors of the vouths, and such
greatly sought for and respected. They
professed to be acquainted with the arts
and sciences, and were the instructors in
them. They were the ordinary priest,
lawyer and physician, and assumed to be
i Cicsar's Com., \V:ir in Gaul, B. vi,
acquainted with botany and the medical
qualities of plants and herbs. All this they
practiced while they were candidates to the
higher ranks of the order. They were not
received into the class without a severe ex
amination, and proving himself worthy by
the head of his clan and twelve Druids;
and that he was master of the special art or
science he professed to teach or exercise.
The same guarded restrictions were re
quired in their admission and promotion
from one rank or class to another.
The Druids, as a body, claimed extensive
acquaintance with philosophy and the na
ture of things: with morals and law; and
(he triads were the production of their in
tellect, industry and care. They were
highly respected and reverenced by the
people, who universally resorted to them
for information on all subjects. It was de-
voutlv believed that they were profoundly
acquainted with the character of deity, and
they alone were worthy to make supplica-
tion and sacrifice to their god. In these
respects the Druids, as was the case with
all priesthoods, had their doctrines which
they held among themselves, and that
which they publicly preached to the peo
ple; that is, they had their esoteric and
exoteric doctrines. One of those Druids
was always assigned to certain districts
called CTIWHV/, who resided with the peo
ple therein, for the purpose of being con
venient to render instructions and the dis
charge of his holy duties. It is said that
the Druids were occasionally accustomed
to resort to divination by the sacrifice of
animals, and some times upon important
occasions would sacrifice human victims,
and determine the course of events by the
throes of the victim. How far in these re
spects they violated principles of humanity
we can hardly judge from the prejudiced
accounts that have come to us from the
enemies of these people. There is nothing
of it in the ancient history of tl.c Britons
as given by themselves. But if true, the
Romans of that day were guilty of the
same thing themselves. The Romans us
ually never interfered with the sacrifices
and religious performances of a people, but
they did with the Britons, upon the pre
io6 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
tense of their opposition to those cruel sac venerated localities, to which the people re
rifices ; but in reality it \vason account of sorted for religious exercises and instruc
the patriotic influences that the Druids had tion.
over the people, and especially the influ On those great festive occasions the best
ences that the bards had bv means of their appearances were put on, and everything
patriotic poetry and song to arouse them transacted with great order and propriety.
against their oppressors. But there are no The Druids wore their hair short, and their
established facts which will retain the beard long. The vestment* of the differ
charge of cruelty against the Britons in ent classes were different in order to dis
their sacrifice or other affairs, when com tinguish each. That of the Druids were
pared with the customs of any other peo white, the Bard were blue, and that of the
ple. It the facts were true, that the Brit Ovates green. No service was permitted
ons on extraordinary occasions did sacri to be observed or performed except between
fice animals and human beings as convicts sunrise and sunset. Every official act was
in burning wicker work, still it is not in to be discharged in the "eye of the light
the Roman historian fairly to charge and the face of the sun." The officiating
cruelty or barbarity upon the Briton when Druids were dressed in great splendor, in
compared with themselves. Roman his their long robes and regalia. But the great
tory furnishes us instances of human sac object of observation was the Arch- Druid
rifices and cruelty far greater against the in his canonicals, which were extremely
Romans even at a later period, than those gorgeous and attractive, who presided up
found against the Britons. Humanity and on such occasions. On his head he wore
mercv is everywhere inculcated by the a golden tiara, in his girdle the gem of
triads, but very seldom in Roman history augury,on his breast the ior uioriii, or the
either in precept or example. All we breast-plate of judgment; and on the fore
know of human sacrifice on the part of the finger of the right hand, the signet ring of
Britons sinks into insignificancy compared his order. Before him were carried the
with the human sacrifice and cruelty of the sacred mistletoe, and the golden crosier
Roman gladiatorial shows and sacrifices. with which it was gathered. These con
One instance in the time of Augustus ventions were held for festiyities and cere-
throws the comparison into the shade. On monies; or for solemn and high courts in
the capture of the city of Perusia, in the judicial service, in their sacred proves or
valley ol the Tiber and not far from Rome, in their rollnd temples, :ls Avebury and
upon the termination of a revolt, "yjo of i Stonehcnge.
the most distinguished citizens of the town On these occasions great ceremony was
were afterwards solemnly sacrificed at the observed. The gathering of the mistletoe
altar of Divus Julius.''2 Ca'sar's inhuman from the sacred oak, was done with solem-
cruelty, while in Gaul, obliterates all such nity and care. The priestly Druid in his
human cruelty which is either found or white robe, with his golden crosier, plucked
imagined in the history of Ancient Britain. the mistletoe without soiling it with human
And the same may be said of the human hands, which fell into a white sheet or gar
sacrifice on St. Bartholomew's day in ment held for the purpose, to be used in
France; or that of the bloody Mary in En their solemn ceremony, and for medicine.
gland. But the sacrifices of the Druids are Then for the sacrifice two white bulls were
represented as less cruel and more refined. selected and offered up in their religious
At certain fixed seasons, as at the vernal adoration. Milk white horses were yoked
and autumnal equinoxes, at the winter and in a holy chariot, attended by the priest
summer solstices, and the like stated peri and chief, who carefully noticed their ac
ods, the Druids held their solemn conven tion and movements as subjects from
tions in various and in well known and which to draw their augury; in the belief
that those animals were privy to the will
l 3 N'icbhur's Lcc-t., 107. of their gods, and communicated it through
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION. 107
the means of these observations. Such And Lucan says : "It is certain the Druidic
auguries were then common among all nations have no fear of death. Their re
heathen nations, but attended with much ligion rather impels them to seek it. Their
less refined ceremonv. souls are its masters, and they think It con
The religion of the Druids was the best temptible tojspare a life the return of which
and most refined of the heathen of that is so certain." And Cicero informs us that
day. They believed in one supreme and he knew Divitiacus the vEduan, of whom
ever-enduring God; and in the immortality C:esar speaks so often, and that he was
of the soul. They also in some manner wont both to proless to be familiar with
had some connection in their worship with that study of nature which the Greeks
the Grecian gods, but this may be a mis called physiology, and to make predictions
conception of the Greek and Roman respecting future events, partly by augury,
writers; or it may be true, and they were partly by conjecture.
objects of adoration between themselves It has been already remarked that the
and their true God. Abaris was said to be Druids were merely the learned professions
a priest of a temple of Apollo, and that his of that day united in one body as a private
arrow (wand or stall",) was the gift of Apol corporation, ready to render to the govern
lo; and therefore sacred and supernatural, ment and people any aid that their science,
It was the dutv of the Druids not only learning and experience could afford them,
to teach the people in matters of religion for which they received certain remunera
and morals, but also in all secular in forma tion, immunities and privileges, as compen
tion ;whatever they knew in the sciences ; sation. If the spirit of Caractacus were
and they were specially informed in as able at this day to visit Britain, he would
tronomy, law and medicine. But it was rind the island the same as when he left it,
the manner in which they stirred up the much improved, but not enlarged or al
people to their patriotic duties,their love tered so as not to be identified. He would
of independence and freedomthat marked find London, and Bristol, and Caerleon and
them out as objects of extirpation and mis York on the same spots on which were
representation. The spirit they infused in cities of his day. Some of these he would
to the people, bv these means, formed as : find greatly overgrown, while others were
serious an obstacle to the coi.quering rules ; wofully diminished and deteriorated. Over
of the Roman, as the military and science Caerleon,his beloved Caerleon on the
of their chiefs; and therefore the Romans Usk, his Alma Mater, where the Druids
did ail in their power to extirpate them. But had taught him to love his God, his coun
their glory remains to us, in what is left to try, and his people; he would shed a tear
us in their triads, which proves their high over the sad change wrought in the place,
sense of morality, Taw and justice, and of by the destruction of the high places of
these it is the most splendid monument of learning, by Roman, Saxon, Danes and
an v thing that is left to us, of a date older Norman plunderers, who labored to destroy
than the Christian era. They were ad the pietv, learning and progress of his
mired even at that time by fair and impar people. He saw cities larger, population
tial Greeks and Romans ot that day. more dense, and fields highly cultivated;
Diodorus, Maximus, Tyrius and Cicero, but the people upon the whole no better,
quote a Druidic Triad as well known to the with greater disparity in the classes, and
Greeks and Romans: "Worship the Gods, greater suffering with the lower multitude.
do no man wrong, be valiant for vour But he would conceive that British soil
country." Valerius Maximus, as illustra and British blood was still there, in all its
tive of their faith in a future state of ex pristine vigor,its frrsn-ernace, iinluslry
istence, said: "The Druids have so firm a and goodfuitk was still there. He would
conviction of the immortality of the soul, conceive that ail the learned professions
that they advance sums of money, . . . were the Druids, and that the arch-bishops
to be repaid when they meet after death." were the Arch-Druids; and the judges in
io8 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
the courts were Druids assigned to hold and tradition, that the laws and triads came
them as in his own day. In some places down to them in writing from the time of
he would still find his native language, but Moelmud, 300 B. C.; though afterwards
everywhere he would find thousands of revised. The declaration of Ca'sar, at that
words borrowed from his mother tongue; early date is important to prove, they then
though the people were somewhat mixed had writings, and that they committed to
with foreign blood, yet the people all hailed the public such matters as they thought
him as their great ancestor, and gloried proper.
over the superb position he occupied before
4. The Triads.
Roman power, and before the Roman peo
ple. Through Britain he would find and The very fact that the original idea of
recognize many tilings corresponding with the triads is founded upon numbers is evi
the practice and maxims of his day; and dence of their antiquity and originality.
the morals, industry and sense of justice of In ancient philosophy the notice of the
the people agreeing with that of the triads: dual was the first;the perception that the
all the growth of the British soil. He character and qualities of everything were
would take Tennyson to be a chief Bard first observed by its opposites and contrasts ;
singing the glorious deeds and virtues of and hence the classification of things by
his renowned Arthur. two,the dual. Hence the early distinc
But we should notice that the Druids tion of the good and the bad ; the good and
did not commit all their teaching to writing, evil spirits ; the right and the wrong ; the
but required their scholars to learn and re upper and lower distinction which lie at
peat orally a large number of verses. This the bottom of all things; and upon this
is often referred to, as evidence that they was founded the ancient philosophy of the
did not commit to writing their doctrines Persians,the dualism ; which upon this
at all. But this is a misrepresentation of idea,the natural and inevitable opposition
the subject. What Ca:sar has said upon of some two principles of different nature
the subject is this: "They are taught to re and origin; and incapable of being derived
peat a great number of verses by heart, from one and the same source; as the real
and often spend twenty years upon this in and ideal ; matter and intelligence or spirit;
stitution; for it is deemed unlawful to com and which was by them applied to their
mit their statutes to writing; though in system of theology and morals; in which
other matters, whether public or private, they, in their philosophy, assumed that
they make use of Greek characters. They there were two original beings, of GOOD and
seem to me to follow this method for two and EVIL; Ormazd and Ahriman; light
reasons: to hide their mysteries from the and darkness; God and devil; upon this
knowledge of the vulgar; and to exercise | was founded their system of religion and
the memory of their scholars, which would morals.
be apt to lie neglected had they letters to But by the authors of the triads, it was
trust to, as we find is often the case."3 This found that the dualistic system did not so
is evidence that they did make use of well answer the purpose of philosophy and
writing for all business, both public and analysis as the triad. It was readily per-
private. But to their disciples they taught ' ceived that the two was useful in the corn-
orally, for the reason that some part of parison and opposition of things, but these
their doctrines thev did not wish to com were always more or less interfered with
mit to the vulgar, and thev wished in that bv a third number or principle. There was
manner to exercise the memories of their not only the good and the bad, but also the
scholars; and required them to recite long indifferent. There was not only the right
lessons as a part of their system. The and the left, but the standpoint between
Britons always claimed in their history them; hence it became apparent that the
observing Hirer objects and qualities were
3 Ca-s:ir"s Coin., B. vi, 13: sec, also, Ten Great Kc-
JigiMis, hyj. F. C'lurke, p. pS. a better system of arrangement anS phi
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION. 1O9

losophy than two or the dual. was nowhere carried to that extent; and
It is surprising to find in how many in used for all purposes as it was among the
stances the number three enters into sys ancient Britons; and this unquestionably
tems and thoughts of all people. It not was the work and industry of the Druids.
only strikes the mind in its commence This shows that they possessed profound
ment of its thinking, but also the mind of knowledge of human nature; great re
the most refined and iearn.ed. It therefore search into the nature of things ; as astron
enters largely into every system of theolo- omy, botanv, and medicine, as well as in
gv, law and medicine, or philosophy, of their system of theology, morality, and
every nation. There i> the trinity in re law. Their triads related to all these sub
ligion; in government we have the three jects, and their astuteness and sagacity in
divisions, of legislathe, executive, and ju developing the nature and property of
dicial. The law consists of three parts, each, and the grouping, divisions, and re
public la~:\ which regulates all public inter flection upon each subject as they were
course; private la-i; which establishes brought forth in the several triads ; which,
private right-; as to person, property, and for their day, put them in mental acquire
his relation to others; and the law of fin'/ ments and reflection ahead of any other
procedure, which preserves rights, and es nation.
tablishes justice. All matter consists of The triads were divided and classified ac
animal, vegetable, and mineral. All nature cording to their several subjects. They
consists of matter, life, and intellect. All mav be enumerated as triads of
our knowledge is derived either from the I. The History of Britain and the Cym-
information of others, or from our own ex ry or Ancient Britons.
perience, or from our own reflection. Thus II. The Laws of the Ancient Britons.
all subjects of thought or science may be III. The Social Compact.
grouped, or divided, or reflected upon, in IV. The Wisdom of the Bards of the
their several relations, by threes; depend Isle of Britain.
ing upon their material, quality or use. V. The Sciences and Professions.
This became very soon observed by man VI. The Learning and Mode of Teach
in the course of his civilization and pro ing of the Druids.
gress.1 Hence the triad; which in the VII. The Language and Literature of
manipulation of science may not answer the Druids.
well in all cases; but in the early stages of And the subjects of these triads might
civilization would greatly aid in the pro be further enumerated and classified. But
gress of science and philosophy. But it under each of the^e seven heads there are
numerous triads to develop and illustrate
i The triad? are noticeable in all literature mnre or the subject of each. These are so numer
less. Thus: Aristotle says, the three elements ot ous and full, that nothing less than an ex
jXJctry are the Jtil'fc, :he iniiiun'r, and the tiitiiont
(Eclectic Mag., May, i.ViCi, p. oij.l Plato divided amination of the original or the published
his subjects ot" philosophy Kent-rally into triads,
thus: "The GooJ, which is beauty, truth, justice, is translation can give an adequate idea of
GodGod in his ahstrait state.1' (See Draper's In
tellectual Development of huropc, ii-j. iVc.i "Mat their merits, value, and fullness. Upon all
ter consisls of Earth, Air, Water." "Three primary these subjects almost every conceivable
principlesGod. Matter, ideas." .... "Our idea is touched, enlarged and illustrated
menial .struggles arise from a tripple constitution ot
Appetite, Spirit, and Reason; lh.it Kcason alone is with reflection and philosophy, that is at
immortal, and the others die.'' (Ibidem.) The Gnos
tic Triads Avert: "They classed all n-iture into once admirable and astonishing. As the
thrs* kinds of beings. M/, hylic, or material; psy production of one people, and their un
chic, animal: and pneumatic, or spiritual." .
"They also distiniruish three sorts of men,material, aided progress, it is unequalled. The
aniirta/, and ~pintitttl." (JJuck's Theo. Diet., 199.1
Triads in Gcologv, (Huili Miller's Pop. Geology, Greeks were aided by the Egyptians, Phoe
170,) "The three great divisions of GeologyTer
tiary, Secondary, and P.ila.-0/oic.'' There are also nicians, Assyrians and Persians in their
three races of menthe White, Red, and Black; or learning and philosophy, and the Romans
the Aryan, Turanian, and Shumetic; or C':uic:is*ian,
Mongolian, and African. And KO may almost am gathered from all these, as aids in the
subject be divided or classified into three, or a triad. progress they made; but the triads and
Sec Ten Great Religions, by J. K. Clarke, p. 1.14.
no THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
their learning and wisdom \vcre the sole | of Britain. The first was the nation of the
production of the Druids. Cymry, that came with Mu the Mighty in
The Welsh antiquaries unanimously to the Isle of Britain, because he would
claimed that the system of the Druidical not possess lands and dominion by fighting
knowledge formed the basis of the triads. and pursuit, hut through justice and peace.
"If tills be the case," says Dr. Giles,2 "it The second was the tribe of the Lloegrwys
must be confessed that the bards possessed [Loegrians], that came from the land of
a profound knowledge of human nature, j Gwasgwyn [the banks of the Loire], being
uncommon critical sagacity, and a perfect I descended from the primitive nation of Ihe
acquaintance with the harmony of Ian- Cymry. The third were the Brython, who
guage, and the properties of metre. For ' came from the land of Armorica. haying
example the subjects of the poetical triads , their descent from the same stock with the
are: The Cymric language. Fancy and I Cymry. These were called the thiee
invention. The design of poetry. Nature tritxs of peace on account of their coming,
and just thinking. Rules of just arrange- with mutual consent, in peace and tran-
ments. Variety of matter and invention, j quility ; and these three tribes were de-
Rules of composition, comprising the laws | scended from the original nation of the
of verse, rhyme, s tan/as eonsonancy, or Cy'mrv, and were of the same language
alliteration, and accent." These were some and speech.
of the various heads and classification un XXI. The three Sovereigns by vote of
der which the triads were given. the Isleof Britain. First, Caswallawn, the
Under each head and class above given son of Lludd, son of Beli, son of Mynogan.
we shall quote a few triads to show their Second, Caradawg, the son of Bran, son of
character, appropriateness, and value in Llyr Llediaith. Third, Owain, the son of
teaching and illustrating each subject to Macsen \Vledig; that is, sovereignty was
which they refer, I. History. Triads of i assigned to them bv the voice of the coun
the Nle of Britain. try and people when at the time they were
VI. The three national pillars of the Isle not elder.:1
of Britain. First, IIu Gadarn [llu the XXVII. The three brave sovereigns of
Mighty], who originally conducted the na- | the Isle of Britain: Cvnvelvn* Wledig;
lion of the Cymry into the Isle of Britain. Caradawg, the son of Bran, and Arthur.
They came from the summer country, That is, they vanquished their enemies, so
which is called Deffrobani (that is, the that, except through treachery and plot
place where Constantinople now stands), ting, they could not be overcome.
and it was over the Ha/y Sea [the German j These instances must suffice as example-
Ocean] that they came to the Isle of i ot their "i'torical triads, selected from nu-
Britainand to Llydaw [Armorica], where ""-'rous others, establishing facts, circum-
they continued. Second, Prvdain, son of stances characters in their history.
Aedd the Great, who first established gov The next cl:.s- is still more important and
ernment and royalty over the Isle of interesting, as showing whence so many
Britain. And before that time there was principles of law in Britain so very differ
no justice but what was done through fa ent from anv other country, and so very
vor; nor any law, save that of might. I valuable.
Third, Dvvnwal Moelmud, who reduced to I IL Law Tr':ld*-
B system" the laws, customs, maxims, and 7- The three pillars of a social state:
privileges appertaining to a country and Sovereignty, the law of the country, and
nation. And for these reasons were they j distribution of justice.
called the three pillars of the nation of the I 36- Three things indispensable to a state
Cymry. .1 'Hit- tlirur munus in this triad, Anglicized, :irc,
C.ussivL'lkuinus. Ciiructacus and Owam, tht son of
VII. The three social tribes of the Island iju- ICmptTor Miixcntius.
4 This n:unc is Cymhelinc ol' Sh:ik.js|H;are and
2 Six GUI Englis-h Chronicles, p 430, in n. Cunobelinus of the Roin:in.;.
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION. in
of society: a chief, a* king; law, enacted, III. The Social Compact.
bv the general voice of the country (rliuitli ; * There are three ornaments of the so
g-^-litd}; and administration of justice.5 cial state: The learned scholar, the ingeni
* The three privileges and protection of ous artist, and the just judge.
the social state : Security of life and person ; 38. Three things indispensable to the so
securitv and possession of dwelling, and se cial state: knowledge arising from com
curity ot natural rights. mon judgment ofthecircumstances;justice
* Three things that confirm the social \ arising from conscientiousness; and broth-
s-tate: Effectual securitv of property; iusi er'v iove between country and united
punishment where it is due, and mercy ! country, between a man and his country
tempering justice where the occasion re- j men, and between man and man. Where
quires it in equity, these are wanting, it is difficult to guard
5. Three duties incumbent on the three againsi great disunion and injustice.
pillars of the state: Justice to all; privilege 39 The three primary objects of the so
and protection to all, and competent regu cial state: common defence; common
lations for the benefit ol the community privileges of sciences and arts; and the
as toils instruction, information, and record. cultivation of the manners and usages of
18. The three guardians of the law: A peace
learned judge; a faithful witness; and a con IV. The Wisdom of Bards.
scientious decision. t. There are three branches of wisdom :
53. Every man has a peculiar property in wisdom towards God; wisdom with re
three respects, which cannot lie transferred, spect to every fellow man; and wisdom
or be given in payment of a fine: his wife; with respect to one's self.
his children ; and his arifyi'ren. By argy- 2. The three recognitions which produce
vren are meant clothes, arms, and the im wisdom: the knowledge of God; the
plements of his law ful calling; fV>r without knowledge of the heart of man; and the
them a man is deprived of his station as a knowledge of one's own heart.
man, and it would be unjust in the law to 3. The three indispensables of wisdom:
unman the man, or uncall the calling. genius, science and discrimination.
.MO. Three that are silent in session (or 4. The three stabilities of w isdom : what
general assembly), i. The Lord of the is right, beautiful and possible.
soil, or the king: lor he is not to open the 5. Three things will be obtained by wis
business, but to listen to \\hat is said, and, dom : the good of the world; mental com
when he has heard all that is to be heard, fort; and the love of God.
he may speak whal he may deem necessa 6. In three things wisdom is apparent:
ry as to the sense of the law and the de genius; science; and demeanor.
cision that the la\\ requires. -. The judge, 7. The three exertions of wisdom : to un
who i- not to speak till lie declares his derstand nature by genius; to perceive
judgment as to that which has been proved truth by studying it; and to cultivate love
bv evidence and declared by the assessors and peace.
(or jurv). 3. One who is surety for anoth S Three things in a man that make him
er, and who is not bound to reply to any wise and good: qualities; science; and
but the judge or the assessors/' power.
9. Three things with which wisdom can
5 These two triads establish clearly the fimdamcn-
t:ii Drini-ipics in nil well rc^ulau-d ^overnnu-nts in not exist : inordinate desire; debauchery;
modern times; and \vhich it is I'clieved was not no and pride.
rtced in ilnctt'nt times, anywhere, except casually in
the writings of Aristotle : i.e. tlie three important V. The sciences and professions.
branches of a government; the executive, legisla
tive, and judicial branches. These in ancicrir limc.- 28. Three things becoming civil society:
\vere intircly disregarded, contonndul, and fre the sciences of wisdom; the useful arts;
quently united.
6. The word assessors refers to important and ju
dicious laymen summoned lo attend the court and selected by the parties to try the facts, from seven to
trial as a jury or more a.> the jittlirts ti,\.\rx.*t>rs of the seventy. (77 n. ) Much in the saint- way as is now
Koinan law. Of these assessors a number might be I done with an English jury.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
and the accomplishment of refinement. der, and the best language.
2<j. The three supports of the arts and VII. The language and literature of the
sciences: instruction given by teachers Druids.
privileged and perfectly skilled; privileges The three indispensable qualities of
conferred for the sake of the sciences or language : purity, copiousness, and aptness.
arts to those who are skilled in them; and Three qualities which come in aid of
rewards secured by law to men of science the purity of a language: it should be in
and arts for what is skilfully done bv them. telligible, select, and acceptable.
47. The three primary pursuits of a firm j The three supports of language: or-
government: privileged trades, scientific der, strength, and variety.
knowledge, and agriculture; for, from these The three foundations of thought:
three arise all other pursuits useful to the perspicuity, amplitude, and justness.
state; and, as the secondary pursuits de The three qualities of poetry : endow
pend on the primary, it is a necessity of ment of genius, judgment from experience,
state to establish the primary ones in a and happiness of mind.
privileged and regular manner. The foundations of judgment: bold
VI. The learning and mode of teaching design, frequent practice, and frequent mis
of the Druids. takes.
61. The three special duties of the Bards The three canons of persplcully : the
in teaching: i. to maintain, preserve, and word that is necessary, the quantity that is
give sound instructions in religion, science, necessary, and the manner that is neces
and morality; 2. to preserve the memory, sary.
of the laudable acts of individuals or clans, The three canons of amplitude: ap
of the events of the times, and the extra propriate thought, variety of thought, and
ordinary phenomena of nature; of wars, requisite thought."
and regulations of country or clan ; their These are only a few of the great num
retaliations on their enemies and victories ber and variety of the triads; but they are
over them ; 3. to preserve faithfully the sufficient to show their form, structure and
memorv of pedigrees, marriages, liberal merits. It is wonderful to see the extent to
descent, privileges, and duties of the which they have carried their thoughts and
Cymry. refinement upon all subjects of government,
63. Three things that are not to be done laws, justice, morals and language:illus
but by the joint will of country and dis trating the duties and obligation in the va
trict, and the paramount sovereign clan : rious positions of human lite, either public
i. Altering the law. 2. Deposing the or private; the rights and duties of the
king. 3. Teaching new doctrines, or intro public officer, as well as rights and obliga
ducing new regulations in the sessions of tions of the private man, as to his person,
the Bards. For these things ought not to property and freedom ; while all his moral
be done (by the Bards), until country and j duties, and domestic relations are fully re-
clan are informed of their nature,, their j garded and enforced.
tendency, and regular order, according to j It is not claimed that these triads now
the judgment of the learned who are an- i ake their appearance as they came from
thorized by law, and instructors of approved | the hands of the ancient Druids, but that
wisdom acknowledged by the general ses they are substantially their work and the
sion of country and district. The king can merits due to them. The Cymry admit
be deposed only by the unanimous voice that they have been on some occasions re
of the country. vised, but that they are essentially and sub
* The three foundations of learning are: stantially the same as they were before the
seeing much, suffering much, and studying Roman conquest. This is supported not
much. only by the positive declaration of the
* The three things appertaining to prop 7 Six Old English Chronicles, p. 430; Kichanl ol"
er instruction : the best object : the best or- CircncrsUT, K. I, ch. iv, $9, in n.
Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION.
Cymric writers, but also as clearly proved man history;1 that they were part of the
by the classic writers before the middle oforiginal Celtic family, who were once for
the first century of the Christian era,and,
some length of time in Asia Minor, where
therefore, before Roman influences had any they became acquainted with the then civ
effect in producing them,that the Druids ilization of the world; that they came
and their peculiar learning existed; that thence west, through Europe, by the way
the Bards with their poetry and song ani of the mouth of the Elbe, to Western
mated and aroused their people to exertion France and to Britain,bringing with
and independence; and that although they them manv of the arts and sciences, and
taught their scholars orally, for the sake of
the civilization of Asia Minor. We have,
cultivating their memory, yet all matters in tracing their footsteps in this long
were committed to writing, both public journey, given some of the facts and
and private, with Greek characters. All reasons upon which our assumption is
this is proved by Csesar, Tacitus, Strabo, founded ; but those facts and circumstances
Diodorus, and especially Lucan, who said: still continue during the continuance of
"Ye Druids, from you we learn, that the the whole period now under consideration.
bourne of man's ghost is not the senseless These facts support and prove our assump
grave, not the pale realms of the monarch tion, and contradict and exclude every oth
below; in another world his spirit surviveser hypothesis at*all consistent with history.
still; death, if your lore be true, is but theThese Cvmrv first settled in Armorica in
passage to enduring life."8 No one can France ; and soon passed on to Britain as
read with impartiality what these ancient their final home; taking with them and
writers have written, without being satis cultivating the arts and sciences that they
fied tnat the claim of the Cymry, that the had acquired while in Asia Minor. These
triads are substantially the work and labors
are their striking characteristics, which
of the ancient Druids. Like all old books distinguished them from all the rest of
and ancient manuscripts, in their being Europe. From the time and place where
copied and rewritten in their transcripts, they first settled in Armorica, through
some changes or additions may have been France, Britain and the British Islands, we
made, as is known to be .the case in the find throughout the production and labors
Psalms of David. To claim them to be of one and the same people, which history
the forgeries of the Cymric literature of the
and truth will not permit to be that of anv
sixth or twelfth centuries is as unrensona-other people. The great monumeits of
able as it is unjust. Forgery of this kind Carnac, those of Avebury and Stonehenge,
is only a modern production, when the as well as those of Classerness on the
various avenues to literary productions be Island of Lewis, and that of Stennis in
came more occupied and closed up. When Orkney; nor must similar antiquities in
the door was wide open, men were too fond Scotland and in the Islands of Anglesea
of claiming for themselves whatever was and Man be overlooked. All these most
of any value, to permit them to assign the wonderful monuments of the labors of
production to others, or to forego the hon man are evidently the production of one
ors of it for themselves. thought and purpose and the labors of one
and the same people. Standing stones,
5. Civilization /mil Character of the An either single or in a cluster of a few, as
cient Britons. signed by tradition as monuments of some
burial or event, are frequently found in
We have claimed that the Ancient Brit
ons were a part of the Cimbri of the Ro- not only assigns superior knowledge in matters of
theology to the Druids, but great degree of informa
S This translation of Lucan is taken from Matthew tion on all subjects.
Arnold, in his very able review of the question here i Arnold's Hist. Rome, ch. xxiv, p. 200: Godwin's
considered, found in the English Cornlull Magazine, France, 60, n. 5; Richard of Cirencester, Six Old
1866, and in the N. Y. Eclectic Magazine of that English Chronicles, 423, B. i, ch. 3, 4, n. 5; 3 Xie-
vear. See, also, Rowe's Translation of Lucan, B. I ; buhr's Led., xxiv, p. 42; Palgravc's Anglo-Saxons^
Richard of Cirencester, B. i, ch. iv, 13-15. Lucan p. I.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book I.
other places, especially in France and was the next, and probably nearly cotem-
Britain ; but those great monuments at the porary work. But .Stonehenge was a later
places above mentioned, have an uniformi- work, and a production when the nation
tv of character and design, and are found had made great progress in the arts.
no where except in those places where the In establishing a probable time when
Cvmrv and their Druids are known to these events took place, we are not entirely
have been most concentrated and identified left to conjecture, but greatly helped by
as a people: and tradition have uniformly historical data and facts. Bv the aid of
attributed them as monuments of the j Herodotus, and the monuments of Nine-
Druid*, that there can be no doubt of the vc]^ we art, afo]c to assign the time when
truth of the conjecture. These monuments, the Cymry left Asia Minor at about 650 B.
consisting of circles and avenues, have C. Michelct puts the time when the Cym
uniformly been assigned to have been the ry came into France at about 600 B. C.,3
temples ol the Druids, and by them used which was ample time, at least one whole
for the purpose of religion and the admin generation had passed away. Their works
istration of justice.2 This is the only theory at Carnac in Armorica were soon com
of their origin consistent with historical menced and progressed. The main part of
facts, and the Cymry the only people who, the nation soon passed over to Britain, and
with justice and consistency, can claim Avebury was commenced.
them. We have already referred to Abaris and
These monuments consist of immense the account the Greeks have given of him.
blocks of stone set perpendicularly in the Taking that account, and the description
ground in circles and avenues, extending given of him and his people, there is but
from 6 or S tivt to 18 or 20 feet above the little room to doubt he was a Druid from
ground;sometimes set up in the open Britain, for the facts stated can apply to no
plain, but usually surrounded by a deep other people.4 All the facts stated in al
moat, and wall of earth. Of these the lusion to him go strongly to support this
most extraordinary are those of Carnac, claim; such as the people and island he
Avebui v and .Stonehenge That of Car was from ; his peculiar dress, and the mys
nac is the most extensive, consisting of tic arrow, or wand, with which he traveled,
ten large avenues some miles in length, and which he had received from the temple
and forming a circle at one end. It is the at home as the gilt of Apollo; which tem
largest, but the rudest. The next in ex ple was round, and with wings. His object
traordinary dimensions is that of A vcburv. in traveling east was to obtain information.
which consists of a very large circle of up- j in theology and philosophy. In so doing
right stones within a deep moat; then he had an interview with Pythagoras, and
within these again there are to other cir learned his tenets and views on those sub
cles of upright stones, which was supposed jects. This must have happened about
to form a temple ot' large dimensions with 500 B. C., as Pythagoras some years after
wings. But the most extraordinary of that date died. This would put the time
these temples is Stonehenge. It evinces about 150 years after the Cymry left Asia
greater skill, art and science in its con Minor, and icoyca'S after their arrival in
struction; and advancement in architec France and Britain ; but probably about
ture. The stones were hewn and dressed 140 years before Himilco's visit to Britain.
with tools of iron; and the top of the up It was long after that, it is probable, that
right stone was neatly fitted as a transom, Stonehenge was built, corresponding with
forming an united circle of the whole. the progress that all people make in archi
Carnac was the firstthe oldesteffort of tecture in the course of their improvement,
the Cymry and their Druids in these works, | just as we now find the costly and splen-
iind we may well conceive that Avebury |
._ ] 3 See his History of France, B. i, eh. l.
2 See I-o^m's Anti-juities ot" Scotl.md, p. 453. 4 See :mtc, and the authorities there cited.
 Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION.
did churches in New York are superseding strong, and serve well to stand as a land
those of a former and ruder age. There mark in this controversy." A fair con
is no reason for ascribing Stonehenge to a struction of the testimony of C.Tsar is to
different people than the Cymry, as to the the same effect. What Qi-sar states upon
Belgians, for they, too, were Cymry, hut the subject as to what he saw and encoun
undoubtedly a ruder people. tered is entitled to full credit. But he has
Now we humbly conceive that the his stated many things about the character of
torical facts and circumstances stated the people, in relation to matters in which
proves beyond a reasonable doubt that the he had not personal opportunity to verify
Cymry are the same people who took Sar- them, or which he merely < in general
dis in Asia Minor and were afterwards ex terms, that cannot be tru being ex-
pelled from thence, in the manner stated, pressly contradicted bv. or inconsistent
and as narrated by Herodotus and others. with what is stated by other historians of
We think the evidence sufficient, in tracing the time. It is evident to every one, that
their marks and footprints, to prove that Caesar's expedition to Bri'.ain was a failure,
they were the same people who passed and that his account o( it was- evidently
through Europe, upon the route indicated, drawn upon with a view to give to his peo
ana settled in Northwestern France and ple a fair account of those matters which
Britain; just as we have stated. The fact concerned him, and put his case in the best
that thev carried with them the art and light. While he does ample justice to the
knowledge ot building and using the war skill and abilities of the men and their of
chariot in the manner they did ; and exact ficers who were brought against him; yet
ly like those used in Asia Minor, and thev his account of the people and country oth
the only people of Europe who did so; that erwise, is either contradicted or not sus
so much in their arts and science which tained by the historian.-, who follow him.
connected them with Pythagoras and the Evidently his object was to represent that
east ; connected with the claim thev have the war was conducted on his parL with
ever made for themselves, that thev came great skill, but that there wa- neither a
from the Stfmmer country, near where Con great gain in its success or loss in its fail
stantinople now stands; leaves no reason ure. "If the Britons of Ca-sar's time,"
able ground to doubt the claim; and are says Vaughan,' "were wont to delight in
sufficient to exclude every other hypothesis human sacrifices, to paint or stain their
founded on historical facts. These tacts of bodies in barbarous fashion, and to have
themselves are sufficient to show thai thev wives of a family in common, nothing of
were not the barbarians and uncivilized ' tllis would seem to apply to the Britons
people that have sometimes been claimed ! described by Tacitus and Dion Cassius.
they were. In other words, these facts ! This is a fact of importance in relation to
prove them to be in a great measure j mlr early history, and should be marked by
a civili/ed people. But let this claim | the student.'
be as it may, still the reliable facts, Although C:i--ar in vigor and accuracy
stated by Cesar and other historians ofio,-stvie is unsurpassed, and his informa
his day, are sufficient to show that thev tion reliable when dependent upon his own
were a people for that day far advanced on observation, vet when such information is
the way to civilization and refinement. To second-hand, it is, in his commentaries.
use the words of Mr. Arnold in the Essay I subject to many misrepresentations and in-
above referred to: "That we have the most accuracies. Those just suggested by Mr.
explicit testimony in cla-sic writers of that Vaughan are some of them: but there are
day that this race once possessed a special. many others, as his description of three ex-
profound, spiritual discipline: that they traordinarv animals of the Hercvnian for-
were, to use Mr. Nash's words [who op est;as the hull Vet-ewbHng the sta^; a
posed it] 'wiser than their neighbors.' The
words of I,ucan are singularly clear and 5 Revolutions m English Hisiory. p. 25.
n6 THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
kind of wild as-cs ; and the uri/' These barons and uncultivated people that Ca-sar
descriptions must be inaccurate and false. represents them to be. This subject is not
So must he many matters related of Bri- only worthy of the attention of the student,
tain and Gaul. He says of Britain: "The as Mr. Vaughan says, but especially the at
island is well peopleo, full of houses built tention of those persons whom Mr. Arnold
alter the manner of the Gauls, and abounds designates as "Celt-haters," or prejudiced
in cattle." The inhabitants of persons who are fond of perverting every
Kent, on the sea coast, are the most civil thing to their misguided views.
ized 1 all the Britons, and differ but little The reader's attention is not on! v called
in their manners from the Gauls. The to these errors of Ciesar's, but there are
greater part of those within the country others equally obnoxious to similar com
never sow their land, but live on flesh and ment. As his statement, that "they think
milk, and go clad in skins. All the Britons it unlawful to feed upon hares, pullets, or
in fffiii'ral paint themselves with woad, geese; vet they breed them up for their
which giNes a bluish cast to the skin, and di\ ersion and pleasure." This is not only
make them look terrible in battle."" This ridiculous, but controverted by our reason
is not only inconsistent in itself, but con- | and experience. The author has seen in
tradlcted by what he himself says else the marshes of an army through a hostile
where, and the whole course of the ancient country, with what exertion the people
historians is irreconcilable with it. He saved such animals from rapacious soldiery,
found the island well peopled, full of houses as though they were their household gods,
built alter the manner of those of Gaul. and might lead a more simple man than
He found the land cultivated, and full of C;esar into his error. The storv of the
corn; and his army sometimes set to gath community of wnes. is also self-condemn
ering it. He required of the Trinobantes, ed, a.- contrary to nature and unsupported
(a people on the north side of the Thames, by anything else in history. But we may
and adjoining the Cassi, where he himself also say that the thing was impossible, in
had been,) to furnish his whole army with the midst of a people whose priesthood
corn, which was accordingly done/ A (the Druids) guarded their religion and
country well peopled and lull of houses; morals with such vigilance. It is an asser
with cultivated fields, and full of corn. tion like that we some time find made by
With immense droves of cattle, with plen inconsiderate and prejudiced travelers in
ty of horses for their cavalry and chariots, respect to Americans, because they find
a> well for domestic uses. The use and something of the kind, or polygamy, in
construction of the chariot brought to that some solitary place in Oneida county, N.
perfection wlych astonished CiCiar himself, I Y., or at Great Salt Lake, it is charged as
and struck his army with terror; capable a reproach to the whole people Or be
of detailing for one single purpose four cause, fifty year> ago, it was so common a
thousand chariot-. Now a people who matter among the English sailors and ia-
were accustomed to commit to writing all borers to mark and tattoo their arms and
matter!* "public and private." which as body with their name or the representation
not withheld for the purpose of impro\ ing oj some instrument, as a chain ami anchor,
the memory, or preserving it from vulgar or arrow and heart, and the like, one should
ears:who had a corporation of learned assert that the British people "grucratfv"
men whose duty it was to teach the people were all tattooed. But we frequently find
in all the arts and sciences of which they such prejudice and unfriendly remarks
were ina-lcr-, and especially in all matters made, and are founded entirely upon nation
of religions and morals; cannot be the bar- al prejudice, or "hatred of race."
Many of the points upon which the civ-
'. SI-L I!, vi, ch. 4J-i6. i ilization of the Ancient Britons, and their
7 Coin., II v, i-li. 10. progress in improvements depended, have
S Com., B. v, ch. 10. already been suggested to the reader; still
Chap, iv.) CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION. 117
upon visiting Tvre, and witnessing the
there are many more worthy of his con
wonderful perfection of Phoenician ship
sideration. Whatever results the investi
ping. Ca-sar found there such wonderful
gation might have produced, upon an un
improvements in the arts as applied to their
friendly mind years ago, the question now
shipping, that he may well be surprised to
is a very different matter, when aided by
find that the Venetian cables were made of
what has been discovered and produced bv
iron chains; and a person in reading his
researches in mounds and other objects,
account of it, would even now suppose he
where articles of antiquity have been
was reading an account of a British mod
buried and unknown for ages. Such re
ern navy, rather than one of Venetia. That
searches in recent time have produced ob
undoubtedlv was the triumph and result of
jects of wonderful results in demonstrating
the arts brought to the country by the
the progress that had been made in those
Cymry. At that time there was the most
ancient times, towards a high degree of
intimate and friendlv intercourse between
civilization. Progress in the arts that
the Venetians of Armorica and the Britons.
would not permit civilization and refine
The historical triads give an account of
ment to lag behind. The arts and sciences
the aid given bv the Britons to the Vene
are kindred, and dependent upon one an
tians in that war in opposition to C;esar,
other: so that when antiquarv finds an ob
and that for that purpose Caswallon'-1 pass
ject of ancient art, he can well tell much
ed over to Armorica with a large army.
more of the progress which that people
There can be no doubt of there being a
have made in the arts if not in the sciences,
substantial truth in this legend about Cas
and establish the progress they have made
wallon ;10 for Ca*sar complained of it, and
in civilization ; just as a bone will enable
made it the cause of the war against the
an unprejudiced and learned zoologist and
Britons,!' that they had rendered aid to the
antiquary to establish the family of animals
Venetians against him in their land and
to which it belonged, and their character
naval operations. These statements of the
istic.-. In the oldest mounds which can be
triads and that of Ciesar corroborate and
assigned to the Cymry, there have been
confirm each other. They further show
found iron and bronze, showing that thev
the intimate relation which subsisted be
were in an advanced age of civilization.
tween the peop'.e of Britain and that of
This must necessarily have been, and they
Armorica, and whatever showed advance
must have brought the knowledge of iron
ment in the arts and civilization in the one
and the arts and science necessarily de
was equal Iv attributable to the other. Both
pendent upon it, with them from Asia
were Cvmry, and had the same arrange
Minor; which was necessary for them to
maintain and keep up their chariots, which
they could never have invented and con 9 Cossivelltumus of Ciesar, B. v, ch. y.
structed except as having been instructed 10 The triad :mil legion is this: "The second com
bined expedition was conducted hy Caswallon, son
in Asia Minor; and iron was necessary to of Bcli, * * * ;md their number was three score
and one thousand. Thev went with Caswallon after
their Construction. The chariot therefore the- Ca.'sarians [Romans] over the sea to the land of
was proof oi the identity and existence of the Gcli Llydaw [Gauls oi' Armorica], that were de-
scendents from the original sTix'k of lite Cymrv. * *
the Cymry in Western Europe. The arts * And il was in rcvemjc for this expedition that the
Romans first came to this island."
and civilization which thev brought with
M Caesar says: "The Venetian slate is by far the
them to Annorica and Britain, was work most powerful and considerable of all tile nations
ing out a new civilization in Western dwelling along the sea coast; and that not only on
account of their vast shipping, wherewith they drive
Europe, which was crushed and stamped a mighty traffic to Rrilain, and their skill and exper
ience in naval aftairs, in which they greatly surixiss
out by Citsar with remorseless cruelty. the other maritime stales." * * * ''The neighbor
No where was this more evident than in ing states moved by their example and authority, by
their princes, entered into a confederacy for acting in'
the result of the war of Ctesar against the all things with common consent, and alike expose
Venetians. Ciesar was astonished at the themselves to the same issue of fortune." (B. iii, ch.
S.) "Caesar resolved to pass over into Britain, hav
perfection of their shipping. It was the ing certain intelligence, that in all his wars with the
Gauls, the enemies of the commonwealth had ever
.astonishment experienced by Xenophon received assistance from Ihcnce." (B. iv, ch. iS.)
iiS THE BRITISH PERIOD. [Book i.
ments to their Druids and Bards to teach of Crcsar in his account of Britain, except
them in religion, morals and the arts ; which in those matters which are represented as
accounts for the great advancement made coming directly under his own observation.
by them in naval aflairs, and the commer The tin was procured near the sea shore,
cial relation between the two people. and not from the interior. Iron must have
At Cresar's time, and previous thereto, been used in considerable quantity in the
the most highly improved and civilized construction of their chariots and arms.
part of Britain was not that seen by Cifsar, And we again insist upon it, as a fair and
but that in the neighborhood of the valley reasonable conclusion, that the Cvmrv
of the Avon, of the British channel, and brought with them the knowledge and use
the isle of Wight. There was the site of of iron, their chariots and other matters,
the great tin traffic with the Phoenicians from Asia Minor to Venetia and Britain.
and other eastern nations, and the great This accounts for the liberal quantity of
commercial relation, spoken of by Ca-sar, iron used by the Venetians in the construc
between the Britons and the Venetians; tion of their vast shipping, as narrated bv
and also the site of the great population of C;vsar; even so extensive as to be able to
Ancient Britain who carried on that great use it in chain cables. This shipping of
traffic, and raised those immense monu the Venetians, "wherewith they drive a
ments of their labors those of Aveburv mighty traffic to Britain, was a traffic be
and Stonehenge, and have left to us the tween a kindred people, participated in bv
mounds and barrows of the counties of both;the Venetians occupying a central
Hants and Wilts, which yield to the anti- | point on the route of that ancient traffic in
quary high evidence of the progress then the tin trade between Britain and the Med-
made by the Cymry in the arts and civili iterranian sea through Gaul, which ac
zation. counts for their success and prosperity in
One of the greatest evidence of a peo it. The knowledge of bronze and iron
ple's progress, in improvement and civili must have been brought by the Phoenicians
zation, is their acquisition of money and to Britain- -the Tin Islandsat a very ear
coinage. These objects collected by anti ly day, possibly before the Cymry arrived
quaries from those ancient mounds and ex there, when it was occupied by the Gaelic-
cavations, afford ample proof of the pro Celts. But when the Carthaginian inter
gress made, in these respects, by the Ancient course commenced with Himilco, the Cvm-
Britons, before the time that the Roman ric were there, and besides what they
conquest had any influence upon their cus brought with them they acquired much
toms and manners. Ciesar says: '-They
use brass money [probably bronze] and Romans who were curious in such inquiries." This.
is evident from these authorities upon the tin trade,
iron rings ot certain weight. The prov and that extensive shipping and traffic (.that C.tsar
inces remote trom the sea produce tin, and himself speaks of) between the Venetians and
Britain, and that commerce was with the western,
those upon the coast iron ; but the latter part of the counlrv, of which C;t>ar was entirely ig
norant; and which, unfortunately, many of the mod
in no great quantity. Their brass is all ern authors detract and misrepresent. These same
imported."12 This shows the unreliability authors also say, "that the Britons were much far
ther advanced in civilization than the savage tribes
with which it has been the fashion to compare them.
12 Coin., B. v, ch. 10. The renders of Ca?sar arc- Were this not the case, the somewhat unsuccessful
led to suppose that but little was known of Britain employment a^rainst them of so lar^c an army as
previous to his d;iy, and that Kent and that part of it that ol Oesar would lie disgraceful to the Roman
which he had visited WHS the most improved part of name." (Ibid. p. ji.)
it; whereas both history and the antiquities of the Not only is the importance of the British -tin com
country clearly show that west of t he Hampt pton Kor merce shown by ancient classic historians, bin the
est, in the neighborhood
neihborhood of the valleyvall of the Avon antiquities of the country illustrate it, even back to
and the !>!< ol Wii*ht, there was and for a lonj* time the lime of the Phu'nicians. (See Rawlmson's Her
hiul been a superior civilization, in connection with odotus, Vol. 2. p. 416. B. iii, ch. 115, n, 7; see, also,
the tin trade, -ind trallic of the country. The e\ idence l Giles' Ancient Britain, lo and II, and 6j-<6.) One
upon this subject is collected by the authors of the pi^ of tin has been found in South-western England,
Knjflish Pictorial History, (I Vol., p. SS, B. i, ch.iv, so different from that of all other nations, it is at
also i Giles* Ancient Britain, it,) and they sav of tributed to the Phtvnicians. "It is remarkable from
this: "Indeed, various facts concur to show that, its shape and marks, evidently taken from its usual
however ignorant of Britain Cajsar himself may have- form of the trough into which the metal was run. It
been u hen meditating his invasion, a pood deal was is preserved in the Truro Museum." (See, also,
even then known about it by those of the Greeks and 3 N iehuhr's Lect. 40.)
 Chap, iv.] CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND CIVILIZATION". 119
new improvements in this great traffic. In These facts, established with as much
this way they early acquired the use of certainty as historical facts usually are,
money; and many things in their antiqui would satisfy an unprejudiced mind that
ties indicate their connection with the far the Britons and the Cymric Gauls had,
t?ast Phoenicia and Egypt. This is dem previous to the Roman conquest, made
onstrated by what Oesar says of the use that progress in the course of civilization,
of iron rings and bronze for money ; and which was but little behind the Romans;
the great amount of these found in the an and that the application of the term of
tiquities of Britain. "The Egyptian mon savage or barbarian to them was wrong
uments illustrate these rings, and in Britain and unjust.
great quantities have been found, some of The character and manners of the An
large size, seemingly worn over the shoul cient Britons, as delineated to us by the
der or around the bodv as ornaments, but classic writers, agree very well with
probably serving the purpose of money, as that of the Gauls.'5 This harmonizes ex
indicated by the fact that their weights are actly with our theory. What Cii-sar says
all exact multiples of one and the same upon the subject leads to the conclusion
standard or unit.' '3 that these two peoples differed very little
There has been, without doubt, three from each other, in their houses, language,
periods in British history of money and manners and institutions. In these re
coinage, previous to the Roman conquest. spects there was a common identity and
The first is with the monev spoken of by communication between them. Ca>ar
Ca'sar,bronze and iron rings. This found readv communication between the
money probablv commenced with the two countries, by means of merchants and
Phoenicians. The second consisted of a others passing from one country to the
coinage of pure gold, of peculiar devices
and emblematics, without any literal in armed with flattened knobs, in others they are round
scription. Of this sort of coin a consider ringsed out into cup-like hollows,. Sometimes several
are joined together at their circumferences;
able quantity was discovered about a cen other."si>eciim-ns
other consist of rings linked into one an
And these all a^rec in weight to a certain
tury since at Carnbre Hill in Cornwall. part or multiple of an unit, which is considered to be
This coinage was adopted long before proof that they were used as money. 2. The Carn-
hre money and the like; "llu.se were considered to
Ovsar's time, but like many other things, ures be real British coin. Some were stamped with fig
of horses, oxen, hogs and sheep; a few had such
was kept out of his sight. And the third figures of animals on one side, and a head apparently
sort, was that which came into use about of a royal personage on the other. All of them were
of (fold; and perhaps it was the only monev thought
to be worthy of beinjf thus pressed.' * * * "It i.s
Ciesar's time, and continued until the Ro admitted that there were really British monev,that
man conquest; when every thing became is to sav, that they were not only current in Britain,
hut had been
so changed, as Gildas says, "that it was no some one or more coined under the public authority of
of the stales of the island. This
longer thought to be Britain, but a Roman we seem to be entitled to infer, from the emblematic
figures impressed on them, which distinguished them
island; and all their money, whether cop from any known Gallic or other foreign coins, and
per, gold, or silver, was stamped with are at the same time similar to those commonly
found on what appear; to be the British monev of a
Cii'sar's image.'1 This is full admission somewhat later period." .). The more recent British
coinage of this [K-riod was between C.T.xir's time and
that the kind and character of their money that ot the conqiu-st by the Emperor Claudius." The
was not changed, but only stamped anew greater number ot the coins in question bear, either
in full or abbreviated, the name of Cunobelinus who
with the imperial insignia.14 lived in the time of Augustus." Some have this
name or another abbreviate^!.
Of these corns Mr. Logan (p. 3f-o) says: "The
13 u New Amer. Cvclo.,443, title "Xumismalics.1 coins of the Britons bear the impression of the heads
See.
e. also,, i Pictorial
a Hist.
is. England, 105; Logan'; of thuir princes, with various figures on the reverse
Antiquities
Antiuities of Scotland,
Scotland 368.
68. side, either symbolical or representing articles, now
sometimes unknown ; but the figure of a horse, the
mystical symbol of Cercdwen or Ceres, as here
shown, is frequently introduced. The British coins
usually present the inscription Tascio, concerning
which there has been so much conjecture. It h:is
been said, with much appearance of reason, to be
the native appellation of the nobles, bt ing the same
as the Gaelic loshich, which signifies chief, and hence
't meant no more than Rex of modern coin."
15 Tacitus' Agricola, tt.
 THE BRITISH PERIOD.
other. His confidential ally Divitiacus,
who undoubtedly was a British Druid
had been chief with the Suessiones, in Bel
gium, and had a dominion over which he
ruled in Britain ;16 demonstrate the facility
and ease of communication between the
two countries and people. Throughbut
the vast territory occupied by the Celts,
they are uniformly represented as possess
ing a striking similarity of character and
habits,quick in their determination and
passions, but too soon over with their ex
citement to be really malignant, often lib
eral to a fault, and hospital to strangers,
and fond of company;inquisitive as to
news, and foreign countries. Distinguish
ed for the wearing of the pantaloons, and
gay plaid clothing and cloak, with the Cel
tic cap, which has since been called the
cap and emblem of liberty.
Such was the general character of the
Celt, whether British or Gallic. But says
Michelet: "a new Celtic tribe, the Cym-
ry, came to join the Gauls. The new
coiners, who settled for the most part in
the centre of France, on the Seine and the
Loire, were, it appears, of a more serious
and staple character. Less indisposed to
restraint, they were governed by a sacer
dotal corporation the Druids. The prim
itive religion of the Gauls yielded to the
Druidism of the Cymry."l7
The character of the Ancient Britons, as
delineated ->y Straboand Diodorus, as they
appeared to the Phoenicians, Greeks and
Romans before C;esar's time, and that
given to us by Tacitus immediately after
wards, perfectly agree. The former authors
represent those people as a hardy, persever
ing and industrious race, who worked the
hard earth and rock to procure tin, which
they faced and run into metal in bars for
exportation. This they took in large
quantities in wagons and boats to their sea
port,1" to sell to the merchants who came
there for it. or to exchange for such articles
as they needed and chose to take in barter.
irt Clesar's Com., B. ii, 4; Logan's Antiquities, which Caraclacus, and also that in which (ialgacus
17 History of France, ch. !.
18 This port was called Iclis on or near the Isle of full operation, that they had the advantage, and were
Wi^ht, or between it and Cornwall.
[Book i.
They are represented to have been a kind
and well dressed people; and "from their
intercourse with foreign merchants, were
civilized in their manners." But Tacitus
is still more explicit. He says, that Agrico-
la found them capable of education and
fond of letters. "By way of encourage
ment, he praised their talents, and already
saw them, by the force of their natural
genius, rising superior to the attainments
of the Gauls." Again he says: "The
Britons are willing to supply our armies
with new levies; they pay their tribute
without a murmur; and they perform all
the services of government with alacrity,
provided they have no reason to complain
of oppression. When injured, their resent
ment is quick, sudden and impatient: they
are conquered, not broken-hearted ; reduced
to obedience, nol subdued to slavery."1*
Such have ever been the true character of
the true Britons;a brave and determined
people; easy led with kindness, but hard
to be driven by either oppression or injus
tice. Ever kind and generous, but ever
intolerant of wrongs. Always ready faith
fully to discharge their duties in whatever
situation fortune may place them; but ever
rebellious against tyranny and supercilious
arrogance.
ly Tiicilus's Ajfricola, $13 and Ji. As to the in
domitable bravery of the Britons under everv cir
cumstances and adversity we have the frequent les-
timonv of boihCx-sar and Tacitus. "Ca,-sar frequently
testifies to their bravery anil skill in battle, and says
o! his first landing, after delinealin^ the boldness.
with which the Britons opposed tbe-Romans in -their
landing, "the battle was obstinate on both sides."
Nothing but the advantage gained by the use of the
engines on board of the boats of shallow drafts in
shooting missiles will: deadly effect upon the flanks
of the Britons enabled Csesar to obtain a firm footinjr.
Tacitus says: "Ostorius resolved to storm the place,'*
bein^ inclosed with a rampart thrown np with sod,
difficult of attack by cava'ry; "the assault was or-
d_ered. The Britons, inclosed bv their own fortifica
d ide thr
utmost confusion. Vet even in that distress, con
scious of the jjuilt of rebellion, and si-eint; no way to-
escape, they fouifht to the last, ami gave siijna! proofs
of their heroic hravcrv."
It seems that the Britons beat the Romans when
fi^htinK with missiles and light arms. This was
frequently observed, espcciallv at the battles in
was dete.ited. It was only when the Romans came
into close quarters, where their heaw weapons and
superior defensive armT and discipline came into
successful.
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS.
BOOK II.THE ROMAN PERIOD.

CHAPTER I. more from the want of any laudable enter

THE ROMAN RULE FROM THE CONQUEST
prise, and that which should distinguish a
statesman, than from any appreciation ot
TO THE REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN.
the moral value of the bequest. In A. D.
37 this worthless tyrant in the midst of his
1 The Contjiifft to Suetonius, A. D. 43
tyranny, crimes and worthlessness, was as
tobi.
sassinated; and was succeeded by Caligula,
In that long period from the retreat of who is represented as a most detestable
Caesar to the conquest of Claudiusalmost character, who, after a reign of four years,
a centurythe Britons enjoyed a happy was also assassinated, by which the Roman
exemption from foreign invasion, during empire and the world were relieved of an
which they made great progress in im execrable tyrant; and a worthless and vi
provements and national prosperity. Dur cious man. He was succeeded by Claudi
ing the same time the Romans had also us, a nephew of Tiberius, a cold, phlegmat
made great improvements of the same ic man, and but little better than those ho
kind. Of that period, from the death of had just preceded him. In the third year
Citsar to that of Augustus, a period of fif of his reign, A. I). 43, he ordered his gen
ty-eight years,1 it was the spirit of the lat eral in Gaul, Aulus Plautius, to proceed to
ter that swayed the Roman world. The invade and conquer Britain, with as little
material prosperity of Rome was then so regard for the wise admonition and bequest
great, that Augustus boasted that he found of Augustus as for any just cause for the
Rome in brick and left it in marble. But war.'
that Emperor left to this world a more en In puisuance of the orders of Claudius,
during monument of his wisdom, as a be Plautius collected a large army and naval
quest to his country, and an example to conveyance at the same port in Gaul now
mankind, in giving to his successors, in a supposed to be Boulogne at which Ca-sar,
written will, his advice of confining the ninety-eight years before, started upon :i
empire within 'those limits, which nature similar expedition. Plautius was an ex
seemed to have placed as its permanent perienced and able general, but like most
bulwark and boundaries.2 Tiberius, his of the Roman generals of the day, selfish,
successor, in a reign of twenty-three years heartless and cruel. The army collected
preserved the peace of the empire, and fol for the enterprise consisted of four legions
lowed the wise advice of this predecessor, of the regular army, making twenty-five
thousand men, with auxiliaries of various
1 Freim B. C. +4 to A. I). 14. troops sufficient tu make his whole force
2 It seems that, notwithstanding this, Augustus fifty thousand. A large fleet was prepared
about A. D. J'i, upon some pretense made prepara
tion to invade Britain, concerning which Giles (i to embark them. But notwithstanding the
lli.'t. Anc. Brilons. 58,) says: "But the emperor had
no sooner arrived in Gaul than the Britons sent a high reputation of their general, he found
deputation to meet him. Some time was spent in ne
gotiating, and it seemed fruitless; for the historian,
Dion Cassius tells u, that the Britons would not en j Vauirhati's Revolutions in English History. 24
ter into a trcatv, .in.l that Augustus, when on the ami -14; i S. Turner's History Anglo-Saxons, 7"l-74i
point of invading the Island, was withheld by a re Tacitus' Agricola; i Pictorial History ot" England,
volt of the Salassii." 3", &c.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
groat opposition on tlie part of the troops sons of Cymbeline, who had now been
to engage in the enterprise. Tradition and dead a number of years, and their second
history informed them of the opposition, cousin, Caractacus; men whose names are
which their great Cicsar had met with from deservedly retained in merited renown in
the Briton- They considered the brave British history, as well as known in classic
and determined defense the Britons made literature.4
for their country, even in the midst of the The Roman army soon advanced into
waves upon the sea shore. They thought the interior, in the direction of London.
of the chariot, which they had never met The Britons watched their movements, and
in battle, and did not much like the idea of attacked and annoyed them upon every op
being rode over bv it- wheels. Besides, portunity. Before they reached the Thames
they looked upon Britain being out of the above that city two severe battles were
world; and said: "We will march any fought, in the last of which Guiderius,
where within the Roman world, but not [Togodumnus,] their sovereign, was slain.
out of it." But at length appeals to their By this unfortunate event Arviragus be
patriotism, and to the glory of the Roman came sovereign of the state of the Trine-
name, and the fame and wealth that they ban tes, but it was desirable to elect a su
themselves would acquire, overcame their preme sovereign for the whole nation,
scruples; and they were embarked. The whom they denominated their Pendragon
weather turned out to be tempestuous; and orWIedig,1 as commander-in-chief. From
their fleet was some scattered, so that they the position and influence of the Trinoban-
did not make land for two days. This, the tes it would seem that this official appoint
veterans claimed, was just as they had pre ment should be theirs; but the established
dicted, and received the adversity as no reputation of Caractacus, and his known
good omen. At length they landed in patriotism was such as to point him out as
three divisions, somewhere on the coast be the prominent candidate. At the general
tween Dover and the isle of Thanet. Of assembly or congress held to determine
course they took Oc-ar for their guide; the question, Arviragus, with equal patriot
and their landing could not be far from the ism and sell denial, was the first to cast his
same place. But this time the Britons did sufferage for Caractacus, and he was duly
not oppose their landing, deeming it best elected Pendragon.
to make their opposition in the interior. The Britons having thrown every ob
I'lautius had under him, as his lieutenants, stacle in the way of the enemy's crossing
some of the mosl able generals, among the Thames, they withdrew to the north
who-ii were Vespasian and his son, Titus,
4 Three persons in names and identity are most
both of whom afterwards became renowned sinpilarlv mixi-d up, in history and the classics.
for their reign as emperors, and capture of Cymbelinc, as he is culled by Shakespeare, is known
Jerusalem. In this instance the Empire which name theof Romans
in the history the Ancient Britons as Cynfelyn,
latini/ed as Cunohelinus.
had made every preparation for success, Guiderius' British name was Gwydyr; but historians
sometimes (and often; call him Togod '.minus. Ar-
and was not then particularly distracted bv \irapus* British name was Arifog; and that ot Car-
engagement.- anywhere else. With their aclacii1* was Caradawp.
These names and the history of the time ("nun A.
large army of fifty thousand veteran troops, I?- (3 to 77 :l period of thirty-lour vears, \vlu-n A^-
ri^ola was appointed jrovernor ot" Britain, art- very
with the arms, equipments and discipline, nnich confused and mixed up. V'au^han (and other
historians^ says: "Cunohcline, the kin^; of tin- Trin-
produced by Roman arts and experience, obanlcs, depuled the command to his sons, Caracta
this attack upon the Britons was an over cus and 'I ojrodumnus." Cvmheline ( Cuno(>elmt')
had been dead, and Guiderius rTogodurimus) had
match for them, in everything except their succeeded him as. ruler for a number of years; and
determined bravery and persevering pa and Caracuicus was not his son, but his ^rand nephew,
was the son of Bran, the sun ol Ll\r 'Ki-ar of
triotism. Shakespeare), who was the brother of Cvmbeline.
I'nfortunately, four books of Tacitus' Annals, from
At this time the leading men in Britain B. vi lo \l. Jor A. I). 37 to 47, covering six or eiyht
vears of the first of this war, arc lost', or wt tni^ht
upon whom the responsibility ol defending be furnished with more reliable account of it.
the country would fall, were Guiderius the 5 In British history these terms frequently occur;
i Pendragon may be translated as commander- in-chief;
sovereign, and his brother, Arviragus, two | and Wledis, as cm|>eror.
Chap, i.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
side above London, it is said at Chertsey,
and prepared to defend that point as the
most probable place where the Romans
would attempt to force a crossing. After
an obstinate resistance, and several at
tempts which failed, the Romans were
successful. In the last attempt, Plautius
divided his army into three divisions, one
of which was under his own immediate
command, and another under that of Ves
pasian, the future emperor, with aderterm-
ination that it should be a success. They
entered the river at the different points as
signed them, while a strong body of Ger
man cavalry, which had swam the river
below, attacked the Britons in flank. After
the passage, a desperate engagement con
tinued on the north side, for two davs.s
At last the Pendragon was defeated bv an
unexpected and daring movement on his
flank and rear by Cneius Geta, the recent
conquerer of Mauritania. This exploit of
Geta was so highly appreciated by the Ro
man senate that they awarded to him a
triumph,which was considered most ex
traordinary honors to a person who had
never attained the consular dignity. Car-
actacus did not despair, and instead of re
treating into the interior, led his forces to
the north of London into the morasses of
Essex, where his movements would be at
greater advantage over his enemies. Here
Plautius found his operations so rough and
discouraging he withdrew to the south side
of the Thames, and sent an invitation to
Claudius, his sovereign, with so favorable
an account of his operation, as to induce
that emperor to come to Britain with a
large amount of additional aid, with a view
to enjoy the glory and reputation of the
final triumph. The artful general had two
objects in view by this maneuver: to se-
cure more immediate aid; and then to
gratify a weak and inefficient master, and
share with him the victory he expected to
make. Claudius took the bait, and hasten
ed to join his general, and share with him
in the glory of the conquest. He imme-
diatelv ordered the necessarv re-enforce
6 Dion Cassius, B. Ix, lo-J.}; Morgan's Cambrian
History, 94; r Giles' Aiicieni Britons, 76; ad Ibid,
117. '
ment, and pursued a journey for himself
by the way ol Ostia and the Mediterranean
to Marseilles, and thence through Gaul to
Britain. Landing at Richborough, he was
soon at camp, where they were impatiently
waiting him, and where the soldiers were
highly gratified with having an Emperor
with them in camp,then an entire new
thing. But what was undoubtedly the
most gratifying to them was the aid he
brought with him, to insure their success.
It is said that some elephants' were in
cluded in the forces he brought ; and though
this has been doubted, yet it is probable,
for the bones of an elephant has recently
been found in an excavation made in that
part of the island, as though it might be
one of those there buried. Besides Geta
with his experience in Africa must have
been perfectly acquainted with their use
and management.
The Roman army being thus re-enforced,
again moved to the north side of the river,
first to Verulam, and then against Caer
Col, now Colchester, while the Coritani
under the guidance of the traitor Admin-
ius joined them, raising the standard of
rebellion in the rear of the Pendragon
Caer Cohwas said to be the capital and roy
al citv of Cytnbeline, the father of Arvir-
agus, the late Pendragon, and king of the
Trinobantes. It was then one of the most
important places in Britain, yet Caractacus,
as a matter of sound policy, was opposed
to hazard his army and the place in its de
fense. He was, however, over-persuaded
by the importunities of his people to make
a stand in its defense. Contrary to his
own judgment he was induced to risk an
other pitched battle. His defeat was de
cisive; for the preparation which had been
made against him was too great and de
cided, to admit of his success. After this
resistance Colchester was surrendered, and
made the principal of the Roman stations,
and called Camulodunum. Claudius being
satisfied with this success, made a treaty
of amnesty with the Coradidie and Iceni,
7 Pictorial History of England, y\ The iile.i nf
the Roinuna \vasthal the elephants would be success-
fulin disconcerting the chariots, as horses are very
tearful of elephants.
1-4 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
by which it was stipulated that on their
payment ot" a certain tribute they should,
under the Roman Protectorate, be guaran
teed the retention ol" their lands, laws, and
native government. Claudius, leaving the
further prosecution of the wur to his gen
erals, hastened his return to Rome, where
he was to enjoy a magnificent triumph pre
pared for him by the senate, with the title
of Britannicus, as a reward for his success
in Britain, which so little depended on his
own merits. The Roman people in their
great rejoicing over the events in Britain
did not neglect to remember and reward
the generals by whom it was accomplished.
This expedition of Claudius, so remun
erative in cheap honors," and so little de
pendent upon his own efforts, was accom
plished in six months; of which time only
sixteen days were spent in Britain," when
he hastened to return to Rome, to enjoy
his ostentatious triumph.
The Roman generals were thus left to
accomplish the conquest of Britain, in the
best manner they could ; which they found
by severe experience to be a hard and te
dious task. The Britons were not the
people to submit tamely to the unjust de
mands of those who would enslave them,
because they were once stricken down, or
menaced by overwhelming power, so long
as human perseverance and endurance held
out a hope to them. Caractacus and Ar-
viragus were deeply inspired with these
patriotic sentiments, and the people sup
ported them with resolute confidence. The
views of their chief were now adopted.
Instead of risking pitched battles, where
Roman discipline and arms hail so greatly
the advantage, it was determined to harass
the advance of their enemies, and strike in
battle only whenever the opportunity
would favor success.
Plautius had become well aware of the
task he had before him. As yet he had
only conquered that part of the country in
the vicinity of London, principally the ter
ritory of the Trinobantes, whose people
S Sec Tacitus' Annals, B. xii, 53, us to the estima
tion in which they were rciilly held hv the people ol
Rome.
9 In the summer of A. D. (.
[Book n.
were only overcome,not conquered. He
saw that the settled and improved parts of
the country, along the valley of the Thames,
in the direction of Gloucester1" on the
Severn," and from the isle of Wight," by
the valley of the Avon to the same place
on the Severn, must be subdued or Britain
must be given up. In these directions were
the most populous part of the island, where
there were numerous towns and cities, and
the country much cultivated. The first of
these routes of conquest was taken by
Plautius himself, while Geta was left with
a sufficient portion of the army to hold
possession of the territory they had already
subdued in the neighboihood of Camulod-
untim,Colchesterwhich they were now
making their headquarters and the basis of
their operations. The second line of op
eration, from the isle of Wight to the
Severn, was assigned to Vespasian and his
son, Titus. Plautius, on his route, was
watched by the vigilance of Caractacus,
and constantly annoyed by severe opposi
tion and constant fighting. The states,
towns and settlements, he passed through
only yielded to his power when superior
force compelled them. He succeeded in
10 Caer GIou. Glevum.
1 1 Sabrina.
liVeita or Victis. In this vicinity were thi><.-
whom Cxsar :md others called Belgie. But it is in
sisted upon that what Ovsar ^o often speaks of u.
the Belga.' i" South Britain must have reference to>
the same pet Mile, whom the Ancient Britons called
Uoegrwys (Logrians). C;csar called them Belgit,
because they represented themselves as having emi
grated from Giml i Belgium) since the first Cymry.
But they were all of ihe same race and language;
having come together peaceably, as friends and
brethren. They were called Loyriari Cymrv. Since
Caesar's lime, in pursuance of his authority the\ have
been called Belize; -but all done on (His mistake.
Kicbard of Ciri nn svr tails in with what Cwsar h.i>
said without immiry. ^U. i. ch, 6, 12.) He y>:
"Below towards tne Ocean lived the Belgrc. whose
chief city was Clau-scnTiun, near where Southampton
now if. * * * Ail the Bcljfw arc Allonrogys or
foreigner*;, anJ derived their origin from the Belifa-
and Celts." [This is not very intvlliunhle.] Apiin
he suvs: "All the region south of the Thames were,
according to ancient records, occupied by the war
like nations of the Senone*-, Tlicse people under the
guidance of their renowned Brenmis, j>cnetrated
through Gaid, forced passage over the Alps," Jtc.
* * * "In consequence oflhis vast expedition, the
land of the Senom.s, being left without inhabitants,
and full of spoils, was occupied by the above men-
lined Belgie. The original Senones were seated on
the hanks of the Seine; and when a portion of these
went on the expedition to Italy, a portion of the Brit
ish Senones joined them, and other Cymric Celts
from Gaul t>ok their place in Britain; and probably
these were those culled the Logrians. This is per
fectly consistent with their being all Cymrv,and
that is more consistent than anv other theory.
 Chap, i.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
establishing the authority of the Roman
government in the country through which
he passed, and stations and fortifications
were placed along the line of the Thames
to the Severn. Vespasian succeeded to do
the same on his route,13 along the line of
the Avon, until they met on the Severn in
the vicinity of Gloucester. But this cam
paign was not accomplished without great
efforts, and in the midst of scenes of ter
rific warfare. It was here that Vespasian
established his reputation for high military
genius, which eventually created him em
peror of Rome. The whole route was
through an old and well cultivated coun
try, full of towns, and filled with a brave
and determined people, who had resolved
to do their utmost to save their country
and be free. While this general was thus
engaged, he was so hemmed in by his
enemies on one occasion, that his escape
seemed to be impossible. But his danger
was observed by his son, Titus, who rush
ed to his assistance with such ardor as to
repel the danger and rescue his father. In
the midst of such efforts to save a country
from such a conquest and unjust war, one
is led to inquire, who were these brave
people who so Spartan-like defended their
country ? They were Britons, and at least
Cymric Celts; and it was Arviragus who
led them during the campaign.
These operations enabled the Romans to
hold in subjection the country between the
two lines, from Dover to Gloucester and
from the Thames to the Avon. This cost
them flic exertion of at least four costly
campaigns, in which there had been much
fighting; and much blood and lives lost on
both sides. But as yet only a wedge had
been run into the heart of Britain. It was
a staggering blow; but Britain still held
out many a year, with a devotion and en
durance not excelled by any other country
or people.
13 Uichard of Cirenccstcr, p. 465, B. ii, ch. I, $j>4
4045 A. M. i.e. A. D. 44, says: "Vespasian, :it that
time in :l private station, being sent bv tht: emperor
Claudius with the second legion into this country,
attacked the Belifae and Damnonii, and having
fought thirty-two Kittles, and taken twenty cities, re
duced them under the Roman power, together with
the isle ot" Wiifht." bee, also, Ibid, ante, 44^. This
information is taken from Dion Cassius.
For the next two years Plautius was en
gaged with an unusual effort, backed bv
the resourses of the empire, to extend his
lines to the next valley north, and some
farther to the southwest, in the direction of
Cornwall. During all that time he was
vigorously opposed by Caractacus and his
people, with astonishing perseverance and
success. He found his progress slow,
and attended with unexpected difficulties;
and opposed with great skill. It was a war
of post,from station to station,attended
with numerous battles and bloodshed.
When a territory was conquered it was re
duced by the war from a flourishing coun
try to a ruin, and what remained of it not
worth the cost. Along these lines were
left extensive fortifications and encamp
ments as evidence of that cost, and the de
termined resolution with which the coun
try was defended.
In A. D. 50 Plautius was superseded bv
the appointment of Publius Ostorius as
governor of Britain and general-in chief.
He came there late in season, and found
matters in great disorder. So far the pros
pects ot a Roman conquest was not en
couraging; and that of the Britons hope
ful. They were preparing for a vigorous
campaign against their enemies the next
season. They thought themselves safe
during the winter; but Ostorius anticipated
their designs by precipitating upon them
an unexpected winter campaign, in which
he gained unusual success; and greatly
disconcerted the well intended plans of the
Britons. With a greatly increased army
and resources, he was determined to push a
vigorous campaign and teach his opponents
that their cause was hopeless. Caractacus,
however, never despaired ofJhe cause of
his country. His own principality was
that ol Siluria, situated on the west side 01"
the Severn, and including a large portion
of South Wales. The Silures, being the
bravest and most skillful warriors among'
the Britons, with alacrity rallied around
their chief, with confidence in a war that
had not yet reached them.
In the meantime Geta had secured the
line of the Nen, from the bay now known
as the Wash to the Severn, by a chain of
126 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
iorts along the Nen and the Avon to the
Severn; and within this line and the South
ern Avon, Ostorius was determined to re
duce the people to subjection ; and for that
purpose he proceeded to disarm the inhab
itants. This aroused the people to a new
revolt, and another exertion for their free
dom. Foremost of these were the Scen-
ians, the inhabitants of Norfolk, Suffolk,
and the adjoining country to the west of
them, who rallied and fortified themselves
in a place which afforded much natural
means of defense. Ostorius resolved to
take the place by an immediate assault, and
with his legionary troops with great exer
tion carried it by storm. "The Britons,"
says Tacitus,n '-inclosed bv their own for
tifications, and pressed on every side, were
thrown into confusion. Yet even in that
distress, and seeing no way of escaping,
they fought to the last, and gave signal
proofs of their heroic bravery."
This success restored peace and submis
sion in that quarter, and enabled Ostorius
to proceed to the west. He this time pro
ceeded, beyond his former lines, as tar as
the channel separating the island from Ire
land; and wherever he encountered oppo
sition he laid the country in waste, and his
-oldiers carrying oft" considerable bootv.14
While here intelligence was received of the
insurrection of the Brigantes against the
Romans, which called his attention in that
quarter, which was soon reduced to sub
mission. Having now reduced everything
in his rear to subjection, Ostorius deter-
imined to turn his whole powers to the
west, and iigainst Caractacus and his Si-
lures. That chieftain was now the soul of
the war, and it was determined he must be
conquered. "Renowned,"' says Tacitus,
"for his valor, and for various good and
evil fortune, that heroic chief had spread
his fame through the island. His knowl
edge and skill in all the wiles and strata
gems of the war, gave him manv advan
tages; but he could not hope with interior
numbers to make a stand against a well
disciplined army. He therefore marched
14 The Annuls, B. xii, Sii,$[.
15 T:iciUts* Annals, B. xii,
[Book 11.
into the territory of the Ordovicians. A
hill in Shropshire at the junction of the
two rivers,the Bolu and Teme, was se
lected wilh great skill as the scene of his
final efforts. That hill is known as Caer-
Caradoc, and was by him skillfully fortified.
There had been gathered those brave spir
its who considered peace with the Romans
to be only another term for slavery. When
Ostorius came to see the difficulty of tak
ing the place,the dubious ford of the river,
the rugged ascent of the hill defended
with walls and palisades, he hesitated.
These, with the intrepid countenance of
the Britons, and the spirit that animated
their whole army, struck him with aston
ishment. The chieftains of the various
tribes were busy with their men ; they ex
horted them to new efforts by every gen
erous motive, and aroused their ardor.
Caractacus inspired them anew with his
noble patriotic sentiments; and assured
them that the day had come which wa> to
decide the fate of Britain. In the midst of
his address he exclaimed :"The era of lib
erty, or eternal bondage begins from this
hour. Remember your brave and warlike
ancestors, who met Julius Ca;sar in open
combat, and chased him from the coast of
Britain. They were the men who treed
their country from a foreign yoke; who
delivered the land from taxation imposed
at the will of a master, and above all, who
rescued vour wives and daughters from
violation."
Ostorius was aroused from his astonish
ment bv the general cry of his army that
all things would give way to valor; and
gave the signal for the attack. The river
was passed, and the Romans advanced to
the parapet. The struggle there was long
and obstinate; and while it was fought
with missive weapons, the Britons had the
advantage. The Romans were ordered to
advance under the protection of a military
shell, and level the pile of stone which
protected the Britons. A close engage
ment ensued in which the natives were
driven from their breastwork, and retired
to their fortification on the hill. The ene-
mv pursued with eagerness, and forced
their way to the summit, under a heavy
Chap I.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
shower of darts. The Britons with their name of Caractacus was in high celebrity.
inferior weapons were unable to maintain The emperor, willing to magnify the glory
the conflict; and the legions with their of the conquest, bestowed the highest
superior arms bore down all before them. praise on the valor of the vanquished king.
In the midst of a terrible havoc, the victory He assembled the people to behold a spec
became complete. Caractacus succeeded tacle worthy of their view. In the field be
in making his escape; but his wife and fore the camp the praetorian bands were
daughter with his brother were made pris drawn up under arms. The followers
oners. of the British chief walked in proces
This was as sad a day for Britain as Hast sion. The military accoutrements, the
ings; a battle as well fought against the harness and rich collars, which he had
conquerors of the world. But the Britons gained in various battles, were displayed
with their usual perseverance and determi with pomp. The wife of Caractacus, his
nation, resolved not to yield to a foreign i daughter and his brother followed next: he
master while there remained life and hope. himself closed the melancholy train. -The
With all their adverse fortune, the people rest of the prisoners, struck with terror,
were only hushed into silence,not sub descended to the mean and abject supplicu-
dued. They could not complacently think tion. Caractacus alone superior to
of tlie hard and unjust cause which pre misfortune. With a countenance still un
vailed against them, but with just senti altered, not n symptom of fear appearing,
ment determined again to try to retrieve no sorrow, no condescension, he behaved
their disastrous cause upon the first fair with dignity even in ruin."
occasion, as we shall see. When he was brought before Claudius
Caractacus had tied for refuge to the he behaved with his usual dignity, and ad
large state of the Brigantes. He put him dressed the emperor fearlessly. He stated
self under the protection of Carlismandua, his position by birth and fortune; and did
the queen of that people. With the hopes not disguise his resistance to Roman pow
of gaining the favors of the Romans, that er. "My present condition," he continued,
princess betrayed her guest, loaded him "is proportionately a triumph to you. I
in chains and delivered him to his con had arms, men, and horses; I had wealth
queror. Upon this event the Romans had in abundance; can you wonder that I was
great rejoicing; not only in Britain, but in unwilling to lose them? You aspire to
Rome itself. The war had now been con universal dominion ; does it follow that all
tinued for nine years, and it had become to must stretch their necks to receive the
the Romans a deadly and expensive war, yoke? I am now in your power, betrayed,
and they became very anxious to see an not conquered. I stood at bay for years ;
end to it. During all that time Caractacus had 1, like others, yielded without resist
had identified himself with it as its most ance, where would have been my name or
active and efficient agent; and by the Ro your glory? If you are determined on
mans he was looked upon as the heart of vengeance, execute your purpose; it will
the war. They flattered themselves, that, soon be over. But if you bid me live, I
as they now had him in their power, shall always survive in history as one ex
the war was at an end and the conquest ample at least ot Roman clemency."
complete. As evidence of the opinion en Claudius granted him a free pardon; and
tertained of him by the Romans themselves, he, his wife, and daughter, and brother,
we quote the words of Tacitus: "His were released from their fetters. What be
fame was not confined to his native island; came of them is not for certainty known to
it passed into the provinces, and spread all history; but tradition says that some years
over Italy. Curiosity was eager to behold I later they returned to Britain,
the heroic chieftain, who, for such length Ostorius, having enjoyed his triumph,
of time, made head against a great and and the rejoicing of the Romans over it,
powerful empire. Even .at Rome the i soon thereafter began to experience the
128 THE ROMAN PERIOD [Book ii.
reverses of fortune. Contrary to expecta toward evenN, was worn out with anxiety
tion the conquest was not yet accom He sunk under the fatigue and expired, to
plished. The Britons soon rallied and the great joy of the Britons, who saw a
were again upon their defense. A cam| great and able commander, not, indeed,
had been established in the country of the | slain in battle' but overcome by the war."
Silures, and measures taken to connect it Before a successor was appointed, or or-
by a chain of forts with their other estab der restored, Venusius was in command of
lishments in the country. The Britons in the Britons, as successor of Caiactacus,
a body surrounded them, and if they had and gained a considerable victory over the
hot been immediately relieved by rein Romans under Manlius Valens. This
forcement from the neighboring garrisons, Venusius was a considerable figure in
the place would have been taken, and the Britain during these times. He had been
troops cut to pieces. As it was, however, married to Cartismandua, the queen of the
the pr;efect of the camp, eight of the centuri Brigantes who had betrayed Caractacus.
ons, with many of the bravest soldiers, This act of treachery, and her discarding
were killed in the attack. Soon after that her husband, Venusius., and taking to her
.a foraging party, and a detachment sent to bed her armor-bearer, was an act equally
support them, were attacked and put to odious to the people and the Druids; and
the rout. Another body ol troops has been made her unpopular. '* This induced her
sent out by Ostorius and fiercely encoun to seek Roman protection. Venusius be
tered by the natives. Legionary troops came separated from her and firmly at
were sent to their relief. The battle was tached to the interest of the country; and
renewed, for some time upon equal terms, by the Romans he was looked upon as the
but eventually to the defeat of the Britons next in ability and importance after Carac
without any great loss. From that time tacus; but in British history and tradition,
the Britons kept up a constant alarm. it is said that Arviragus was the successor
Frequent battles and skirmishes were as. pendragon. The country had become
fought. Detachments and parties were at every way much distracted. Aulus Didi-
tacked in unexpected places, and making us Gallus was sent by the emperor, Nero,
it dangerous to be at any place not pro to take command as successor of Os
tected by a large army. The natives were torius. He was a man of great ability
still actuated with hopes to expel their and experience, but aged, lie was soon
enemies, and led on, sometimes bv their able, however, to restore confidence by
chiefs and sometimes without them, to i some decided success against the Britons,
seek every opportunity to take advantage | lie remained in command but a few years,
and annoy their enemies, as resentment or and without any extension of the Roman
a good opportunity excited them. "Of all j conquest. He was succeeded by Veranius,
the Britons," says Tacitus, 'the Silures | who died within a year, without accom
were the most determined. They fought plishing anything more than maintaining
with obstinacy, with inveterate hatred. It the position they bad already acquired '"
seems ihe Roman general had declared,
that the very name of the Silures must be 16. Tacitus History, B. iii, $-(5.
extirpated. . . . That expression reached 17 II is difrkult to establish the precise ihlt-s and
the Silures and aroused their fiercest pas event* between the death of Osloriiu, [A. I'. C. SoS,
A. D. 55! and the accession of Suetonius, [A. I'. C.
sions. Two auxiliary cohorts, whom the Sij, A. D. foj a period of five years of the most ca
lamitous time to the Roin.in^ in Britain: and Tacitus
avarice of their officers sent in quest of says of it "a dreadful calamity befell the army in
plunder, were intercepted by that ferocious mustBritain;" but does not inform us what it was. Biit it
be the dfle.it nfthe armv under Manlius Valen*
people, and all made prisoners." This by Venusins tlie then British chiett.un. That affair
was so jrreat a matter as to be looked upon by the
success brought on a new confederacy of Kom.m peuple .is "a dreadful calamity." Thutevenl
the neighbori-g states, and rendered the took place after Osturius' dc:tth, and before Didius
assumed command. (See Taciti.s' Annals, B. xiv
condition of things daily more dangerous |2Q, and Apricola $14.) The same ye.ir that Ostori-
us died, witnessed also the death of Claudius, and
o the Romans. "Ostorius, bv these un- the accession of N'ero-as emperor of Rome. .
Chap, i.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN. 129
These were gloomy times for the Romans, | moral and religious teachings, aroused the
ami their success in retaining Britain was j people to an active sense of their duty to
as much accomplished bv the means they \ themselves and country, and to those ob
u-ed in distracting the country and divide j jects of love aiul attachment which are
the different states, as by the force of their everywhere honored under the name of
arms. Wherever there was a prince or patriotism. These subjects would be "low-
government in dissatisfaction, or a weak ingly dilated upon by their bards, until the
one that they could Hatter or inveigle, they general spirit of the people were aroused to
were sure to do it; for their policy was "to do or die. These elements were more
divide and conquer." This was done at hateful, If not more fearful, to the Romans
<mv cost, where it was dangerous to plun- j than the military. Long before was this
<ier and gain bootv. To such trail princes j order of men suppressed in Gaul; and con-
tiiev would assign territorv, over which j trary to the principles of the Romans as to
thev would rule to the interest and satis- the toleration of any religion or morality
faction of Roman power. "Exhibiting," \ in other countries, they had ordered the
>avs Tacitus,!!- "a striking proof of that re- j Druids to be suppressed, as the avowed
lined policv, with which it has ever been enemy of Roman power. Suetonius, from
the practice of Rome, to make even kings motives of interest and means of success,
accomplices in the servitude of mankind." was determined to execute this Roman de-
| cree, and destroy the Druids in Britain.
f2.-S,,rt<>;,<.< to A^na-t,,, A. D. 61 to 78. '. ,,reviolls to this invasion of thc Romans,
Eighteen years had now transpired since the Sreat central resort of the Druids was
Flautius entered upon the conquest of the valley of the Southern Avon (the Alan-
Britain, and the Roman conquest still re- nas ol" lhe Romans; ; for there was their
mained within the lines by him establisUed. ! great temple Stonchenge, the most dense
The affairs and condition of the country population, and the greatest improvement,
were in a most deplorable situation ; and , Bllt Vespasian had, many years before
those of the Romans in Britain were equal Suetonius' time, thoroughly subjugated
ly >o. Suetonius was now sent as govern that interesting part of the country to Ro
or of Britain, and Roman interest stood man power, and made it dangerous for
much in need of such a man.' He was an Druids to be there; who had fled for safety
officer of great merits, experience and ac- to the isle of Mona, and deserted their
tivity, and with all deliberate and judicious. 8real temple to go to neglect and ruin. It
He inspired hope and some confidence into was Suetonius' first determination, after
the deplorable affairs ol the Roman armv. Peace and ordcr withi" hi" lilles- to extend
The command given him introduced him his conquest over Cambria and Mona; to
at once into a field where the succcess of ' brinS those resolute people to subjection
th Britons had been such that it required and exterminate the Druids, who were so
of him the greatest activitv and vigilance, obnoxious to him. On this subject his
-A more active campaign'," says Tacitus, nc'xv resolution was as fixed as that of
"had never been known, nor was Britain O-torius had Iteen. The Silures and Or-
-at any time so fiercely disputed." He had dovice* were to be the first people he de-
not only the military elements of the termined to subdue and conquer. He,
country to contend with, but also its moral therefore, with all the force he could mus-
jmd religious instructions. Suetonius had j ter "iade a r"P'd mareh to the west, crush-
been made well aware of the influence the i '"S every opposition as he passed on his
Druids had upon th pirit and patriotism ' "'a.v through the country of the Ordovices,
ol the people. He knew that they in their until he came to the banks of the Menai
Strait, which separated him from Mona,
i*> Atrrit'iM.t, ji\U. in which lie gives :i rcni;irk;ihle thc object now of his hatred and devasta-
inslitncc ofs-.u-h policy.
i H-.iuiimis Suelonius, appointed by Xcro < I". C.
tation. So far the march of his legions
SJ4, A. D. 61.) Set Tacitus' Ann., B. xiv, jzg. ( under thc Roman eagles had been unob
130 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
strueted ; the old B ritish roads facilitating citing information of a rebellion raised in
his movements, and the country afforded the eastern part of Britain. This was pro
him forage and sustenance as he proceeded. duced by a revolt of the Icenians caused
But now he was obstructed by the beauti by such outrage on the part of the Roman*.
ful Strait, a new Bosphorus, which must which produced sympathy and union with
be crossed. On the other side, on Mona, I the injured throughout the whole country,
had been gathered many of the people and : This brought forth a renewal of the war in
the Druids with hopes of protection and : its most terrible aspect, and one the most
safety. But this obstruction did not long renowned in the history of the country.
delav the experienced general ; for he or The late king of the Icenians, in a long
dered boats to be constructed for the trans and prosperous reign, had accumulated
portation of his men, and his cavalry to much wealth, and was celebrated for his
either ford or swim. All were busy and i wishes. With the hopes of making secure
excited on both sides; the one in prepara- to his family and people, a part of what he
tion to cross and conquer, on the other to owned, he made his will, bequeathing the
defend, ;md, if needs be, to die for their whole in equal shares between the emper
country. But the decree had gone forth or and his two daughters; and placing them
that Mona must be subdued, and no longer and his kingdom under the protection of
afford an asylum tor the Druids, or a refuge j Rome, lie deemed this stroke of policy
for the discontented and enemies of Rome. [ would ensure sufficient protection to his
A Roman,- who wrote from his own mem- | family, and to the interest of his people.
ory, thus describes the scene, in language, But amidst the licentious soldiery, and the
probably some colored, in order to excite corrupt and plundering officers command-
its horror: "On the opposite shore stood | mg in Britain, this was a frail dependence,
the Britons, close embodied and prepared j and a. fatal mistake. Upon his demise his
for action. Women were seen rushing dominions were seized and ravaged, his
through the ranks in wild disorder; their house p;llnged, and his effects taken as ob-
apparel funereal ; their hair loose to the jects of plunder. The widow of Prasuta-
wind, bearing flaming torches in their jus, the late king, attempted to resist the^e
hands, and their w hole appearance resem- wrongs, which onlv produced greater out-
bling Furies. The Druids standing around, I rages. She was taken and infamously
with uplifted hands invoking the aid of scourged with stripes; and her daughters
heaven, and pouring forth imprecations taken away from her by the officers, in
upon their enemies. The novelty of the wanton license, and dishonored. The peo
sight struck the Romans with awe and ter- ple were treated as slaves, and their prop-
ror. They stood in stupid amazement, un- j ertv as lawtul prize. These acts of outrage
able to move; but the exhortation of the and tyranny aroused the whole country in
general inspired new vigor in the ranks, a revolt; who chose rather than to submit
and the men excited each other with re- I to such injuries and insults, to abide the
proache* at their disgrace. They felt the ; result of their rebellion, let the consequen-
reproach, advanced their standards, and I ces be what they might. The Icenians im-
rusheii with impetuous fury to the attack; mediately rushed to arm*, and the neigh-
bore down their opponents, and involved boring state joined them in a new confed
them in their own tires. The island fell; eracy against the Romans. An army was
a garrison established to retain it in sub- brought into the field, and Boadicea came
jection ; and the religious groves were lev- forth to receive the sympathy and homage
el led to the ground." of her people. Everywhere the men rush
While Suetonius was thus busily engaged ed to arms indignant at their injuries, and
in bringing the island into subjection, and determined to revenge A sense of a iu*t
exterminating the Druids, he received ex resentment united them in any enterprise
which promised to punish their enemies or
t Tiu-itiis1 Annuls, B. xiv, redress their wrongs.
Chap. I .] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
The Romans and their allies, becoming
frightened by these just demonstrations,
and conscience-stricken with a sense of the
injustice that they themselves had per
petrated, became fearful of the consequen
ces, thought they saw terrible signs in the
heavens, and heard woful forebodings from
many objects on earth.3 Suetonius, almost
the only one who preserved his equanimity
upon hearing this news, and being well
aware of the frightful storm which then
threatened them, hastened back from An
glesey (Mona) to London ; passing through
the heart of the country, with the hopes to
awe the people into subjection. But they
felt their injuries too deeply, and too sensi
tively imbued with the hopes and justice
of their course for that. As he proceeded
he gathered in his forces to meet the coin
ing storm. Previous to his arrival the
Britons had attacked the principal colony
probably at Colchesterand the inhabit
ants, for safety, had gathered within a tem
ple erected there by the Romans. This
was soon surrounded, besieged and taken ;
and the inhabitants slaughtered. Petilius
Cerealis, who commanded a neighboring
camp, marched with his legion to the relief
of the colony ; was met by the Britons,
flushed with their recent victory, who at
tacked him, put his legion to rout, and cut
his infantry to pieces. Cerealis escaped
with his cavalry to'his intrenchments. The
procurator of the province, being alarmed
at the scene around him, and fearing the
indignation of the people on account of his
tyranny, fled to Gaul for safety. On the
arrival of Suetonius at London, he saw
the precarious situation of aflairs, and the
preservation of the place so hopeless, that
he came at once to consider whether it was
not his duty to abandon it, and to concen
trate his forces at some place further in the
interior, where he would have a larger
force and greater hopes of success. Against
the urgent remonstrance of the people, he
determined to abandon London to its fate.
The people were permitted either to follow
his army, or remain where they were;
those who remained, being either Romans
3 Tacitus, who remembered these mutters of which their patriotism. She referred to the in
he wrote, is eloquent in describing them.
9
or traitors to the British cause, were soon
captured and put to the sword. Verula-
num, another Roman colony, and London,
then as well as now the commercial em
porium, were equally unfortunate. Taci
tus assures us, that the unfortunate people
thus slaughtered amounted to seventy
thousand, all citizens or allies of Rome.
The forces that Suetonius was able to
collect together amounted only to about
ten thousand men ; but these were mostly
veterans. With these he was determined
to bring on immediately a decisive engage
ment. With this view he selected an ad
vantageous situation, so surrounded as to
protect him from ambuscades; and where
his opponents had no approach except in
front. The army was posted and disposed
of by their general with that skill and abil
ity characteristic of a Roman veteran. It
was otherwise with the Britons. They had
an immense army, but had neither of their
great generals to command them,neither
Caswallawn, nor Caradoc, nor Arvaragus,
nor Venusius or Arthur. They had no ex
perience in discipline, and were over
confident in their numbers and enthusiasm.
The army was arranged in immense num
bers, but in irregular divisions bv states, on
the plains in front of their enemy. Being
confident of success, they thought they
had him within their grasp, and acted ac
cordingly. In their confidence thcv invited
their wives and daughters to come in car
riages and chariots, to witness their success
and triumph.
The queen, Boadicea, rode forth in a
chariot, elegantly dressed and ornamented
with a golden girdle. Her yellow or auburn
hair, properly clasped, hanging to her
waist; and displaying in her gestures the
white complexion of her arms,character
istic of her race; with her injured daugh
ters sitting before her She drove through
the ranks, and addressed the men in ap
propriate terms for the occasion. Both
Tacitus and Dion give her a speech, and
'attempt to repeat it; so that there can be
but little dovibt that she harangued her
troops in a manner well adapted to raise
tolerable injuries received by herself and
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
daughters, which was responded to with ir
repressible indignation by every Briton.
She appealed to her people to expel the
unmerciful tyrants and plunderers from
their shores;to imitate the glorious deeds
of their forefathers, and save their country
and freedom. Her resolution, she said,
was fixed, not to survive the defeat of her
people on that day.
Suetonius was equally engaged to en
courage and raise the spirits of his t'Oops;
and upon doing so, he gave the signal for
the attack. The Britons advanced with
ardor to meet them ; but the Romans had
the advantage in the attack, for they ad
vanced in a narrow front between the ele
vated grounds which protected their flanks ;
and thus like a wedge entered the heart of
the British army. Then the auxiliary
troops and cavalry of the Romans rushed
on their flanks, with a force and shock so
unexpected to the Britons, that it threw
them into confusion, if not into a panic.
Of this the discipline and steadiness of the
Romans took advantage, and the defeat
soon became complete. The Britons fled ;
but in their retreat they were obstructed by
their carriages and chariots in their rear,
so that the Romans came upon them in
the midst of the obstruction, and slaugh
tered without mercy and without regard to
age or sex. It is said by Tacitus that
eighty thousand persons were thus slaugh
tered, while on the part of the Romans
only four hundred were killed and about
the same number wounded.4 All people
have occasionally met with such reverses,
which are oftener attributable to over-con
fidence in superior numbers than the want
<| Such is the substance of the account of the battle
as given by Tacitus. Tut there is reason to believe
that the battle was nol so easily pained; nor the re
sult so terrible to the Unions; though truly a calam
itous defeat. Mr. Vaughan says: " The first charge,
however, did not decide tile fortune of that dreadful
day. The Britons rallied once and again. The
legionaries were in danger of beinjf exhausted; but
the issue was in their favor. The natives, once dis
ordered, the wagons served to impede their (light,
and the destruction which followed was horrible."
Another historian, who assumes to take his author
ity from Dion Cassias, says : "The fortune of the day
towards sunset inclined to the Romans. The Britons
were driven back within their entrenchment, leaving
large numbers dead on the field or prisoners in the
hands of the enemy. In the course of the night
Boadicea died a natural death, which put an end to
the contest in lh.it part qf Britain."
[Book n.
of the proper courage and resolution of a
good soldier or patriot. That night, as she
predicted, Boadicea did not survive the
dreadful calamity of her country.
Suetonius was determined to follow up
his success in this battle, by pressing se
vere measures upon the Britons until he
should suppress all opposition, and compel
them to submission. For this purpose
large reinforcements were sent to him from
Germany by order of the imperial govern
ment. This enabled the commander to-
strengthen every post within his lines,
where any danger was apprehended.
Wherever any rebellion manifested itself,
or was apprehended, the country around
was laid w'aste with fire and sword. These
severe measures of the merciless Roman
general brought on opposition and conten
tion from some of his own officers, as be
ing unnecessarily severe and cruel. They
believed the Britons to be a peaceable and
passive people, when well treated; but
courageous and vindictive when ill used
and oppressed. They contended that more
conciliatory measures would be more po
litic and successful. These representations
were made to the emperor, and efforts
made to have Suetonius removed.5 To
these difficulties was added that of a severe
famine, brought on by the war, and the dis
tracted state of the country. The emper
or, at length, was induced to make an in
quiry, and sent his freedman, Polycletus, to
inquire into the state of Britain. This
man came upon his high and import
ant mission in the spirit of an upstart;
everywhere making ostentatious display
of his power and importance, which, on
the part of the officers of the government,
were everywhere submitted to with hum
ble complacency ; but, says Tacitus, "his
magnificent airs, and assumed importance,
met with nothing from the Britons hut
contempt and derision. Notwithstanding
the misfortunes of the natives, the flame of
liberty was not extinguished. The exor
bitant power of a manumitted slave was a
novelty which those islanders could not
digest. They saw an army that fought
5 Tacitus' Annals, B. xiv,
Chap. I.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
with valor, and a general who led them to
victory; but both were obliged to wait the
nod of a wretched bondman." This vain
creature made a favorable report, and Sue
tonius was continued in his command a
while longer. But soon events happened
which caused his removal. He was suc
ceeded by Petronius Turpilianus, who had
just served out a consulship. He com
menced his rule under the policy which
had been pointed out in opposition to his
predecessor. He saw the kind and obliging
disposition of the Britons, and forbore to
provoke any hostilities; which produced,
a* its natural results, the fair fame of an
administration of peace.
From the termination of the administra
tion of Suetonius to the commencement of
that of Agricola, there transpired sixteen
years.6 During that period the times were
verv unpropitious;much confusion, bad
administrations and crimes in the Roman
government, both at home and in Britain.
After Turpilianus, came Maximus, then
Bolanus, then Cerealis, and lastly Fron-
tinus. The first three who ruled for nine
years, pursued a peaceful administration
within their lines; while Arviragus and
Venusius, as the British- chieftains, were,
on the outside of those lines, keeping and
restraining the Roman power within those
bound*. The peninsula of Cornwall, all
Cambria west of the Severn, and thence
to the Humber, and all north of that line,
was still in the possession and under the
government of the Britons. When Cerealis
was appointed by Vespasian, it was with a
view to change the state of things in Bri-
tain; and therefore an able and experienced
officer was sent there. Cerealis immediate-
ly fell upon the Brigantes, a state with the
6 From A. D. 62 to 78. The following list gives the names of ihe first Re
during the conquest, with the dales, of thi'ir appointment
1. Aulus Plautius, sent by the Emperor Claudius
2. Puhlius Ostorius Scapula,
3. Aulus Diilius,
4. CJuinlus Vuranius,
5. Suetonius Paulinus,
rt. Petronius Turpelinnus,
?. Trehellius Maxim-.s,
. Vetiius Bolanus, -
9. Pvtilius Cerealis,
40. Julius Frontinus
ir. Cneius Julius A^rk-iila,
Which makes this period, In >imnfiiceiiient (it tht1 conquest A. I). 43 t
service in 5, in all 42 years.
'33
most numerous population, and extensive
territory. Numerous battles were fought
with various success; much blood was
spilt, and where the country did not sub
mit it was involved in all the calamities of
war. When he was succeeded by Fron-
tinus, the same state of things continued,
and he carried the war against the Silures.
After a most severe struggle with these
people, so distinguished for their able and
obstinate resistance to the Roman con
quest, this experienced general was able to
reduce the country to submission. It was
in this war that Arviragus and Venusius
fought their last battle for their country
and the freedom of their people. The first
named was the younger son of Cymbeline,
and, after Caradoc was taken prisoner, was
the pendragon, or chief in command of the
Britons. He fought in all those battles
with Plautius, at the commencement of the
conquest in Eastern Britain; was the gen
eral who commanded in those numerous
and terrible battles with Vespasian and
Titus, along the line of the Avon; and then
in all those fearful contests with the Ro
man generals in the West, and Siluria.
Until Agricola was able, when supported
by the power of the Roman empire, to
suppress the war, and subdue that part of
the country, this hero, for nearlv forty
years, was in continued service and battle
for his country and its freedom, and always
with the most disinterested and self-sacri
ficing patriotism. When he fell and ceased
to oppose the ambitious advance of Roman
power, Juvenal in poetic terms announced
! the glad tidings to the Roman people, that,
' "Our great enemy Arviragus, the car-borne
\ British king, had fallen front his battle
| throne." Few heroes of any age are so
of Hritain
served 7 yt
Claudius
Claudius
Claudius
Ne o -
Nc >
lasian
^asian
Vespasian
Ajfricola's
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
much entitled to patriotic commendation
as this cousin of Caractacus, and so little
known. Venusius, too, the hero of the
Brigantes, was well worthy of being the
distinguished associate of his chief. These
two distinuished generals of the Britons,
from their long service in active conflicts
for the right, and the demands of old age,
now gave way .to the more youthful service
of Galgacus, a chief of Strath-Clyde
Britons, who is now about to rise to add
new luster to the heroes of Scotland, and
to the distinguished generals of Britain.
3. Ajffifola to Snrras, A. D. 78 to 193.
In A. D. 78 C.Julius Agricola was ap
pointed by Vespasian governor of Britain,
and took command there. He was a gen
eral of great experience and ability; had
long before .-erved in the wars in Britain,
and was well acquainted with its people.
Though a Roman general, he was kind and
humane;particularly characterized with
good sense and judgment. Of all the Ro
mans he was the best adapted to conciliate
and subdue the Britons by a just and kind
government; and to refrain from those acts
which would justly provoke indignation
and resentment. He commenced his ad
ministration by giving evidence of an un
doubted good intention towards the inhab
itants, and to reform all those flagrant
abuses of which they justly complained,
and which, undoubtedly, was the principal
cause of continuing the unhappy war. But
the war was on hand and had to be closed ;
and those who still continued it did not
know his kind intention, and 'were taught
by sad experience to hold the Romans as
their most cruel and deadly enemies. His
first object was to bring to an end the fatal
war which had been prosecuted bv Cerealis
and Frontinus in Cambria. Thither he
marched his army, and by a decisive vic
tory gained in a severe battle with the Or-
doviccs in North Wales, he spread a knowl
edge of the general they had to deal with ;
but what was still more important for the
preservation of peace, he also at tne same
time took every means and occasion to sat
isfy them, that he was their friend and pro
tector. This policy soon produced a re
[Book
conciliation with the several states in that
part of the country, which had been en
gaged in the war ; and peace was restored.
"That peace," says Tacitus, "which, through
the neglect or connivance of former gov
ernors was no less terrible than war itself,
began to diffuse its blessings, and to be
relished by all." This historian and
biographer is eloquent and happy in de
scribing all the means Agricola took to
restore the people to confidence, and the
arts, peace and civilization. He found the
people highly capable of appreciating im -
provements and learning; and he by all
honorable appliances encouraged them in
it. Instead of the devastation produced by
the war, the country began to exhibit, in
some measure, its restoration to its former
happy condition; to which were added
such arts and improvement as might be
borrowed from the Romans. This induced
the people to settle down into a permanent
and durable peace.
In the meantime, after the first campaign,
and after all the south had submitted, Ag
ricola was obliged to pursue five or six
other severe but successful campaigns, in
order to reduce to subjection that part of
the island north of the Humber and the
Mersey. This was the great war in which
Galgacus acquired his deservedly great re
nown. He first proceeded against the
Brigantes and brought them to submission.
His third and fourth campaigns were oc
cupied in bringing to Roman subjection
the British states occupying the country
north of the Brigantes and south of the
waters of the Forth. Galgacus and the
Britons, after disputing with Agricola
every favorable locality, was compelled to
withdraw north of the Forth. According
to Roman policy elsewhere in Britain, the
Roman general was determined" to secure
what he had taken possession of by a line
of intrenchments, stations and fortifications
from the Forthnear Edinburgto the
mouth of the Clyde. This fortified line
was intended as a means of Compelling the
North Britons to keep north of it, and se
cure to the Romans all south of it; but
such intention turned out to be very de
lusive. In after ages the northern people
Chap i.] THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
found it hut little obstruction to their pro
gress south. Agricola determined that this
line should not be the terminus of his
progress north. In the fifth campaign he
placed a large fleet in alliance with his ar
my in a progress he made along the north
east coast, for some considerable distance
north of the Forth. In this campaign all
the forces at his command were most sin
gularly combined, and most heartily enter
ed into the attempt to conquer this north
ern land; and the legion allies, cavalry,
engineers and sailors, all united in one ef
fort; very creditable to the tact and skill of
the general, but which produced but a very
temporary conquest. At the end of the
campaign his fleet was ordered to proceed
north around the island, and return south
on the west side; which was done, and
then the Romans for the first time were
assured that Britain was an island.
But Galgacus was still at liberty to op
erate with his Britons against the Romans
whenever a fair opportunity presented it
self. This Agricola determined should not
be. He therefore prepared his sixth cam
paign against him, and marched north
from the valley of the Forth, for the pur
pose of bringing him to a decisive engage
ment. He came up with him at the foot
of the Grampian hills, where was fought
one of the most celebrated battles of
Britain. On the side of Galgacus there
was a greater union of diverse elements of
people than in any former battle. There
were the Caledonians, who possessed the
northwest and were the ancestors of the
Scotch and Highlanders. They were of
the blood of the ancient Gauls the primi
tive Celtsknown as the Gaels. There
were then also the men of another family
from the northeastthe ancestors of the
Picts. These were Cyinry who fled from
the Roman conquest in the south, to the
north, seeking the protection of a hardier
soil and a hardier climate; though its ten
dency was to render them more barbarous.
They were the men who fondly adhered to
that favored word of their ancestors,the
Aber.1 There were also the people of Gal
i The word Aher, as the beginning of a n.ume for feldie, Aberdeen, and numerous others in both coun
places, is as numerous in Northeastern Scotland as tries, but no where else.
135
gacusthe Cymry from Strath-CIvde.
Thus was united as one people the Gael
and Cymry united as Celts, fighting the
last battle for Britain.
At last the two armies were drawn up in
battle, arrayed opposite to each other, ready
for the conflict. The commanders of each
being thoroughly imbued with the import
ance of the result, made long and passion
ate harangues to his respective army, im
pressing upon them the importance ol the
occasion, and enlisting their men to an ex
ertion equal to its importance. All saw
that on one side the issue was country and
freedom ; on the otherRoman dominion,
honor and life itself. They became impa
tient on either side, and excited for the en
gagement. The Roman general had placed
his ten thousand auxiliary infantry in the
center of his line, and his cavalry, about
three thousand, divided upon each flank.
The legions were stationed in the rear at
the head of the intrenchments as a reserve,
only to be used in case extreme necessitv
required it, as Roman blood was consider
ed too precious to be exposed upon any
less occasion. Galgacus had his army
marshalled with equal skill. His first line
was mustered in a long line near the foot
of the hill, with the plain in front of them.
The second line further up on the hill. His
army being most numerous, enabled him
to extend his lines to a great extent, which
induced Agricola also to extend his line;
which enfeebled it, and rendered it danger
ous to his safety. Considerable space was
left on the plain between these contending
armies. This space was occupied by the
chariots and cavalry of Galgacus who
rushed to and fro, creating great excite
ment, and impressing their enemies with
their power. Agricola, having fully ob
served all before him, and confident in his
position, dismounted, took his posi'.ion near
the colors of his infantry, where he knew
the greatest danger would be, and gave the
signal for battle. While the battle was
fought at a distance from the respective
army, with missive weapons, the North
in \Valcs,as Aberystwith, Abergnvennv, Aburdaie
in Walt's. So we find in Scotland Abernethy, Abcv-
'36 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Britons were gaining the advantage, as was
observed in the great battle with Caracta-
cus. With missive, light weapons the
Britons were superior to the Romans; but
when these came in close quarters, where
their superior weapons, shields and discip
line would have their full advantage, the
Romans everywhere had the advantage,
and were successful. The Roman general
therefore ordered some of his cohorts to
make a charge. This produced its expect
ed effects. The cohorts used their short,
heavy swords with dexterity, and cut di
rectly through the light shields of the
Britons into their heads and bodies. Other
cohorts followed the example with the same
success. With this part of the army all
was giving way before the Romans. But
the Caledonian horsemen and charioteers
came with such a furious charge upon the
Roman cavalry, that they in turn gave way
to this enthusiastic onslaught. The nar
rowness of the plain, and the inequalities
of the ground, prevented proper military
movements, and great confusion ensued.
Horses without a rider and chariot deprived
of its master, were madly running in every
direction and adding more noise and up
roar to the confusion. On seeing this the
Caledonians on the hill in reserve, descend
ed to aid their brethren in the strife, and
attempted to outflank the enemy and attack
them in the rear. But Agricola having
some of his cavalry still at his command,
ordered them to charge this reserve. They
did so, and cutting their way through,
turned and charged them again in the rear.
This successtul movement and charge pro
duced a crisis in the struggle, and decided
the fate of the day. All now was irretriev
ably lost to the Britons, and became indis
criminate slaughter and carnage. Some
of the Caledonians fled to save themselves ;
others refused to do so, resolutely determ
ined to sell their lives dear as possible, like
brave men devoted to their country. Night
only put a stop to the pursuit and carnage.
All was lost to Caledonia an.1 to Britain,
and to Rome nothing gained but the battle.
The next morning the Romans found
nothing but a solitary and devastated land,
for the inhabitants had fled from it, having
[Book ii.
burnt their houses and destroyed everything
which gave any evidence that that part of
the land had ever been inhabited. It is
said this battle cost the lives of ten thous
and men to the Britons; with not as many
hundred to the Romans. But notwith
standing this victory, Agricola and the
Romans were never able to hold any part
of Scotland, for any length of time, north
of his line of fortification between the
Forth and the Clyde.
Agricola, A. 0.85, was recalled by a bad,
and je;ilous, and vicious master, the em
peror Domitian, after having served as
governor of Britain seven years. Of all
those who ruled Bri'ain in that capacity,
he was the best, and best qualified to rule
the people, for their own interest and for
that of the state. Had he been permitted
to remain there it would have been a great
blessing to the people and country. He
was succeeded by a Lucullus, who was dis
tinguished for nothing in history except as
an inventor of some improvement in arms ;
but to Britain was of no account.
With Agricola the wars of the conquest
may be considered as terminated. During
that time, a period of forty-two years,2
Britain experienced but little else than a
series of calamities, but maintained com
mendable and glorious efforts in opposition
of that wicked conquest, and in an endeav
or to preserve her independence and free
dom. At its commencement she had been
making a most laudable progress in im
provements and civilization. She then
had a large population with cultivated
fields, numerous houses, and vast herds of
cattle. She had cities and towns fa^t grow
ing to cities; extensive systems of roads,
which the Romans turned to their own use
in accomplishing her conquest; she had
commerce and shipping; and used coined
money in her traffic. The arts were mak
ing progress, with a chosen body of men,
the elite of the people, whose duty it was
to teach and instruct them in religion,
morals, and the arts ; who were fond of
literature, poetry and music. All this
progress, improvement and hope must be
From A. D. 43 to 85.
Chap, i.j THE ROMAN RULE TO DIOCLETIAN.
forcibly put down to gratify Roman ambi
tion and robbery ;to compel them to pay
tribute as compensation for injustice, and
oppression; but which was resisted "with
genius and talents,with patriotism and
perseverance, that has become the admira
tion of history, and never excelled. But
the war is now over; and Britain is to be
gin a new career, under the oppression of
supporting a foreign government, with a
large standing army to enforce their tribute
and unjust demands; with a large portion
of their population having been slaughter
ed, and their country having been terribly
devastated by war. But submission was
compelled by the irresistable decrees of the
sword, and henceforth Britain suffered or
endured a bad, or a better government, in
common with Rome herself.
The Roman people, always selfish and
cruel, had degenerated into luxury, volup
tuousness and wickedness; even into total
disregard of the rights of humanity, as to
require innumerable lives to be sacrificed
to gratify a vicious curiosity, in their
slaughter by gladiatorial exhibition ; and
to demand the fattest of slaves to feed their
fish ponds. This disregard of humanity
produced with it all manner of corruption
and perversion of morals. In the midst of
this degeneracy, the government itself be
came more and more degenerate. Still
there were times when the government
would be improved, and appear like an
oasis in the midst of a general degeneracy
and depravity. In ten years after the re
call of Agricola by Domitian, that "unre
lenting and insatiate tyrant,"3 the world
was relieved of this vile and cruel monster,
by the hands of an assassin, (A. D. 96,) af
ter an inglorious reign of fifteen years.
Britain had now become so much a part of
the Roman empire as to suffer or rejoice
in the good or bad character of the emper
or whom destiny placed over her. Upon
the departure of Domitian, it was the good
fortune of Rome to enjoy the consecutive
rule of five wise and just, if not really the
good emperors, for more than eighty
years;1 until the accession of Commodus in
3 Tacitus' History, B, v, Appendix, 23.
4 These were Ncrva in A. D. 96, Trajan
'37
A. D. 180; in which the people of Britain
enjoyed its benign and peaceful blessings
in common with those of Rome. Of these
distinguished emperors, two of them
Adrian and Antoninus Piuswere particu
larly attentive to the interest of Britain.
The former, while making a tour of inspec
tion throughout the empire, visited Britain
in A. D. 119. This visit was made for the
purpose of rendering himself better ac
quainted with the wants and interests of
the provinces. While in Britain, for the
purpose of rendering South Britain more
secure from invasions by the Caledonians
and Picts, he ordered the celebrated wall,
first erected by Agricola and finally rebuilt
by Severus, to be rebuilt or renovated, from
the Tyne to the Sol way Firtb. His wall
was built of earth and sod, with a large
ditch on the north or outside of it; and
protected at proper intervals with forts and
towers. This was done in A. D. 120, in
consequence of frequent invasions disturb
ing the South. Twenty years later in the
reign of Antoninus Pius, Lollius Urbicus,
his governor of Britain, cleared the terri
tory north of the Adrian wall to the north
ern wall of Agricola; and substantially re
built that wall from the Forth to the
Clvde.*
Adrian in 117, Antoninus in 138, Marcus Aurehus
from lOi to iSo. Adrian is often written Hadrian;
Anloninus called Antoninus Pius; and Marcus Aure-
lius Antoninus. Gibbon calls these two the two An-
tonines. i Gibbon's Hist,, ch. lii, p. 38.
5 \V*e have from time to lime noticed the custom of
Roman gunerals in Britain, that when they had sub
dued any portion of the territory they secured it by a
line of intrenchmonts and fortifications, so as to hold
that secure from its being1 reconquered bv the natives:
as the line of the Thames, the Severn, the Nun, ifcc.
Bui those most noted were the two selected and
adopted bv Ayrirola: i. that from the Tyne to the
Solway; and 2. thai from the Firth of tliu Forth to
the moath of the Clyde These two lines have be
come celebrated in history and antiquities. The
sp;ice between the Forth and the Clyde is not over
thirty miles, and seems almost to cut the island in
two. Upon this line there are to be seen the ruins of
a number (if forts in a regular chain, within a small
distance of each other, nesrinnintf at Dumbarton,
and thence eastward to Arthur's Oven near the Firth
of the Forth. This line was reconstructed under
Antoninus Pius, about A. D. 140. TIi.it work was at
the time substantially done, but no attempt was ever
made to repair it.
H\it the most distinguished and greater work of
the two is the most southern one, from the Tyne to
the Solwav; anil t*cnL.r;illy known by the appella
tion of "tne wall of Severns." This line selected by
Ayricola about A. D. Si, was afterwards vc.rv thor
oughly and substantially repaired and strengthened
by 'Annan about A. D. 120. But what rendered it so
remarkable'and durable work was that of the Em-
'38 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
From this time to A. D. 208, when the
emperor Severus came to Britain, a period
of nearly seventy years, history gives us
but little information as to Britain, or who
ils rulers were; and the same remark
might also be made of the previous fifty
years, except during a portion of the time
of Adrian and Antoninus. During those
times, so vacant in history, we know but
little of the actual condition of the people,
or the progress made by them. We learn
more about York and its vicinity, than of
the Thames, or that which lies south of it.
It is claimed by British writers that the
south was in a great measure under their
own rulers and laws, either as independent
princes or tributaries to Rome; and there
are many reasons to believe that this was
substantially true.
4.Severus to Diocletian, A.D. 193 to 284.
Severus was elected emperor A. D. 193;
and during the fore part of his reign, Brit
ain was much disturbed both for the want
of a stable and efficient government and
on account of the constant invasions made
by the Caledonians and Picts. The Ro
man historians give us the names of sever
al governors who ruled in Britain during
that time, without being apparently able to
accomplish any decided benefit. At length
one of these governors, Claudius Albinus,
was by the army in Britain declared to be
emperor, and became a formidable rival of
Severus, who was then engaged in the far
east. Albinus crossed over to Gaul, on
his way to Rome, with a view of contest-
peror Severus about A. D. 210. It was then nbout oo
years since the line hiul been repaired by Adrian;
and was then in a much dilapidated state, bein^
oriffinally principally constructed of a ditch and
rampart of earth and -sod. Severus therefore de
termined to build an entire new line a little north of
it. The distance was about 74 miles, beginning 3J4
miles east of New Castle, and ending li miles west
of Carlisle. The wall was built of stone 8 feet thiek,
12 feet hig;h to the base of the battlements; on the
north side there was a ditch 36 ieet wide ;md 15 feet
deep; and on the south a permanent road for the
convenience of passing Irom one end of it to the
other. On the line there was erected, as part of the
work, Si castles and ^30 turrets. So important a
work is a striking evidence of the difficulty encoun
tered in opposing the invaders from the north, and
the importance of doinif so. It seems that the wall
with the army rendered effectual protection to the
south from such invasion, until about the time that
the Roman army and officers were withdrawn from
Britainbeing about 200 years.
[Book lu
ing his claim with his master; taking with
him in his army a large force of Brjtons.
Severus hastened to meet him, and they
came to a severe conflict near Lyons A.
D. 197, each with an army, it is said, of
150,000. At midday the victory appeared
to be decided in favor of the British, who
with a violent charge routed the center of
Severus' army ; who, himself in despair,
fled in disguise from the field. But fresh
troops coming up to his rescue, and attack
ing the Britons in the disorder of the pur
suit, retrieved the otherwise lost battle.
Albinus was taken prisoner and beheaded.
The Britons of the army were sent back,
under Virius Lupus, Severus' lieutenant, as
governor. Lupus did not very well suc
ceed in keeping the northern enemy quiet,
and the country generally was in a distract
ed and lingering condition. This produced
the impatience of Severus, who with his
usual vigor determined to change and re
trieve the affairs of Britain. He came
with a large army, and made York his
headquarters in A. D. 208. He proceeded
with an efficient army and vigorous meas
ures to punish and drive the invaders to
the north. He found the wall of Adrian
to be dilapidated and not worth repairing;
and the difficulties of the country had cost
the lives of many of his soldiers. Though
now aged, and under the necessity of being
carried in a litter, yet he was ever at the
head of his army, pushing vigorously all
his measures For the purpose of secur
ing, at least, the south he ordered a new
wall to be built, near the line of that built
by Adrian, from the Tync to the Sol way.
This was now to be very substantially
built of stone, with many improvements
in the engineering and art of war, to ren
der it permanent and efficient. In the
midst of these enterprises, before he could
be ready to return to Rome, he sickened
and died atYork A.D.2H. And was suc
ceeded by his two sons, Caracalla and Geta,
both worthless, and inimical to each other;
more of a curse than a benefit to the em
pire. They soon left Britain, where they
were of no benefit to it, to be governed by
the officers and army of the empire, as well
or as indifferent as they might without
Chap, n.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE.
their care or attention. Soon after the CHAPTER II.
death of Severus that part of the island be
tween the wall of Severus and that of An
toninus, was surrendered to the possession
and care of the native government; its
possession being too precarious and too
frequently disputed to be any longer worthy
of the protection and care of the Roman
government.
But the formidable stone wall of Severus
was of great service to South Britain, in
preserving their tranquility and securing
them from invasion from the north. For
no invasion from the north passed that
wall, until long afterwards, when a new
enemy made its appearance under the
name of the Scots and Picts; and then on
ly when the Roman government had be
come far more degenerated and decrepit.
In the meantime the Britons had become and
were considered free citizens of Rome, by a
general decree passed in the reign of Car-
acalla. This boon reconciled the people to
their condition, by being placed in the same
situation, politically and as to the adminis
tration of the law, as other Roman citizens
of the empire. In the long lapse of time
seventy-three yearsfrom the death of
Severus to the accession of Diocletian in
A. D. 284, Rome was governed by twenty
different emperors, four of whom were
good men, many bad and some indifferent ;
but none of them were .able to make a
mark, or produce an epoch in history, like
that which distinguished Diocletian. Dur
ing that undistinguished time no event of
any importance transpired in Britain con
nected with its political or civil history
with Rome. The history of the empire
during that period leaves that of Britain
almost a blank; for their history is gener-
erally silent, except when it is connected
with war and revolutions. But as to the
Britons themselves, as to their domestic,
religious and civil affairs, they did progress,
and have manv interesting facts in their
history which must be left for a chapter on
that subject.
39
THE RULE OF DIOCLETIAN TO THE EXD
OF fHE PERIOD. A. D. 284 420.
gl The Times of Diocletian to the Death of
CoiistaHtius, A. D. 284-306.
In tr?e history of the degenerate era of
the Roman people, the reign of Diocletian
is a striking epoch ; especially to Britain,
as well as to the Roman world. The long
period of seventy-three years, of unimport
ant events since the death of Serverus, had
now come to an end, leaving the history of
Britain almost a blank. There now came
a period of more stirring and interesting
events; but nothing to save the downward
course in the decline and fall of the Roman
empire. Upon the election of Diocletian,
his attention was called to a people who
then began to vex his empire, and who
never ceased to trouble Britain. They
were known as the Saxons, and had become
distinguished as pirates, engaged in plun
dering every cultivated country, along the
shores of Gaul and Britain. In this busi
ness they had become extremely expert, as
well as unscrupulous. It is said that they
had been taught and disciplined in this vo
cation by the result of a singular event,
narrated in the history of the times and re
peated by Gibbon.1 The home of the Sax
ons was the country north of the mouth
of the Rhine, but principally between the
Elbe and the Eider. Some years before
this time the emperor Probus had taken a
colony of Franks from the northwestern
Germany neighbors and relatives of the
Saxonsand settled them on the north
western shore of the Black Sea, with a
view of placing them there, as a barrier
against the inroads of the Huns. The
Franks soon became dissatisfied with their
new home, and determined to return again
to their fatherland. They determined to
do this by water rather than by land ; and
neither the compunction of morals or civ
ilization being in the way, they seized the
shipping in the port as their own property;
and with it sailed across the Black sea,
i Gibbon's Hist., ch. xii, p. 1^3; ;ilso ch. xxv, p.
J40.
140 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
down the Bosphorus, and the Dardanelles,
through the ^Egian and Medlterranian
seas; by the Gibralter, Atlantic and the
British channel to their native home. On
their way every country they passed they
robbed and plundered; every town conve
nient on the way they sacked and pillaged;
and even Syracuse and Carthage ff\\ to
their rapacity. On their return home, they
were the wonder and admiration of North
western Germany; the Saxons admired
their story and adventure; the plunder
shown them excited their cupidity rather
than either their morals or humanity.
The Saxons taught by this example, and
disciplined by some ot" the adventurers,
soon became apt scholars and expert pirates
in their new vocation. They soon became
adept seamen, courting the storms and
waves, and fearing neither dangers nor
death. In the course of their voyages of
piracy and plunder they soon became ob
jects of terror along the coasts of Britain
and Gaul. The shipping in the commerce
between those two countries became the
.-pecial object of their piracies; and every
town an object to be sacked and plundered.
In this exegency Diocletian was called up
on for the aid and protection of the im-
peVial government. It was found to be a
pest difficult to cure. It was found that
when the Saxons were sought for by an
armed fotce, they were not easily to be
found. With their light, shallow and
piratical built vessels, they easily avoided
pursuit by hiding themselves in the shal
low streams and bayous, in the uninhab
ited part of the country; and when there
were frightful storms, they sallied forth re
joicing in the dangers ot the waves, which
permitted no commercial or civilized craft
to be out; anil no part of the country knew
which would be the first to be attacked and
plundered. A large Roman navy was col
lected at Boulogne to protect the country
aml guard against these piracies. But it
was a difficult matter, and the whole coun
try were loud in their cries for protection
and relief. And it was equally difficult to
find an officer of the proper skill and abili-
ties to command the naval force against
them.
[Book u.
In this dilemma an officer known by the
name of Carausius offered his services to
the emperor. He was a skillful and ex
perienced navigator; a man of great re- '
sources and abilities; well acquainted with
Britain and the channel between it and
Gaul. He was sent by the emperor to take
charge of the imperial navy in the British
channel; ana he immediately showed his
skill and success in the object of his ap
pointment. He made Boulogne his head
quarters; and his success against the
piracies of the Saxons and Franks was ap
parent, and the people rejoiced in their im
proved security But it was soon repre
sented to the emperor that Carausius was
becoming faithless. That he was in the
habit of permitting the pirates to pass south
on their voyages of plunder with impunity ;
and only sought to catch them on the re
turn, when he might gain by taking their
plunder,that he was using them as a
sponge, to promote his own interest.
Whether these accusations were true or
false, his sagacity enabled him to see the
danger of his life, and to induce his whole
fleet to turn over to him as independent of
the empire. The great wealth he had ac
quired in the service greatly facilitated this
transaction. The army and people readily
declared for him, and proclaimed him em
peror and governor of Britain.
The revolt of Carausius and his acces
sion to the government of Britain, with
the whole Roman fleet in the British chan
nel, was accomplished A. D. 287; and from
thence for seven years he was the prosper
ous and successful ruler of his country .
The success and ability with which he had
managed the Roman fleet, and suppressed
the Saxon piracy, had rendered him pop
ular with the Britons, and rendered his as
sumption over the government and army
of the country easy; besides the Britons
have ever claimed him as their country
man,as a native of Menapia, now Mene-
via or St. Davids, on the western coast of
Wales. He put his navy into a first rate
order, and commanded with supreme rule,
whatever belonged to the sea, from the
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE. 141
mouth of the Rhine to Gibraltar.1 It was took Constantius, who on account of his
the third time that British naval affairs had pale complexion had received the appella
commanded the attention of European tion of Chlorus. The latter was to see to
powers, and commenced to be the mistress Western Gaul and Britain, while Maximian
of the sea. He was equally successful and was engaged on the Rhine. Carausius had
prosperous in the government of his coun now been in the properous possession of
try ; and perhaps at no time was Britain Britain for five years, and Constantius was
more prosperous. Though a thorough determined if possible to reclaim it, to the
sailor, he was a man of taste, and encour Roman government. Carausius had the
aged the arts. He coined money and possession of Britain ; but also that of
metals ;2 patronized artists, and invited su Boulogne and the adjacent country. Con
perior ones from the continent. He dis- stantius determined first to recapture Bou
played his ability and capacitv to govern to logne,3 and then to retake Britain. After
that extent that the Roman government a long siege the place was taken, and with
acknowledged his rule and independence. it a considerable portion of the British
But in the midst of his prosperous reign fleet. In the meantime Carausius was as
death overtook him, by means of an assas sassinated, and Allectus held the govern
sination, by Allectus, one of his ministers, ment. After much delay Asclepiodatus,
who usurped the government, and held it, the lieutenant of Constantius, succeeded to
against the efforts of the Roman govern evade the British navy, with his army and
ment, for three years longer, A. D. 297. transports, landed safely on the western
In the meantime Diocletian, with all his coast, and immediately burnt his shipping,
abilities, found the administration of so ex as a decisive indication there was to be no
tensive a government as that of Rome to retreat. Allectus immediately marched
be arduous and difficult. He therefore as west to meet his enemy; but his march
sociated with him, in the administration of was so hurried and disorderly, that upon
the government, Maximian, another soldier being soon met he was defeated and slain.
of fortune like himself. Generally the Soon afterwards Constantius landed in
first overlooked the affairs of the east, and Kent, where he found grateful and obedient
Maximian those of the west. He was for subjects. Their loud and unanimous ac
some time engaged in suppressing a dan clamations gave assurance "that they sin
gerous rebellion in Gaul, and restoring it cerely rejoiced," says Gibbon, "in a revolu
to order. After a reign of six years Diocle tion, which, after a separation of ten years,
tian recommended the adoption of two as restored Britain to the body of the Roman
sistants as Ciusars and not as Augustus. empire."
Diocletian selected Galerius, and Maximian Constantius, during the nine years from
1 Pictorial History of England, 10,}. ''The navy of the time he landed in Britain until his
Carausius must have been manned in a vrreat meas death, never left the island ; his principal
ure by hi- own Britons; ami the superiority which it
maintained for years in the surrounding 'seas, pre residence being at York. Of all the per
serving- for its master his islan.l empire against 'the
sons, during this period, into whose hand-*
superb fleets that were built and equipped simul
taneously in all the rivers of the Gaufs to overwhelm the sovereign power of Rome was confid
him,' [quoted from Mamt-rtiiins, and in Britannia af
ter the Romans, p. io,J may he taken as evidence ed, he was the best. With all the ability
that the people of Britain had been lontj familiar and resolution of an active and efficient of
with ships of all description."
Aifiiin, p. 109: "British luiildcrs had acquired conficer, he was kind and affable; and void of
siderable reputation for skill. The- panegyrist,
Eumt-nius, tells us that when t-mjx'ror Constantius the love of that ostentatious show and as
rebuilt the city of Autun, in Gaul, about the end of sumed dignity which sometimes character
the third century, he brought the workmen chiefly
from Britain, which very much abounded with the ized his distinguished associate, Diocletian.
best artificers."
2 See i Giles' History of the- Ancient Britons, 202,
He found Britain, after the death of Allec
where he says: "But a more undoubted source of tus, in a deranged condition and much al-
information for the reign of Carausius in Britain,
are his coins, which remain in such abundance th:it
every one who founds a numiMnatic cabinet may } Then known as Pnrtu.s Itus, Bonaparte's desar,
without difficulty procure a larjfe number ot those if,\; Gesoriacum, i Gibbon, D. & F., ch. xiii, p. 130;
which were struck by Carausius in this island." on maps as Bononia.
 M2 THE ROMAN PERIOD, [Book n.
tered from what it had been under Carausi- upon the most affectionate terms, from the
us; and much afflicted by incursions from time he last entered Britain when the son
its enemies at the north. They were re was eighteen years of age, was now imme
pelled and driven back by Constantius, diately proclaimed emperor in his father's
who soon brought about a prosperous and place. This was thought to be due him by
happy state of affairs in the country, ren the people and army of Britain, as well on
dering him one of the best and most pros account of their grateful rememberance of
perous rulers; and entitling him to the the father, as the birth and merits of the
warm reception the people had given him. son. He had now been with his father
In the meantime changes had taken place about twelve years, receiving his example
in the rulers of Rome. Diocletian had and instruction ; and becoming well ac
been and was the ruling spirit of the time, quainted with all the business and interests
yet he took the extraordinary resolution to of both Britain and the empire. Few men
abdicate all his successful and dazzling ever elevated upon an exalted position, en
powers and to retire to a private life ; and tered it under more favorable auspices. Bv
persuaded his associate, Maximian, to do his merits and illustrious deeds he after
the s.ame.4 This step of the two Augustus, wards acquired the distinction of Constan-
brought forward the two Caesars into their tine the Great. After a limited campaign
positions as emperors of Rome. This in north of the wall of Severus, engaged in
Galerius produced some additional display repelling the constantly recurring inva
of his natural arrogance and love of the sions from the north, this prince left the
exercise of arbitrary power, but in his asso island, being called to the continent by im
ciate, Constantius, it produced not any portant business; and taking with him vast
change in his excellent character. It was number of British youths as addition to his
then thought necessary to select two new army. He never returned to Britain; but
Ca-sars in their places; and this was done until after his death in 337, this country
by Diocletian and Galerius without the seems to have enjoyed a tranquil and pros
consultation of Constantius. perous times, founded upon the reputation
But this produced but little or no effect of the vigor and success of his reign and
on Constantius, who pursued the even ten that of his father.
or of his way, for the prosperity and wel
The elevation of Constantine was resist
fare of his island home, as well as for the
ed by Maximin and Severus; and various
good of the empire. The persons thus
changes and revolutions took place in the
elected to these distinguished positions
administration at Rome, for the following
were known by the names of Maximin
six years, while in the meantime Constan
and Severus, who, until then, were to the
tine was left to rule in the empire west of
public unknown and undistinguished.
the Alps. In 308 so distracted were the
times at Rome, that there were at once six
- Constantinc and his Time, from A.D. emperors contending against each other,
306367. or forming combinations of one set against
The last exploit of Constantius was an another, or engaged in civil war. There
easy victory over the Caledonians, in driv was Galerius, the old emperor: then Max
ing them back within their own dominions. imin and Severus, who had been exalted as
"He ended his life," says Gibbon, "in the Caesars; then Maxentius, the son of Max
imperial palace of York,' fifteen months imian, who had abdicated with Diocletian;
after he had received the title of Augustus, then Licinius, who had been elevated by
and almost fourteen years and a half after the choice of Galerius ; and Maximian, who
he had been promoted to the rank of had returned from his abdication to power.
Caesar." His son, who had been with him All this produced in Rome the utmost con
fusion, corruption, treachery, and civil war.
4 In A. D. 304. Maximian and his son made some attempts
l A. D. 306, July 25. against Constantine, while in Gaul, which
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE. 143
were unsuccessful. During these six years opponents; and they flattered themselves
that Constantine governed Gaul, that coun that their onslaught would be irresistible.
try was in a very unhappy condition, aris But the experience and skill of Constan
ing (rom the war and distracted govern tine enabled him to so order the arrange
ment that had ruled, and the continued ment of his own army as to baffle and de
pressure and invasion of the barbarians feat this formidable attack of the cavalry.
upon it. The demands of the government Upon being so defeated they fled to Turin,
and the taxes the people had to pay be whose gates were unexpectedly shut against
came burdensome and oppressive. Con them. They then fell an easy prey to the
stantine was kept busy in repelling the army from Gaul. Two more battles,that
enemy of the country, and in relieving the of Verona, which was severe and well
people. So well did he discharge these fought, and another in the vicinity of Rome,
duties, that historians speak of it as the where, after a severe conflict, the Roman
best performed, useful and innocent part of army was totally defeated, and many of
his life. the troops, with the emperor Maxentius, in
At length in A. I). 31.', in consequence their attempt to escape were drowned in
of the hostile attitude of the rulers at the Tiber ; and the possession of Rome,
Rome, and the solicitations of the people Italy and the empire was readily yielded
and senate there, to be relieved of an in up to Constantine. From that time to his
tolerable tyranny, Constantine determined death in 337, his career was that of perfect
to march into Italy with a large army, success and triumph, in comparison with
though he sincerely opposed war, and loved other imperial crowned heads; but these
peace and good government. The safety matters more properly belong to the his
of Gaul would not permit him to take with tory of the empire, except as its results
him all his troops, nor so large an army as may reflect upon Britain.
would ensure the enterprise from great The great revolution produced by these
danger. The army with which he marched events, was the transfer of the imperial in
over the Alps did not exceed forty thousand fluence from the predominant Pagan re
soldiers, and not exceeding one-fourth of ligion to that of Christianity. The Chris
the number that his enemies might bring tian religion had now, for nearly three
against him. But he confidently relied up hundred years, been making its way and
on the superior character of his troops. gradually spreading its truths and benefi
He knew that those of Italy were enerva cence throughout the civilized world. But
ted by corruption and all manner of disso it had thus far progressed and maintained
lute practices, his own army had been ac its influence and power, as a religious and
customed to local services and strict dis moral instruction, independent of the gov
cipline. He had formed his resolution; ernment and the influence of all secular
passed the Alps, and was at the foot of power. It made its way among the hum
them before the court of MaxeiHms at ble, the honest and conscientious, against
Rome were aware he had left the Rhine. the opposition of the powerful and the
With no obstacle which much detained severest persecution, until it had its con
him he was on the plains in the vicinity of gregations and churches, its priests and
Turin. The principal force brought against bishops, in every country, and its influences
him, under the command of the officers of began to be everywhere felt and acknowl
Maxentius, was a body of heavy cavalry, edged. During late reign of Diocletian
formed after the manner and discipline of as most severe and sanguinary perse
the east. The horses and men were clothed cution had existed for years, still the Chris
in complete armor, and their aspect was tian church was able to sustain itself, and
formidable and appalling. On this occa gradually make its way. How far Constan
sion their generals had drawn them up in tine had observed these matters, and had
a compact body in the fashion of a wedge, become convinced of its truth and eventual
with the point in advance towards their triumph; and determined in due time to
'44 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
embrace it as his best policy ; or was, as barians or religious controversy. These
sometimes asserted, convicted by a miracu were successfully and judicially disposed
lous interference, may be a question for the of, and many laws and regulations adopted
casuist. But it is said that on the night of great importance to the public. One of
before his great battle on the banks of the these was that which separated the military
Tiber, in which his opponent, Maxentius, department from the civil; and prohibited
in endeavoring to escape was drowned, he the military officers from interfering with
was assured in a dream that under the in the administration of justice, or the collec
signia of the Christian he should be victor tion of the revenue. This was a matter of
ious. Others say, that before the battle importance to Britain, as well as to other
there was manifested to him in a cloud in portions of the empire. Another regula
the heavens, and to the astonishment of tion was that which was specially for the
the whole army, the sign of the cross, with benefit of Britain. The Saxons had con
an inscription that under thai sign tinued their depredations upon the people
should conquer. Be that as it miiy, it is and towns situated near the seashore;
certain that from that time Constantino which had been increasing, and becoming
favored the Christian religion, and gave it quite annoying since the time of Carausius.
the protection and influence of the imper To remedy this evil Constantine establish
ial government. This became a new era ed certain officers called Counts of the
and influence in the church, which had as Saxon shore, whose jurisdiction extended
great an influence upon Britain as any around the southeastern portion of Britain,
country ; for there Christianity had made from the northern coast of Norfolk to Ports
a great progress. mouth in Hampshire, and whose duty it
Another great event of this reign, which was to protect these shores from the Sax
greatly affected Britain in common with on invasions; and for that purpose they
ail Western Europe, was that of the em had under their command a certain num
peror removing the seat of government ber of troops, foot and horse ; and also there
from Rome to Constantinople. That act were built at different important places
undoubtedly diminished the power of the along the shore nine forts and castles, in
western part of the empire to maintain it order to secure those places from the dep
self against the encroachments of the bar redations of these pirates. Besides these
barians, and hastened its decline and fall, counts of the Saxon shores, there was the
though at the same time it strengthened governor, or count of Britain, as command-
and prolonged that of the east. The build er-in-chief and vicegerent over the whole
ing of this city on the site ot Byzantium, Roman dominion on the island. For t In
and making it the capital of the empire, convenience of the administration the Ro
was commenced by Constantinc A. D. 324, man part of the island was divided into
thirteen years before his death. The selec five parts: Maxima and Valentia were
tion of this place for his new capital, was made consular provinces, and Prima, Se-
guided by its great beauty, as well as by its cunda, and Flavia' pnusidial districts; each
great commercial convenience between the having it- military force, and also its prop-
two continents, which have ever since ren- er executive and judicial officers. But as
dered it one of the most important cities of : has been remarked, each department sep-
the world. The choice of the place and ] arate' and the military prohibited from in-
the erection of this city, were worthy of \ 'trlering with the judiciary or the collec
the perpetuity of his name, as well a* the tion of taxes.
other great services and achievements of Constantine the Great expired A. I). 337,
Constantine. after a most distinguished and prosperous
Though the reign of this emperor was reign of thirty -one years, greatly mourned
eminently successful and splendid, yet it i and lamented by his people He was suc
was kept continually in commotion, either
3 See the map for the-e divisions; see, also, Rich
bv civil war or the encroachments of bar- ard of Cire-iL'cster, p. 437, B. i, ch. 6, 3.
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE.
ceeded in the empire by his three sons,
Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius,
after much contention among the relative
claimants and much bloodshed. They soon
demonstrated that they were unfit to rule
the empire. Two deceased in a few years ;
but the youngest, Constantius, succeeded
in holding on for twenty-four years, when
he was succeeded by Julian the Apostate
in 361. In the next six years followed
three more emperors, and a permanent di
vision of the empire into the East and
West. During this time the empire was
making rapid decline towards its final fall;
and the barbarians of the north making
much progress in aiding it, to accomplish
the event. Britain in the meantime suffer
ed in common with the rest of the empire;
frequently depressed by a bad govern
ment, oppressed by excessive taxation, and
heavy drafts upon her men to recruit the
imperial armies. Besides all this, she was
frequently attacked on the one side by the
Saxon pirates, and on the other by inva
sions by the Caledonians and Picts, while
at the same time she was robbed by the im
perial government of her means of de
fense. During the reign of Julian the
country was so reduced in its means of de
fense that their northern enemies triumph
antly passed over the wall of Severus, and
were pillaging even London; while at the
same time the Saxons were ravaging the
shores,carrying oft" their property as
plunder, and their people as slaves.
3. Thcodosius, the General, and his Time
to the Departure of the Romans, A. D.
367-420, 53 Tears.
The Roman empire was now pressed on
all sides, and at all points manifesting its
decay. The barbarians crowding upon it
on all sides, and coming upon it with all
kind of people, and under every name:
the Huns and the Goths, the Alans and
Vandals, as well as the Saxons, the Franks
and the Burgundians. All heathendom
let loose upon civilization and Christianity ;
and the latter in morality and patriotism
debasing itself, so that the former in its
rudeness, paganism and ignorance might
4S
triumph over it; while at the same time
this overwhelming flood of barbarians \vei e
the principal cause of its decline and over
throw. Among the officers of the empire
ivho were battling to preserve its existence
along its frontier on the Rhine, was Theo-
dosius, an able and successful general, anil
whose son, of the same name, afterwards
became an emperor of great distinction.
This able general in 368 was sent to Britain
to retrieve the country, if possible, from
the povertv and degradation to which it
had been reduced, by the bad care and pro
tection given to it by the Roman empire.
This general did all that it was possible for
man to do with the reduced means of the
empire, to restore order ; to repair the walls.
the forts and defenses of the south; for the
country had been reduced by plunder, by
taxation, and by taking oflf the men as re
cruits for the imperial army, so that it had
been made helpless. But Theodosius, by
the help of the Roman army, was able to
give to Britain, for a while, at least, a re
lief by repelling and chastising the inva
sions from the north and pursuing and
punishing in blood the Saxon pirates.1 who
had been engaged in robbing the country.
Theodosius was permitted to remain in
Britain during two campaigns only, Ixjfore
he was recalled, by the necessities and de
cline of the empire. During that time, in
addition to the expulsion of the northern
invaders, on the one hand, and the disper
sion and punishment of the Saxon pirates
on the other, he was able to do much to
ward a restoration ot the former prosper
ous condition of the country. So success
fully had he been in his measures in the
north that he was able to restore to the
government the province of Valentin, north
! ot- the wall of Severus, which had been for
years in the possession of the northern
tribes. The whole country, which had
been so subverted bv every species of law
lessness and wickedness, was reclaimed to
the demands of justice and the rights of
humanity. The citizens of London, grate
l I Pictnri.il Hist. Kng., R. i, ch. I, p. 49; I Gib
bon's Deri, und Fall, ch. p. 3|0; Und. rh.
xxxvii, p. 503; Kicharil ol Cirencestcr, B. i, ch. 6,
is-
 I46 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
ful for the benefits conferred upon them by Theodosius, and possessed much of his ex-
the happy restoration of their affairs, ac perience and ability. It is said that with
knowledged their obligations to the able his ability he was a modest and unassum
general for his efficient and successful ing man, and at first earnestly declined the
measures, and for the order and justice he honors proposed to him, but was compelled
had established in the administration of to accept the dangerous present of the im
their affairs. But the benefits conferred perial purple. He thought it necessary
upon Britain by their connection with the and politic for him to pass over to the con
empire, was' at all times temporary anc tinent, and claim his rights and dignity
spasmodic, and always leaving them help there, as safer and easier to maintain his
less; by having been prohibited from position there, than to preserve it in Britain.
adopting any military or other measures He therefore passed over with a large
for their own good and protection, and be fleet, and an immense army of his coun
ing also constantly robbed of means anc trymen. The emperor Gratian fled from
men, for the benefit of other parts of the Paris to Lyons, where he was soon betraved
empire. by his officers and beheaded. Theodosius,
Gratian was emperor of the West from the emperor of the East, thought it prudent
. A. D. 367 to 38^, and he was among the to negotiate with Maximus, rather than to
most worthless and inefficient rulers. The contest his position. By treaty it was ar
only good we know of him was his per ranged that Maximus should confine his
mitting the general Theodosius to spend rule west of the Alps : and accordingly he
two years in Britain. He neglected the af turned his attention to the West, and made
fairs of the government for the amuse Treves the capital of his dominions, which
ment of the chase, shows, and every object consisted of Britain, Gaul and Spain. If
of luxury and degradation, and consequent his wisdom and prudence had been equal
ly every part of his empire was falling into to his ambition, he might have been satis
disorder and ruin. At the same time that fied with so splendid a dominion, capable
the barbarians were attacking his empire of being made equal to all that the most
on the outside, on the inside he was taking exalted ambition could desire ; which with
them into his employment in the army; its natural boundary of the Rhine and the
and making a body of Alans, his house Alps, might have been made an effectual
hold troops. Everywhere dissatisfaction barrier against the barbarians north and
and dilapidation prevailed. This state of east of it. To have accomplished this,
things reached Britain and reversed the within these boundaries, might have been
prosperous state of affairs established bv a wise and sagacious object of ambition;
Theodosius. This produced a revolt, and or to have confined it to Britain. "The
the soldiers and people of the province reign of Maximus might have ended in
with great unanimity proclaimed Maximus peace and prosperity," says Gibbon, "could
their emperor.2 Among them he was ac he have contented himself with the pos-
knowledged as an able officer and a favor ession of three ample countries, which
ite citizen. He has ever been claimed bv now constitute the three most flourishing
the Britons as a native, and the Anglo- kingdoms of Northern Europe." But he
Saxon Chronicle says that "he was born was led astray by wild ambition and false
in the land of Britain." There he had glory; and possibly lacked the taste and
married a Cambrian princess, Helen, the real ability requisite to produce his true
daughter of Eudaf, a ruler in North Wales ; glory from the resources of his country,
and there were his children as pledges for and the prosperity of his people. He was
his faithfulness and patriotism. This new therefore induced, by the example set be-
emperor had been a fellow-soldier with bre him, and the fashion of the age, to
seek the gratification of his ambition in
2 See Ncnnius' History of the Britons, 28, p. 395; too -wide a field and in the glory of war, to
l Pictorial Hist, of England, p. 50; Gibbon's Decl.
:Lm! Full, ch. xxvii, p. 370. lis entire ruin. He was induced to march
Chap, n.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE. 147
with a well disguised haste over the Alps, | government. Stilicho, of barbarian origin,
and into Italy against a feeble government; but an able general, was the leading spirit
and for a while with success. But the em in the government. He was in command
peror Theodosius was induced to come to in Gaul, and being informed of the usual
the relief of Italy, whose combinations difficulties of Britain having again oc
were such as soon to overcome Maximus, curred, provided means by which the in
who was utterly defeated and beheaded.-1 vaders were repelled and severely punish
While Maximus ruled in Gaul, he made ed. But soon, in consequence ol the ne
Conan of Powys in Cambria, cousin of his cessities of the empire, and its invasion by
wife, Helen, kingof Armorica.1 From him the Goths, Stilicho was recalled home, and
descended the sovereigns and dukes of his influence, and probably most of the
Brittany, which terminated in Anne of troops, were withdrawn.5
Brittany, queen of France in the fifteenth In this situation, while still pressed by
century. The vast army of Britons who their enemies, the people permitted the
followed Maximus into Gaul and Italy nev soldiers to elect one Marcus emperor of
er returned to their native land, but were in Britain A. D. 407; and soon after permit
duced to settle in Armorica under Conan. ted the same soldiery to dethrone him and
This is only another instance, of the manv, put him to death. In this manner was this
in which large bodies of Britons have been unhappy country bufletted about, between
induced to return to their Cymric relatives the protection that the empire pretended to
in Gaul. give and anarchy induced by the Roman
For some vears after the death of Max army, as to be unable to help themselves.
imus we are again left in the dark as to the It is not probable that at any time pre
history of Britain. It is probable that the vious to A. D. 420 the legionary troops of
restoration given to its government by the Romans were entirely withdrawn from
Theodosius and Maximus mav have lasted Britain. But after Maximus was proclaim
for a few years; but soon the old story re ed emperor, the Roman civil authority was
turns, of a bad government, or none at all; so reduced, that they were frequently un
and the return of invaders and pirates to der the command of some usurped author
break down and destroy all prosperity as ity, or that of the natives of Britain. But
an incubus and blight upon the land. Some the civil authority, or that which controlled
five or six years after Maximus' death. the judiciary and the collection and dis
Chrysantus, an efficient lieutenant of bursing the revenue, was always kept sep
Theodosius the Great, was sent with a suf arated from the military, and continued to
ficient army to relieve Britain. He was represent the Roman sovereignty in Brit
able again to expel and punish the invaders ain. It is therefore probable that the civil
and pirates ; and afford another temporary administration continued on, though the
respite to the afflicted country. In A. D. military government changed from one
395 Theodosius died, and the rule of the hand to another. These changes in the
West was given to Honorius; and within government, by which a new emperor was
eight years terrible calamities and dissolu proclaimed, or governor, or tyrant elected,
tion befell the empire, and parts of it taken were produced by the interference of the
away by the barbarians; and we find bar military, or the legion, very much in the
barian officers high in command in the same way as such changes were accom
plished in the empire. Sometimes such
3 In A. D. 388, utter a reign of fiv<j years, which
until the last were years ot success.
4. With Conan is connected the legend of Ursula, 5 Nennius' Hist. Britons, 30, p. 396, in speaking of
in which she and a large number of British women some one or all ot these reliefs given by Koine to
attempted to .furnish his colony in Armorica with Britain, says: "Once more the Romans assi-sted the
wives. On their voyage thither a storm drove them Britons in repelling their neighbors; and, after hav
from their course,, and they were landed on the ing exhausted the country of its gold, silver, brass,
Rhine in Germany, where theyth were badlv treated. honey, and costly vestments, and besides having re
On account of her connduct and virtues she was cele ceived rich gifts, they returned in great triumphs to
brated as St. Ursula. There is probably but little Home." See i Gibbon's Dccl. und Full, chap, xxx,
j-uth in the legend. p. 413, :LS to Stilicho.
i48 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
change was effected with the aid and con made Aries the seat of his government
sent of the people, and sometimes entirely and his imperial residence. Thus was the
without their interference. The last re humble soldier playing the roll of fortune
markable change of this kind in the gov in royal dignity. But fortune often
ernment of Britain occurred during the changes, even with great men. He had in
acknowledged sovereignty of Honorius, his employment a Briton, known to fame
A. 0.407, when the legionary troops again as Count Gerontius, a most able and ex
sought to raise some one to the throne; perienced general, with a determined and
and not knowing whom to elect, it is said | nlore tnan a Roman character. His mas-
that they found some one of the name of ter C0uld spare services, but for
Constantine, and on account of the rever some reason the employee had taken an of
ence they had for the name, they elected fence against his employer, and determined
and adorned him with the purple. But it I on revenge. The son was taken prisoner
is probable that this part of the story is a | and put to cleath. -rhe father was besieged
mere witticism of the historian, for a sen- ! al Ar)es . and would also have been taken,
sational effect; for the British historians ! nad not an Italian army unexpectedly come
sav that he w-as previously a person of dis to his relief. But upon its being an
tinction, and a grandson of Conan of Ar- nounced to be the army of Honorius, the
morica; and a man of considerable ability, j legitimate emperor, the commanders of
as the sequel will demonstrate. If this both annjes declared for him. Gerontius
Constantine, when thus proclaimed em being thus left, was obliged to flee for safe
peror, had the patriotism and good sense to ty. But he was able in his retreat to res
confine his jurisdiction to Britain, he might cue his name and fame from oblivion, by a
have been a great benefactor to his country ; romantic defense and death. He was pur
but he was compelled, either from choice sued by a treacherous body of his troops,
or from circumstances and the example of who al night surrounded his retreat, in or
those vicious times, to claim what he could der to triumph over him and put him to
of the empire, and soon arranged to pass death. His retreat was a fortified house,
over to the continent, after the manner of and well supplied with light arms and mis
Maximus. Like most men, having more siles. With these he resolutely defended
ambition than wisdom and patriotism, and himself, wife and servants, who were de
having taken one step he must take anoth votedly attached to him and determined to
er in the same direction, rather than make die with him. He held out in his defense
good and wise use of what he already had. with much skill and determination, that at
For that purpose he enlisted and disciplined daylight he had killed three hundred of
a vast number of British youths, and took his assailants, and had exhausted his mis
them with him in his career. He .-oon siles;some of his servants having desert
made himself master of Gaul and Spain. ed him, and his enemies having surround
He had a son who had previously been a ed his house with fire. He might himself
monk in a monastery at Winchester, who have escaped, but he was determined to
was taken into public service and made die in the defense and protection of his
governor over the latter country. In his wife; and she was equally resolved not to
.Spanish campaign he had in his service live to suffer a life of misery and disgrace.
not only a large force of Britons, but from She therefore caused her own death on his
the north of the island two bands of Scots sword, and he upon seeing all lost, caused
and Attacotti. his own death by a plunge of his dagger at
For four years Constantine successfully his heart. The usurper Constantine soon
held rule of the three countries, Britain, after this was taken prisoner at Aries, and
Gaul and Spain ; and with energy and suc sent to Honorius at Ravenna, when he suf
cess making headway against his northern fered death. This restored Honorius to-
enemy on the Rhine, and his imperial foes the government of the West, and his rule
\vho attempted to cross the Alps. He over Britain was never after that contested
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE. 149

until after he himself had expressly re country; having a large export trade to
nounced it in A. D. 420. During the nine Gaul, and the civilized countries of
years in which the power of Honorius had Europe, in which the metals of tin and iron
been thus restored, he on two or three oc constituted an important item ; having ex
casions had furnished Britain with addition tensive commercial business between them
al troops for her protection, against those and Gaul,1 with a large shipping interest;
enemies who were constantly attacking her having extensive manufactures of articles
both by land and sea,both as plunderers of domestic utensils and uses, as well as
and pirates. At length, contrary to the the larger articles of chariots and wagons,
wishes of the Britons, Ilnnorius was com and the necessary harness; haying a learn
pelled, by his own exigences at home, to ed society, of priests, bards and teachers,
withdraw all protection and power from who were charged with the dutv of teach
Britain, which was done without any hos ing the people in matters of religion, mor
tilities or enmity on either side ; but mutual ality and the arts, and who practiced
friendship for a long time continued to writing, both public and private, except
subsist between the Britons and the Ro when teaching, lor the purpose of improv
mans; and upon that event the emperor ing the memory of their pupils, and re
Honorius, in a letter addressed to the states taining improper matters from vulgar ears,
and cities of Britain, formally released it was done orally; and tinallv, having a
them from their allegiance, and acknowl money, in gold, silver
edged their1' independence. and bronze, to transact their business.
Such was the character of British society
4. The Close of the liomnii Period. and civilization when the Romans made
their conquest, and converted it all to Ro
We place the close of the Roman rule man greediness.
over Britain in A. D 420, after they had When the conquest was accomplished,
held their heavy hand upon it for 377 years, at the end of a hard fought war of forty-
from the time when Claudius commenced two2 rears, for their independence and free
his conquest. When this unjustifiable dom, the people returned with their usual
conquest founded only upon wicked and
character to persevering industry and the
wild ambitionwas commenced, the Brit arts of peace. Agricola discovered this,
ons were a prosperous and happy people, and testified in strong terms of their ca
having made great advance in all the ele pacities for it. But they had to begin this
ments which constitute progress and civili new career, after many thousand of their
sation. In the reign of Cunobeline, the people had been slaughtered, many of their
paramount sovereign, whose long reign towns laid in ashes, their houses burned,
ended just before the conquest, both his their property plundered, their fields laid
tory and antiquarian researches prove that waste, and the country generally devastat
the Britons were in the possession of all ed by war. But still, with their known en-
those things which rendered them a civil ergv and industrv, the people made won
ized people. They had made great pro derful progress, not only in recovering their
gress in agriculture; having large herds of former situation as to property and circum
horses, cattle and farm stock, and raising stances, but in adopting and using all the
grain in large quantities; having numerous arts and improvements, that the Romans
towns, with extensive systems of roads were capable to introduce to them. This
frcm one place to another throughout the was continued under very adverse circum
<i Nennius', in JjjS, says; '"Thus, agreeably to the
stances for two hundred years, until about
accounts jfivcii by the Britons, the Romans governed the times of Constantius and hi- son Coii
them four hundred and nine years:" 409, and before
the conquest 4.$, \\ hich would be -}^J A, D. The date i It was on this commerce that Augustus and othr
ot the separation is verv iinccrtain. Turner puts it er emiHTors before the comjurst collected lanff im
at A. I>. 410, and |)ossih!y that may be the. true date; port, ditties in (iaul, upon the British tjoods and ship-
but there ,tre inanv reasons for putting it at A. D. pinjf.
djo. II is so stated in the EngHsn 1'ictorical History.
Sec Appendix O. 2 From A. D. 43 to 85, 12 years.
 "5 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
staiUine; during the latter part of which nection: (i.) That Rome was continually
time they were subject to frequent and de laking away from Britain her able-bodied
vastating invasions t'roin the north; and young men to fill her armies, who were
being plundered by their government of never permitted to return. This was done
their property and their young men, lor by Constantine, then by Maximus, then
the benefit of another country and poople.- bv Constantine the usurper, then by Stili-
After the conquest, the people were sub cho, and by .Etius in the great battle
jected to all kind of difficulties. They were against Attila the Hun. These men so
not permitted to form a government of taken awav from their country were scatter
their own, or bear arms in their own de ed over the empire, or colonized, but never
fense. This was the peculiar province of permitted to return. Once or twice they
the Roman government, and that which were colonized in Arrnorica. (2.) Imme
they furnished was often as bad and detest diately upon the accomplishment of the
able as it could be. From that time forth, conquest it was found dangerous to leave
with a few exceptions, they were cursed arms in the hands of the Britons, and there
with a bad government, and subjected to fore the Romans took good care to di-arni
intolerable taxation both as to men and them, and to keep them so. During the
money, which was constantly taken out of whole lime of the Roman rule in Britain,
the country. Then the country was con the people were not permitted to have any
stantly devastated by the invaders from control over the military affairs That was
the north, and plundering expeditions of a matter that the Roman government were
the Saxon pirates from the sea. The pledged to do; and the Britons prohibited
tolerable evils were perpetrated upon the from doing. All this was so done by the
country, until it was reduced to utter fee Roman government in order to secure
bleness,until the country was prostrated their rule over them. When, therefore,
as by a paralysis, which a brave and ener their independence came, they were in a
getic people could not resist. helpless condition, having been plundered
This state of things went on from bad to of their property and wealth both b\ their
worse, until Rome herself was utterly government and their enemies; and then
prostrated by the continued invasions of placed in a situation they should not be
the northern barbarians; until Rome come acquainted with military affairs, or
who alone claimed the right to, rule and defend themselves. Because they were
govern was taken and sacked bv Alaric thus deprived of their property, of their
the Goth, and until Britain was reduced to arms, and ail acquaintance with military
entire helplessness. Such was the boon affairs, thev were not the soldiers who met
conferred upon Britain by the Roman con C:vsar, or fought with Plautius or Ostorius ;
quest. Such was her situation when Hon- hut in everything else they were the same
orius in 420, being no longer able to pro liriton-, bold, hardy, fearless and perse
tect or plunder her, declared her free and vering; and always found to be such when
independent in her then helpless condition. incorporated into the Roman army, where
She was declared to be independent and thev frequently furnished some of tlu;
free, after she had been so taxed, and rob ablest generals.
bed, and plundered, that there were hardly
enough left to go through that operation 555. Tin Sci/iiel of Hf Roman Pcriotl.
again. Such was her condition for thirty
years previous to that time, and such it Such was the condition of the Britons,
unavoidably continued to be for thirty when about A. I). 4.10 they found them
years after thatevent. Besides these oper- selves liberated from the Roman sover
ations of the Roman government which , eignty, by the letters of Honorius, directed
so reduced and depleted Britain of her I to the cities and states of Britain, announc-
wealth and prosperity, there are two more : ing to them that he was unable to render
subjects that should be noticed in this con- them any further assistance against their
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE.
enemies;that they were free to govern
themselves as best they could, and urging
them to make efforts to defend themselves.
Although this date of the letters of Hon
orius has been contested, and placed some
years previous to the death of Constantine
the usurper in 4:1, yet it is insisted that
the date stated is correct, for the reason
that it is supported bv the old authorities;
and the events previous to the death of
Constantine are inconsistent with its being
previous to that time. After Count Con-
stantius had taken Constantine prisoner at
Aries, he proceeded on the commission
that Honoring had given him, to restore
Gaul and the west to his command. This
he did do during the three succeeding years,
both in Gaul and Britain. In 413 Adolph-
us the Goth had become, by most roman
tic events, the brother-in-law of Honorius,
and faithfully supported him with his army
of Goths. The next year he was engaged
in Southern and Eastern Gaul in assisting
Constantius in preserving Roman authori
ty in that country, which he efficiently
performed by repelling the barbarians on
the Rhine, and taking off the heads of two
usurpers. Jovinus and Sabastian, which
were sent as trophies to Honorius; while
the General Constantius was holding the
seaports of Gaul, and, as it is supposed, of
Britain also. In 414 there can be no doubt
but that between the General Constantius
and Adolphus ali the western territory of
the empire was held for Honorius; nor
that but Britain was equally protected with
Gaul.
'From that time," says Bede,1 (/'. r. after
Count Constantius had taken Aries, and
the death of Constantine,) "the south part
of Britain, destitute of armed soldiers, of
martial stores, and of all its active youths,
which had been led awav by the rashness
of the tyrants, never to return"; and on
account of the eruption of the northern
nations, the Britons sent messengers to
Rome, praying for succor to drive away
their threatening enemy. "An armed
legion was immediately sent them, which,
arriving in the island and engaging the
i B. r, ch. xii.
enemy, delivered them from their cruel
oppressors." Thev advised the Britons "to
build a wall between the two seas across
the island," and "returned home with great
triumph." This wall the islanders accord
ingly did build, on the Antoninus line, Ixj-
tween the Forth and the Clyde.
This assistance so rendered by the Ro
mans can be assigned to no period so well
as that between 412 and 414; and toils
having been done by Count Constantius.
It appears from Bede, Gildas and Nennius,
that two or three such reliefs were granted
to the Britons within a few years before it
was finally relused, and rfonorius' letters
sent. Nennius describes the last of these
thus: "Once more the Romans undertook
the government of the Britons, and assist
ed them in repelling their neighbors; and
after having exhausted the country of its
gold, silver, bras*, honey, and costly vest
ments, having besides received rich gilts,
they returned in great triumph to Rome."
Taking these statements together, with the
known historical facts of that period, it
can apply to no time as well as that which
just precede 420.2
The British (Cambrian) historians say in
confirmation of Bede's chronolgy, that af
ter the death of Constantine the Roman
forces returned to Britain three times, i. c.
A. D. 414, 416 and 419 or 20. In Rev.
Theophilas Evans' Primitive Ages it said:
"A council of the leading Britons was
held, at which it was determined to invoke
once more the interposition of the Romans,
and offer them tribute and the entire sub
mission of the country. The names of
those who were deputed to carry this reso
lution into effect were Peryf Ap Cadifor
and Gronw Ddu Ap Einion Lygliw. Not
withstanding the affairs of Rome could
scarcely justify any expectation of assist
ance, yet, by the importunities of these
men, thev obtained a legion ot troops, who
returned with them to Britain : and soon
dispersed or destroyed their enemies. This
occurred in the year 420." This authority
1 Turner, Gibbon, and Gilts, put the lime of is
suing HonoriuV letters previous to .|io; but il is be
lieved that thev are not supported by any ancient
authority, nor 1>y the furls of history. See Ule;
Pictoriaf History of England.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
then the assistance received of the
Roman army, in expelling the enemy, in
repairing the defences, and encouraging
the people to make arrangements to defend
themselves; informing them they would
be able to aid them no more; they then
bade the country and the people a final
adieu, and separation.
It was then upon this final separation
that Honorius issued his letters to the cities
and states of Britain, acknowledging his
inability to defend them, and their entire
independence; and advising them to make
arrangements to defend themselves. His
torians of the times represent thai all this
was done in friendship and on good terms
between the two countries, which for a
long time so continued; and that it was
with great regret, and slowly did the
Britons give up their connection and hold
on the empire; and their right to demand
of the Roman government a protection
against their enemies. They were still
anxious, after so long a habit, to retain, and
depend upon, the majesty and power of the
Roman name as a guaranty for their pro
tection. This, therefore, could not have
happened before the death of Constantine
and the capture of Aries A. D. 411; be
cause he was in enmity with Honorius;
and all the movements before that were
made by the soldiers and officers of the
Roman army, and in the name of Rome.
That was the case with Maxinuis Constan
tino, and all the usurpers and tyrants set
up in Britain, which was said to be so fer
tile of them. All those revolts were pro
duced by the Roman soldiery ; and the
usupers assumed the purple under the
Roman name and organization. But after
the letters of Honorius in 420 it was other
wise.
The letters of Honorius came to the
Britons with regret; for. although the Ro
mans had reduced them to their present
low condition by taking from them in large
amounts both men and money, yet they
had become accustomed to their govern
ment; and now in the midst of their ad
verse circumstances and surrounding ene
mies, their offer of freedom was not a boon.
The cities and states to which those letters
[Book ii.
were directed were regularly organized as
municipal governments, as stipendaries
and subordinate to the Roman government.
To this state of things thev had been long
accustomed, and wholly deprived and un
accustomed to a military organization.
Surrounded as they were with so many
enemies, their independence appeared to
them as appalling as it was unexpected.
They therefore retained their several
municipal organization, and for some years
delayed the organization of a general or
national government with the hopes the
Roman government would return and
come to their aid against their numerous
enemiesthe pirates from the seas, the
Picts from the north, and the Scots from
the west. Being surrounded by ene
mies, they knew not which would strike
first, or where; and the Romans had left
them unprepared for either. It is not sur
prising, under the circumstances, that they
thus acted.
From the limited history of the times, it
pretty evidently appears that the Britons
for a number of years remained under
their municipal government, without any
general or national organization. Between
A. D. 429 and 447 Bede gives considerable
history of the times in narrating an account
of two visits in that time paid, by bishop
Germanus and some other clergv of the
Gallican church, to the British clergv at
their request to aid them in refuting the
Pelagian heresy. The two visits were
some years apart; but much was said and
done in both. Large meetings were held
for the purpose of discussion and contro
verting the doctrine; concerning which
great excitement prevailed, and interest
taken. Kings of special districts and no
bility are spoken of, one person of the
quality of a tribune, and "one Elafius, a
chief of that region, hastened to meet the
holy man," as mentioned ; and we are also
told, that when in the west part of the
island, near Mold in Flintshire, the Saxons
and Picts with their united forces were
about to attack the Britons, the bishop "de
clared he would be their leader." And
though the battle was fought and victory
was gained by a miraculous interference of
Chap, ii.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE.
heaven, jet it seems that the bishop took
good care, as a skillful general, to choose
his ground ; "he picked out the most ac
tive, viewed the country round ahout, and
observed, in the way by which the enemy
were expected, a vallev encompassed with
hills, in which he drew up his inexpe
rienced troops." When the multitude of
fierce enemy appeared, the bishop, "bear
ing in his hands the standard," took the
enemy by surprise, by all crying out three
times Halleluiah ; the enemv were so struck
with fear and terror, that "they fled in dis
order, casting away their arms;" glad to
escape the danger, though many were
drowned in crossing a river in their precpi-
tate flight. Yet in all this account of those
years, as given by Bede, and Gildas, and
Nennius, not a word is mentioned about a
sovereign, or a supreme chief, or pendragon
or wledig, until we are told of Vortigern
about the time that Saxons came under
Hengist and Horsa.
Alter the Roman army had fina.ly with
drawn, it is easy enough to understand the
condition the Britons were left in, for a
number of years, without a general or
federal head. The several cities and states
had their several domestic, stipendary and
municipal governments in full operation
for many years, to which they were accus
tomed and attached. They were in the
same condition as the cities and states
would be in the United States in case the
federal government should be withdrawn
from them. The governmental organiza
tion of the several cities and states would
remain in full operation.
At the termination o! the Roman power
in Britain there were in it ninety-two cities,
of which thirty-three were more celebrated
and distinguished ? and were probably cap
itals of certain districts or territories.
Formerly these thirty-three cities were
ranked thus: two municipal, nine colonial,
ten cities under the Latian law, and twelve
stipendiary. "But," says Richard of Cir-
encester, "let no one lightly imagine that
there were not many others besides these."
Hi See Richard of Circncester, B. i, ch.7; Nennius'
st. Bril., $7, in Holm's Library; Six Old Chroni
cles, pp. 386 and 456.
'S3
But in A. D. 312, the emperor Caracalla,
(the son of Severus), by a perpetual edict
conferred the right of citizenship on the
Roman world, (and it is said that this ap
plied only to communities and not to in
dividuals,) at once abolished the above dis
tinction between those cities, and all be
came alike Roman cities. These cities
were permitted to rule and govern them
selves, and adopt their native laws, not con
trary to the Roman_sovereignty or inimica-
ble to their political laws. The cities were
governed by a senate, usually one hundred
more or less. The senate was not exclu
sively a Roman institution, for it was well
known in Gaul and Britain before Caesar
came.
Generally the Romans permitted the
states and cities in the provinces to govern
themselves, where they paid their taxes,
were peaceable and did nothing contrary
to Roman interests. The cites were or
ganized with its senate on republican prin
ciples. The Romans in former times call
ed the senate of every city by that name,
and the members senators; but in latter
times thev applied that appellation only to
the senate and senators of Rome, and those
of the provincial cities were called curia,
and the members decurions or dccurioiies.
The curia or senate were elected from the
principal citizens' and the curia elected all
the magistrates, and in their own affairs
their laws were administered bv them
selves. In many respects the laws thus
administered, deduced from the British
triads, peculiar to British institutions, were
superior to the Roman law. In relation to
this subject, Savigny says: "The com
munities of these citizens [in the provinces]
were subjects of the- Roman people, yet
the internal administration of the com
munities belonged to themselves. This
free municipal constitution was their fun
damental characteristic; and the same re
mark will apply to both principal classes
of such constitutions, municipal and
colonia,"4 [or state]. And Cicero says:
"As in Rome, so in the colonies, the pop
ular assemblies had originally the sover
4 See Smith and Anthon's Dictionary of Classical
Antiquities, title Colonia and Provincia.
54 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
eign power; they chose the magistrates after the visit of this bishop, and before his
and could even make laws. '* second visit. But it is represented that the
The large and distinguished cities, the people after that became ungodly and
capitals of districts, had considerable ter wicked, and their toes returned upon them
ritory attached to them, more or less, which worse than ever; the northern enemy by
constituted a part of their government. In land, and the Saxons by the sea, each plun
a number of instances there were states dering and devastating the country. Both
organized in the same manner, with their Gildas and Bede represent that the people,
king, brenhin or chief; and assembly to "putting their trust in God and not in
carry on their municipal government. By man," rallied, and overthrew their ene
the Roman law the military government mies" ;6 and the Britons recovering their
was entirely separated from the civil; and courage, "at length began to inflict severe
as to the former the Britons were not per losses upon their enemies, who had been
mitted to interfere, nor with national af for so many years plundering the country."
fairs. The "robbers thereupon returned home,
Such was the condition in which the let and afterwards remained quiet in the far
ter of Honorius left the Britons to take thest part of the island"? for some time.
care of themselves. They had their munic "When," however, continued Bede, "the
ipal government throughout Southern ravages of the enemy at length ceased, the
Britain fully regulated, and had been so island began to abound with such plenty
time out of mind. Thev were satisfied and of grain as had never been known in any
pleased with it; and there was no change age before ; with plenty luxury increased,
except the Roman army had been with and this was attended with all sorts of
drawn, and they were not compelled to pay
the Roman taxes. These, under the cir And Turner, in reference to these same
cumstances that then surrounded them, events, says:1* "In this extremity the
they would be glad to submit to, for the Britons displayed a magnanimous charac
sake of the protection jt rendered them ter; they remembered the ancient inde
against their enemies. For many years pendence of the island, and their brave an-
they remained in stnln quo, with the hopes cesters, who still lived ennobled in the
that the Roman army would return. When verses of their bards ; they armed them
that army last departed they had just re selves, threw off the foreign yoke,9 deposed
pelled the northern invaders, and these in- the imperial magistrates,1" proclaimed their
variablv remained quiet for some years af insular independence, and with the success
ter each severe repulse. They remained ful valor of youthful liberty and endanger
quiet for some time, but at length there ed existence, they drove the fierce invaders
came Scots and Picts as usual. What year from their cities."
that was it is hard to tell from the confused The Britons being thus left by the Ro
statement of facts as stated by Bede, who mans, and their independence acknowledged
says that, "Some few years before the ar contrary to their wishes, they remained for
rival" of the Saxons, which is stated under many years under their old organization of
the date of A. D. 429, bishop Germanus of municipal government of city and state,
Auxerre in Gaul came over to aid the
British clergy, as already stated, against o Gildas, $20.
Pelagians. Much is said about that visit thai 7 Bede, B. i, ch. i^. From chapter 12 it appears
the people repaired the northern, Anlonmus',
and the great assembly of the people to wall, nt public ana private expense."
listen to discussion on the Pelagian heresy ; S History of the Saxons, B. ii, ch. vii, p. 126.
but everything is indicative that the people had9 There was no throwing ofl" of a yoke, for that
been taken oft by Honoring, without their con
were then at peace and prosperous. Prob- sent. They were left at liberty to do what they
pleased or could.
ablv the attacks of Scots and Picts were 10 All imperial magistrates had been withdrawn
with the Roman army; and the Britons were left
with their own domestic and municipal magistrates,
5 De Leges iii, 16. under their old organization.
Chap. ii.J DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OK HIS RULE.
without any federal organization or nation
al head. In the rebellion under Maximus
and Constantine the people had nothing to
do with it, except to rejoice over it. It was
a movement of the Roman soldiery, in the
Roman name and organization. But no\v,
if the people are to assume a national or
ganization instead of the Roman, they de
termined, when it became apparent that it
was necessary, that it should be a return to
their old Cymric Confederation ;a federal
government which would retain their state
and city governments just as they were,
with a national union and federal heada
pendragon, as in the time of Caswallon
and Caractacus. None were willing to
surrender their state or city organization
and government lor a consolidated and cen
tral government. Each loved his respec
tive local government, and insisted upon it
as a means of preserving their individual
liberty against an arbitrary and powerful
consolidated government. They feared
that in a consolidated government the lib
erties, rights and interest of the minor and
feeble would be sacrificed to subserve the
interest of the great and powerful. They
therefore insisted that their city and state
governments should be preserved, under
an union, with a pendragon at its head, to
transact national and general affairs. Up
on this question there were probably two
parties; though all were for preserving the
old municipal governments, yet they were
divided as to the form of its organization.
One partv was for adopting the Roman
form of government over the provinces;
the other for the old Celtic form, a union,
with a pendragon and a general assembly.
The question was not settled for a number
of years, partly on account of a hope that
the Roman army would return and that
they would be again1 taken in as citizens
into the Roman empire," and partly on ac-
H Turner says (B. ii, ch. viii, p. 128): '"When Zos-
imu.s mentioned Britain, for the last time, in his his
tory, he leaves the natives ir a state of independence
of Rome, so generally armed as to have achieved the
exploits of Roman soldiers, and to have driven the
invaders from their cities. This appears to be authen
tic history. We may assume the governing powers
of the island, at that period, to have been the civi-
tate* or the territorial districts, because the emperor
would of course have written to the predominant
authority. " See, also, his note a, which i.s also in
'55
count of a division of opinion on the sub
ject of the form of organization. The sub
ject was kept open by disputations on it,
as well as by the religious matters then
pending; and the great meetings of the
people held by bishop Gertnanus on the
question of the Pelagian heresy, The peo
ple were intelligent, and took great interest
in these polemic discussions.
At length the question as to the political
organization was settled; this was urged
by the repeated attacks of their northern
enemies, and of the pirates ot the sea. This
was settled by the election of Gwrthe/rn,'*
known in English history as Vortigern ;l:J
as their federal chiet or pendragon. He
was a prince of a tributary or stipendiary
kingdom in the south of Cambria or Brit
annia .Secunda, in the midst of the ancient
Silures, and included what is now the
counties of Monmouth and Glamorgan.
He was then a man in the prime of life,
having a son grown to a man-estate,
Gttortemir (Vortimer), who became dis
tinguished in the approaching war. Vor
tigern was a man of prepossessing and
popular address, artful and wiley, and ex
perienced in political affairs; but destitute
of sound principles and judgment. His
personal appearance and arts rendered him
successful against his competitors in the
election to the office he now held; of whom
AmbrosiusH was one; who was a son of
the king of the Damnonii, whose country
was around Exeter. He was from among
those people in the south part of Britain,14
support
upport ofol nur view.
Mr. Tunner in this note, as well as in a number of
other places, contends that the emperor's vicarius, as
governor of a province, would not command the
military force, because Const-inline the Great had
ordered the civil arid military departments to be kept
separate. This is true, and it was so generally done
in time of peace. But a vicarius, as governor of a
province, acted as the superior, and llild in his hands
the whole power of the government, and controlled
both the civil and military matters. But with the
officers under him it was otherwise; for there the
two departments would be kept distinct.
12 Miss Jane Williams, in her History of Wales,
(p. 96,1 says: "Vortigern, a Cymric kinir, whose her
editary dominions lay along the vale of the river
Wve, "was elected Gwledig or Pendragon about the
vear 448," And cites her numerous aulhorites. She
is very accurate and investigating; and her history
it: an interesting jMjrtion of British history.
13 Ncnnius, 31, and note * by Giles.
1 1 Bede, B. i, ch. 16, and note 'by Giles.
15 Richard of Cirencestcr, B. l, ch. 6, lS.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book 11.
who were most favorable to the Roman Cambria to London. He there found the
rule, and was himself half Roman by whole country beset with difficulties.
descent. They were the people so anxious Their old enemies were again threatening
for the return of the Romans, that they
them on either hand, and the country
sent the petition to ^Etius, begging his
protection, and saying: "The barbarians greatly reduced in its resources and wealth.
drive its to the sea; the sea drive us back For years the Romans had been taking
to the barbarians: between them we are from it its active young men for their ar
exposed to two sorts of death,we are mies abroad, and its wealth for tribute and
either slain or drowned." Vortigern op taxes. The country had recently suffered
posed the views of the Roman party, and by famine and pestilence. And then it had
headed the native party, and for a while suffered from the frequent attacks and ex
was successful. For a while this division cursions of their enemies in various parts
of parlies produced the most virulent and of the island, where their property was
acrimonious feeling, which in a great taken or destroyed by their plundering
measure is the foundation of Gildas' quer foes. They were now threatened with a
ulous history of the animosities of the more severe invasion than ever, when it
Britons.1'' appeared that Scots, Picts and the Saxons
We have no positive history to fix the were acting in concert. During all the
time when Vortigern was elected to the time the Romans had possession they kept
pcndragonate, but it is probable that it was the people entirely unacquainted with mil
in 447 or 8, after bishop Germanus had itary affairs; and it is doubtful whether,
left the second time. It was then apparent when the Roman army left, there were any
that they were to receive no aid from the arms and accoutrements left to arm the
Romans; and the continued and increas people against their foes. Although these
ing difficulties around them drove the difficulties were great and apparently over-
Britons at length to the measure of form w-helming, still we are not aware that any
ing a confederacy and electing a general part of the country ur states were treach
head. The spirit of their ancient law s and erous or disloyal. There may have been
the principles of their triads continued divisions as to who should be elected, and
with them, and had never left the British as to the form of government to be adopt
soil. They therefore chose their ancient ed ; but now when those questions had
constitution in preference to the abitrarv been settled, all were more or less enthusi
one of the Romans. The form of govern astic in a loyal defense of the country. We
ment that has always prevailed among have no reason to suspect otherwise, ex
the Cymry, both in Gaul and Britain, has cept that the Coritanians, of foreign origin,
been a chief executive head officer, con were sometimes charged of not being as
trolled by a general assembly, who pos loyal as they should be: and the Loegrians,
sessed the only legislative power. Qesar who occupied the whole east part of the
when in Gaul, in time of extreme difficul island, were not looked upon to be reliable
ty, several times called a general assembly and determined in their loyalty and defense
of the states in certain districts. We know as those of the westthe old Cymry.
of no other country, except in Gaul and It is sometimes charged that the Britons
Britain, where it was common to hold such were very contentious with each other, and
general assemblies. In more recent times given to civil war, and therefore their mis
they have generally received the French fortunes were not deserving of public sym
name of parliament. This matter being pathy, and as a reason for their misfortune
thus settled, and Vortigern having bee.n being a just retribution. But it is believed
elected their chief federal officer, he was that the charge is not just or true. It is
called in the discharge of his duties from believed the Cvmry were as peaceable as
any brave and decided people, and as the
16 B. i, 25. usual character of human nature would
Chap, a.] DIOCLETIAN TO THE END OF HIS RULE. 15?
permit them to be:1" certainly as much s* plausible and winning politician, but un
as their neighboring people in the Saxon principled and unbalanced, with a feeble
Heptarchy, who, nearly for four hundred judgment; but no worse so than many of
years after their possession of the country, the officials of his day. But his lot was
were in perpetual war with each other; nfortunately cast, in the midst of great
and whose wars, as Hume says, "were as ending and doubtful difficulties, which
interesting as the battle of the kites and were about to produce an unexpected crisis
hawks." Perhaps the Britons were not in the affairs of his country. When the
more so than the Grecian States. natter wa* first canvassed there was much
The character and conduct of the Britons, division of honest opinion about it; when
passed and all its consequences well known,
at the close of this period, is grossly mis
then the poorest judgment, when the
represented. This is principally attributa
event is seen to be unfortunate, can easily
ble to the querulous and fault-finding dis
position of Gildas, almost the only historian be denounced as unwise, and that they
could have done better. Such was Gildas'
remaining near the time. He was a bigoted
position : he, in a few years after the crisis
and superstitious religionist of those ill-
informed times. When things went right had passed, and could then see all its con
sequences, pronounced the measure as un
they were attributed to miracles and di
wise and wicked, and denounced the men
vine interference; when wrong, they were
engaged in it as silly and imbecile,all the
the scourge of heaven for the sins of the
opprobrious and scurrilous abuse heaped
people. Every person and event that had
upon them, and all calumny and scandal
passed, so that they were subject to be
believed of them and repeated, true or
criticised as passed events, were scurrilous-
false. How much of the abuse repeated
ly abused, and depicted in its most odious
against Vortigern were founded in truth
colors; when perhaps those events were, and fact is hard to tell, but much of it is
at the time, strange and unforeseen by hu connected with monkish legends and mira
man wisdom; and would have received his cles, which may well throw doubts over
own approbation, but when passed he could
much of it and justify a disbelief.
criticise and censure with impunity. He
was probably a monastic preacher, and as But be that as it may, Vortigern had
an eloquent preacher or poet, he dealt in come from his hereditary dominions to
generalities and extravagant denunciations, London to see after the national affairs.
to produce a general and vivid impression He saw the difficulties of his situation. He
without any definite fact, date or circum- found all the enemies of his country were
stapces. That his history has produced a upon him at once, the Scots harrassing
false impression of the period, there can be the people and plundering upon the west
no doubt, though a kernel of fact or truth ern coast of the island, and the Picts doing
may be deduced from it. Whatever did the same upon the east; while the Saxon
not meet his approbation he censured in pirates were robbing along the sea coast.
extravagant colors and in general epithets, In connection with Rome, the country had
with the hopes of producing a reform and been drained of men and money ; and their
a crusade against their enemies. For such enemies were then laying many parts of the
a sermon it may be eloquent and effective, island in waste and desolation, which had
but, as a history, of little value; and in the brought upon them famine and pestilence.
general not to be depended upon. Hi The question, what was to be done or could
miracles and denunciation of men ami be done in that crisis, was enough to dis
their times are equally unreliable. tract human intellect and human capacity.
Vortigern was, without doubt, an active. Vortigern called a general assembly of the
cities and states, as was the custom among
17 So Tacitus represents them to be, where the}
the Cvmry. He stated to them the diffi
h;L(I no reason to complain of tyranny or injustice. culties of the country, and the untoward
Ajjricola, $xii, xv, XM; the Annals, "B. xiv, ch. JS events then threatening them. That Par
and 39.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
linment debated the question, as Britons
would have done in modern times. But
the result of the debate and their action
upon it, will carry us over a crisis in the
history of the country and people; and
bring us into another period, to which \ve
must postpone the subject.
CHAPTER III.
THE CONDITION AND CHARACTER OF THE
PEOPLE DURING THE ROMAN PERIOD TO
THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN.
There is every reason to believe that at
the commencement of this period the
Britons were in a very prosperous and hap
py condition. About one hundred years
previous Ca-sar had attacked them with a
view of a. conquest, as he had done in
Gaul, and continued his efforts during two
campaigns, with great resources but with
such utter failure of success that it was but
scarcely believed that it would be ever at
tempted again. We have seen what evi
dence there was of the progress the people
had made, and were making, in everything
that constitute the prosperity and civiliza
tion of a country. If it had not been for
the conquest of Gaul by C;esar, we have
the strongest evidence that the country
was in a rapid course of development of a
new and better civilization than that which
originated in Greece, whose foundation
was borrowed from Egypt and Phoenicia,
and adopted by Rome. We have every
evidence of this in (he progress that the
Venetians were making, in the organiza
tion of their government, in the commerce
they conducted, in the vast amount of
shipping they brought together in opposi
tion to Csusar, and the necessarv arts which
produced all this; which gives to every
candid mind an assurance of the truth of
what is here asserted; but which was
cruelly and heartlessly crushed and stamp
ed out by Crcsar. At that time there was
an intimate connection between the Britons
and the Venetians; and everything which
constituted progress and improvement were
in common between them. They \vere of
the same family of people; and for that
great naval battle Britain had furnished
[Book n.
shipping and aid, as alleged by Ca'sar as a
matter of complaint against them. But
Caesar's operations against the Britons was
a failure, and they were permitted to pro
ceed in their course of improvement; and
this they did by taking to themselves the
former commercial traffic carried on by
the Venetians between Britain and the
continent, in tin, iron, grain and other
products of the island. This is proved by
the assertions of the Roman historians in
their allegations as to the amount of duties
the Roman government were able to col
lect on the coast of Gaul on this British
traffic. That traffic, while principally con
trolled by the Venetians, was between that
part of the island where Portsmouth now
and the mouth of the Loire; but after
the fall of Venetia, that commerce was
divided between the valley of the Loire
and the .Seine. The British historians in
confirmation of this say that commerce in
creased rapidly, and the amount of British
shipping so great as that when the emper
or Caligula attempted to invade Britain he
was principally deterred from doing so by
the show of naval force against him under
Guiderius, the then sovereign of Britain;
as we are also informed by Dion Cassius,
by the speech he puts into the mouth of
Boadicea, that in the latter davs of Augus
tus the British fleet guarded the coast and
.swept the channel, then under Lear, (Llvr,)
as admiral and the brother of Cymbeline,
the Sovereign. There is no more doubt
that I he exhibition made by the British
fleet in those days preserved Britain from
an invasion, than there is that the same
was accomplished about eighteen hundred
years afterwards in the time of Bonaparte.
As to the character of the Britons, and
the progress they had made in civilization,
reference must be had to what has been
said in a former chapter. But it is proper
here to consider the question more fully
whether the Britons, at the commencement
of the conquest, were all one and the same
people and race or diverse. The assertion
of Cii-sar, made under a mistake, that the
people in the south and east near the sea
were emigrants from Belgium, and there
fore a different race of people from those
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION
more in the interior, should be considered
whether literally true or made under a
misapprehension. This assertion of Ca-sar
lias been accepted as true, without a ques
tion bv ihe English writers; and without
even considering whether there might not
be a mistake about it. The British writers
have ever contended that they were all of
the" same race and people, only that those
who were called Loegrians, inhabiting the
southeast part ot Britain, came over from
Cymric Ciaul lifter the Cymry had settled
in Britain. Hut they were all Cymry;
from the original stock who emigrated
from Asia Minor to Gaul, and who consid
ered themselves of the same family and
using the same language. They were
merely a later immigration of the same
people, and received as friends. It was
like the people of New England, who set
tled there in the seventeenth century, re
ceiving new immigration from the British
islands in the nineteenth century as their
own people and friends. The difference
then made between the Loegrians of the
east and the Cymry of the west was a mere
conventional distinction, lilch meant no
more than when we now speak of the peo
ple of the I'nited States we should sav the
New Knglanders of the east and the Vir
ginian*. of the southwest. Thev were es
sentially the same people in origin and
language. Neither Ca'sar, nor Tacitus, or
any Roman author points out anv distinc
tion which conflicts \\ith this. Caractacus
fought the Romans in the aeighbo- hood of
London, as well as among the Silures west
of the Severn ;' just as Washington fought
for one and the same people in New Eng
land and in Virginia. In the latter instance
the fight was successful, but in the former
it was not. But it would have been equally
unsuccessful in both instances, had it not
been that, in the course of the progress of
humanity and justice, the French were in
duced to save the oppressed; but as to
Caractacus, there were no ally or friend of
humanity or justice capable to save him
and his people from the overwhelming
I Curactacus applied lo the Silures, in his speech
before the buttle ol Caradoc, as descendants of the
lathers and peoples who fought Casilir on the
Thames.
OF THE PEOPLE. '59
power of the Roman empire. . The only
meaning that can be put upon Qtsar's as-
sertion" that the people of Southern Brit
ain were from Belgium, is that they were
later emigrants from the opposite coast of
Gaul, than those who first' settled Britain.
This did not conflict with their being all
the same in language and race. "All cir
cumstances considered," says Tacitus,3 "it
is rather probable that a colonv from Gaul
took possession of a country so inviting by
its proximity. You will find in both na
tions the same religious rites, and the same
superstition. The two languages dill'er
but liltle."
Previous to the time of Ca-sar the best
improved part of Britain was that in the
neighborhood of what is now Portsmouth
and the valley of the Avon, which Ca-sar
did not see and apparently did not know
any thing about. Avebury and Stonehenge,
the mounds and barrows, and the great
body of the British antiquities, are there;
and it was there that Vespasian and Titus
had their thirty-two great battles in order
to reduce the people to subjection. It was
there, also, where the ancient commerce
and the tin traffic were the most active;
all indicating that was the most important
part of the country, and the most advanced
in improvement and civilization.
We have already indicated the progress
that the Ancient Britons had made in im
provements and civilization at the com
mencement of the ClaudiiMi invasion. The
object of the Roman?, was not to conquer
a people who were mere savages, but a
people who were able to pay tribute, who
were rich in tin and metals, in grain and
cattle, who were able to support the army
they should send there, and pav the taxes
they should impose upon them. If it had
been a savage country, it would have been
secure from this invasion; but as it was, as
Ca'sar represented a hundred years before,
a country full of people and houses, with
fields of grain and herds of cattle, it was
to be conquered for the tribute it was able
2 Cxsar's \Var in Gaul, B. v, Jio.
3 Lit'e of Agricnla, xi. It is observed in modern
limes thai the (unguajres of Brittany, Cornwall and
Wale> differ hut little, and must originally have
been the same.
 i6o THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
to pay. But their civilization does not de Britons were able to hold out against the
pend upon what may he thus fairly deduced power and arts of the Romans, and the
from what has been said by C:vsar. But manner in which it has been held up by
we have the positive declaration of Tacitus ancient historians to the admiration of the
and other Roman historians; thus Tacitus world, is not only evidence of a high de
represents Prasutagus, the king of Icenians, gree of culture, but disproves the contrary,
had amassed considerable wealth, and that and would throw a disgrace over the Ro
it was an object of cupidity and plunder on man name, in being compelled to maintain
the part of the Romans. His wife and so long a contest with a savage or barbar
daughters were also represented, in queen ous people. "Their hariots, [four
ly attire, riding in a chariot, addressing her thousand in one select body,] which sever
people in appropriate terms as to the al times produced tremendous effect on the
wrongs and injuries she had received, and Romans, and the use of which seems at
in a manner that has received the sympa that time to have been peculiar to the
thy and the admiration ot the civilized Britons, would of themselves prove a high
world.< Equally indicating a high degree degree of mechanical skill, and the ac
of civilization is his description of Cartis- quaintance with several arts." Some of
mandua, queen of the Brigantes: "a wo those chariots as represented to us were
man of high descent, and nourishing in ail very curiously and ingeniously wrought;
the splendor of wealth and power." The and it would be contrary to nature, and all
Brigantes were the most northern part of example and experience, that such skill
Southern Britain, just south of the wall ol and ingenuity should be exhausted upon
Severii!>. From all that is known ot their instruments of war, and not upon
Britain of that date, and all that can be de their houses and domestic utensils." All
duced from history, we can find but little people as they progress apply their pro
or no difference in the people from the wall ficiency in the arts, towards all objects to
of Severus to the isle of Wight, and Irom which they are applicable either civil or
the British channel to the Irish .Sea. They military; never to one to the exclusion of
were all essentially the same people in race the other; but always as much to the com
and language, in laws and customs, in fort and happiness of man as to any other
manners and dress. In all free people there object.
is no great deal of difference in the cloth We have evidence of the degree of civ
ing of OTie class and another. The two ilization attained by the Britons at this,
queens described would not be likely to be time, before the Roman influence and con
so dressed in the midst of a naked and quest had affected them, in the minor mat
painted people.' The contest in which the ters of domestic affairs, and in their per
sonal appearance, manners and customs.
4 YVc inay suppose tin.- dress ol' the Britons to he
like Ihosc 01 the (i.mls. "Boadicea's rov;ti costume, The description already given bv classic
when she addressed the Britons, was Ions yellow authors of the queens and families of the
hair, with a large golden torgues; and :i Kiton or
tunic swelling round her bosom in various colors, Icenians and Brigantes should be received
with a thick cloak thrown over it. Britons had f^old as part of it. So also should be the digni
rinjfs on their middle rin^ei ."'
5 "The first striking result of an examination is a fied appearance of Caractacus before the
suspicion, and indeed a proof, that the Uritons wen: emperor and Roman people. But espec
much farther advanced in civilisation than the savage,
tribes to which it has lu-en the fashion to compare ial. y the speeches put into the mouths of
them." i Pictorial History of England, ]{. i, ch. ;, Caractacus, Boadicea, and Galgacus, by
p. 31. .Mr. Vauichan, Revo. History, p. 25, B. i, ch.
2. says: "The Britain which did ultimately submit to the classic authors, cannot be otherwise re
the authority of Rome was certainly a country of
considerable industry and wealth. " If the Britons ceived than as evidence of their opinion
of Cicsar's time were wont to deliirht in human of their cultivation and refinement. The
-sacrifices, to paint or slain their houres in bar
barous fashion, and to have theirin a family in British authors claim that during the in
common, nothing of this would seem to apulv tn
the Britons described by Tacitus and Dion Cas terval of time between Ca'sar and Claudius
sias. This is a fact of importance in relation to many of the distinguished persons, both
our early history, and should be marked bv the
.student." J male and female, visited Rome, and many
Chap in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 161
were educated there. The classics contain I were numerous, and the country full of
evidence of this f and both Juvenal and houses, and the people possessed large
Martial contain poetical allusions to this j herds of cattle, numerous horses and char-
effect, and specially name Pomponia j iots, in the natural course of things, they
Gra-cina, the wife of the proconsul and vould have made great progress in the
first governor of Britain, and Claudia,' the century that transpired from time to that
wife of Pudens the senator. It would have of Claudius.
been impossible that these ladies would But it is not alone upon such articles
have been thus received into Roman so that this question depends. The condition
ciety, had they been the woman of an un of the country and people is further proved
cultivated and uncivilized people. "The jv the towns, roads, density of population,
British lawyers," says Turner,* "as well as their houses, their chariots, their fields of
the British ladies, have obtained the pane ;rain and extensive herds. All these are
gyrics of the Roman classics." But ar not only evidence of a civilization, but they
ticles found among the antiquities of necessarily produce it. They are all con
Britain furnishes more evidence of the ad comitants and are the necessary production
vancement of the Britons in civilization of one another. Where there are towns
and domestic refinement, than any express there must be roads from one to another.
declaration of the classic. Among these Where there are roads there must be towns.
are found cups of precious materials and Where there is a dense population there
highly wrought; showing great advance must be a cultivation of the earth, or the
ments in the arts, and that they were ac people will starve. Where the people are
quainted with the turning lathe.'1 These savages, or nomadic, the population are
are proof of the existence of the usual do necessarily sparse, in order to furnish food
mestic utensils as a necessaiy concomitant for their game, or cattle. We know from
or a prior necessity. On some of the coins the Roman writers of the time of Claudi
of Cunobeline are represented the interior us, the towns in Britain were numerous.
of a habitation furnished,10 with seats re We are told that Vespasian in his march
sembling a modern chair, stools and other from the isle of Wight to the Severn had
like domestic articles; with the arms ot thirty-two battles and took twenty towns.
the family arranged along the walls, like Claudius was present with Plautius when
the arrangement of similar articles in the the town of Camalodunum, the capital of
country house of a modern English gentle the Trinobantes, was taken. London was
man." And if in Osar's time the people then a large town. Citsar's description of
the capital of Cassivellaunus may not an
(> i Pictorial Eng. Hist. ,67; Tacitus' Annuls, xvi swer as a very fair description of other
2; Martial ESS., vi, 5.5. towns, for they depend upon population,
7 These two ladies were known to British authors
the first :l anil the second as Gwladys. situation and business. It may have been
merely his oppidum or fortified capital, but
if it resembled other towns, then the Brit
ish towns between that time and that of
quest.
9 See John Evans F. R. S. learned work on Brit Claudius greatly improved.
ish antiquities in his Ancient Stone Implements of
Great Britain, p. 400, \-c.. in which he snows hv an- uienls that they wen- framed upon the Roman
liiiuities taken from the mounds that the Ancient model; and this' fart confirms the supposition that
Hritons were acquainted with the lathe, and applied Britain made great progress in the arts of social
its use to many objects. life during the late period before the conquest. As
10 i Pict. Hist, of England, iiS, who cites Pegge vet, also, a good understanding generally prevailed
on the coins of Cunobeline. between the chiefs of the island and the "Roman au
1 1 Sec Giles' Ancient Britons, Vol. I, p. 70, where thorities; for then- are facts as evidence of very
he says.: "If we may trust to the evidence furnished friendly and kind acts passing between them in the
by numismatic science, the name of Cunobeline reign of Tiberius. On those coins are inscribed the
seems not unworthy to be inserted among those ot words or letters, in the abbreviated form, of Cuxo,
the greatest men th'at our country has produced. \o BOADI, and CAMUI., which occurs on some of them,
less than forty different varieties of coins has been most probably designacts the words Cunobeline,
discovered, bearing the name of Cunobeline, or Boadicea, and Camalodunum, but the words Tascia
Camalodunum, his capital and residence. It is evi and Tascio still puzzle all the ingenuity of archeol-
dent from the inspection of these authentic monu- ogists.'1 See Cough's Camdcn, Vol. i, p. cxiii.
162 TIIE ROMAN PERIOD.
Although we do not find the roads of
the Ancient Britons described, yet \ve
know they must have had them, tor I hey
were necessary to communicate from town
to town, also for the passing and operation
of their immense number of chariots.
Tacitus says that the Britons complained
of the Roman tax collectors, that they
"compelled them to make tedious journeys
through difficult cross country roads, in
stead of payment at the most convenient
magazine.' If there were cross country
roads, there must have been general thor
oughfares. And so the circumstances and
the examination of the antiquities of Brit
ain fully prove. This examination proves
that such roads existed from town to town
and throughout the island, before the Ro
man roads were made. The Roman roads
were generally made on them, except
where straightened ; and formed with more
experience and art. The.sc ancient British
roads were used by the Romans in the
conquest of the country ; and if they had
not existed, it might have been very diffi
cult for them to traverse the country.
As to the mental character and capacity
of the people, we have abundant testimony
of Tacitus, from the best possible source
of information. He represents them as a
people who had capacity and taste for learn
ing and for the arts and sciences; and
manifested great facility in their acquisi
tion. He further testifies to their peaceable
character: '-They perform all the services
of the government with alacrity, provided
they have no reason to complain of op
pression. When injured, their resentment
is quick, sudden, and impatient; they are
conquered, not broken hearted ; reduced to
obedience, not reduced to slavery." The
classic historians delineate to us in the
most exalted terms the capacities and abili
ties of their leading men, and the courage,
perseverance and patriotism of the people.
They appear to delight in the conduct and
character of such men as Cassivellaunus,
Caractacus, Arviragus, Venusius and Gal-
gacus; and the skill and ability with which
they conducted their forces, and defended
the country ; and their dignified conduct in
adversity fully justified their kind partiali-
[Book u.
ty.
Some historians, in modern time S seem
delighted in representing the Ancient
Britons to have been so divided up by
tribes and states, and so hostile and at war
with one another that they were a people
incapable of any large movement or a con
federated or united operation. This needs
investigation, for it appears to us unjust.
It is very true that it is said that in all
Britain there are enumerated forty-five dif
ferent tribes or states; and south of the
wall of Severus there were eighteen. But
for the purpose of this examination, the
inquiry may be confined to the territory
south of that wall, and that includes all
that was permanently within the Roman
government. Although eighteen states
and tribes are enumerated, yet there were
not so many states; some states included
two 01 more of them. During the con
quest we hardly hear of any other than
these ten: I. Brigantes, who occupied the
north between the Humber and Severus'
wall; j. Coritani, south of the last and
north of the Wash; 3. The Iceni, south of
the Wash; 4. The Trinobantes, between
the Iceni and the Thames. London and
Camalodunum were within it; and it prob
ably included two or three other states or
tribes, as the Cassii and Atrebatii, and Cat-
igenchlani, and this last name may be in
tended to include the whole. It is proba
ble that Cassivellaunus, in Caesar's time,
claimed the whole of them as his individ
ual dominion, independent of his being
elected the pendraj; 5. The Cantii or
Cantium, which included the southeast
corner of the island south of the Thames;
which included the towns of Daruenum,
(supposed to be Canterbury,) and Rutupiie,
a seaport near .Sandwich; 6. The Belgie,
west of Cantium, on the sea shore, and had
Venta Belgarum (supposed to be Winches
ter) and Ischalis (supposed to be Ilchester)
as their towns; 7. Dumnonii (probably
Duvn or Devon) included all west from
the sea to the Bristol channel, including
Cornwall; !j. The Silures, which included
South Wales or Cambria from the sea to
the Severn, and its principal town was
Carleon on the L'sk; 9. The Ordovices, in-
 Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
163
eluding all North Wales, or Cambria; and dent and cautious men, that there should
10. Cornavii, who were east of the last, and be an explicit declaration in the constitu
are said to include Cheshire, Shropshire, tion, that, "The powers not delegated to
Stafford, Worcester, and Warwick coun the United States by the constitution, nor
ties. Their tow ns were Denna, now Ches prohibited by it to the states, are reserved
ter, and Uirownium, supposed to he to the states respectively, or to the people."
Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury. These ten This well shows with what jealous patriot
will include all the prominent states and ism wise and informed men have guarded
those particularly noticed in the war Of the the rights of their local divisions. They
conquest ; though there may be as many fear that the great advantage obtained by
more swallowed up within them as small the union to the whole is more than lost to
states, and perhaps permanently united. the individual state, unless well guarded
But taking them singly as the eighteen or against the encroachments of a powerful
twenty, the smallest of them were greatly concentrated government. But by a prop
larger than the ordinary sized states, in er arrangement the advantage of forms of
Greece. The state of the Brigantes was government might be had for the same
nearly as large as all Greecelarger than country, by a confederated government to
the Morea, which contained seyen Grecian transact its foreign relations and to regu
states; larger than some of the United late and control its intercourse between
States, larger than two of them at least; and among its several members ; as we see
larger than all Switzerland with her many actually realized by the United States and
cantons; and larger than many of the Switzerland. To this point were the Brit
states in Germany, before the late union ons fast coming, when they were interfered
into the empire. Instead of these divisions with by the Roman conquest. They had
of Britain into small states being evidence been accustomed to hold conventions of
of the people's want of political sagacity the several states for the purpose of elect
and patriotism, it is right the contrary, ing a general chief, whom they called the
evidence of their several sagacity arid wis Pendragon or Wledeg. The first that
dom. Why is it not in them as it was in classic history gives us any definite account
Greece, in the United States, in Switzer of was Caswallon,i2 (Cassivellaunus,) who
land, or in the small states in Germany. reigned seven years after the departure of
These last utterly refused to unite until Citsar. His influence and command was
they were compelled to unite, either by great, as represented by Ca-sar; his com
conquest or by the moral force of the war mand to the three kings (brenhins or
with France. The union in Germany was chiefs) of Cantium, to attack with their
greatly opposed, as it is always everywhere forces the Roman camp on the sea shore,
else, upon the ground of the probability in the rear and absence of Ca-sar, was read
and fears, thatin such union, with all its ily obeyed. At the coming of Claudius'
advantagesthe leading state will take ad invasion under Plautius, we are informed
vantage of its position and tyrannize over that Gwydilyr (Guiderus) was pendragon,
and oppress the other states. For these and was slain in battle at that time. Then
reasons some of the ablest statesmen of Caradog (Caractacus) was elected to the
the United States for a long time opposed pendragonate. His command, as we have
the Union, contending with great ability seen, extended over the whole of South
and patriotism that there should be further Britain. After his fall Arviragus was ac
restrictions upon the general government, knowledged the pendragon to the end of
in order to secure the rights and privileges the war. Thus we see that the Britons
of the -smaller states. Although the Fed- were capable of undertaking and forcing
_ eral constitution of the Union declares in the most extensive combinations. The
the most explicit terms what powers only triads show that the Britons well under-
the United States government might ex
ercise, yet it was insisted upon, by the pru- 11 But the ancient British history precedes this
mimy centuries.
164 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
stood the proper division of the govern
ment into its three departments,the leg
islative, executive, and judicial. The
general assembly was the legislative power,
and none else had a right to make a law.
The king was the head of the government
and chief executive officer. The Druids
were the judges, to decide cases in accord
ance with existing law,they pronounced
what tire law was, and had no right to
make it. With these acknowledged prac
tices and principles, the Britons were well
qualified to form the best federated govern
ment, for the conduct of their general af
fairs; and preserving their several local
governments for the administration of their
domestic affairs and local interest; thus
preserving individual rights and privileges
from being overridden and crushed by the
power of a central government, as in the
United States and Switzerland. This we
have every reason to believe would have
succeeded and taken place, had it not been
crushed by the Roman conquest. That
Britain at that time was divided up into a
number of small states, is no more to be
alleged against its people than against the
Heptarchy, Greece or Germany.
Such was the country, its people, and its
hopes, that the Romans were able, after a
war of forty-two years, to put down and
conquer, and utterly destroy its rising civ
ilization and progress;converting it into
a new field out of which to gather more
tribute, and in which to rob and oppress
other people. It would seem that until
very recent times it was generally thought
by mankind that one people were express
ly made for the purpose of being robbed
and oppressed by another. It was thought
to be all right and fair, and the accomplish
ment of it to be the object of a laudable
ambition. This was often most manfully
and patriotically resisted; but when all the
knowledge and arts of civilization were
perverted to the accomplishment of this
object,when education, discipline and
drill were directed to this sole purpose, it
would likely succeed. There were two
systems upon which this was done : that of
the conqueror, and that of the pirate ; but
both were founded upon the same princi-
[Book n.
ple--of taking wherever they could, with
out regard to the rights of others. The
Romans when they did this, did it sys
tematically, with a view of taking what
they could safely take then, and preserve
the residue for the purpose of taking as
much more the next year. But the Saxon
pirate took what he could carry off, and
the rest he utterly destroyed. There was
therefore some choice between the persons
by whom a people were robbed, though
both were oppressive and equally unjust.
The Romans accomplished their conquest
and robbery with a great deal of skill and
policy. They were prepared, with all the
advantage that art and science could afford,
to carry their object by military power
when necessary, and fight their way
through, if needs be ; but when policy and
cajoling would answer their purpose, they
adopted it, and liked it better. It was their
constant practice to take advantage of any
dissension in the country, to aid the rcbel-
ious and fugitive against the established
government, and flatter and cajole those
who yielded to their power. "Always ex
hibiting," says Tacitus, "a striking proof of
that refined policy, with which it has ever
been the practice of Rome to make even
kings accomplices in the servitude of man
kind."
Until after the Roman conquest had been
completed by Agricola, the condition of
the people in Southern Britain, during that
time, must have been terrible, both as to
the safety of the person or property, and
the administration of justice. Within the
Roman lines the country was governed by
such rules and regulations as the Romans
were pleased to give them. At that time
the Romans did not entertain the idea of a
separate judiciary from the executive gov
ernment, and in Britain the commanding
general was viceroy and governor-in-chief,
though long afterwards a better form or
government was established. The Roman
lines were confined south of the Humber
and east of the Severn and the Avon, un
til Agricola's time, and outside of these
the native government existed and was ad- .
ministered as formerly. In that the Druids
were an important part in the administra
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
lion of justice; and in matters of religion
and morals. But within the Roman lines
the powers and existence of the Druids
had been exterminated ; for the reason that
the Romans found them so determined pa
triots, and so opposed to the Roman con
quest, that they were persecuted, slaugh
tered and exterminated within the Roman
bounds. The people were heavily taxed,
and oppressed with burthensome assess
ments; often plundered and compelled to
accept such dispensation of justice as they
were pleased to give them. But the Brit
ish historians say that within the Roman
lines in a few instances the Romans, in
conformity with their usual practice and
policy, treated with some of the princes of
the minor states, leaving them to rule un
der their own laws and customs, upon con
dition that they paid their taxes and tribute.
This is very probable, for the Roman au
thors frequently mentioned at least one of
these, by the name of Cogidumnus, who is
represented as being very faithful to his
engagements with the Romans. is But with
whatever there was to alleviate the unfor
tunate Britons, the rule put upon them hv
the Romans was very grievous to be borne.
They were subjected to all kind of exac
tions:to recruit their arniv', to deliver
13 Tacitus' Agricola, ch. xiv. .Set, also, i Giles'
Ancient Britons, j>- no, ch. vii, ;iml n. k, where there
U a long extract from Whittakcr's Historv of Man
chester, B. i, ch. S, where the |>ollcy (if the Romans
in preserving the native government, tor domestic
purposes, is fullv shown. The reader should ob
serve that in all Roman history of Britain we read of
no war or rebellion, after Agricola's time, west of
London and south of the Thames and the Severn,
and the native historians claim that the reason of it
w.is that all that south part of Britain was in the
hands of the native government, as stipendaries,
subject to the Roman as the paramount government.
They paid their taxes and tribute to the Komans;
acknowledged their supreniacv and remained cjuiet.
The evidence in Roman history that British princes
anil ruldrs were permitted to retain their position in
civil and domestic ariairs as tributaries or stipcmla-
rie, occurs so frei|uentlv that there can be no doubt
upon the subject, as well as it being claimed hv the
Cambrian writers in relation to Lucius and others.
There is another instance given by Giles' Historv of
Ancient Briton* (Vol. I, p. JO3, A. D. 161). When
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, his lieutenant, Ix>l-
Hus Urhicus, recovered firmly the northern province
up to the north wall of Ajjricola, we also learn that
the emperor cut on half of the territory of ihe Bri-
ganles, because they had invaded another tribe, trih-
ufclry to the Romans. "Now," says Giles, "as the
Enemies are universally supposed to occupy the
territory south of the wall previouslv erected by
Hadrian, we are led to suppose that, though thus in
cluded in the Roman province, thev were still to
have their <A\ n rulers, and the riy-ht to govern them
selves, in subordination to the Roman supremacy."
165
over to the tax gatherer their crops as a
security for the payment of taxes and as
sessments, and bear the burthen of sup
porting the government. But with all this
both Agricola and Tacitus represent the
people as peaceable and quiet, when they
had no cause to complain of oppression
and injustice; but impatient and intolerable
whenever such causes existed.
Agricola was governor of Britain for
eight years, and notwithstanding he
brought the conquest to a close, he un
doubtedly effected much good in the Ro
man government, which for a time tended
to put the people in a prosperous condi
tion, and to alleviate their oppressive bur
thens. He left A. IX 85, and from that
time until the arrival of Adrian in A. D.
i jo, being thirty-five years, though there is
a want of exact history, it seems the coun
try was generally quiet and prosperous, ex
cept repeated attacks on the north made bv
the Caledonians, which was the principal
cause of Adrians visit. About twenty
years later the same state of aft'airs brought
Antoninus Pius to the island, and in A. D.
208 Severus was called there sixty-eight
years later. All these visits of. the emper
ors were principally caused by the contin
ued invasions by the Caledonians; stil the
country made great progress in improve
ments.
From the time of Severus to that of
Carausius, A. D. jyo, about eighty years,
matters in Britain remained very much in
the same condition ; and during the whole
time from Agricola to CarauMiis, (alxnit
JO5 years,) .Southern Britain was in gener
al in a very peaceable condition, entirely
under Roman rule as its paramount gov
ernment. In that time the condition of
Britain was VLTV much what India is now
to the British government. The Roman
people never much emigrated to it. It was
the station for a large portion of the Ro
man army, and the country from whence
to recruit it, and to collect taxes and trib
ute. The Roman people did not coloni/e
it as they did Gaul. It was too far off and
out of their way; and they had passed the
age when the Romans colonized as agri
culturalists. The colonies which the Ro
t66 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
mans formed in Britain were merely army
colonies and commercial places. They,
who were such colonists, were mere hafig-
ers-on to the army; and when that left,
there were no Roman people left in the
country. The residence of Romans in the
country were only temporary residences,
connected with the army and government,
and with the commerce of the country.
There were verv few persons Roman horn
and educated ever finally settled in Britain.
The people were essentially Briton*, of the
Cymric race. Gaul was conquered more
than a hundred years, before it was accom
plished in Britain. Long before Cicsar's
time the Romans had acquired a portion of
Southern Gaul, a margin on the Mediter
ranean sea, which they in some measure
coloni/ed, and then pushed further into
Gaul, which had thus become considerably
Romanized in people and language. But
it was never so in Britain. The Roman
people had passed the time when rural col
onization was desirable to them. In Brit
ain their colonial towns were few, and Lon
don was not one of them ; it was only a
large commercial place, where Roman
merchants and officials settled in common
with Britons, and did business in the midst
of the native population.
In all Britain there were onlv ten towns
which at all assumed to he Roman towns,
(two municipal and eight colonial,) and
these were old British towns, unless it be
Rhutupis. Riflil'iii-oK^l , where the Romans
first landed under Plautius; and these were
scattered far apart over the country; and it
does not appear that any of these were one
of the twenty towns tiken by Vespasian in
the south part of the island in the neigh
borhood ot Portsmouth. The great m;ss
of the inhabitants of the towns were Brit
ons; in the country they were exclusively
so. The army were quartered in their
camps and fortresses; and officials or.lv in
the towns.
This accounts why the Roman conquest
did not Lalinixe Britain, as it did in Gaul,
among the same family of people. In all
cases where a conquest has taken place be-
tween two dirVcrent races of people, they
.,
become assimilated ..... . "
with the largest body
[Book II.
of people. In Gaul the Romans were suf
ficiently numerous to create an influence
and make an impression; in Britain it was
otherwise. And therefore, when the Ro
man armv left, there was hardly a sensible
impression left upon the language of the
people. The improvements made in the
country during the Roman period was
principally the labor of the Britons, and
whatever was done was paid for by their
industry. The roads and the wall of Se-
verus were the joint work of the armv and
the people; but the towns and improve
ments of the country were the product of
the labors of the people; and all at their
expense. The Romans, undoubtedly,
taxed and assessed upon the Britons not
only all the expenses in Britain, but con
siderable to he returned to Rome.
The Britons were an industrious people
and good mechanics; accustomed to labor
and industry, which was applied to the pro
duction of articles not only for domestic
use but for exportation. This i- proved by
the great traffic, shipping and commerce
that had always existed between Britain
and the continent; and the former great
shipping interest of the Venetians, destroy
ed bv Ciesar. was the result of it. The
people were apt and ready scholars, as tes
tified by Agricola and Tacitus, ready to
engage in all or any of the learning and
improvements suggested by the Romans.
All this goes to prove that the greater part
of what is now found in Britain and called
Roman antiquities, as the remains of (owns
and houses, were produced by and for the
use of the Britons. The Romans were
their teachers as to what was new, but the
industry and skill that produced them, as
well as the taste that desired or required
them, were that of the Britons. The camps
of the army, and the residence of the offi
cials, were comparatively few; but the
towns and residences ot the people were
mam, and the residents of the Roman
towns themselves must have l>een princi
pally natives. u The population of Britain
',4KR.V'hlird "'^"mn^r 'y < ' <* 7>; "A">"njc
the Britons were formerly ninety-two cities, of whicn
' thiriy-three were more celebrated and conspicuous:
II two municipal
lightly imagineandthatnine
theyci>l.ni:il.
had not Butmanyletothers
no one
tic-
 Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 167
could not have been less than three million, apt scholars and skillful mechanics. Out
but the Roman army do not usually exceed side of the Roman colonial and municipal
fifty thousand, or one in sixty of the pop cities, the British and native cities were
ulation; and very few of them would re large and numerous. Throughout the Ro
quire a residence out of camp. After man period Britain continued to be British
Caesar's time the Britons became well ac and Cymric, as much as British India con
quainted with the continent and Rome, tinues to be Hindoo; with the exception
and were accustomed to visit them. Dur that the Britons more readilv adopted Ro
ing that time until the conquest the}' made man improvements. The Romans, except
great improvements in whatever they saw- in the army and official stations, were too
abroad. The Britons became a favored few to change the language or the national
people with the Romans. The first gov character of the people. But they were a
ernor of Britain, Plautius, took a British more intelligent people than the Hindoos,
lady, Pomponia Giecina, as a wife; and an and as Tacitus shows, readilv adopted what
other Roman senator, who had been an of was new and desirable in Roman science
ficer in Britain, married another British and arts. The few Romans who perma
ladv about the same time,Claudia Pudens. nently settled in the country were so com
This also recalls to our mind the high pletely absorbed and assimilated with the
eulogy passed by Tacitus and others upon natives that when the Roman army finally
the character of the Britons, which was left there were no Roman population, only
carried so far in opposition to Suetonius there was a partv with little more Roman
Paulinus as to be the means ot removing ! blood than the great body of the people;
him from office.15 The tact that Seneca and looked to Rome with greater hopes for
lent to the Britons an extremely large protection from the northern barbarians,
amount of money, at the very commence even while Rome was unable to protect
ment of the conquest, is the strongest evi herself.
dence that he considered them a highly But still great changes were wrought in
civilized people or he would never have Britain by the Roman conquest. The new
risked his great capital in such a loan.10 and rising civilization, that the Britons
The course of improvement pursued by were cultivating for themselves, was sub
the Britons after Csesar's time, and before ordinated and made to assimilate to that
the conquest, was continued after the latter of Rome Their ancient government,
event; and, as Tacitus says, they readily which clearly divided itself into its three
adopted such improvements and inventions departments, (a triad): its king, brenhin
as the Romans could suggest or encourage. or chief, to be the head of the government,
In this respect they appear to have been its executive, the presiding officer of its
general assemblies, and commander-in-
sides those mentioned. I have only commemorated i chief of its army; the legislativelaw-
the more celebrated. The Romans for the most part
took up their abode in fortresses which they con making powerwas confined to the gen
structed for themselves."
See, also, Henry of Huntintfton, B. i, p. 3, who eral assembly, in which neither the king
says: "Britain was formerly famous for twenly-eighl had any other power than as a member
elites, which, as well as innumerable castles, were
well fortified with walls and towers, and with eates and presiding officer, nor Druid had any
secured with strong; locks. The names of these
cities in the British language were Caer-Ebram, other power than as a man or member, as
York; Cacr-C'heal, Canterbury ;" &c., fsee list in a learned individual; and the judiciary,
Appendix.] "These were the names of Ihe cities in
the times ot the Romans and Britons." which was confided to the Druids, as learn
See, also, Xennius, $7-0, who has a list of thirty-
three cities, and say*: -'The Britons were once very ed men to determine what the law was
populous, and exercised extensive dominion from sea not to make it. All of which was over
to sea."
15 Tacitus' Ann., B. xiv, $39; Ibid. AgTicola, xiii. turned, and a centcrized, arbitrary govern
16 All Ihe antiquities now found in Britain, and ment substituted, and confided to the gov
called Roman remains; the foundation of villas,
palaces, public and private buildings, with las.solaled ernor appointed for the provinces, called
pavement and elegance of arhitecture, were by no the pnctor or prefect. He exercised arbi
means all Roman property, but a vast amount of it
must have been that of native Britons. trary, imperial powers in all military and
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
civil matters; and was at the head of the
judiciary.1" lie appointed all officers and
magistrates. The exceptions to this was
that there were some favored districts, who
had readily submitted to the conquerors,
that were permitted to keep up a subordin-
ary and tributary government of its own,
subject to a revision of the Roman power;
and in submission to its will. There were
also numerous cities, towns and communi
ties that were stipendaries, /. r. under con
ventional arrangement by which thev were
to pay certain stipend or tribute, and then
were permitted to arrange and manage
their own domestic affairs. But then what
ever concerned the Roman government
was controlled by them, and absolutely un
der their power. Whatever was objection
able or dangerous to Roman power, was
put down and prohibited; and therefore the
Druids and their institution were at first
prohibited and crushed; and in the com
mencement of the conquest the Druids
were slaughtered wherever found, not on
account of their religion, for that was
much better than the Roman's, but on ac
count of its jiatrioti.sm, power and elo
quence in reminding the people of their
duty to their country and freedom. In
most instances they also disarmed the
people; for they thought it dangerous to
trust such resolute and determined patriots
and lovers of personal national liberty to
bear arms, and in this thev probablv did
not misjudge.
It is not an easy matter to determine the
condition that the Britons were left in, as
to religion, during these times. Though
the Druids were proscribed, and in a meas
ure expelled, yet they were not entirely ex
terminated ; for it is certain that they exist
ed there in a modified form as to political
attains, until the Britons had superseded it
by the adoption of Christianity, which they
commenced doing in the early part of the
conquest; though that was not done with
the approbation of the Roman government
until the time of Constantino the Great.
!/ Constantine the Great long afterwards separa
ted the civil department of the government from the
military; and Hadrian before that separated the
riscal from the civil and military part of the govern
ment. These were great improvements Initiate.
[Book ii.
In the meantime the Druids and Druidism
in some measure existed, but subordinate
to the control of the Roman government
and in the shade. Though a Pagan relig
ion, it was much better than that taught by
the classics. It taught that there was one
eternal and infinite God;that the soul of
man survived this life, and that its condi
tion in the next was dependent upon his
conduct in this; and "that truth should be
sought after against the world." With
these great principles fixed, it was an easy
transition for the Britons to pass over from
Druidism to Christianity, which probably
they did do as readily as any other people.
When the Romans at the commence
ment of the conquest so cruelly slaughter
ed the Druids, and excluded Druidism,
what remained among the Britons was in
a very quiet manner and in a great meas
ure secret and unobtrusive to the Roman
government; but many of the Druids fled
to the Isles of Man, Lewis, Orkney, and
to Scotland; and there built up those great
Druidical monuments now left there, as
the great antiquities of those countries;
and then A vebury and Stonehenge became
deserted, when Vespasian and Titus over
ran that countrythe Isle of Wight and
the Avonwith fire and the sword; and
laid in ashes many of the twenty towns
they there took.1*
After the conquest became complete,
and the country settled down again in
peace, the Druids returned among the
Britons, as formerly.as priests, teachers
and judges among the people. This was
done in a peaceable and quiet manner, so
as not to excite the suspicion of the Ro
mans that they would again interfere with
the peace and politics of the country. The
Druids and Bards continued to be an in
iS The student of ancient British history, in order
to become acquainted with the true condition of the
Britons previous to the Roman conquest, lei him read
Tacitus* Life of Agricola, the first book of Vuughan's
History of Revolution* m England, and the first
hook in the Pictorial History of Engbmd. This
book in several chapters, \vith threat caution .nnd
fiiirnes-i, does justice to the question. See, also, first
bock of Thierrv's History of the Norman Conquest.
This is a very Interesting book. As to the special
history of the Cymry of Wales, Miss Jane William's
History of Wales i*. recommended as very interest
ing for the general reader; and her citation to her
authorities is valuable, and shows on her part great
induslrv and research.
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION
stitution in Britain, until the adoption of
Christianity, when the Druid became a
Christian priest, and Druidism superseded
by Christianity. The Bard is a cherished
name throughout Britain to this dav, and
Druid, with his notion of the eternal spirit.
the creator and preserver of all things
a"s his great God,that unknown God,
whom Paul came to teach to the Greeks;
with their notions, also, of a future as a re
ward tor well doing in this, had but a short
step to take in going over to Christianity.
The Britons were among the first and ear
liest Christians of Western Europe.
The government which the Romans im
posed upon Britain during this period
changed somewhat from time to time, but
always upon the same principles;with a
view of extracting from it all they could,
and as far as possible make it pav its own
expenses. Its army and government was
not at the expense of the Roman, but at
that of the British people. It was retained
as the country in which the Roman annv,
in time of peace, could be cheaply quarter
ed, and at the same time extract tribute and
taxe- from it. Until about the time of Ag-
ricola the Roman government was con
fined within the military lines, which were
east of the southern Avon and the Severn
and south of the Humber. Then the gov
ernment was entirelv in the hands of the
prsefect the governoras absolute ruler.
Some of these, in consequence of the re
sistance of the Britons to the Roman con
quest, became arbitrary, harsh and cruel.
This was especially the case with Suetoni
us. Some of the better class of Roman
officers protested against it, and contended
that the natives were worthy of a better
government, and that kindness would pro
duce with them better tesults. Agricola
testifies to this, and did all in his power to
produce a good government, and it seems
to have produced its expected results, for
the country became free from the scourge
of war lor some time. Soon after that the
Romans organized Southern Britain into
two provinces,Britannia Prima, and .SV-
cmidii. Some time afterwards it was re
organized into six provinces: I. Britannia
Prima, south of the Thames and the Brit-
OF THE PEOPLE. l6o
ish channel; 2. Britannia Secunda, west of
the Severn and the Dee; 3. Flavia included
all north of Britannia Prima, east of Brit
annia Secunda, and south of the Humber
and the Mersey; 4. Maxima included all
north of Flavia and south of Severius"
wall; 5. Valentia occupied all between this
wall and that of Antoninus,ot this prov
ince they but seldom had the possession;
and 6. Vespasiana, north of the last named
wall, of which the Romans hardly ever
had the possession.
In studying the condition of the Britons
while under the Roman empire, it is prop
er to consider that Britain was the last of
the important provinces brought within
its subjugation ; and that was accomplished
a hundred years after that of Gaul. It
commenced in the reign of Claudius, and
terminated in that of Honorius; a period
of three hundred and seventy-seven years."
It commenced after the laws and practices
of the Romans had fully settled down in
the empire, and terminated before the great
changes produced bv the later emperors,
asTheodosius and Justinian, and the reform
produced in the law by their several codes;
which, therefore, never reached Britain as
part of their Roman law. During that
time the laws in principles and practice re
mained very much the same, though some-
.times modified in its organization of the
government, and frequently a great deal bet
ter or worse than at others, dependent upon
the character of the men who exercised
the government. When the affairs of
Britain were performed by such men as
Agricola, or even such men as Carausius,
the people were prosperous and happy ; but
when governed by men vindictive and
cruel like Suetonius Paulinus, or neglected
and plundered by a Catus Declaims,2i> the
country ceased to be prosperous and seem
ed to be stricken with a blight or paralysis.
It was the same at Rome itself; whenever
the government was in the care of a Nero
or Commodus the evil consequences of
their bad administration reached and af
fected Britain. Until the conquest was
fairly over, and the provinces fairly estab-
19 From A. D. 43 to 420.
20 Tiicitus1 Affricohi, $32.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
lished, the commander-in-chief of the ar tion of the Ancient Britons were superior
my, as legate of the emperor, was gover to the Romans, for they observed the three
nor, and absolutely controlled everything great divisions in the administration of the
both military and civil, as arbitrarily as government.
the emperor himself. But after the prov When Britain was divided into provinces
inces were established, the government was is somewhat uncertain ; but it is said that
usually organized by the appointment of a it remained as one united territory or prov
governor as the legate or vicarius of the ince for about one hundred and fifty years,
emperor, who was generally known as the after the conquest, when it was "divided
proprietor or prefect. Such governor ex into two provinces, to which three more
ercised the same arbitrary power in his ad were afterwrds added."?1 This would put
ministration as the emperor would do. He the first division about the reign of Sep-
appointed all the inferior officers and mag temus Severus, and the division of all the
istrates, which belonged to the Roman provinces above stated did not take place
branch of the government. In time of until the reign of Constantine the Great.
war and political difficulty, the governor Whatever changes took place the govern
was the commander-in-chief of the army ; ment always remained the same in princi
but in times of profound peace the civil ple and practice. It always represented
administration was separated from the mil that of an absolute monarchy. Among
itary, and Constantine the Great rendered the official functionaries there was no per
it perpetually so. Such legates were se sonal independence; they were all subor
lected from among such Romans as had dinate, one to another, up to the emperor
been consuls, or pnvtors, or from the sena who had the absolute control of their des
tors. These held their office and powers tiny. The avowed principles of the Ro
at the pleasure of the emperor, and they man government to their conquered coun
had Irgati or deputies under them, with tries were far better than their officials put
such inferior officers, the civil and military in practice. The law assumed to prohibit
officers and duties were kept separate, but and punish corruption, peculation and plun
not so with the vicarius who represented der, still those things, and arbitrary oppres
the emperor. The most striking restraint sion and injustice, were frequently com
put upon the governor of a province, was plained of; and in such a government
that which the Roman constitution and it was difficult to obtain a redress. It was
policy placed upon all delegated power, frequently the practice of the Roman to
both military and civil ; that is, that the leave the conquered nationalities under
ffcal was kept separated and distinct from their respective laws and customs, so that
the other branches of the government. they submitted to the Roman sovereignty,
Therefore there was appointed in each and paid their assessments and taxes. The
province in Britain a procurator, who, with principal object of the Romans was to con
his corps of officers, superintended the col trol the sovereignty, and collect tribute
lection of all the revenues and settling and and taxes; so that when these were cheer
paying all accounts and claims; and then, fully rendered, the Roman government in
at stated times, he was bound to account the provinces, for one which in form and
and duly settle with the treasury-feus practice was bad and unju&t,was still, un
of the Roman or general administration. der good officers, tolerable and often pros
This was, unfortunately, the only instance perous. We believe that, upon historical
in which the Roman constitution observed authority, we are justified in saying that
any distinction and separation between one there were several principalities or states,
branch of the government and another; md numerous towns, left to administer
until the time of Constantine the Great, their own laws and customs, subject to the
when in time of peace, the civil adminis Roman sovereignty, and the payment of
tration was separated from the military. In tribute and taxes as stipendaries. Where-
these respects the government and constitu- 21 i Pictorial Hist. England, p. 82.
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
ever this arrangement could be made, it
was very desirable on the part of the con
quered people ; for when the tributes and
taxes were collected by the Roman officers,
it was subject to corrupt dealings and op
pression, which in a great measure was
avoided by any conventional arrangements
to pay stipendary sums in satisfaction of
the ordinary tribute and taxes required.
The great object of Roman ambition
was the empty one of extending the glor
ious sovereignty and majesty of Rome;
and next the substantial one of collecting
tribute and taxes, to pay the expenses in
the provinces, as well as to support the
general administration at home. Where
the first was readily acknowledged, the
Romans were always liberal in making en
lightened arrangements with regard to the
latter; and thereby leave the people to
govern and control their domestic affairs
in accordance with their usual laws and
customs. There was, therefore, always in
the provinces the appearance, more or less
distinctive, of two governments,the Ro
man controlling and directing a sovereign
power as to all international affairs and po
litical arrangement, and leaving the domes
tic and local affairs to be controlled and
managed by the people and their officials
themselves, where it did not interfere with
Roman sovereignty.^ This division of
22 The separation of the government into two dif
ferent departments, as it may concern the general
government and Roman interest,.md that which con
cerned private, local and municipal affairs, is every
where noticed in Rnman jurisprudence, as extended
to the conquered provinces. It has been thus stated:
"Thence arose in those towns a separation between
the municipal rights and duties and the political
rights and duties: the former were exercised on the
snot; the latter was conlroled by the Roman govern
ment. The principal matters which remained local
were, I. The religious worship. 2. The adminis
tration of the municipal propertv and revenues. 3.
The police to a certain extent; with 4. A tew judicial
functions specially connected with it. All these
local aftairs were regulated either by an individual
magistrate, named by the inhabitants, or by the
curia of the to\vn, that is the college of dfcttriotifs,
or inhabitants possessed of territorial revenue of a
certain amount. In general the magistrates were
named by the curia, though sometimes bv the inhalv
Hants." (i Pict. Hist, of England, p. So, B. i, ch.
in.)
See, also, Palgrave's History of the Anglo-Saxons,
p. 7, where it is said:"In the earlier stages of the
Roman conquest, the native princes, according to
the usual custom of nations, when they dealt with
those who dared to struggle against "their power,
were treated with merciless severity. But this
harshness was not always exerted; for some British
princes were allowed to" retain their dominion be-
171
government is easily understood by the
people of the United States, as exempli
fied in the general government of the
Union, and the domestic government of
the several States ; except that here there
is a divided sovereignty, each fixed and
known by the constitution, and each a sov
ereign in their respective spheres; and
when any dissensions exist as to the rights
or privileges of either, it is judicially set
tled. So we also see in Scotland the gen
eral and national affairs controlled and
managed by the British government, while
their own domestic laws and customs re
mained to be administered and executed by
themselves. But with the Romans these
were matters of concession on their part,
to which the provincials, as a conquered
people, were bound to submit; and their
case became more or less stringent, more
or less subverted, as the Romans found
them more or less submissive and obsequi
ous to the imperial power.
The Britons manifested a fierce and most
determined opposition to the conquest.
From the mouth of the Thames to the Isle
of Anglesea, and from the Isle of Wight
to the Severn, and from thence to Caer-
ebrane, York, they united as one people,
.is Britons, without regard whether they
were specially designated as Lloegrians or
Cymry, in one determined opposition to
any submission to a foreign rule. Uniting
under one chief head, as their wledig or
pendragon, (their emperor or commander-
in-chief,) they made the cause that of one
people, who were determined to sink or
swim together; and whether in the midst
of the Trinobantes in the east or the Silures
in the west, under Caractacus they made
every available position a battle field for
freedom. So hostile and obnoxious did
this determined opposition become to the
neath the Roman supremacy. Cogidumnus, who ap
pears, from an inscription discovered al Chichester,
to have reigned in or near Sussex, the ancient terri
tory of the Regni, may be quoted as one of these
tributary governors. In such a country, the native
population, having a ruler of their own race and
blood placed over them, were probably less oppress
ed than in those parts where they were immediately
beneath the rod of the Roman masters." And we
have many reasons to believe that this was not a
solitary instance, but often repeated in Britain dur
ing the Roman rule, to the mutual advantage of both
parties. See the note in this chapter ante. (Giles
and Whitteker.)
172 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Roman generals that Ostorious and Sue
tonius Paulinus threatened to exterminate
the Britons; but I believe that has always
proved to be a pretty hard matter to ac
complish. The Silures, as the special rep
resentatives of the ancient Cymry, were
the most patriotic, brave and determined
in the cause; and there was but little ex
ception anywhere;the king of the Icen
ians and the queen of the Brigantes were
once cajoled to favor the Roman cause, but
the people in both instances rebelled against
the arrangement. We have no material
evidence to the contrary of this, until the
conquest became inevitable; and then we
are informed of the case of Cogidumnus,
Llurvg or Lucius, and other kings or
princes of the Britons were permitted to
rule as tributaries, and subordinary to the
Roman power. We know of but two
cities where the Roman law exclusively
prevailed VerolamiumM and Eboracum,"
as municipal cities. There were a vast
number of other British towns, that were
such before the conquest, in which the
British municipal laws and customs re
mained, cither as stipendaries or by suf
frage. Except in the army, and depend
ents upon it, there were but few Romans
in Britain, and they were principally at
tached to army stations, such as Carleon,
Chester, York, Lincoln, Colchester, Rich-
borough, and other such military posts and
camps; and at the fortresses along the line
of Severus' wall. But elsewhere the towns
and country were exclusively British. The
Roman settlements in Britain were never
numerous enough to make any impression
permanent upon the character of the peo
ple or their language. After the conquest
and peace restored, the Britons progressed
in their improvements as before. Their
houses and towns, as further improved, be
came more Romanized; new improve
ments and arts were adopted. The Ro
mans there, as architects and civil engi
neers, suggested these, and they were
readily accepted and adopted by the
Britons. The great body of the' towns,
13 Verulam or Si. Alhans.
24 York or Cacr el'roc or efrog.
[Book n.
houses and villas were the property of
wealthy Britons, created by their taste, in
dustry and perseverance. This is sustain
ed by the words of Tacitus, when speaking
of the facility with which the Britons took
learning and improvements. He says:
"The Roman's apparel was seen by the
Britons without prejudice; the toga be
came a fashionable part of their dress.
Agricola25 exhorted and assisted them to
build houses, temples, courts and market
places. By praising the diligent and re
proaching the indolent, he excited so great
an emulation amongst the Britons that af
ter they had erected all those necessary
edifices in their towns they proceeded to
build others merely for ornament and
pleasure, such as porticos, galleries, baths,
banqueting-houses, &c."
With all these evidences before us: the
fact that they Jiad extensive and numerous
roads throughout the island ; large and
numerous towns; extensive commerce
with the Venetians and the continent gen
erally, in metals, grain and other agricul
tural productions; that they had coined
money, extensive manufacture of chariots,
weapons and armor for war, and untensils
for domestic uses; a body of learned men
whose duty it was to teach the people
religion, morals, the arts and sciences; and
capable to reduce to writing all public and
private matter, not objectionable; and a
people who had reduced its government
and constitution to their proper divisions,
of legislative, executive and judicial,how
maliciously wicked it is to allege such a
people to have been savage and barbarous;
or to deny that they were civilized before
the Roman conquest? It may, indeed, be
alleged that because they were such civil
ized people was the very reason that the
Romans sought to conquer them; for sav
ages thev did not attempt to conquer, for
the reason that from them no tribute or
plunder was to be had.
Notwithstanding the great change pro
duced upon Britain by the Roman con
quest, and all the benefits conferred upon
it by the Roman arts and civilization, it
JJ T-.u-itiis' ipricol;, cli. xxi; as translated
Pictorial Hist. England, p. loS.
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
may still be questioned whether it com
pensated for the rising civilization and
improvements of its own which was lost
by the change. There were many things
in the government and civil institutions of
the Britons which under proper cultivation
were very hopeful. The fact that their
king or prince was no more than the
head and the executive arm of the gov
ernment ; that no law could be enacted ex
cept by their general assembly; that the
judiciary was confided to the judges, inde
pendent of the other branches, of the gov
ernment, who were taken from the Druids,
as the body of learned and professional
men, who had no political power except
what was due to their learning and wisdom,
who were not an estate, or a hereditarv
body, but selected from the most promising
youths of every class, as the elect of the
land, who after a strenuous course of learn
ing and rigid examination were to become
the literary men and teachers of the peo
ple in religion, morals and the arts and
sciences. Now all this was put down and
superseded by the Roman institutions; and
it is a serious question, whether the loss
sustained by the Britain* in their own insti
tutions, and the hopes and freedom arising
from their Independence, was at all com-
pen-atcd lor by any benefits conferred up
on them by the Romans, subject to the
oppressive government put upon them
and taxes and tribute they were compelled
to pay for nearlv four hundred rears ior
the benefit of Rome.
However this may be, as a matter of
fact the British form of government and
constitution was put down and superseded
as the paramount law by the Roman. The
Druids, as obnoxious to their political
power, were proscribed, and in some in
stances most cruelly slaughtered ; and the
people disarmed as persons, with their de
termined bravery and love of freedom not
to he trusted with arms in their hands.
Subject to the payment of such taxes and
tribute as the Romans required of them,
and these general laws, the Britons were
encouraged to progress in their labors and
improvements, and probably as well treated
as the people of any other province of the
'73
empire. Though the Roman emperors and
their officers in times of peace treated the
people kindlv, and often as favorites, and
with the emperors often residing in their
midst, yet as a general principle the Roman
government was very cautious in with
drawing from them every means which
would aid them in a rebellion, or in the
gaining of their independence; therefore
the standing army stationed in Britain were
generally brought there from other coun
tries, and the recruits raised for the army
were generallv sent to other distant parts
of the empire, and the Roman officers of
every class were prohibited from purchas
ing lands or becoming residents of the
country. Still the people made great pro
gress under the empire, in improving the
country; in the erection of buildings both
private and public; in the construction of
roads and towns; in their agricultural pro
ductions; in their mining operations; and
in their manufactures and commerce. In
their local, private and municipal affair*
they were permitted geneially to regulate
them as they thought proper, and for that
purpose to appoint their own magistrates,
and to organize their cities and towns with
a proper municipal government, which
generally consisted of a senate and neces
sary magistrates elected by the people.
They were also permitted in each city to
organize companies, or guilds, of traders
and artificers, as a corporation, which have
continued in succession, to some extent,
until the present time.
Still the people had frequent great cause
to complain,*) at least during the frequent
changes when the government fell into bad
hands, of great oppression, abitrary and
unjust exactions, burdensome taxes, and
excessive requisitions to labor upon the
roads and public improvements. The
greater portion of all that which now goes
on in Britain under the name of Roman
works and improvements, was produced by
British labor, industry and skill, though
frequently aided and conducted, in the first
instance, by Roman architects and engi
neers, as such matters are transacted in
26 T;icU\is'
2f> l;u'ihis Agricola,
Aifncola, ch. xiii, xv, ifcc.; Tacitus'
Annuls, B. xiv, JjS, 39.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
the present day. The roads, the walls and
fortifications, and other like public works,
were the joint work and labor of the army
and people; and the latter were frequently
compelled to complain of excessive and
tyrannical requisitions upon them for this
purpose. But then most of the private
works and improvements, botli in town
and country, were the works and property
of the Britons; and with the exception of
a few Roman cities, were exclusively such;
and all of it was either produced or paid
for by British labor and industry. Rome
did not send any money or capital to Brit
ain except such as would be returned with
heavy interest; but she did extract from
the island, in annual returns, and profits,
all it could bear with safety to Roman jur
isdiction. In addition to these Roman
public burthens, the Britons cheerfully im
proved their country with private property
and residences, after the Roman models, as
Tacitus says, that the building of temples,
courts of justice, "and commodious dwel
ling houses, as well as baths, and porticos,
and elegant banqueting-rooms. grew in
vogue with them." And all this is now
called and attributed to Roman works and
improvements, instead, as it should be, that
of the Ancient Britons.
During the existence of Roman swav
over Britain there we frequent changes in
the government from good to bad, and
sometimes from bad to better. There were
times when the Roman government was
so feeble and inefficient that it was not
able to protect the people either from being
plundered by pirates and barbarians, or
from the unjust exactions of the officers
and soldiers of the army ; nor from what is
now called by the English, looting in India.
The good times may be referred to as those
of Agricola, when peace was restored ; of
those of Adrian and Antoninus; of Sever-
us, Carausius, Constantius, and Constan-
tine the Great. There were times inter
mediate of these in which history is silent,
almost a blank, for thirty, or fifty, or sev
enty years, when we know but little of the
country, except what we can deduce from
what either preceded or followed it. Es
pecially is this the case in a period of sev
[Book ii.
enty years that transpired between the
time of Severus and that of Carausius.
It was undoubtedly a great benefit to
Britain that so many of the emperors visi
ted it, and that some of them for a consid
erable time made it their favored residence.
During the reign of Carausius,27 who de
clared for the independence of Britain, the
country was especially prosperous, and
fully protected from the invasions of the
north and the piratical and plundering ex
peditions of the Franks and Saxons. It is
claimed that Carausius by birth was a
Briton, a native of Manavia, or Manapia,
now St. Davids; and that the Britons were
especially attached to him. He was wor
thy of their attachment and regard, for
very few or none of the rulers of Britain
were ever able to accomplish so much for
the prosperity and glory of his country.
His acknowledged skill in naval affairs was
fully equalled by his talent and and ability
as a civil ruler. The numerous coins and
medals still remaining of his production,
bear testimony to his taste and capacity,
and to the prosperity of his country. Al-
lectus, his principal officer and assassin,
was only able to hold the government he
had usurped, for a limited time, by being
surrounded by a band of Franks and Sax
ons in his service, until his short reign was
closed by the success of Constantius. Af
ter Allectus' overthrow, his mercenary
foreign troops endeavored to plunder Lon
don; but everything was -oon restored to
order by Constantius.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CONDITION OF TIIF. PEOPLE FROM TUB
ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN' TO THE END
OK THE PERIOD. A. D. .184-420.
j; i .. The Ckaracltristics <>l this Time.
The reign of Diocletian is a prominent
point in the history of the civilized world.
He himself is distinguished for his great
abilities, and his capacity and success
as an executive officer; and equally noted
for his extraordinary resolution he had
taken, in the midst of his successful reign
27 Seven years, from A. D, 287 to 294.
Chap. iv. J FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN. '75
and power, to resign and abdicate all for ' attitude with the rest of the world, and de-
tlie sake of enjoying a private and domes mand of them to submit to their exaction
tic lite. It is also distinguished as a point and requisition for tribute and taxes, or be
in the history of the Roman world as that annihilated. The Romans did not cross
at which Roman power and greatness had the Rhine or the Danube until it was too
arrived at its summit; and where a pagan late to do any good; for there were neither
rule and religion were to terminate, and town nor roads, nor the necessary wealth
where that of Christianity, under his suc to pay tribute: they were in those north
cessor, Constantine the Great, was to com ern countries just emerging from a nomadic
mence its benign influence over monarch condition. Roman power, ambition and
and state. But especially is it a point in desire of conquest kept the northern people
historv where the savage and barbarian of off at arms length in national hostilities, in
the north, by means of its accumulated a savage and barbarous state, induced to
population wi'hout the relief that civiliza seek no art or science, except that of war,
tion 'affords them, began to obstruct and and its fruit, carnage and plunder, instead
overthrow the progress of civilization and of the arts and science of peace, and the
to annihilate Roman power, with its arts, general interest of humanity. Thus did
science and civilization, bringing about in Roman power keep these northern people
human affairs that depression and darkness, at bay, in their rude and uncultivated state,
called "the dark ages," with the decline and from the earliest period in their historv to
fall of the Roman empire. From prehis the fourth century, a period almost of five
toric time, the north had been accumulat hundred years, until they had accumulated
ing in population, until it became an im in numbers so that the natural production
mense hive with numerous swarms, ready of their country would not support them ;
to deluge and overthrow the Roman em until they were compelled to rush, like an
pire and all that distinguished it from bar avalanche, upon the Roman world to its
barian and savage life. destruction. This was to the Romans a
In this terrible change, liritain, in com just retribution for the course they had
mon with the rest of Western Europe,1 pursued,of conquest and taxation, instead
drank to the dregs of this bitter cup. As of the extension ol commerce, friendly in
to Rome herself, this may have been all a tercourse, and civilization.
just retribution; but as to Western Europe, The Roman empire, soon after the com
it was not the result of circumstances, mencement of the fourth century,soon
which witii th was a matter of choice. alter the accession of Constantine the
but was what Roman ambition and con Great to the empire, A. I). 306, and his de
quest had forcibly imposed upon them. parture for the east, and his heart hent up
Gaul and Britain were both making rapid on Constantinople as the accomplishment
improvement and progress in civilization of his glory, began to feel the pressure of
when C;esar conquered the one and Claud the northern nations, and the trouble they
ius the other, changed their destiny, and were about to give them. Bv A. D. 406,
imposed upon them Roman rule, Roman the swarms from this northern hive were
interest and tribute, and kept them subjects ready to subvert the western empire, which
to it. they soon accomplished. Britain was
Rome chose a career of conquest, and amongst the first of the provinces to en
extracting from other countries taxes and dure this attack, which the Britons in their
tribute; instead of extending commerce, triads called "the Black invasion;" and the
and the arts, and civilization, by a friendly fatal result of the movement became known
and national intercourse, like the Phojni- to history as "the dark ages." These na
cian cities, Venice, London and New- tions were known as the Huns, Goths,
York; but chose to put herself in hosti'e Vandals, Alani, Burgundians, Franks, and
Saxons; and produced a movement which
i. Brilnin, G;iul, Spain aud luily. terrified and convulsed all Europe. The
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Huns were from the farthest east,from
Eastern Tartary and the border of China;
and after marching through and convulsing
Europe, some of them finally settled in
what is now called Hungary. The Goths,
or Geta:, proceeded from Southern Russia,
near the north-western angle of the Euxine
or Black .Sea, and eventually occupied vari
ous pdrtions of Central Europe, or became
lost amidst other nations. The Vandals
moved from Eastern Europe, moving
through Centra! and Western Europe,
prostrating everything before them as they
proceeded whatever constituted objects oi
civilization and refinement as though they
detested them, and the' eby acquiring tor
their character the appellation of vandalism.
These finally passed into Spain and Africa,
and also became lost in the midst of other
nations. The Alani and Burgundians
moved south from Central Germany, set
tled in Gaul and adjoining districts;the
Burgundians settled in, and gave name to,
what is now Burgundy in Trance. The
Franks from Western Germany proceeded
into Central Gaul, and settled in Paris and
its vicinity, and imposed upon the country
the name of France. And the Saxons, at
least one branch of them, moved from the
low lands in the north-western and the
maritime part of Germany, in the neigh
borhood of the Elbe and the Eider, and
after vexing the southeastern coast of
Britain and the opposite coast of Gaul as
pirates for about one hundred and fifty
years; they then commenced their settle
ment in Britain, which they were able to
accomplish after a similar length of time,'
to establish along those southeastern
shores seven small kingdoms, called Hep
tarchy, which since has received the name
of England, from one branch of the family
known as the Angles, _which has since
grown up into a mighty empire, now
united with the rest of the British islands
in the "United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland."
These changes in the condition of Eu-
2 The first period extended from afoo.it A. D. .^oo
to 450; and the second from tli.it time to about 600.
Sec Palip-ave's Anglo-Saxons, p. 03. Also Anjflo-
Sa.xon Chronicle, l. S. Turner's Anglo-Saxon, p.
216, ^10 and 2^2.
[Book ii.
rope and the Roman Empire sadly affected
the condition of Britain and its people.
We have sketches of the history of Britain
going back probably about a thousand
years before the commencement of our
Christian era. It is now necessary briefly
to review the condition of the Britons as
they progressed, from time to time, from
the earliest notice of them in history to the
time when they were relieved from the
Roman yoke a period of about 1420
yearsthe same length of time as from
the commencement of the Saxon con
quest to the present time. It is proba
ble that there was a pre-Celtic race eccti-
pying Britain. This is proved bv the dif
ference of character in the mounds and
burial places and their contents, and the
skeletons found in them ; so differing from
those which are known to be Celtic. But
they were of the Celtic race when the is
land was firsl visited by the Phrenicians
and Greeks in the tin trade and other
traffic; and the people represented as "be
ing rich in tin and lead. They were nu
merous and high spirited, active, and eager
ly devoted to trade."3 Publius Crassus
made a voyage to the island at an early
time, and says, "he found the inhabitants
of a peaceable disposition and also fond of
navigation ; he gave them some instruc
tions which implied their carrying it on
upon a larger scale."4 They were reported
to be respectably clad, inquisitive, and
kind, and hospitable to strangers. Like
most Celts, they were not too selfi.-h and
hostile to receive a stranger with open
arms. This characteristic is directly con
trary to that of many nationalities. Some
of this historic account transpired before
the arrival of the Cvmry, in the time of the
old Gallic Celts, and some after their ar
rival, which we have set B. C. 600.-'' Abar-
3 From Hiimlco's report, i Pict. Hist. Knjf., p.
87, B. i, ch. iv.
4 From Slrabo, in Pict. Hist. Ibidem.
5 Previous to their arrival was ihc stone and
bronze aife of the Britons; after that it was the iron
age; for the Cyinrv came from Asia Minor wilh
their chariots and other objects of arts and science.
and full knowledge of iron. Iron was always used
in the construction of chariots. Their chariots have
been exhumed in modern times with their wheels
properly ironed; and instances have happened where
the iron cythe of ihc axe) tree have been found.
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN.
is we claimed to have been a Druid of
the Cymric Celts, and his travels in
Greece and the east to have been about
B. C. 500. His case was like that of Frank
lin, as a philosopher returning to visit the
land of his ancestors within a hundred
years after their settlement in a new home.
Himilco's visit was probably in the time of
the Cymry. The next noted period in
their history is the invasion ot C;esar; and
their condition at that time has been com
mented upon in a former chapter. But
what is the most interesting, is to fully un
derstand the condition of the Britons at the
invasion of Claudius, and how it was
changed by that conquest. It must be
true that the Britons had greatly improved
their condition between the time of Caesar
and that of Claudius, or the former has
misrepresented them in a number of par
ticulars ; for they are differently represented
by Tacitus, Cicero, and other classic wri
ters, both by their expression and their
science. What Ca-sar says of them puts
them far above the condition of savages or
mere barbarians, if not entitling them to
be classed as civilized. They possessed al
the elements of civilization. They workec
in iron, tin, bronze, used money, had nu
merous houses, roads and towns. The}
cultivated agriculture, had extensive fields
ot grain, numerous herds of cattle anc
horses; brought into requisition all the arts
in the construction and the use of thei
chariots ; had a learned body or corpora
tion of men, whose duty it was to teach
the people religion and morals, the arts an
sciences; cultivated botany, astronomy
and philosophy; were able to commit t
writing private and public matters, excep
in their lectures to their students, whicl
for good reasons, were orally delivered anc
studied. All this we learn from Ca.'sar,<> an'
what he says incidentally adverse to this i
There is also evidence thill the stone of Stoneheng
were dressed with iron tools.
6 It should he rememberrd that Caisar saw hi
very little of Britain, anil that portion of it which h
passed over was the ncwrst and the least cultivate''
l"he best cultivated part was in the neighborhood
Portsmouth and the southern Avon, where the an
cient commerce prevailed, and where Vespasian an
Titus found a numerous people and twenty town
See ante, jj
177
holly ignored by the later writers.
From Cassars lime to that of Claudius,
ic Britons greatly improved in the pro-
ress of civilization. We are informed
lat during that time it was customarv for
distinguished Britons, both male and
ernale, to resort to Rome for education
nd information, where it had been gath-
red and accumulated from Greece, Phot-
icia, Assyria, and Egypt, as the spoils of
uman thought, ingenuity, and invention,
or more than a thousand years. All that
,-as not Roman production, but the fruit
f the labor and thought of humanity for
he common benefit of mankind. To the
jreat progress that the Britons had made
"or themselves they were now adding those
vhich had been previously adopted in the
>rogress of civilization: as we are fully
advised by the character given of such
>ersons as Cunobeline, Caractacus, Arvar-
agus, Pomponia, Claudia, and others.
Tacitus represents the Britons as a brave
and patriotic people,lovers of freedom
and liberal privileges; and detesting and
ntolerant of arrogance, oppression and in-
ustice;intelligent, fond of improvement,
and apt in learning:quick in observation,
as their noticing readily the character of
Polycletus, sent by Claudius from Rome
to inquire into the condition of Britain,
who, with his assumed air and authority,
produced "overawe upon the Roman of
ficers and soldiers, while from the Britons
it only met with contempt and derision.""
He also represents that a large portion of
the Roman officers observed the Britons to
be peaceably inclined, and only intolerant
and rsentful when injured and oppressed;
"they are conquered, not broken-hearted :
reduced to obedience, not subdued to
slavery. "s "They were fierce and deter
mined in the cause of liberty; they were
rendered still more obstinate by ill usage;
the war would never be brought to a con
clusion except by moderation and humani
ty."* Such were the people that the Ro-
7 Tacitus' Annals, B. xiv., 39.
S Tacitus' Agricola, ch. xiii.
9 Ibid., ch. xii. Surh was the character given to
the Britons by Roman officers ot the armv far tin-
purpose of removing; Suetonius tor his cruelty and
tyranny..
 I78 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
mans haci to deal with, and to bring- them and style of architecture in their improve
into the condition we find them after the ments. What antiquarian researches at
conquest. That conquest cost a war, of this day develop of the foundation of towns
terrific exertion on both sides, of forty-four and cities,of houses and villas, of baths
years; and was terminated as much by the and tesselated pavements, of town halls and
good conduct and humanity of Agricola, as other objects of improvement and civilized
by their prowess and victory. Tacitus al life, were principally, if not almost ax-
so shows that when peace came these peo clusively, the property and industry of the
ple readily entered into the spirit of im Britons;" such as existed at Carleon on
provement and learning, and adopted the Usk,12 Chester, Uriconium13 in Shrop
Roman ideas in the improvement of their shire, at Bath, Colchester, and other places.
houses and towns, and whatever else was These were British towns before the Ro
in furtherance of their own civilization. mans came there, and their subsequent im
But there was but little or no immigra provements were the product of the labor
tion of Romans to Britain, except as men and industry of the Britons. The Roman
were connected with the army or in com roads were built principally upon old Brit
mercial pursuits.1" Of the ninety-two cities ish roads by the joint labor of the people
and towns, only ten of them were Roman, and the army. The people often com
two mmicipal cities and eight colonial, plained of the extreme assessments and
and these were occupied as much by na requisition upon them for labor on these
tives as by the Romans. The armv was roads and public work.
confined to their camps and stations; and As to the colonization of Britain by the
for a long time, perhaps to the time of Romans, we find no instances of it, except
Carausius, it was the Roman policv to the colony of Probus14 in Cambridgeshire,
keep the Romans and their military affairs about A. D. 277, iust before Diocletian's
and politics, as far as possible, separated time; with this exception, and that of the
and distinct from that of the Britons, for Coritani in Lincoln and Leicester shires,
fear it would enable them to assert their who were there before Cxsar's time, there
independence. It was therefore different is hardly an exception to a Cymric people
in Britain than it was in Gaul, for there in all Northern Britain, previous to the
the Romans had possession for more than Saxons. The Coritani were somewhat ac
a hundred years previous; where the Ro cused of not being so faithful as the Cym-
mans did colonize, and in some measure ry in their opposition to the Romans; and
Latinized the people. This was not the Probus' colony were accused of favoring
case with Britain. There, for the purpose the Saxons. With this exception there has
of guarding against their losing their hold been a surprising union of the British peo
upon Britain, Roman officers were pro ple against the invasions of their country;
hibited from buying land or settling there. and very little mixture of blood or race, ex
The recruits to the army from the Britons cept what arose from their intercourse
were sent elsewhere, and those for Britain with the Romans before the advent of the
were either Romans or foreigners. There Saxons. What Gibbon says upon the pol
fore the population of Britain was at all icv of the Romans as to colonization and
times almost exclusively British, and the military colonies, though true in the gen
houses, towns, and other improvements, eral, and as applicable to Italy, Spain and
called Roman, were actually British,the Gaul, is not so as to Britain. London has
property and the result of the labor of the sometimes been mentioned as a Roman
Britons; only they adopted Roman ideas
1 1 We have referred to this elsewhere.
12 Set: Giraldus Camlirencis.
13 See T. Wright's account of
ore te conquest \ven t was true. ter tat tme 14 i Gibbon's Decline and Fall, p. 24, ch. 2 and n. ;
the character of tile Uoman people as to emigration also p. 123, ch. 12. Richard of Cer.n. 44(1, B. i, ch.
changed. 6. *jo.
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN.
colony. But it was not such ; it was a com were encouraged in the arts, it was that
mercial city before the Romans came there. they might be the better able to pay their
It was. principally a British city, and then taxes. If learning promoted, it was
Roman and other foreign merchants set that they might more successfully attend
tled there in common, principally as com to domestic affairs; but be sure they were
mercial men and officers of the govern not to meddle with sovereign government
ment. There were two other cities called al affairs. For this reason alone the Druid
municipal and eight colonial cities, but and Druidism for a while were put down,
none exclusively colonies of Romans as in and nothing was permitted or endured but
Gaul and Spain. Those cities had "hi them what was sale and consistent with Roman
a large portion of natives with the Romans; power.
in other cities they were almost exclusive Gradually the condition of the Britons
ly Britons. began to improve, both as to their govern
By the conquest the sovereign govern ment and their domestic affairs; the former
ment of the country passed entirely out of partly from the increasing weakness of the
the hands of the Britons into that of the Roman government, and partly from the
Romans, who for a long series of years people becoming more and mote accus
kept it so as to give the Britons no hope of tomed to their government, if not more
its recovery. But, as already stated, it was Romanized. Their domestic affairs were
the practice of the Romans to leave in the principally left in their own hands, and
hands of the provincials so much of their their religion entirely so except their
domestic laws and government as they priests, the Druids, had been for a while
deemed safe and consistent with their suppressed. They, however, gradually re
maintaining their supreme authority and turned, until their religion was superseded
sovereignty over them, and to tax them and by Christianity. The first material change
draw from them the largest tribute possible, in their condition was the decree of Cara-
consistent with their retaining their domin calla, about A. D. 211, granting the rights
ion over them. The government and ar and privileges of a Roman citixen to all
my were placed over the country, without Roman subjects. This was done while the
the consent or control of the people; but emperor was a resident of Britain, imme
it was at their expense, and they had to pay diately after his father's, Scverus, death;
for it. The Romans encouraged the people but whether specially for the benefit of his
to make improvements, but it was only, as British subjects, is not certainly known.
Tacitus says, "to sweeten their slavery."" But under all these circumstances of ad
They constructed roads for they were ne versity and fortune, the country and people
cessary for the convenience of the go'vern- improved in their circumstances and condi
ment, in order to keep it in their hands, tion, at least in common with the progress
and to collect taxes and tribute, and the of the world. Their towns and houses be
people assisted to make them. The coun came like those of Gaul and Italy. In all
try was governed by two different elements, that constituted the improvement and civ
the conquerors and the conquered, the ilization of a country upon a par with the
rulers, and the subject*.; over the former neighboring countries, and distinguished
the latter had no control. The Romans for their agricultural productions, their
sought only their own interest, and encour mineral resources their extensive com-
aged the people in the improvement of the merce, and their altainnuMits in the me-
country, for that increased the taxes and chanical arts and in science anil literature.
their abilities to pay them. If the youths Such had they become in the time of Dio
of the country were encouraged to activity, cletian, when Rome and they had arrived
it was to serve in the foreign army, not at at the height of their prosperity ; when the
home, for that was dangerous. If men coming storm of the northern barbarians
put a stop to their prosperity, and, for a
15 Agrirohi, ch. 21. while, to human progress.
I So THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book n.
(jj. The Times of Cummins, A. D. 287 to his government upon the original plan foi
294. British government, of a confederate gov
ernment under a wledig or emperor, he
Soon after, the commencement of the continued the Roman government un
reign of Diocletian the Saxon pirates be changed, except he was the head of it as
came troublesome, frequently landing on emperor, retaining all the forms and organ-
the shore*, of Britain, plundering whatever ixation of the Romans. This probably was
they could lay their hands on, and what for him and Britain a great mistake. The
thev could not convert to their own use people were haidly aware of their independ
was often laid in ashes otherwise de ence; it looked as though had only
stroyed. Perhaps they were morally no changed masters, but still under a Roman
more unscrupulous than the Romans, only name.' What he ought to have done was
the Romans would preserve what they at once to have declared his independence
could not at once convert to their own use and that of the country from Rome, and
with the hope of benefilting themselves let his people know it, and foim his gov
at another time. The Romans did not kill ernment accordingly. But still the people
the goose that laid the golden egg. The saw and felt a change ; they saw themselves
Saxons w ere too savage to appreciate either again within their own hands, and not tax
the moral or the advantage of the maxim. ed and paying tribute for a foreign govern
The Roman government felt themselves ment, but for the benefit ol their own gov
bound, both by interest and duty, to pro ernment and country. They saw them
tect the Britons from these piracies, especi selves again as Britons, and not as slaves
ally as they had disarmed the inhabitants to another nationality.
and debarred them from all exercises in But Carausius proceeded with vigor and
military affairs. The imperial government ability under his old form to put the" gov
was induced to employ Carausius as an ex ernment in order and repel the enemies of
perienced and able naval officer, and put the country, and restore the country to a
down this piracy if possible. lie was quite prosperous condition. In this he was suc
successful, but was soon charged, either cessful, and Britain for a while appeared
rightfully or wrongfully, that he was not to be restored to itself. Over the loss of
honestly performing his duty, but convert Britain the imperial government and peo-
ing his position to his personal advantage pie raised a great lamentation.-' They ex
by taking the pirates and dividing the spoils tolled her valuethe fertility of her soil,
with them, and greatly enriching himself. and her productive wealth in agriculture
This accusation is not probably \erv true, and minerals; but especially the taxes and
for he was always more popular with the tribute they were able to gather there.
Britons ilmn the people of the continent. Over the loss they appeared to be incon
However tl.at may be, he found that the solable, and Constantius Colorits, as the as
government had taken a prejudice against sociate emperor with Diocletian, wa- depu
him and that his life was in danger, lie ted to recover the lost province, which he
therefore revolted, and took his whole fleet was only able to do, in the manner already
with him: and his popularity with the stated, after Carausius had governed it
Britons enabled him at once to form on the seven years, and his ass-assin, Allectus, two
island a strong and prosperous government
of his own. I lie u as railed Augustus, and all The torius and
organisation of tin- [toman jfovernmenl mn:iim-il.
This put the Britons in a condition that l Tin- oralor, Kmnirpiu.s, A. D. 200, in hi> pane^v
they had not been in since the conquest. ri<: to Conslantius laments the loss of Britain in the
possession ol C'arau^iiiM, and says: "That island still
Carausius was now acting as the emperor passim under nder thr- ge
general name of Britain, but it- lo^s
c Y, . . , .. , ., ; was
Avas no
r trirte
rine to the repuMir,
MI me repumu , so nrodmtive
nrmiKii\e is
I* it
u in
III
Of Britain, and his success for a while was fruit, and fertile in pastures, so rich in metals,, .iml
such as to induce Diocletian and his asso valuable for its contributions to the treasury, sur
rounded on all sides with abundance of harUtrs."
ciates to acknowledge him as such. But (I (files' Anc. Britons, p. j(rf>, ch. x\.) I'ndoubtetl-
. . .. ,. .
Of.. |I object
Iv
[y "its contribution
contr.lMitiim to
In the treasury" was the great
instead ol forming a new organization for the Uommw,
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN. 181
years more. With Constantius the old which was collected and paid bv the people
state of things was restored, and so con themselves. Many of the towns and places
tinued under the prosperous and benificent were thus made stipcndaries by some con
rule of Constantius until his death at York ventional arrangement, which was to them
in A. D. 306. very beneficial and much sought for.
Where the collections were in the hands of
S3- The Time of Constantino the Great, A. Roman officers, frequently the most wanton
D. 306/0337. and corrupt abuse of power was exercised
to the injury and oppression of the people.
It is claimed by tnanv historians that Early in the history of the Roman govern
Helena, the mother of Constantine, was a ment, the financial and fiscal department
native of Britain, a Cymras, and that Con were separated from the civil and military;
stantine was born there, though brought up and Hadrian, about A. D. 120, bv some
and educated in Eastern Europe and Asia perpetual decree made this principle more
Minor, returning with his father to Britain obligatory, much to the advantage of the
after the death of Allectus, when he was Britons.
about eighteen or twenty years of age, and Constantine, soon after his accession to
remained in Britain until after he was pro- the government, began to improve the
claimed emperor upoi> the death of his form of the government. He first ordered
father, when he was upwards of thirty | the civil to be separated from the military
years of age. However it may be about j department of the government. This, al-
his birth and nationality, he was well so, was a very beneficial division and ar
quainted with Britain and its people. Many rangement of the government; but still
things are attributed to him in the improve there was no such division in the Roman
ment of the condition of the Britons. Up law, as a separation of the judicial depart
wards of two hundred years had now ment from the other branches of the gov
transpired since Agricola had completed ernment, as the legislative and executive.
the conquest, and more than six genera Witli the Romans the emperor was the
tions had endured its consequences and head of the government, not only as to the
submitted to the habits it produced. The ; military but also as to the judicial and ex-
Romans commenced upon the principle of ecutive branches. It was otherwise ar-
entrusting nothing to them which would . ranged in the ancient British form of gov-
aid them in reclaiming their independence I eminent; under the Druids the judiciary
and self-government. Thev were disarm was a separate part of the government, and
ed and disfranchised as to everything con that idea has been carried down through
nected with the supreme Roman govern the English government, and especially so
ment that would in the least endanger it, in that of the United States.
and the people were left only to manage Another reformation has been claimed
their domestic affairs. In their towns and for Constantine, which is thus stated by
cities they were permitted to elect their Richard of Cirencestcr:1 "Under the Ro
own magistrates and police officers, subject man domination the Britons retained
to the arbitrary and paramount control of scarcely the shadow of regal authority. A
the Roman government. To the same ex legate being appointed by the emperor over
tent they were permitted to manage their the conquered country, Britain acounsular
municipal and fiscal affairs; but the collec province. This form of government con
tion of the tribute, taxes and revenue due tinued several ages,2 although in the mean-
the Roman government were entirely in
the bands of their own officers, except 21 ItB. isi,ch. (>, $3.
said that Britain \va> held as one pm-sidUl
where they were farmed out to Britons, or province under the emperors until the lime of Sc-
verus. That emperor, on account of the opposition
where some stipendary arrangement had he received from Alhinns, the kite proprietor of
been made in some places to pay a gross injr Britain, determined to alter the method of govern-
the island, arid divided the pro\irice into two,
sum in satisfaction of all taxes and claims, and appointed Lupus proprietor of the northern, and
iS2 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
time the island underwent many divisions shores, which required a body of troops
first into the Upper and Lower districts, and officers for their guard and protection,
and then, as before shown, intu seven parts. while Britain remained under the Roman
It after wards became the imperial residence government.
of Carausius and those whom he admitted
to a share of his power. Constantine the 5-4.Introiinctioii of Christianity and iff
Great, the glory and defence of Christiani Establishment in Britain.
ty, is supposed to have raised Maxima anil
Valentia to counsular provinces, and Pri- But the great change in the condition of
tna, Secunda, and Flavia to pra-sidials. the Britons, which may be specially no
But over the whole island was appointed a ticed in connection with the reign of Con
deputy governor, under the authority of stantine, is that in relation to the Christian
the pratorian prelect of Gaul. Besides religion. The religion of the Britons at
whom, an ancient volume, written about the time of the conquest was that of
that period, mentions a person of great Druidism. Its principal features were,
dignity, by the title of Comes, or count of that its creed embraced a belief in one su
the Britons, another as count of the Saxon preme, eternal and spiritual God, and that
coast, and a third as leader or duke of Brit the soul of man survived this life, and en
ain; with many others, who, although pos joyed a future one "for good or evil, de
sessed of great offices, must be passed over pendent upon its merits while in this world ;
in silence, for want of certain information." and that this system was presided over by
These statements of Richard are un a learned body of men called the Druids.
doubtedly true, and judiciously arranged, It may be that they had also connected
except that the name of counts to the of with it some notion of the pagan mythol
fices named may be a little later period in ogy, as intermediate gods, between them
the history of the empire. It should also selves and the great spirit. But the Ro
be remembered that there were frequent mans have added the name of their own
changes in the government of Britain. heathen gods to the Druidic creed that it
Sometimes the emperor was there person is now impossible to say how that was.
ally, governing himself, as the sovereign ; For the religion of any provincial people
sometimes he governed it by his special the Romans cared nothing; but they be
deputy, as legate or vicarius; sometimes by came very hostile to the Druids, because
a proprietor or protect under the emperor they were such devoted patriots, and so
or the pro-counsul of Gaul i and sometimes stern opponents to the conquest. They
by usurpers or tyrants who assumed to be were therefore proscribed, banished or
emperors by means of a rebellion or inter slaughtered, whenever they fell into the
ference of the army, as in the case of Ca power of the Romans. They therefore
rausius, Maximus, Constantine the latter, those who survived the persecution fled
and others, for it was said, and justly ob to the British Islands and Scotland for
served, that Britain was a. soil fertile in protection, where for a long time they
tyrants, i.e., men who assumed to govern were protected and their religion flourish
without a legitimate right. ed. But after the conquest and peace re
The name of the Saxon shore was ap stored, Druidism returned to the Britons,
plied to the southeastern shores of Britain as a more favored and rational religion
about the time of Con-tantine, on account than the pagan mythology of the Romans.
of their being so frequently disturbed by It also more readily harmonized with the
the invasion of the Saxon pirates, and the truthful and simple doctrines of Christiani
government compelled to erect castles and ty, and in earlier times the doctrines and
other defences for the protection of those ceremonies became somewhat mixed, and
was called neo-druidism, which was soon
Huraclylus th;tt of tlu- southern division. Miss superseded by the true doctrines of Chris
Williams' History of Wales, 29 :md 44; CumdcnV
Britaniu. tianity.
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN.
But at early period in its history
Christianity became the acknowledged re
ligion of the Britons, and their transition
to it was easy and consistent. It is claimed
that St. Paul came to Rome first earlv in
the year 61, and continued there occasion
ally, at least, until his martyrdom in f>S.
Carat-tarn- with his wife and whole family
were takeji there in the year 5J or 3, and
what eventually became of him is not for
a certainty known; but he remained fora
long time in Rome, if he did not die there.
But it is claimed by the British historians
that he remained in Rome until after the
arrival of Paul, and that he and his family
became Christians under his administra
tion. This at least is possible, and as it is
told it is at least plausible. It i- claimed
that Caraetacus' whole family became
Christians while at Rome, bv the preach
ing of Paul and his friends there, and af
terwards returned to their homes in Brit
ain after the conquest had -o far subsided
that it became safe to do so.' However
this may be, it is certain that Christianity
was established in Britain at a very early
day, and it may be regarded with some cer
tainty that the event transpired before the
end of the first century.* In ancient times
Arch-Druid- were established at Carleon,
York and London, and each of these be
came the See of an Archbishop of the
Christian church, and at an early day the
i/ation of the Druids was superseded
by that of Chri-tianity.
However it may be with regard to the
conversion of Caraetacus, Claudia, and
their friends, and the introduction of
i The uncertainty us to the authorities ujxm the sub
ject of the introduction of Christianity into Britain
about the time of Caractucus, and who Claudia was,
whether a relative of Caractucus or not, and whether
she is the Claudia .spoken of In St.- Paul, id Timo
thy, requires further investigation. Martial certain
ly makes her a Briton, but Mr. Vaughan say.-, that
the marriage could not have taken place for many
years after the death of Paul. Querv: Martial, a
native of Spain, i-aim- to Rome in A. t>. 66, perhaps
two years before I'aul's death. The marriage and
the epigram may have occurred the same vlr h
came, and the year that Paul wrote. How is that?
See Vaujrhan, p. 66; I Pitt. History, 68; Theo.
Evans' Pnmitivc Ages, p. 148; Richard of Ciren-
cester, 466; Chronoh^v x\v, as to Lucius, A. T). 160;
Bede, p. ID, ch. iv: Miss Williams' Hist, pp, jo and
42, and see her authorities; Cambrian History (Mor
gan), 100.
a i Pictorial History, 68; i Giles" Ancient Britons,
pp. lS6, 108.
183
Christianity by them, or in their time, his
toric testimony confirms the fact that
Christianity was introduced into Britain
about that, age, or at a very early period.
The oppression that the Britons were re
ceiving at the hands of the Romans tended
greatly to promote the reception of Chris
tianity among them, as well as the cruel
treatment of the Druids and their doctrines
so harmonizing with Christianity, and their
principle of "seeking the truth against the
world," facilitated its reception, and tended
to make it the religion of the people in op
position to the Romans. Historical evi
dence is strong that Christianity spread
and flourished in Britain from a very early
date, and that it was free from those Chris
tian persecutions which so cruelly afflicted
Rome and the east, until the tenth and last
persecution of Christians, which transpired
by the order of Dioc'letian. It was under
this that transpired that which. is narrated
by Bede, in which St. Alban and his Brit
ish companions suffered martyrdom. This
persecution reached many places and per
sons throughout Britain. It appears that
this persecution must have been of a short
duration in Britain, compared with other
parts of the Roman dominions, for it prob
ably ceased during Carausjus' time, and
not revived under Constantius, for he has
always been a favorite person with the
Christians and Britons. Bede seems to
put the date of the commencement of this
persecution and martyrdom in Britain
about A. D. 286, and Carausius was saluted
as emperor bv the Britons in jSy, and it is
not probable that there was any persecu
tion of Christians in that country alter that
event, though there was elsewhere.
It is said by some that Constantino had
been educated by his mother, Helena, to
whom lie was much attached, in the Chris
tian faith. However this may have been,
we have not much evidence of it, until af
ter he was firmly fixed in his government
by his decided victory over Maxentius in
Italy. He then felt himself in power and
able to act his pleasure. It was then an
nounced that his victories were the result
of his Christian faith, and were confirmed
by miracles and the sign of the cross in
i84 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
the heavens. Though he permitted it to
be distinctly understood that he favored
and protected Christianity, he was slow in
announcing any law or edict in its favor.
It was not until A. D. 313, seven years af
ter his accession, that he procured the con
currence of his associate in the empire, Li-
cinius, and made an authentic declaration
of his sentiments by the celebrated edict of
Milan.3 which soon, after the death of his
colleagues and competitors, was received
as a "general and fundamental law of the
Roman world." In the meantime Chris
tianity had spread, progressed and nour
ished, and the church throughout the civ
ilized world became organized and estab
lished with its bishops, priests, and cere
monies, and especially in Britain, so that
Tertullian in a writing against the Jews,
A. D. 209, says that, "even those places in
Britain hitherto inaccessible to Roman
arms, have been subdued by the gospel of
Christ.'' But upon the accession of Con-
stantine a hundred years later the
Church became so established as to be con
sidered in harmony with the civil organi
zation of the country; and in the year 314,
we are informed that at a council of the
Church held at Aries three bishops from
Britain attended,< and this was many years
before Constantine gave it his sanction.
Before the latter event had taken place, the
Christian church had become fully organ
ized throughout the Roman world, with its
bishops, priests and other officials. They
called and held council at various places and
regulated the affairs of the Church by its own
authority, and when it came to be fully
recognized by the Roman government no
new organization was given to it, but only
acknowledged to exist as it was. This was
the case when, by the approbation of Con
stantine, the great council of Nice and oth
er councils were held to settle questions of
theology and difficulties in the Church.
The Church in Britain grew up under its
primitive organization, but little dependent
upon a connection with that of Rome, and
during the barbarian overthrow of Western
3 i Gibbon's D. & K, 252, ch. 20.
4 Sec Pictorial History, 69, and Evans' Primitive Brit.; Kees's Welsh Saints, $4; Miss Williams'
Ages, 161. Consider, &"c.
[Book n.
Europe, between A.I). 450 and 600, their
connection was almost entirely severed:
but religion in its primitive purity was
maintained. After the time of Augustine,
the missionary to the Saxons, the way was
again opened, and the connection renewed.
In the meantime the Roman church as
sumed and exercised powers which render
ed its influence and action far above the
secular government, until the time of the
reformation.
The origin of Christianity in Britain is
clouded in doubt, by the monastic legends
thrown over it, and claims set up, without
any outside authority to support them, or
possibly inconsistent with them. Such is the
claim that Christianity was introduced by
some of the personal companions of Christ,
or his apostles, as Joseph of Aramathea,
or St. Paul himself, which is so unsupport
ed by history as not to be credited. Still
the assertion that Christianity was intro
duced and supported in Britain within the
first century is entitled to our belief upon
historical facts. When and how that was
first done is still a question. The most
probable theory is that which is told in
connection with the family of Caractacus,
who were taken as prisoners to Rome in
A. D. 52 or 53. r> This family consisted of
himself,1' his wife, his father, brother, a
daughter, and two sons. These remained
in Rome for many years after Claudius had
pardoned Caractacus, as hostages; and it
is claimed by the Cvmric writers that St.
Paul came to Rome in A. D. 61, and that
this family became acquainted with him,
attended upon his preaching the Gospel,
and were converted toil. Where Caracta
cus eventually died is not known, but the
rest of the family alter many years return
ed to Britain as converts, and were the
means of establishing Christianity in their
5 The war of the conquest commenced in 43. It
ted nine years before Caraclacus was taken.
His father was Br:tn ab l.lvr, surnamcd Fendi-
id, who was the king of the Silurea. and who on
return was a jrreatl>enelactnr of his country in
the introduction of various useful improvements; the
two sons were Cvllen and Eudof, and the daughter
was l.i^rn. identified as Claudia. It is said that
Bran and his ^randau^liter were Christian converts,
and active propagandists. See Tacitus' Annals, B.
xii, ch. 35, *tc. ; Dion Cassius; Stillingflect Orijf.
Hist, of Wales, p. 29.
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN.
own country. This, with the facts stated inmany parts of Britain, and particularly
in connection with it, is rendered very brought to his notice by the accounts of
probable ; lor it was very natural for per the sufferings of tlu> Christians at Vienna
sons in their unfortunate and disconsolate and Lyons, and some remarkable conver
situation to seek sympathy and conso sions at Rome, Luciii' was anxious to ob-
lation where it was to be had, and Paul or tain lor himself and people the advan-
his disciples, with their sympathies, benev tage of being fully instructed in thi re-
olence and good will, would be likely to ligion ; that, for this purpose, he despatched
seek them. They were in very favorable two British Christians, Medw y and Elvan,
condition to seek and receive the consola or Elian, to Eleutherius bishop of Rome,
tion of Christianity, and it was equally so not because he regarded that bishop as.
with their people when they returned to the supreme head of the Christian com-
their own country. This claim, made by munitv, but simply because lie himself,
the old British writers and their tradition, being tributary to the Roman-, naturally
is, therefore, consistent and probable. looked up to Rome as the centre of informa
tion upon every question of importance;
Another claim made upon this subject is that Eleutherius, in compliance with the
founded upon the legend of king Lucius. request of Lucius, sent back, with Elvan
It is alleged that this Lucius was the and Medw y, two ecclesiastics, to whom
grand-son of Cyllin, the son of Caractacus, tradition has aligned the names 01 l-a-
and known to the Cymry as Leurwg or ganus and Duvianus, who, coming into
Lleufr Mawr, (Great Light, Lucius,) and as Britain, baptized king Lucius and many of
one of the subordinate kings, under the his subjects, and thus enlarged and more
Romans, of one of the western states in fully confirmed that Christian faith which
Britain. He built a church at Llandon", had been introduced into different parts of
which is said to have been the first edifice the island for upwards of one hundred
ever erected in Britain for the special pur
pose of Christian worship. It is said that years."
this king, about A. D. 1 70, corresponded Not many years after this Tertullian
with Eleutherius, bishop of Rome, upon wrote, that the '-Britons in places inaccessi
his Christian conviction and wishes, and ble to Roman arms were in submission to
to have received letters and missionaries in Christ." And the fathers of the Church
return, by whom he and his people were are full of the like assertions during the
brought into the Church as members and third century. But before A. D. 314 the
baptized. This correspondence and con Church was fully organized throughout Ro
version are very probably true; but the man Britain, so that bishops and priests .it-
correspondence has been so represented tended that year the council of Aries from
and enlarged by monkish writers, that it York, London and Caerleon on the Usk.
has unjustly thrown discredit over the Thev also attended the council of Nice in
, and that at the council of Arniinum,
whole affair.7 in Italy, held at the instance of Constan-
It is said by reliable authors,* -It appears tine II, in 351). Several bishops from Brit
extremely probable that, during the reigns ain were present, and many of the Chris
of Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus and Com- tian fathers of that century testify to their
modus, a native Briton, named Lucius,
firm adherence to the true faith.
reigned, by the permission of the Romans, Thus long before the termination cjf our
over his part of the country ; that hearing present period the Christian Church was
much of the Christian religion as observed fully established in all Southern Britain,
7 The story of Lucius hits been told liv IJede, Ni-n-
with thirty or forty bishops, witli their
nin* imd Geoffrey "I" Monmrmth, im<\ repented and proper dioceses and sees. The Druids and
believed by Slillinitfleet and others. The discredit
thrown upon it IMS been made by monkish additions Druidism gradually dissolved into the
to the correspondence to make it a popish iiftiiir. Christian Church, and their doctrines mod
8 Thackeray's Ancient Brit., vol. i, p. i\i; Giles1 ified and purified by the pure doctrines of
same, vol. l, p. 217.
iS6 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Christ. But that the- doctrines of the
British were then in accordance with the
true faitli, is proved by the councils and
ecclesiastical historic1- of the age. No
more of Druidism was retained than agreed
with the truth of the Gospel ; the unknown
god of the Druid became the true God as
disclosed bv Christ and preached hv Paul.
Notwithstanding the depressed condition
of the country in a political and national
point of view, the Church was sustained
and prospered. The seat of the arch-
druid was converted to that of the arch
bishop, and such were York, London and
Caerleon. The schools of learning of the
Druids became those of Christianity, such
as were afterwards distinj d at Aval-
Ion, (Glastonbury) Caerleon, and Bangor,
and produced the learning of such men as
Pehigius and St. David. Although the
language (Cymraeg) of the Cymry and
their literature were cultivated, vet at those
jtreat schools the Roman or Latin language
Jind all the science of the age were equally
taught, and produced such men as Pelagius,
<iildas, Nennius, and Asser, the learned
friend and biographer of Alfred.
Caerleon and its vicinity have produced
many a learned man for other parts of the
world. Among them was Patrick, the
good missionary and saint of Ireland. Up
.to that time Ireland was left out of the
histories of classic and profane literature,
but the genius and learning of her own
*ons have since abundantly retrieved that
circumstance. "The original name of
Patrick was Mannin or Magontius. He
was born about the year 384, and, as he
tells us in his 'Confession,' was- only six
teen years of age when he was made a
captive. He was. carried into Ireland, and
became the slave of the king of Dalraida.
Kscapiug thence, he repaired to Rome,
where lie long remained, devoting himself
to literature and the study of theology."9
At that time Germanus, the bishop from
Annorica, was in Rome upon business of
his people ; and at his instance the pope
chose the voung man as the bearer of the
o l Giles' Ancient Britons, p. 378; Thackeray's
Ancient Britons, vol. ii, p. 105; Ncnnius, c. $<>59.
[Book n.
tidings of salvation to Ireland. His de
voted labors, and the great good he ac
complished, made the choice a happy one.
On his mission he passed through Corn
wall and Wales; of which Giraidu? Cam-
brensis and John of Teignmouth have re
lated many marvelous stories, which,
though only in harmony with the supersti
tion of that age, should not detract from
St. Patrick's claim to the honor of having
converted Ireland to Christianity. This
happy event was about the year .43.:. It
may be, possibly in confirmation of this,
that there is an old Cymric tradition which
asserts that Padrig ab Mawon, a native of
Gwyr, in Morganwg, being a teacher of
theology in the college of Caerworgan,
was carried off bv a band of Hibernian
rovers, and became the zealous and success
ful missionary of the Christian faith to the
Irish nation.1"
The most interesting event of this period
connected with the ecclesiastical affairs of
the country, was the promulgation of the
doctrines of Pelagius, or pelagianism. Pel
agius was a native of Cambria, and edu
cated at Caerleon, others say at Bangor.
His name in his native tongue was Morgan,
(Near the Sea,) which translated into
Greek became Pelagius. About A. D.
409 he left his native country for a journey
through the Christian and civilized world.
He was a ripe scholar, and was every where
kindly received on account of his learning
and excellent moral character. He was
the author of a number of books upon the
subject of religion and morality, which
were highly commended, and bv some who
afterwards became his opponents on the
subject of his peculiar docrines. Augus
tine, the bishop of Hippo, was so enamored
with his writings and character, that he
said of him, notwithstanding he was after
wards the great opponent of his peculiar
doctrine, "Though I oppose his doctrine, I
love him still." He first made his way to
Rome, accompanied by his Iriend, Celes-
tius, who was said to have been an Irish
man, an eloquent scholar, and very success
10 Uecs's Welsh Saints, p. I2S; Miss William's
Hislory of Wale.-s p. 73.
Chap, iv.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN. 187

ful in lecturing and expounding the doc query, whether the doctrine of Pelagius
trines of his principal. These doctrines, may not yet be, in its most acceptable lorm,
though adopted by many, were condemned accepted as the true doctrine of Christiani-
by some as a heresy. The grounds of tv, in the midst of all the reforms now pro
them were said to be the following: i. gressing, as that which is the nearest to
Adam was created mortal, so that he would truth and science ; for science is truth, and
have died, whether he had sinned or not ; truth will prevail.
2. Adam's sin injured only himself, and Between the conflicting doctrines of Pe
not the human race; 3. Infants are in the lagius and Augustine stand the Semi-
same condition in which Adam was before Pelagius, between whom and the Orthodox
the fall: .j. The whole human race neither there appears to be no great deal of diffi
dies in consequence of Adam'* death or culty. "This middle doctrine," says Giles,"
transgression, nor rises from the dead in 'Ms said to have been held by two eminent
consequence of Christ's resurrection ; 5. ecclesiastics, Fastidius and Faustus,'2 who
Infants obtain eternal Hie, though they be like Pelagius, were natives of Britain; for
not bapti/ed; (>. The law is a- good a means in the beginning of the fifth century, when
of salvation as the Gospel; 7. There were every other department of life was smitten
some men, even before Christ, who were with a dearth of eminent men, the Church
free from sin, and subjects of salvation. seemed to have been most prolific." The
These were the fundamental subjects of qualification of the compliment by Mr.
Pelagius' doctrines, and were generally re- Giles is not ven generous, in speaking of
ceived, where he or his friends explained the dearth of patriots, when he knew that
and expounded them : and it is said that Rome had used all her power to reduce
they are only condemned where misunder that class of men to the lowest ebb, in a
stood. In their early progress they were, country that has ever been the most fertile
by the councils of the Church, sometimes of them; in the country of Casswallown,
accepted and at others rejected, but eventu Caractacus and Arvaragus and their de
ally condemned as contrary to the orthodox scendants; and a country that had just
doctrine of the Church. produced Maxen Wledig, Constantine and
Pelagius traveled through Italy, went Gerontius. But that country was then, in
through Northern Africa, Egypt, and to that age, as it ha- always been, fertile in
Jerusalem ; through Lyria, Asia Minor and patriots and heioes as in scholars and di
to Constantinople. He everywhere found vines.
friends and advocates of hi- doctrines, In common with the Christian churches
among whom are to be enumerated able throughout the world, that of Britain be
ajid good men; yet the doctrine has been came "rcatlv agitated upon the doctrine of
generallv condemned by churchmen. It Pelagius, in the very country where it
has never formed a separate sect, still it originated. The leading men of the church
prevails, in some shape with a large body became alarmed, that, as at length, the doc
of people, though sometimes modified and trine had been denounced as heresy by the
termed Semi-Pelagianism. Since the or- head of the Church of Rome, they might
gani/ation of the Christian Church no doc- be involved in the denunciation. The ques-
trine lias been announced bv pert tion was greatly agitated, and in great
which lias produced so much controversy polemic meeting , the people were exer
or exercised so much intellectual powers, cised in the great intellectual strife upon
or involved so many dogmas of the Church, the question. Uncertain as to the result,
or so much of metaphysical reasoning. the head of the Church sent to the churches
The man who was able to acquire so many of Cvmric Gaul for help to settle the agita-
able proselytes, and maintain himself
against so manv learned, able and astute il I Giles' And. liritons, p. 3^5.
II It is said that the doctrines of these divines
opponents, must have been learned, and in- "were sound and good." See n. / to Oiks' Ancient
tellectuallv great. And it may be a Brit., p. 365.
 i88 THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book II.
tion, ami, as has been already stated, bishop onlv at intervals; when forcibly driven
Germanus and others came over in the back, they remained quiet for some years
year 429 and again in 446. The Cymry
never tolerated persecution tor opinion's ^5.Durin ' Clow of the Roman Domin
sake, even in the times of the Druids; and ation .
therefore the question must be settled bv From the close of the reign of Constan-
reason and the intellect, for with them it tine, and his death in A. 1). 337, to the
was a principle that truth must prevail termination of Roman rule over Britain, a
against the world. As it was an appeal to period ofeighty-three years, it was doomed
the people, it was probable that the preach to suffer every kind of change and vicissi
ers who came must be able to speak to Un tude of fortune. It now had seen its better
people in their own language. They came, days, and in common with the Roman
and says Bede, "A multitude flocking empire and the western world, it was about
thither from all. parts received the priests to endure those changes and adversities
whose coming had been foretold. * * * brought on by the plunder and conquests
The apostolical priests tilled the island ol of the northern barbarians, which pro
Britain with the lame of their preaching duced in Western Europe that fatal de
and virtues; and the word of God was by terioration and adversity known as its dark
them daily administered, not only in the age. I n the progress of that decline and ad
churches, hut even in the Mi-eels and fields, versity, whether it wa Britain or Gaul,
so that the Catholics were everywhere con Spain or Italy, that suffered most, it is hard
firmed. * * * Thus the generality of to determine: for all those countries wit
the people readily embraced their opinion. nessed the revolting process bv which
* At length their opponents had their fair land was overrun, their property
the boldness to enter the lists, and appeared plundered, their cities and houses either
for public disputation. An immense multi destroyed or laid in ashes, their people en-,
tude were there assembled with their wives during every species of privation and in
and children. The people stood around as justice by plunder, slaughter and slavery;
spectators and judges. * * * Then the for more than four hundred years did
venerable prelates poured forth the torrents Western Europe endure these wrongs and
ot their apostolical and evangelical elo injustice before the country began to re
quence. * * * The people, who were cover from the effects ot" that dark age and
judges, could scarcely refrain from violence, the conversion of the accumulated labors
but signified their judgment bv their ac- of civilization to savage waste and barbari
clamations."'3 This proceeding continued ty. In Britain, from the commencement
across the island, stopping at everv con of the reign of Carausius to the end of that
venient place, from London to Mold in of Constantine the Great, her northern en
Cambria on the west sine of the island. emies were generally kept at bay, and she
This is a striking picture of the character was in a great measure permitted to eujov
and habits of the people of that day, and and hold her own, while the storm was ac
shows them to have been a civil, religious, cumulating with threatening violence in
and highly civilized people, and it is told of Gaul and Italy. From the time of the em
them by no special friend of the Cvmrv. peror Probus, A. D. 277, the northern and
This polemic debate took place probably eastern barbarians kept a constant pressure
in a time of general peace, except the un upon Gaul from the other side of the
expected conflict which was had with the Rhine, and upon Italy from the further
enemy on the west side of the island, and side of the Danube. This pressure was
the truth of that conflict is doubted. ' The never left off only kept back, until those
inroads of their northern enemies were countries were overwhelmed bv it.
In the meantime Britain was enduring a
13 Bede Etcle. History, B. i,ch. 17. variety of fortune and changes of condition
14 See the note to Bede, ui supra. after the death of Constantine. Six years
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN. 189
Chap, iv.]
after that event, we are informed, the in sefted by historians, that a Roman army
roads of the Scots and Picts required the was sent to the relief of Britain in A. D.
414, 1 6 and 18; and this is the most consis
attention of Constans, his youngest son, to
whom was assigned the government of the tent with facts and probabilities.
After the Roman general, Constantius,
western empire. This voung emperor vis
had captured the last named Constantino
ited Britain under a favorable journey, but
at Aries, and restored Roman sway in
probably without rendering any personal
Gaul and Britain, we have evidence that
aid in repelling these troublesome enemies
in 414 he was in command o! the army
of the country. These attacks were con
and in possession of the sea-coast in North
stantly renewed whenever the enemy
western Gaul, and also, as that is the most
deemed they had a favorable opportunity
probable, of Britain. It is believed there
of doing so; and the unhappy country con
was no revolt of the inhabitants of Britain
tinued to be constantly afflicted by the rav
the Roman authorities during
ages of their northern enemies on the in igainst
these times; no emute of the people.
terior, and those of the Frank and Saxon
The revolt in the time of Carausius, Maxi
pirates along the sea shore: while no less
mus and Constantine, was that of Roman
complaints were made on account of the
soldiers,! ;n Roman name and under the
exactions made by the imperial government
Roman organization. Eacli time the Ro
for the payment of taxes, and the corrupt
man civil officers remained in power ; and
and illegal abuses of their officials. In the
each time the army was called away to
midst of such complication of injuries and
other positions of the empire there were
abuses did the distracted country continue-
always sufficient officers and soldiers left
to suffer, still adhering to the Roman gov
to guard and retain possession of the mili
ernment as the least of the evils to which
tary posts and property of the Roman gov
they could resort for relief. Occasionally
their protectors would grant them relief by ernment, until the final withdrawing
the army, with the officers, civil and
an increase of the army for their defense,
military, "from Britain in A. D. 420;' and
and sometimes the soldiers of that army,
when neglected, would organize a relief Honorius writing letters directed to cities
of Britain, admitting his inability any longer
for the country in opposition to the le
to defend or protect them, renouncing all
gitimate government, as was done in the
allegiance over them, acknowledging their
case of Maximus and Constantino the
usurpers ; still the Roman officers of the independence, and urging them to provide
for their own defense. At that time the
government and soldiers of the army were
always there, while occasionally there was cities and certain districts of the country
were stipendaries, and had civil govern
sent to their aid a sufficient increase ot the
armv to afford relief and protection to the ment organized within them for police and
country. The Britons always looking purposes, and within these were
hopefully tor the relief expected from the princes and even conventional kings per
power and majesty of Rome, to which they mitted to rule, under Roman policy, but
had been so long accustomed, rather than their power and authority were strictly
to resort to an independent action against confined to domestic and civil purposes,;
the Roman officers left in the country, and never dared or wished to set up inde
pendent sovereignty adverse to imperial
surrounded as they were by so many Rome, until after they had received the
threatening enemies. It was with extreme
reluctance that the Britons separated from letters of Honorius urging them to do so.
the Roman government; and that was the 1 Lut the reader refer to Gibbon lor an account ot
last thing that the imperial officers in the each ol" these revolt, and it will lie seen that he
slates them to have been the act of the soldiers.
country would consent or yield their hold 2 Gibhon stutes the revolt of Britain to have been
on it. After the defeat of Constantine the in A. I). 400, when the revolt of Constantine was in
Briton in A. D. 411, there are many full and successful operation, which he states just
before, the general condition of the empire under the
reasons to believe, and so frequently as- date of A. D. 420.
 I go THE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book 11.
When and how the Romans finally many enemies and difficulties, they wished
parted from Britain, and left the Britons to to put off the evil day of their final separa
take care of themselves, we have no defi tion and the organization of a federal gov
nite account; but from the statements ernment of their own. Until that was
made by Gildas, Nennius and Bede," as finally determined they chose to remain
supported by other historical authorise under their several local, .-tate and city
we can satisfactorily gather the following governments. This condition they were
to be the facts. After the defeat of undoubtedly in when Bishop Germamis
usurper Constantine ai Aries, in the came there the first time in the year 429
of the year 411, (lie general, Constantius, in the Pelagian controversy. Thev had
proceeded to restore order in the name of a few years before (in 420) received the let
Honorius in the northwestern provinces, ters of Honorius: but still they hoped a re
Gaul and Britain. This was so accom turn, and in accordance with that hope the
plished and maintained until after 414, ultra Roman party sent the letter thev did
when the armv was necessarily called to -,'Etius, but who was then so engaged
awav. After thi s, we gather from these with Attilla and his Huns he could render
authors that upon two special occasions, in them no assistance. And now, when all
consequence of the pressure of their ene hopes were at an end, they settled the con
mies, the Britons applied to the Romans flict, about A. I). 440, bv the election of
tor aid, and upon each occasion a Roman Vortigern their pendragon and commander
army was sent, who very successfullv re in chief.
pelled and drove their enemies out of the
country, and left it in a protected condition. And now, who are these Britons, and
These two different times, we gather from what was their condition at that time?
other historians, were in A. D. 416 and 18; Were they the savages and barbarians that
and this agrees with Xennius and Bede. few prejudiced and hostile spirits claim
This last time the army, after having ex them to have been, or were tht-v a people
hausted the country of much of its valua who had done and accomplished extraordi-
ble wealth, and having besides received lary tilings to improve and civilize them
rich gifts, they returned in great triumph to selves? In reply to these queries, let the
Rome -:'i and "so took leave of their friends, reader take a fair and candid review of the
evidence we have collected from history,
never to return again.''-'
and he will find sufficient to satisfy him,
Thus the Romans departed in friend
from the glimpses and fragments of his
ship, no rebellion, or desire on the part of
tory given to us in remole times by the
the Britons to be released from the Roman
Phoenicians and Greeks, and the more re
sovereignty. They were all then, by the
cent and authentic histories, that they and
law, Roman citizens, and Rome was "their
their forefathers were a people as much en
sovereign and national government; and titled to the consideration of mankind, as a
as their supreme and federal government progressive and civilized people, as any
they did not wish to part with it, and vet
who were thus far from the centers of civ
hoped they would return. They were in
ilization. In the first account we have of
full possession, in their several States and them they were represented to be kind and
cities, of their local and subordinate govern hospitable to strangers, well clad and ven
ment, and preferred the Roman supremacy erable in their personal appearance. They
to any other, as they were now accus were laboriously industrious and furnished
tomed to it, were now Roman citizens, to the world that indispensable article
and entitled to be considered as part of the tinthen so absolutely required bv the
Roman empire,and surrounded bv civilized world. The account given of
them by Publius Crassus shows that at
that time they were engaged in the produc
4 Nt-nnius, ch. 30. tion of tin and other metals in trade and
5 Btik-, B. I, ch. 11. traffic; and turning their attention to navi-
Chap. iv. | FROM THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN. 19'
gation, which is confirmed by their con the end of the Roman rule; not merely in
nection with the Venetians and their nu such labors as the Stonehenge or the walls
merous shipping and commerce, which of Chun Castle in Cornwall, or the numer
without doubt was principally due to its ous chariots described by Gesar; but in ar
connection and traffic with Britain. That ticles of ornament and taste, not only for
business and commerce concentrated in the person but as utensils for domestic
the neighborhood of what is now the Isle use; nor did they neglect their agricultural
of Wight and Portsmouth, the ancient interests, for in Caesar's time they had
Vectis, the Portus Magnus, and Venta, ot" large fields of grain, and could furnish
the Romans. There the great body of the whatever amount of corn required; nor
nation concentrated,there were Avebury yet did they neglect their mining and com
and Stonehenge, and the institution of the mercial advantages, for they furnished for
Druids developed. And there was the use and exportation tin, lead, iron, gold,
great country for which Vespasian fought silver, as well as the productions of the
his thirty-two battles and took twenty soil. Such was the progress made by the
towns which Ca-sar never saw. Avebury Britons when the Roman conquest under
was a wonderful work and evidence of Claudius was made; and Tacitus testifies
great perseverance; but Stonehenge may to what readiness they applied their talents,
be compared with the great works of skill and industry to further improvements
civilized antiquity, if not with the pyra of the country in the erection of buildings,
mids, at least with the Cyclopean walls both private and public, with porticos, and
of Argos and Mycena1, in the skill and baths, and ornamented pavements, and en
science required to move and manage gaged themselves in all the learning and
such vast blocks of stone ; to cut, tenon improvement to be acquired from the Ro
and mortice, and place on the transom, mans. This was continued to the end of
show evidence of method, mechanism the Roman dominion; and what has since
and art excelling everything of the dav in been called Roman works and improve
Western Europe. Such were the Britons ments, when in reality they are those of
before Citsar's time, and he greatly adds to the Britons. The Romans sought to con
the credit due them. The people who quer that they might govern and tax for
could organize a body of four thousand their own benefit. Thew encouraged but
chariots, as Cii'sar describes them did not labor; they taxed but did not pro
sent against him, with all the art and duce. That was left for the Britons to ac
skill necessary to produce and manage complish. The object of the Romans was
them, places their capacity for civilization gain and profit; they left the labor and en
beyond a question; and that, too, acquired terprise for the Britons. These they en
and realized by their own efforts and couraged, but thej' were to be left for the
genius. Cassivellaunus, Caractacus, and Britons to perform, or the enterprise was
Boadicea, as well as other persons of their not accomplished. Romans brought
people and age, occupy in history as ad to the country new inventions new ideas,
mirable and magnificent figures as any models and engineer skill, but it was left
presented to us in the annals of the Ro to the people to use them or let them
man and civilized world. alone. If they went with them to the
By means of the ancient historians, and Huns and Goths they were let alone; but
the recent antiquarian researches, we are the Britons did choose to use and improve
enabled to discover the progress and im them. The Romans came there with an
provement the ancient Britons were able army and its officers, and a corps of fiscal
from time to time to make, and see th officers to gather taxes and tribute, and to
improvements made by their self-taught be supported by the country. Beyond
development from the time the Phoenicians this, only a few merchants and hangers-
visited them to that of Ca;sar, and from on came to gather gain and to lont. No
Ca;sar to Claudius, and from Claudius to colonization of the country took place to
 TIIE ROMAN PERIOD. [Book ii.
improve it by Roman industry ; that was Upon the departure of the Romans, the
left for the natives or it was not done. Britons again became essentially one and
To this the only exception were the roads, a homogeneous peopledescendants of the
the military fortification and the walls for ancient Cvmrv. After so long an inter
the protection ol the country; and in these course they parted with the Romans in
Romans were engaged, for they were ne- friendship and with regret. Thev had
ccssarv to their own convenience and to adopted many of their manners and cus
hold the country in their own subjection. toms, were firmly established in the Chris
But they were the joint labors of the army tian religion. In passing from Druidism
and the people: and the Britons were to Christianity they had less to change
heavily assessed to labor upon them. than any other pagan people. The arch-
Immediately after the conquest the Ro druid became the arch-bishop, and the
mans found the Britons so hostile to the druidic priest became a convert to Christ
invasion and so difficult to bring them to and a firm teacher in the faith. The high
subjection, that they became very jealous morality and principles of jvistice and hu
of their position and guarded against every manity found in their triads, harmonized
thing that might be turned against them to well with the doctrines of Christianity.
liberate the country; therefore they dis We have no evidence that they sacrificed
armed the people and prohibited Roman any human beings after Gesar's time; but
officers U> settle in the country or become we have, that the Romans many years af
land-holders. They were bound to return, ter that, in the reign of Augustus, that the
with whatever acquired there, to Rome. Romans sacrificed immolated on one oc-
and be sure not to aid the people to their I sion and the same lime, upwards of three
independence. These restriction- were hundred of their own citizens.
gradually relaxed as they found the people, It is probable that while the Romans
bv habit and custom, becoming more con ruled they encouraged the differences and
tented and happy in their condition, until divisions between one state or city and
about the year 212 the emperor Caracalla, another in the numerous divisions in
by an imperial edict, extended all the Britain; for that was in accordance with
rights and privileges of Roman citizens to their maxims and practice, "to divide md
the Britons, by means of which they be conquer." .Still at last we see no conflict
came as much Roman citizens as the peo between them, when at length they came
ple of any of the provinces, more than two to form an union by the election of Vort-
hundred years before the end of the em gern as their pendragon. There was a
pirc in Britain ; and they were the Roman party difference of opinion, as upon all
citizens who built up those ninety-two such occasions, between this party and
cities and other improvements left there that f Ambrosius Aurelius, who was
when the Roman army finally departed. more inclined to the Romans, and possibly
It is very true that many of the Roman did not then advise the union and federal
officers and merchants and members of the arrangement; but that prevailed with the
armv sometimes formed family connec majority, and he seemed to have readily
tions there; and by that means much Ro yielded to it.
man olVspring and Roman blood became The principal historian of those times is
mixed up with the original Cymrv. But the querulous and censorious Gildas, who
when the army finally left, there were no imparted his sentiments to Bede and Nen-
exclusively Roman people left there. nius, who long after that followed him.
There were some half blood and mixtures; He was filled with the monkish supersti
but no exclusively Roman people, they tion of the age, and does great injustice to
were all natives of the island. We read of the men and the action of the times.
Ambrosius who was there at the end of the Everything that did not accord with his
Roman rule but popular with both views was ungodlv; and whatever went
parlies. unfortunate was the scourge of God to
Chap. iv. | ['ROM THE ACCESSION OK DIOCLETIAN,
punish the people for their wickedness
He hated Vortigern, and perhaps justly,
hut we cannot form any just opinion from
so censorious a writer. From him and oth
er conflicting histories of the period, we
can gather facts, t^ show that the history
of those times was perverted and misrep
resented by monkish legends and creeds,
which made no allowance or consideration
tor inevitable fate, produced upon a coun-
trv depleted bv the Romans and then
overrun bv a barbarous and cruel enemy,
while it was -urtcriiij; with pestilence and
famine.
With a little of the consideration and
candor that should characterize a true his
torian, Mr. Miller, in hU History of the
Anglo Saxons, says: -With a population
so thinned as it must have been by the
heavv drainage made from time to time
from the flower of its youth, we can readi
ly conceive how difficult il was to defend
the wall which Sevcrus had erected after
the departure of the Romans. But we
cannot imagine that the Britons would
hesitate to abandon a position which they
could no longer maintain, or waste their
strength on an outer harrier, when the
enemy had already passed it by sea, and
were inarcr far into the country. On
this point the rahle (iiklas must have
been misinformed, and the narrative ol
Xorrimus is. lievond doubt, the most cor
rect one. r'rom his history it is evident
that the Britons rose ti)> and boldly dc-
fended themselves from the northern in
vaders." And this is not only sustained
bv what is suid by (iildas himself, but sup
ported b\ Turner, Gile~." and all the his
torians on the subject : but strange it is
that sOMie run into thf Other part Ol the
contradictory portions ol the -laic-menl of
querulous Gildns in order to support as
sertions and positions hostile to the Britons
ii Turm-r's Anglo Saxons, B. ii, ch. vii, p. i 20. I
Giles' Ancient Unions, ch. J|, p. ,y.So, who siivs: "A
famine broke out in the island, tollowcd by its inva
riable nllenilant the pestilence, which swept oft II
nati\es
natives by hundred*;
hundreds; and when we add to this the
havoc and din ol war which ,-oveml all Kurupe, it
seems as it llu- vial ot the Almljfhtj > vvrath was
visibly poured out over all tin- counlvie> ot the civi-_
li/ed world." . . -. "We read also that some ot
the Britons, tindine no litln but in their .\vn valor,
Hew to arms, made a resolute stand For their lives
.md liberty, and bravely deleuted thivr oppressor?.'
>93
unsupported by the surrounding facts."
When the Romans withdrew from Brit
ain the na'ives were left in their enfeebled
condition, so reduced by their connection
with Rome, and a thankless boon, after
being thus robbed, to be told that they
were now at liberty to go free and help
themselves. They were then in a very dif
ferent condition from what they were when
thev met Cavsar, with their four thousand
chariots in one body, and breathed the free
air of Britain. With all their adversities
and calamities, they were still Britons
with their several local and stipendary gov
ernments in full operation, and accustom
ed to elect their own" senators or itrciiriaiics,
and magistrates, under their ancient laws;
with people intelligent and enlightened
enough to meet in vast crowds throughout
the whole country men with their wives
and children* to listen to,. and appreciate,
Bishop Germanus upon .such abstruse sub-
iects as were involved in the metaphysical
and theological doctrines of Pelagianism;
with such patriots as Vortimer, and Am-
brosius and Arthur to fight, and, if needs
be, to die foi them and their beloved Brit
ain: with schools which produced such
Latin scholars as Palagius, St. David, Gil-
das, Nennius and Asser; with ninety-two
cities and towns around them, and they and
tlic whole country connected bv artificial
roads. With all these evidences of progress
and civilization around them, nothing but
the helpless condition in which the Romans
7 In support of" this Giles says (i Hist. Anc. Bnt-
on>, pa>fe 340- "'The continued drain of its popula-
tioii in llu1 service of Rome, had ever been an oh-
staclr to Briton's tjreatnes:-. We cannot consider
tin- inland to ha\c contained, in the time which we
tin- speukinjf of, more than a tenth part of the num-
1 hers with which it is now crowded, (r. r. about 2,-
j ()00)01K)| ;iml the consequences which resulted from
ihe departure of more than a hundred thousand per
sons who are said to have a.'con.jianicd the army
from time In time, \\iili Ma\imus and others, can
better he conceived than described. Neither were
the emii^rants chosen from the weaker or more use
less eUe- of thr people. They consisted of nil
the Komiin -oldiery, and the best and most \ i^orotis
of the native Britons. The loss of a lame number
of men, who have p.is>ed the prime of life may be
borne bv a nation with comparative ease; the places
't* the veteran!' are. supplied by the bountiful ela>1ici-
I] ly
,y ()(-
,,r n:llurCt
n:lluu., i,v
|,v which
w|m- the
the young
young prow
prow to
to be
be men,
men,
, ,{ml ,() (H.CI ihcir fiither's places in the senate, or
| T],t. ni.i(| ,,f l.attli:, and ai the domestic hearth; but
I ,JK, (it,|);lrllirc nf ;,u the youth of the land must have
UK. ,. * of in,)nv vc;irs lH.fnre thc 1()^ of ., whoic
1It.ncnVtinI1 ,.an he supplied."
. ,
S licde, B. r, ch. fj.
 THE ROMAN PERIOD.
had left them would enable their ravaging
enemies to have prevailed against them,
and with the >word and fire to have re
duced those objects of improvement to ut
ter ruin. But it seemed to have been in
evitable; it was a question again to be
repeated, who had the most men to he
slaughtered in the cause? Britain, whose
population had been reduced, and now lim
ited; or the savages of Northern and East
ern Europe, whose population had been in
creasing for ages, and then ready to be let
[Hook
in, with unlimited numbers, upon .Southern
and Western Europe. Rome had thus far
kept them at bay, accumulating in popula
tion and physical power, without the least
attempt to improve or civilize them, until
they had so increased in mass and numbers
that they were then ready to rush like an
impending avalanche upon unhappy anil
civilized Europe, as though it were the
wrath of Heaven coming to punish Rome
for her iniquities.
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS,
AND THEIR DESCENDANTS.
BOOK III.THE SAXON PERIOD.
CHAPTER I.
THE SAXON CO.N'QfEST. A. U. 449 to fu6.
1. The Sn\ons~ First Immigration, Wur
and Settlement in Britain.
The year 449 of trie present era is the
commencement of a new period in the his
tory of Britain. It was the beginning of a
new series of events, connected with some
of the most important movements of the
world. However insignificant or unpropi-
tious those events- may have been in their
origin, it is vain for the limited intellect of
man to fathom the course of Providence,
and pretend to tell how much such trivial
matters may have aided in producing the
mighty events that may have followed it;
or how the world would have stood if such
event had never happened. Every day we
witness great events following small ones,
and apparently depending upon them; but
the world must go on, and great events
will happen, whether dependent on the
trivial circumstances that preceeded them
or not. In British soil there are buried up
great productions and great events, wheth
er preceded by British, Roman, Saxon or
Norman people, or otherwise. Events
happen, and times change, sometimes by
intelligence and intellect over brute force
and rudeness, and sometimes by the re
verse; but generally speaking the heaviest
battalion and the most men prevail. It is
often very difficult for man, from the small
circumstances by which he is surrounded,
to judge what mightv or untoward event
they mav produce; but when they have
transpired and are palpable, then the wise-
"3
acres will disclose their wisdom, and tell
how wise they were and foresaw it.
At that time the Britons had been for
more than a hundred years, under the Ro
man government and under their own,
greatly troubled and injured by repeated
and continued attacks from savage and bar
barous enemiesthe Picts and Scots by
land who robbed, plundered and destroyed,
and the Franks and Saxons who did the
same as pirates from the sea. They were
frequently driven oft" and greatly punished
for their wrongs. But they soon forgot
their punishment, and after a time return
ed again to commit their wrongs and to
devastate portions of the country. The
Saxons had continued their piracies so long
against every infliction of punishment that
could be put upon them either by the Ro
man government, or Carausius, or that of
the Britons, that the whole coast of Britain
on the southeast, from the Wash to the isle
of Wight, was so infested with them that
it was called the "Saxon shore." The Ro
man had done cverthing to protect it, and
had organized it vmder a peculiar jurisdic
tion ot the Counts of the Saxon shores,
with military force and castles for their
protection.1 The Saxons, therefore, were
frequently in the habit of landing upon the
British shores, and such event was nothing
new to the Britons.
All this time, as we have already seen,
Britain was greatly afflicted with all man
ner of misfortunes and untoward events;
I Palfcjravc's An^lo-Saxon, ch. i, p. ^4. "This dis
trict was placet! under the command of a military
coun called 'Comt* liloris Saronici.' I Turners
Antflo-Saxons, B. ii, ch. iv, p. 106; i Gibbon's Dec.
and Fall, ch. x\\, p. 340.
196 THE SAXON PERIOD.
their enemies were assailing them in va
rious places the Picts and Scots in various
places, and the pirates in others. The
country for many years past had been
greatly reduced and depleted in its popu
lation, by the demands of the Roman ar
mies upon them; the ravages of their ene
mies had in some places desolated their
country ; their attention had been greatly
excited and turned toward religious sub
jects and polemic discussions; and they
had been afflicted with famine and pesti
lence. They were then surrounded by too
many untoward circumstances for any oth
er extraordinary demand upon their exer
tion. We have seen that just before this
a new general or federal goTermnent had
been organized, and Vortigern had been
elected their pendragon, or penteyrn,2 or
president; and had come from his own
stateSiluria3 to London or its vicinity
to attend to national affairs, and call a gener-
er council,* or general assembly of the elite
of the people, to take into consideration the
difficulties of the times. For according to
the ancient principles of the British con
stitution, no new law could be adopted, no
new responsibility of the people, nor any
new obligation with a foreign power could
be entered into without the consent of their
general assembly. Such general assembly
was now in session, and Vortigern was
seeking their advice and consent as to the
management of public affairs. While they
were thus in session at London, news came
in to them that three Saxon long boats, or
cyules or keels, had just landed on the
British shore, on Thanet island, near the
mouth of the Thames. They were report
ed to act different from any Saxons who
ever appeared there before ; that they did
not appear to be inclined to any piratical
hostilities. They announced that they
were friendly, wanted land to settle upon,
or to be employed. Vortigern, as a man
of ready expedients, immediately proposed
i l Thierry's Normiln Conquest, B. i, p. 7.
3 Thierry (as ahove, p. S) says that Vortigern was
a Loe^rian. This is :i mist.lke. He was then oper
ating m I-oef^ria, because that was in the confedera-
cv, nut he was elected from his native state, Siluria,
to his office as pendragon.
4 Turner's Anglo-Saxons, B. iii, ch. i, p. iSi.
[Book in..
to his council to send a deputy to them,
and propose to employ them as allies or
mercenaries, with their own troops, in the
expedition about to be sent out against the
Picts and Scots, who were then preparing
to come down again upon them. This
proposition of Vortigern was strenuously
opposed by some members, as a matter
which should not be entertained. The
Saxons they said were pirates, and treach
erous, and not to be trusted ; besides, they
said, we must do our own fighting, and not
again trust any foreign people.
To this it was replied, that there could be
no danger in the quantity of men that three
such boats could carryperhaps three hun
dred men, possibly five. Such allies,
among the fifteen or twenty thousand
troops that the Britons must raiseand send
forth against the approaching enemies com
ing from the north, would be of no danger
to the country. To apprehend danger
from such a source is to borrow trouble.
The Romans and every nation employ al
lies and mercenaries, and auxiliaries, and
why not the Britons, when they have such
an opportunity offered them? It was fur
ther said that the Roman party had recent
ly sent to the Roman .Ktiu- for aid to
drive back the approaching enemy, which
was refused, because he was so strenuously
engaged in Gaul against Attila and his
Huns; and why now may not the Britons
employ these Saxons, who now peaceably
offer their services? To this it was rejoin
ed that the Saxons were pirates and rob
bers, and had been such for more than a
hundred yearswere treacherous and not
to be trusted. After such experience the
Britons should have nothing to do with
them.
Thus was the matter debated, with a good
deal of party feeling and contempt for the
borrowed troublejust as such matters
have often been debated in a British par
liament or a Roman senate, and very much
as a like question was actually debated in
the Roman senate in the case of Alaric
and Stilicho,'' or before the English parlia
ment as to engaging to fight for the Turks.
5 See 1 Gibbon's Dec. and Fall, ch. xxx, p. 414.
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
against a Christian people in the Crimean
war. But right or wrong the question was
carried in the affirmative, and VortigernG
immediately sent his deputy to see the
strangers in Thanet, to negotiate with them
and see what they wanted, and see it they
would engage as allies in the British ser
vice in the war against the Picts and Scots.
The deputy soon returned with a very fav
orable report, stating that he found the
strangers appeared to be peaceably inclined
and not pirates; they represent themselves
to be exiles from home, seeking a place to
settle and to be employed. They offer to
be employed as auxiliaries in our war
against the Picts and Scots, and to render
most loyal service. This report was very
satisfactory to Vortigern and the council,
as might be supposed, and it was agreed to
employ these Saxon adventurers as subsid
iary soldiers. They were accordingly re
tained to serve as auxiliaries against the
northern enemies then invading the coun
try ; and were, therefore, promised food and
clothing, and were to be stationed in
Thanet, whose ancient British name was
Rmthina." In pursuance of this agree
ment, the strangers went into the service
with the British troops as their auxiliaries,1*
against the northern enemies, which was
successful ; and the service rendered by the
ft We should not without consideration condemn
Vorliirern for this haste in employing the strangers.
Mr. Miller, in hi>. Mislory of the An^Io-Suxons, (p.
66) well says: "There is no evidence that Voriiirern
intended ;iny wrong. Centuries be fort1, the Britons
h.id crossed" the sea, and fought In (lie wars of the
(iauls; they had also aided the Romans. It was a
common custom for one nation to hire the assistance
of another; when the time of service was over, the
soldiers either returned to their own country or set
tled down amongst the native tribes, whom they had
defended. In this case, however, the result proved
very different, though it would have been difficult
for anv one endoxved with the keenest penetration lo
have fort-seen thai three small ships, probably con
taining in all not more than three hundred men, ;md
ihoe willing- to render assistance on very humble
terms, should point out the way, by which their com
panions in arms should come and conqm-r, and take
possession of a country which it had cost the Ko-
mans so many years of hard warfare to subjugate."
7 'i Turner's Anglo-Saxons, B. iii, ch. i, p. 182;
GQdaft. $13, 2.2; Xennius, ch. 25,35; Bude, '* ii <-""
15. The British poem of Golyddan indignantly al
ludes i<> thiscoumil and agreement. That, however,
was an ;ifterthoughtf when it was easy to judge of
it.
8 It is impossible to conceive that these strangers
did anything more than ,ici as auxiliary to the Brit
ish forces. It would be preposterous to suppose that
three or four hundred men rould drive away an en-
cwv which alwavs required the Roman army lo do.
197
strangers appreciated, and the compensa
tion for their service appears to have been
satisfactorily arranged. But whether that
included a stipulation for a permanent set
tlement in the island of Thanet or only a
temporary one does not very clearly ap
pear; but these allies of the Britons were
so well pleased with their employment and
compensation, that they suggested to Vor-
tigern that they had friends at home who
would also be glad to emigrate and come
and enter his service like themselves, whom
he would find efficient and loyal soldiers;
to which Vortigern replied that it would
appear to be very satisfactory.
These newcomers had been from the
first received and considered by the Britons
as Saxons, for that was the name they be
stowed upon all the piratical enemies who
came from the north of the month of the
Rhine. But it is probable that they told
the Britons, in order to quiet their suspi
cion, that they were not Saxons, but Jutes
from Juteland, and that the two princes or
chiefs who led them were Hengist and
Horsathey were brothers, and the true
descendents of their national god Woden.
Whether these representations put Vorti
gern off his guard and induced him to en
tertain a more favorable opinion of them,
is not known, but certain it is that thev in
some way had acquired his full confidence.
But with the Britons generally the strang
ers were always called Saxons, whether
Jutes, Angles, or Saxons properly; they
were all equally hateful to the Britons as
irredeemable pirates and robbers, and un
worthy of anv confidence, and Vortigern *s
growing confidence in them only rendered
him the more unpopular with his country
men.
The people from whence these strangers
came from the neighborhood of the Elbe
and the Eider, were all of the same family
of people, in language and customs, vary
ing only in dialect or tribe, but all included
under the denomination of Saxons, Ger
mans or Teutons; but those with whom
the Britons came in contact were always
denominated by them as Saxons, just as
the Cymry and Loegrians were denomin
ated Britains. They occupied the country
198 THE SAXON PERIOD.
formerly occupied by the Cambri, and who
in one emigration after another had left
there many centuries previous some south
as we have already described, others
north, who malgamated and became assim
ilated with the Scandinavians, which will
account for these differing so much from
the other nations of Teutonic origin. But
these Saxons differed from the other Teu
tons of the Germanic people. The coun
try was low, more marshy, and the people
ruderwithout towns, roads or commerce,
and for more than a hundred and fifty years
had become' addicted to the practice of pi
racy and robbing the people, living along
the neighboring shores, as we have already
stated. Living upon the borders of the
sea, and by their practice tliev had become
expert and fearless seamen.
The Saxons of those times were pagans,
and worshiped Woden, the great founder
of their religion; and in their religion and
idolatry they were educated to love war
and battles, blood and carnage. They were
taught to contemn everything which did
not inure them to become warriors of sav
age ferocity, and despise death as a sure
passport to the warrior to Ihe heaven of his
idolatry. Such warriors were sure to be
admitted, with their wounds as the highest
honors, to distinguished places in their
heavenly Valhalla, for they believed "their
Supreme Deity to be father of combats
and slaughter, because those were his fa
vorite children who fell in the field of bat
tle."'-' The most formidable feature of the
ancient religion of (he Saxons, savs Tur
ner, was its indissoluble union with war
and violence. Its tenets sanctified all the
horrors of war, and connected all the hopes,
energies and passions of humanity with its
prosecution. Their poets represented that
the greatest enjoyment of human fruition
was the feast of heroes, where thev drank
their intoxicating beverage from the skulls
of their enemies whom they had slain;loand
ij i Turner's Anfjlo-Saxons, Appendix to B. ii, p.
10 Sec Mallet's Northern Antiquities, (in Holm's name of Divine judlament not only lo the Judician
Lib.) p. 104. "Those only whose blood had been combat, 'nil to conniicU and battles ot all sorts." "llii;.
shed in battle mitiht :ispire to the pleasure: which .lispnsiti n of trusting, even the decision of justice,
Odin prepared for them
then) in Valhalla." See also Ibid., to biUlli has come down to us in very modern
Valhalla. Seca!
p. l^S. "Thev looked upon this as a real act of jus- time*.
ice a visible m.irk that (iod intended. * * Thev
[Book in
then occasionally going out, and with their
battle-axes fight and wound as an amuse
ment, and returning taking the privilege of
wiping the blood from their axes on the
skirts of their women. This was their re
ligion as derived from Odin, and its inev
itable tendency was to render them still
more cruel and heartless, and to deaden all
the finer feelings and sentiments of human
ity and justice. They therefore had no
compunction of heart or conscience against
the remorseless cruelty of their piracies or
the scenes of horror and desolation it pro
duced.
The Saxons were unknown and unheard
of until comparatively recent limes. Taci
tus, who carefully and accurately describes
several people occupying Northwestern
Europe in his day, says nothing about
them. They are first noticed by Ptolemy
about A D. 140.11 The probability is that
they were then an association of various
people, brought together, like the Franks
of old or the modern Buckaneer, for the
purpose of cultivation and practice in war,
and exercising it in robbing and plundering
the rest of mankind, who were more im
proved and had more property than them
selves. They were destitute of letters and
literature until about the tenth or eleventh
century, long after the period of which we
are now speaking. The songs of their ca
reer were the production of their memory,
and repeated verbally. There were two
branches of them those of the interior,
who are represented as smaller men, more
peaceable, and inclined to the amenity of
humanity; the otherof the seashore
were larger men, such as their habits and
course of life would produce. When they
sallied out upon their piratical expeditions,
they had but little to take with them, ex
cept their battle-axe and their sea-going
vessel, which was generally made of wick
er work and covered with hidesso light
as to be frequently carried by land from
one river to another.
adopted thi* maximi in all it.s
its ri^for, and jj.ive tm
the
Turner, p. 7^,
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
These Saxons have been frequently de
scribed by writers of that day and authors
of modern times.12 "You see as many
leaders as you behold rowers, for they all
commanded, obey, teach and learn the art
of pillage. Hence, after your greatest cau
tion, still great care is requisite. This en
emy is fiercer than any other; if you be
unguarded they attack, if prepared they
elude you. They despise the opposing,
and destroy the unwary ; if they pursue,
they overtake; if they fly, they escape.
Shipwrecks discipline them, not deter; they
do not merely know, they are familiar with
all the dangers of the sea; a tempest gives
them security and success, for it divests
the meditated land of the apprehension of
a descent. Dispersed into many bodie.-,
they plunder by night, and when day ap
peared they concealed themselves in the
woods, feasting on the booty they had
gained." The consideration of the conse
quence of the settlement of these people in
Britain, and its effects upon it, until it had
time to recover, must be postponed until it
arrives in its proper place in the period of
time.13
In the interview that Vortigern, as the
sovereign oi Britain, had with Hengist
and Horsa, what effect it had upon him to
be informed that they were Jutes and there
fore not the Saxons who so long committed
piracies and robbery on his country, can
not now be known; but certain it was they
gained upon his confidence, and mutual
hopes and expectation were raisedon the
part of Vortigern that he had used political
wisdom in employing these few foreigners
as auxiliaries in his army, and save his own
citizens to that extent in the harrassing
war with the Picts and Scots, just as was
the policy exercised by the Americans in
their late great rebellion in taking into their
services a regiment of foreigners to fight
their battle; on the part of Hengist, that
he was engaged in an employment where
he was well paid in rations and clothing,
!i Sldon. Anoll., B. S, Ep. vi; Xorimns, B. iii;
Turner's Ani^lo-Siixons, Appendix to B. li, ch. I, p.
142'. Miller'^ Ibid., ch. vii, p. 04; Piil^ruve's Anglo-
Saxon, ch. iii; Miillet's Northern Antiquities, ch. vii,
p. 131.
3 See Gibbon, xxxviii ch., p. 5*6.
199
and quarters where to stay, and also a hope
of obtaining employment for spme of his
brethren that he had left at home. All this
appeared fair enough at the time, and noth
ing unusual. But what effect it had on
the mind of the British sovereign, when
Hengist suggested that he had brethren at
home who would also be glad to be cm-
ployed in the same manner; to which at
least he gave an assent that they might
come. It is probable that both parties
looked upon it as an everyday transaction,
without any very deep penetration into its
consequences in the future on the part of
either. Nothing but the wisdom of Prov
idence could have anticipated that. Vorti
gern was doing no more than what had
been done by all the great monnrchs of the
world. It was no more than each taking
advantage of the circumstances that sur
rounded them, and going ahead. Hengist
wanted employment for himself and
friends, and when the British sovereign as
sented to employ them he had no idea they
would come in such vast hungry swarms
as afterwards came. That was a phase of
the understanding he had never assented
to, and the consequences of which no one
then ever dreamed. But the secret of the
matter was, that at that time Northern
Europe was overflowing with a surplus
population, which was ready to overflow ,
as a deluge, the civilized world, and especi
ally was that the case as to Britain. Al
ready had Italy, and Spain, and Gaul, been
overrun by the barbarian armies; but no
where did they find so hard a task to ac
quire a dominion, however ingeniously was
the entering wedge first placed, as the Sax
ons had in Britain, which cost them in
numerable lives and a hard struggle for
more than two hundred years before the
question of its success was finally settled,
though the contest went on for centuries
longer. But the country of the Elbe and
the Eider had plenty of idle men to spare,
and they came in repeated swarms for ages;
but Britain having been depleted, had no
other country to depend upon for aid, and
had no such resources to fall back upon;
and when one piece of territory was given
up, for the sake and hope of peace, it was
aoo THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
sure to be made the vantage ground to take speculations of their eastern brethren in
more. contempt, as the brave Silurians did the
In expressing just views upon this sub Saxons. V ortigern was then at London
ject, Mr. Giles,'* who is no partial witness attending to national affairs, and Hengist
to the ancient Cymry, has eloquently and becoming aware of the suspicion against
justly said: "It may, however be pardona him of his unfaithfulness and apprehen
ble in an inhabitant of Britain, who rejoic sion of his treachery, thought it advisable
es in the proud situation which his little to keep the sovereign satisfied, and on his
island occupies among the nations of the side. He therefore sent a pressing invita
earth, to bestow a brief attention upon the tion to the king, as he was called, to come
protracted character of the contest between and pay him a visit at his quarters in
the Britons, and those treacherous allies, Thanet and make an inspection of affairs
by whom they were subjected. It is pleas there for himself. Vortigern accepts the
ing to perceive, by the feeble light which invitation, and goes down with the pomp
our early writers have thrown over those and circumspection belonging to his rank;
transactions, that the same invincible spirit and Hengist does all that his limited means
of national bravery which opens the view would permit to meet him with proper
of British history, is manifest when the demonstration. A review of men as a mil
scene closes over it forever. Whilst we itary force was had, and though Vortigern
may decline to pass a harsh judgment up saw that their number was greatly increas
on \ ortigern for being, perhaps ignorant- ed beyond his expectation, and Hengist ad
ly, the instrument of his country's ruin, mitted the arrival of seventeen vessels, yet
other names occur in the ensuing genera the king's apprehension was quieted by the
tion, which deserve to be mentioned in the loyal assurances of Hengist as to the faith
catalogue of the great men which Britain ful services they would be able to render
has produced. The first of these was Vor- him, accompanied with his own knowledge
temir, the son of Vortigern, and his valiant that they were but a small portion of his
deeds against the Saxons would be almost army necessary to drive back and punish
sufficient to efface the memon- of his fath their northern enemies.
er's misfortunes." But still a more unexpected affair, char
While Hengist and his men were quar acterized with more skill and intrigue took
tered on the island of Thanet, and supplied place. The king was also invited to par
with rations and clothing as had been take with the officers of the exiles, a festiv
agreed upon, news came that their num ity, which was gotten up in the best style
bers had been receiving great accession of they were capable of commanding. In the
their countrymen; which caused some un midst of the hilarity of the occasion, ex
easiness among the Britons, and afforded cited by a generous use of wine and ale, an
grounds of speculation and distrust. That unexpected actress was brought on the
part of the Cymric people living in the stage, the daughter of Hengist the chief
southeast part of the island, called Loe- tainthe famed Rowenawho acted her
grians, who were better acquainted with part with that art and address peculiar to
the Saxons and their character, and had the fair sex when determined at all cost to
suffered more from their depredations, win and succeed. The storv shall now be
were more suspicious and ready to de told by a distinguished English historian
nounce the whole arrangement with these in his own words:15 "She was verv beauti
suspected strangers. Vortigern and his 15 Pulgrave's Anglo-Saxons, ch. ii, p. 29. Mr.
immediate friends coming from their own Turner, on page 184 of his history, has this note;
stateSiluriain the west part of the with an c.'ut36.accepimua;1
"Xenn. Malmsbury, p. y, mentions Rowena
and II. Huntingdon, wilh a
island, had never been troubled by the Sax 'dicitur a quiburdam,' p. 310. The Welsh Triads,
c. 38, call her Rnmvcn, and sonic of the late Welsh
on pirates, and therefore held the fears and poems allude to her." So she appears to he an his
torical character on both sides, oi which there can
be as little doubt as of any other sulxirdinate histori
1| I History of Ancient Britons, ch. xxiv, p, 39.1. cal personatre.
Chap i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST. -OI

ful, and when introduced by her father at When all these facts and incidents came
the royal banquet, she advanced gracefully o be known to the Britons, their indigna-
and modestly toward the king, bearing in on was raised to its utmost, and they were
her hand a golden goblet filled with wine. spirited in their denunciations as when
Young people even of the highest rank, 'sar attempted to land. Whatever de-
were accustomed to wait upon their elders, nand Hengist and his original men had,
or those unto whom they wished to show icy justly declared that the last comers
respect. And when Rowena came near ad no claim upon the nation, and they
unto Vortigern, she said, in her own Sax /ere not bound to support all the Saxons
on language, " Wees heal, hlaford cowing" i-ho might be disposed to come. They
which means, "Health to thee, my Lord herefore very spiritedly resisted these
King." Vortigern did not understand the laims, and demanded that the Saxons
s-alutation of Rowena, but the words were hould forthwith leave the island of Than-
explained to him by an interpreter. "Drink t, who were equally decisive that they
hf(d"- -drink thou health was the accus v-ould not, upon which war was inevitable,
tomed answer, and the memory of the n the meantime the popular indignation
event was preserved in merry old England, an as high against the unfortunate Vorti-
the wassail-cupa cup full of spiced wine jern as against the Saxons.
or good ale." LThe Saxons were, shortly after, the sole
She undoubtedly must have been beauti possessors of the island of Thanet," says
ful, having come to those shores with so -mother English historian,"* "and the in
many men, aboard of such piratical ships, fluence ot Vortigern's pretty pagan wife
and especially when having been selected was soon visible to the jealous eyes of the
to act so memorable a part. At all events Britons. Hengist and Horsa began to de-
the king was smitten, and given to under nand more liberal supplies, and to cast a
stand that she was unmarried and in mar onging glance upon Kent; but the Britons
ket. He may, however, have approached had" spirit enough to resist such a conces
her with the same admiration that a lordly sion. And here we for a time lose sight of
Virginia planter would to an extraordinary Vortigern and Rowena, though it is highly
beauty imported from Africa. Be that as probable that they retreated to the isle of
it may, the whole affair on her part was a Thanet, then held by the Saxons, from the
success, and soon afterwards she was called coming storm."
his wife, and Hengist his father-in-law. The It is not probable that Vortigern with his
poor king had been intoxicated with both wife passed over to the enemies of his
wine and love; and when a man is caught country, but retired for a while to some ob
in such a trap, it is not easy to extricate scurity, incognito; and It is said that the
himself; and when a nation is so unfortu general assembly immediately deposed him
nate as to have their sovereign in such a as pendragon, and appointed Guortemir
box, then they are unfortunate indeed. (Vortimer), the son of Vortigern, in whom
Soon after these events forty more ves they had full confidence as to his patriot
sels or Saxon chyules landed at Thanet ism and abilities, as the commander-in-
with Hengist's son and kinsmen, who on chief of their army, who immediately pre
their way plundered the Orkneys and Scot pared to meet the coming contest. In the
land.16 Hengist's numbers were nov meantime Hengist and Horsa proceeded to
mightily increased. And as their number carry out their threats. They forthwith
increased so did their necessities, for in formed alliances with the Picts and Scots,
crease of rations and provisions. They de who, between these several enemies, car
manded larger supplies, and stated that ried havoc and devastation into several
they were refused, they must plunder for parts of the country. The desolation that
their subsistence.17 followed are forcibly depicted by the his-
16 i Turner's Anglo-Saxons, B. iii, ch. I, p. iS-|
Ibid., p. 185; Bede, B. i, ch. 15. iS Miller's Anlo-S:i\-ons, ch. ix, p. 67.
2U2 THE SAXON PERIOD.
torians of the times. Private and public
edifices destroyed, the people slaughtered,
and even priests slain at the altars, wher
ever the enemy prevailed, and the people
fleeing for safety whenever they feared
their coming. All sorts of outrages were
perpetrated, and the people suffering this
savage barbarity without distinction of per
sons or mercy.W But the Britons were
soon aroused to their defense where these
injuries were committed, and the Saxons
driven into Kent to the neighborhood of
the isle of Thanet. By this time Hengist
was greatly re-enforced by his countrymen,
as though a preconcerted arrangement had
been made equal to the occasion. Vorti-
mer was now at the head of the British ar
my, with his brother, Catigern, the two
sons of Vortigcrn, in whom the people had
full confidence, notwithstanding the odious
position of their father, and these men
proved themselves to be worthy of their
confidence.
A conflict was soon brought on, and
three decisive battles between these con
tending parties were fought the first was
in Kent, at the river Darent;2" the second
was at Eaglesford, now called Aylesford,
also in Kent, and here Horsa, the brother of
Hengist, fell, and his celebrated banner of
the white-horse, which was supposed to be
always victorious, was to rise in his hands
no more. Catigern also perished in this
great battle, as well as many a man on
either side, but the victory was with the
Britons. The third battle was fought at
Stonar, on the sea shore of Thanet, front
ing France, from whence the Saxons all
fled in their chyules. These events were
accomplished by Vortimer, which places
him, for skill, courage and ability, with the
great men in British history. "But fate,"
says Turner,21 "has obscured his title to
celebrity. We may concede to him all the
praise that Cambrian affection can demand,
without believing that he pulled up a tree
by the roots and with it as a club killed
Horsa, and defeated the Saxons. Courage
19 Bede, B. i, ch. 15; i Turner's Antjlo-Saxon, B. their return. In allusion to this, Gibbon says: "The
jii, ch. I, p. 185; Henry ot Huntingdon, B. ii, p. 39. tomb of Vortimer, the son of Vortiyern, was erected
20 Nennius, 44.
21 Anglo-Saxon, iS6,
[Book in.
has always been the characteristic of the
Cymry, and they may disclaim, without in
jury to their glory, every impossible
achievement."
These Saxon invaders having departed,
the Britons began to rejoice with the hope
that they had gone forever. It seems that
upon their departure, they went to the low
lands of the Rhine, and formed a settle
ment there where Leydon now is; but they
were there only a year or two22 before they
received news which induced them to re
turn. Soon after the expulsion, Vortimer
died, and it is said that his death was pro
cured by means of poison, through machi
nation of his step-mother, the beautiful
Rowena. That charge is sometimes made
without foundation, and of course we have
no positive proof. But what is unfortunate
in her case is, that she belonged to a family
where such treacherous and violent deaths
were often procured, as well as her con
nection with pirates, furnished grounds of
suspicion. However this may be, word
was sent to Hengist that Vortimer23 was
dead, and invited him to return, which was
forthwith done. He returns with a greatly
increased force, which this time was suffi
cient to establish him on the island. He
landed at his old place on the isle of
Thanet.
In the meantime Vortigern's party had
returned to power, and he was recalled to
the helm of the government. The excel
lent character and merit of his two sons,
and their great service to their country,
and untimely death, produced that sympa
thy for the father, as to enable them to re
new their confidence in him, and forget his
faults. It seemed as though his errors
were covered up, as by an impenetrable
cloak, in the merits of his sons, whose re
cent decease was mourned over bv all. In
22 Xennius, ch. 25, says that "they were expelled
from Britain, and that for five vears they were kept
o.u of the island, till Vortimcrrs death. Sec Turner
as above.
23 The patriotism of Vorlnner was vivid at his
death. He bequeathed that his body should be
buried on the sea shore where he last saw the ene
mies of his country depart, as a warning against
on the margin of the sea shore as a landmark form
idable to the Saxons, whom he had thrice vanquish
ed on the fields of Kent."
Chap, THE SAXON CONQUEST.
the midst of this, news came from Thanet
that Hengist had returned, and with it
came a message from himself announcing
the same, and claiming that he came with
peaceable intention hoping that all could
be explained and made satisfactory.24 This
idea was seconded with animated toy by
the wife of Vortigern, the pirate's beauti
ful daughter. Upon the questions now
arising, there were great division of opin
ions as to the course that should be pur
suedsome hoped, and others denounced
with partisan prejudice and blindness;
some said that the Saxons might, as they
promised, settle peaceably in Thanet and
become useful citizens, while others de
nounced them as not worthy of being
trusted as dangerous and unworthy neigh
bors, who were more likely to be treacher
ous enemies than friends. Negotiations
followed in which the Saxons were zealous
in their declaration of peace and friendship,
and regret for the misunderstanding that
was past. To seal his sincerity for peace
Hengist proposed a feast, where the princi
pal men of both people should partake.
It was agreed that both parties should come
without their arms, and that the place of
the festivity should be at or near Stone-
henge, on May-day of that year.--"1
This transaction has been denied and its
truth vindicated by numerous authors.2"
i4 "No jrreat revolutions of states occur," says
Turner, (i Hist. Aniflo-Saxons, B. iii, ch. I, p. 179)
"without the preparatory and concurring operations
of many political causes. The Saxons hail for ne:tr-
ly two centuries been attacking Britain, with no
ereater success than the half-naked Scoti from Ire
land hud obtained. Thev plundered where they ar
rived unexpectedly. They were defeated when
they encountered a military or naval resistance.
Hengist and Ella would not* have been more fortu
nate than their depredatory countrvu.en who had
preceded them, if the events of the day hail not by
their agencies conducted them and their successors
from exile and piracy to the proprietorship and king
doms of the English" octarchy." The day had now
arrived when thev were disposed to hold on to what
territory they hoa, and hoped for more, without at
:ill knowing what was in reserve for them; which
was only developed as they proceeded, and proceed
ed bet nuse thev could not hell) it. They left their
country from necessitydriven forward by circum
stances, and blind faiality.
l Pictorial Hist.. B. ii, ch. 1, p. 133.
who has vindicated the historical existence of Row
ena, has also argued ably and powerfully in tavor of
the truth of this other ancient tradition. "Thf: trans
action." he observes, "certainly occurred; it has
been unjustly brought into doubt." Britannia after
too, has been treated as a hction by recent writers; the Romans," p. 46. See, also, Whitaker's Manches
but the same ingenious and accomplished inquirer ter.
203
One of the internal evidences against it, is
the fact that it took place at a place so far
from the sce'ie of their general operation.
If it was said to have taken place in Lon
don, or in Thanet, or in Kent, it would ap
pear more probable. But then it may be
said that Stonehenge was a more central
and convenient place for the chief and
principal men of Southern Britain to meet,
and to be witnessed bv the people. AnJ
then the sacred reputation and memory of
the place would give it, in the eyes of the
people, a greater confidence and sanction.
But it is said, that for the purpose of the
feast the principal men of both nationalities
according! \ met, and it was so arranged
that one Saxon was placed between every
two Britons. When the conviviality was
at its heighth, and the intoxicating lever
age well used and the sun not yet down,
upon a preconcerted signal given by lien-
gist, which was -Ximed arc mxa," which
meant draw your weapons, the Saxons
drew their knives hid in their hose and as
sassinated the Britons on each side of
them. This was as unexpected to the
Britons as it was horrible and treacherous.
In the struggle of death there was some
hard fighting; but it is said that only three
Britons of the party present escaped death,
and one of these was Vortigern, who was
probably permitted to escape, ami the oth
ers were Eidol, count of Gloucester, and the
prince of Venedotia,the first only es
caped by almost superhuman strength and
presence of mind.
This again aroused the Britons to a terri
ble excitement against the Saxons, antl de
termination again to expell them from the
country; and the excitement was but little
less against Vortigern himself than against
the Saxons, whom the people now looked
upon as the cause and means of so much
of their difficulties and treachery to which
they had been subjected. He was the ob
ject of their special denunciation, and has
since been the subject of detestation in his-
204 THE SAXON PERIOD.
tory and poetry. The general assembly
was called of the notables of the several
cities and states, and Vortigern again de
posed, who then retired with his family to
some obscure place on the west side of the
island to die of some calamity or of disap
pointment or a broken heart. Aurelius
Ambrosias, who is generally known and
honored in British history as Emrvs
Wledig, was now called, too late, to the
pendragonnte. With a large party he had
always been the political opponent of Vor
tigern. He was a native Briton, but was
half, many of the people were part, Roman
blood. He was a wise, patriotic and hero
ic chief, and eminently possessed the confi
dence of the people. It is said by some
that he was commander-in-chief under
Vortimer in those great battles by which
the Saxons had been expelled from Thanet.
Immediately Ambrosius proceeded to
carry on a wholesome and vigorous govern
ment, and as far as possible to put a stop to
the unjust and wicked encroachments of
the Saxons. Both the Britons and the Sax-
or.s were now preparing for a mighty strug
gle. Both saw it was inevitable, with the
disposition of the Saxons to take whatever
they could, right or wrong,to which the
Britons hoped to be able to put a check.
They met in battle at Crayford on the
Cray, near Bexley, in Kent. There Hen-
gist and his son, ^Ese, had prepared them
selves by calling in all the auxiliaries and
aid they could; while it is said, that "the
Britons mustered four powerful bodies of
men, under four of their bravest chiefs.
But when the game of war commenced
they were disheartened by the unusual su
periority of the Saxons in numbers. Be
sides the newly arrived were chosen troops,
who dreadfully gashed the bodies of the
Britons with their battle-axes and long
swords," who after a great slaughter fled to
London. The probability is that it was a
very severe battle, and great slaughter was
sustained on both sides ; for Hengist and
his Saxons remained quiet for sixteen years,
until 473, in the lower part of Kent with
out any attempted war on either side.27
37 See Turner's Aniylo-Saxons, as above, iSS- Mr Britons. See, also, I Pictorial Hist, of England. B.
Carle's Hist. Enif., 19?, and Whitakcr's Manchester, ii, ch. i, p. 134.
[Book in.
But it is probable that the Britons were
frequently engaged, in the meantime, in re
pelling the attacks of their northern ene
mies and pirates, and that some peaceable
arrangement was made with the Saxons
who kept themselves in the south-eastern
part of Kent near the sea shore. As evi
dence of the fact that the Britons had, dur
ing this peace, concluded to let the Saxons
peaceably remain there if they would ; for
it seems they were not to be expelled ex
cept by annihilation ; and it is the fact that
in the year 470. at the solicitation of the
emperor Authemius, and especially that of
their kindred, the Armorican, to aid in the
defense of Artnorica, with whom there was
always a fraternal relation, the Britons sent
an army of ij,ooomen under Uther. The
object of this expedition was to aid their
blood relation, the Cymrv of Gaul, against
an invasion by the Visigoths. This army
under Urther, who by the continental his
torians is called Riothamus,2* landed at
Havre, others say up the Loire; but in con
sequence of the Romans failing to form a
junction with them, after an engagement
they retired to Berry, a province now in
France. These Britons were from the
south part of Britain, now Devonshire and
Cornwall, remote Irom the Saxons, and
cared but little about them, and probably
relied upon the existing peace in their de
parture.
This long peace of sixteen years was at
length broken, while Urther and his twelve
thousand men were absent in Gaul, aiding
their kindred in Armorica against the bar
barians. In the meantime the Saxons in
Kent were constantly acquiring strength
by accession of friends from their old home ;
and now at a favorable time (473) Hengist
and his son, JEse, brought about another
Vol. ii, p. 28, express their opinion that Hengist
himself was confined to a small part of Kent. Tur
ner says: "But when from these hyperboles of con
quest we turn to the simple and authentic facts, that
all the battles of Hcngist, particularized by the Sax
ons, were fought in Kent, that one of the last con -
tests was even in Thanel, (the battle of \Vippidsfleet )
in the extremity of his little kingdom, and no ood
evidence is extant of his having penetrated, Lxcepl
in his first depredation, beyondthe region which he
transmitted to his posterity."
28 See Turner, lit supra. \V. \V. Jornandes, the
Gothic historian, is probably inimicable to these
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
great battle, of which we have no name or
particulars, in which, they say, they were
victorious, and "took spoils innumerable."
Fifteen years after that ,-Ese succeeded his
lather, and, says Palgrave, "the son of
Hengist appears to have been the first real
king of the country; for he, and not his
lather, Hengist, was honored as founder of
the Kentish dvnastv. When ^Ese was
fairly settled in his rich and fertile king
dom, he laid down the sword; his son and
his son's son lived equally in peaceful ob
scurity. Ethelbert, the fourth in descent
from ^'Ese, gave great splendor to the state
(A. D. 568616); but Kent soon sunk into
the condition of a dependent principality,
beneath the sway of its more powerful rivals
and neighbors.''^ During this long time,
after the great battle of Cray ford, fought
the same year of the second landing (A.
D. 457), there were only two other battles,
Wippidsfleet, (465,) an obscure battle in
the lower border of Kent, and the battle of
473. of which we know nothing of its par
ticulars. Here was a period of one hun
dred and fifty-nine years, and all after the
first sixteen were in profound peace. This
is contrary to the usual acceptation of the
Saxon conquest, which was usually con
slant war and hard fighting. This can on
ly be accounted for upon the principle that
after the battle of Cray ford there was no
national opposition to them that they
were permitted to settle down in peace, in
the southeast part of Kent, without any
strenuous opposition. It is possible that it
was little cared for, and that they were able
to make peace and friendship with most ol
the original inhabitants of Kent, who, In
the course of those six generations, became
amalgamated and assimilated to the Saxon
and making a new race differing materially
from either of the two former, and forming
a new Kentish race or family Hengist
was expert in making friends with his ene
mies, whatever might he the result. What
is very strong in favor of this proposition
is the fact that the gavel-kind tenure was
retained there as the peculiar mark of the
Kentish institution. That was not a Sax
29 Palstave's Anglo-Saxons, ch. t, p. ji.
;5
on or a Norman institution, but a Cam
brian one ; the very name is Cymric M The
Britons, in the meantime, may have been
earnestly engaged in aiding their own kin in
Armorica, and opposing their serious ene-
nies from the north; besides, in the de-
jleted state the country was in, it probably
may not have been a very easy matter to
rally the distant parts to the rescue, as for
n stance the distant people of Lancaster
and Cumberland counties, while the people
of Kent were making no strenuous exer
tion against the strangers settling down
amongst them ; and as yet it was not per
ceived or anticipated what great revolution
was commenced or going on.
It has been sometimes said, that the Sax
on success was attributed to the contention
and distraction of the Britons among them
selves. This idea is founded upon the
querulous and censorious charges ol Gil-
das, without the statement of any fact to
support it, except the just war of Arthur
against his treacherous nephew, Mordred.
Gildas, though a scholar, and probably an
eloquent preacher, was not an historian,
but a bigoted monk, who would with zeal
and eloquence censure what he did not
like in generalities, without any facts to
support them. His censures were invec
tives, without reason or justice to support
them.
2 The Saxon Immigration, and tke Times
of Ariliar. A. D. 447 to 550.
Hengist and his sons had now been con
stantly receiving accession to their popula
tion by emigrants from their original home,
for more than twenty years. But as yet
there had been no demonstration made to
take any part of Britain, except the south
eastern border of Kent. But now (A. D.
477.) twenty-eight years after the first
landing of Hengist, arrived Ella,1 a Saxon
chief, with his three sons and his people.
They came in three vessels and made good
their landing on the sea shore in the south
part of Sussex, and obtained a settlement
with no great opposition. Eight years af-
30 See the word in Webster's Dictionury.
i Turner, B. Hi, ch. li.
306 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
ter, their attempted progress to the interior Isle of Wight, and six years afterwards
was checked by a battle; and their progress (A. D. 501) he took possession of what was
along the coast was slow. Having re since known as Wessex; and the same
ceived considerable succor of their friends, year he was re-enforced by the arrival of
they ventured to attack a city in the neigh his ally Porta, with two ships and men,
borhood, which was skilfully fortified, and who effected their landing at the place
situated on the border of a woods and vast which has become Portsmouth.
forest, extending many miles to the north Fifty years had now passed since the
west, between Sussex and Hampshire. first landing of Hengist, and the invaders
The city was called Andredes Carter, and had only made scattering settlements, at
the forest Andreade. The citizens, upon considerable distances from each other,
perceiving they were to be attacked, divid- I along the sea shore, from the Isle of Than-
ed their forces into two partiesone re et to the Isle of Wight. A new generation
tained to defend the fortification and city, of Saxons had grown up, natives of British
and the other secreted in the woods. When soil, the most of whose mothers were na
the Saxons besieged the town and attempt tive Britons. This gave them a new char
ed to scale the walls, the party in the woods acter and disposition, and began to form
would attack them in the rear, and cause that which has become known as British
them to desist. This maneuver they suc and English nationality. As yet no great
cessfully perpetrated three times with efforts had he made to advance into the
great loss to the assailants; which so ex interior. But Cerdic and his companions
asperated (he Saxons, that when eventu now began to manifest their restless and
ally they succeeded in taking the place, in ambitious disposition, apparently more for
revenge for the long delay the brave de the spoils and plunder of war than for con
fense had caused them, the merciless Sax quest. For many years the Britons now-
ons put every soul to death,sparing neith hoped that the Saxons, settled along the
er man, woman nor child; such massacre south-eastern shores, would eventually be
had never before taken place.2 come settled immigrants, and countrymen
Notwithstanding constant arrivals of and friends. But too much had been done
new immigrants in vessels from the neigh to embitter both sides; and Cerdic was
borhood of the moulhof the Elbe, no great now demonstrating too much of a disposi
progress was made in the extension of their tion to conquer and oppress to hope for
territory by the invaders; and Ella's do such a result.
minion of Sussex never made any great In the meantime Ambrosius and Uthc-r
figure in the conquest. Eighteen years had distinguished themselves as able com
after the arrival of the last named adven manders in many a battle in defense ofcoun
turer, another made his appearance with try, and also against the numerous barbar
five ships. This was Cerdic, who with his ians, who were attacking and plundering on
companions became the most formidable all sides, in Armorica as well as in Britain.
enemy to the Britons. It is believed that At this time they were surrounded bv ene
his first landing was at Yarmouth on the mies on all sides;the piratical Franks and
Saxons on the east side exposed to the Ger
2 Miller's Anirlo-Sax., ch. 10, p. 74, who savs: man Ocean,the Pictsand Scots on the north,
"Even the walls worr leveled to the earth, and, for
ages after, that town stood bv the gloomy forest, bands of like plunderers from Ireland,
ruined and desolate; even until the time of 'Edward known as Gwyddyl Ffichti, invading the
I. it was pointed out to (he stranger; and though
the wild veiietaiion has thrown ^rev upon its ruins, western shores, and the Saxon immigrants
there were still traces of its iallen grandeur, which,
in the words of the old chronicler, showed how noble on the southeast. It seemed as though
a citv it had once been." People became familiar the barbarians of the whole world had
\vith death and destruction; "those who left in the
morning could not know who would stand to await united to plunder southern Britain, and
their return: neither the weepintr mother, nor the tear her to pieces. Then truly it was
sinilinif child, had, in those days, power to turn
aside the edu'e of the Saxon sword. Thus was the "blessed are they who have nothing, for
second Saxon kingdom called Sussex, established
y Ella and his three sons." Ibidem. they will not be disturbed by robbers." In
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
the midst of such conflicts and distraction,
it was difficult for the Britons to bring
their forces to operate at any given point;
every part of the countrv had its own pe
culiar enemies to contend with, and defend
against them. And there is no doubt that
the Loegrian- Britons of the northeast \\ere
less patriotic, and more inclined to yield
to the Saxon invasion, and unite with them
than the original Cvinry or Cambrians;
though originally they were one and the
same people. However much the Britons
were inclined to remain at peace with the
Saxon settlers on the south-eastern shores,
the demonstrations now making by Cerdic
and his allies for the acquisition of exten
sive territory at the expense of neighbors,
forbid all hopes on that score, and rendered
further wars inevitable.
The country now coveted bv Cerdic,
:uid which was destined to become known
as Wessex. was the native land of Am-
broMus Uther was there with his vet
eran experience, and Arthur, of future
world-renown, was on hand in his youth
ful ardor and patriotic ability to war for
the right in defense of his country. These
matters brought on a warfare of continued
battles for more than thirty years, which
the Saxons were able to keep up by con
tinued re-enforcement from their original
home.
Cerdic's operations were for a long time
confined to Hampshire, and first landed on
some unknown shore called Cerdicora, and
here, the Saxons^ say, "the people of the
neighborhood assembled in great numbers
and fought against them. The Saxons
~tood firm in order of battle before their
ships, repelling the attacks of the islanders
without pursuing them, for thev never
quit their ranks. The day was spent in
alternate att.icks and letrcats, till night
put an end to the conflict. The Britons
retired, and neither party claimed a vic
tory. Cerdic and his son. however, made
good their occupation of the hostile terri
tory, from time to time enlarging their
possessions along the coast, though not
without frequent wars with the natives."
3 See Henry of Hunt. B. ii. p. \f>.
207
This was soon followed by more import
ant and national battles between the two
races. One of these great battles (A. D.
508) is particularly distinguished, on ac
count that it was brought about by Natan-
leod,1 the king of that part of the country,
and in which he lost his life. This person
was of high renown, and of an excellent
character: and had made great preparation
for the conflict. Cerdic and his son, for
the purpose of meeting it, had obtained all
the available aid they could;from Kent,
Sussex, and from Port and his sons, the
last who had arrived. Their forces were
mustered in two wings from the center, of
which Cerdic commanded the right, and
his son Cenric the left. Nntanleod, ob
serving that his enemy's right wing was
the strongest, charged it with his whole
force for the purpose of routing at once the
most formidable part of the opposing army.
His impetuous attack in a moment over
threw the standards, pierced the ranks, and
put Cerdic to flight with great slaughter of
his right wing. Meanwhile Cenric, per
ceiving his father's defeat, and the rout of
his troops, letl the left wing against the
rear of the Britons, who were pursuing the
fugutive-. The battle was then renewed
with fresh vigor, until the King Natanleod
was slain, and the army routed, with five
thousand of his men fallen in the field.
This victory gave the Saxons a short re
spite; and its repute allured to them pow
erful auxiliaries. So says the Chronicles;
and it is very probable, that it not only
brought to them auxiliaries from the Sax
ons,'but also from the fearful, hopeless and
discontented oi the Britons; for there never
was a war in which one party did not seek
to gain an ad vantage by inducing desertion
from the opposite ranks. This must have
been the case, unless the Saxons were dif
ferent from any other people
Soon after this, was fought, among the
numerous battle^ of the dav, the one so
celebrated by the poet-, and bards of those
times, known as the battle of Lons;liorth.
The name indicates that it was where there
was a harbor for ships; and it is probable
4 Htnrv of Hunt. B. ii, p. 4f>; Turner, its iihovc,
p. Ii|[ ! Miller's Antflo-Sax. ch. x. p. 75.
20$ THE SAXON PERIOD.
it was near where Southampton now is.
This battle is described by Turner after
great examination of authoritiesSaxon as
well as British; and from him we must
take what is to be said in description of the
battle :
"In this conflict Arthur5 was the Com-
mander-in-Chief; and Gemini ab Erbin,
who was a prince of Devonshire, united
with him against the Saxons. Llywarch
Han,* in his elegy on his friend, describes
the progress of the battle. The shouts of
onset, and the fearful obscurity which fol
lowed the shock are succeeded by the ter
rible incidents which alarm humanity into
abhorrence of war. The edges of the
blades in contact, the gushing of blood, the
weapons of the heroes with gore fast drop
ping, men surrounded with horror, the
crimson gash upon the chieftain's brow,
biers with the dead and reddened men, a
tuimiltous running together, the combat
ants striving in blood to their knees, and
ravens feasting on human prey, compose
the dismal picture which this ancient bard
has transmitted to us of a battle in which
he was personally engaged.
" 'The valiant Geraint was slain, slaugh
tering his foes.' The issue of the conflict
is not precisely stated, but some ambiguous
expressions concur, with the absence of all
triumphant language, to indicate that the
Britons did not prevail ***** The
Saxon Chronicle says, that a very noble
British youth fell on that occasion, but
does not mention his name."
The poets of the day describe other bat
tles conducted by Arthur, and the historian
Nennius tells of his having fought twelve
great battles, with the Saxons and other
enemies of his country, and tells where
thev were fought; the most of which it is
now difficult to identity. But the last and
great battle of Arthur with the Saxons was
that of Badon hill, in which it appears the
Britons triumphed; but Gildas intimates
that of the numerous previous battles the
Britons and Saxons alternately conquered.
5 Turner, B. iii, ch. iii, p. 194.
6 A celebrated British poet. See Stephen^on's
Literature of the Cymry, p. 10. The word Han
me. ms old, and is pronounced haen, or hayne.
[Book nr.
This last battle is supposed to have been
tought near Bath; but its particulars, both
as to its date, location and circumstance^
are not clearly told ; but we gather the in
formation it was a terrific battle, and a
triumph rather for the Britons than for
the Saxons; for they remained perfectly
quiet for many years. It is claimed that
this battle was in A. D. 519, and that the
Saxons made no great demonstration to
encroach alter that until A. D. 55^, mak
ing thirty-three years of unusual peaceful-
ness on their par'.
In the meantime, however, many a bat
tle was fought of a partisan or local char
acter, commenced by some raid made bv
the Saxons to acquire land, property or
plunder from the Britons. Of this charac
ter was an attack made at this lime (A. D.
514) by a new bod}- of Saxon men, in three
ships, and led by Stuf and Whitgar, two
kinsmen of Cerdic, on the Isle of Wight.
The people of that island mustered what
force they could command with much skill
to oppose their landing and settlement,
which proved unsuccessful ; and this con
quest became an addition to Cerdic's do
minion of Wessex. Such isolated raids
and battles were frequent, yet fora long time
there was no general movement made bv the
Saxons who had settled on the north-east
ern shores of Britain towards the interior.
This was brought about by the exertion
made by Arthur, which culminated in the
battle of Badon. The Saxon chronicles,
which up to this time had every few years
been noticing some great battle in their fa
vor, were now silent for more than thirty
years. This peace was indicative on the
part of the Saxons that in their attempt on
the interior from the sea shore thev had
received an effectual check, which the\
were disposed to quietly enjoy; and on the
part of the Britons, a hope that thev would
be thus disposed to enjoy what they then
hrd, and in which thev had enjoyed the
possession, in some part, for more than
three-quarters of a century; and of which
they could not be dispossessed without
driving some from their native soil. It
was then probable that the Britons were
disposed to submit to this result, especially
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST. 209
among the Loegriansor southern Britons. contending to check the advance of the
This check in the progress of the Sax Saxons, who were continually renewing
ons, and lull in the affairs of Britain was their forces by fresh importation from the
unquestionably due to the effort and genius continent. Ambrosius had curbed within
of Arthur. The actual facts, and merits narrow bounds the progress of Hengist,
of Arthur, are sufficient to place him among and ^Eseand yEIla, in the east; and Uther
the renowned men and heroes of Britain had exhausted his Hie in checking the
and western Europe. But he has become vaulting ambition of Cerdic towards the
so much the favorite subject of poets and west, which was now pushed forward with
authors, that there has been added to his that energy and force as to become fright
real action so much of tradition, legend, ful to the existence of the Britons. Cerdic
fable and romance, that truth has been dis was now aided by all the force and power
guised by the ornaments of fiction. He Saxon influence could bring to bear to ad
has been made the principal author of vance their progress. Not only was he
chivalry, and the hero of the round table at aided by importation from abroad, but
which sat equality and justice. He was Kent and Sussex were now sending native
made the hero of enterprises, who, as the Saxons to assist in the conquest they
great sovereign that had brought to his hoped to accomplish. Arthur was now
subjection and rule not only all Britain, called, on the death of his father, to the
but also France, Germany, Denmark and pendragonate, and it was left to him to
Sweden, so that he was the great monarch meet and curb the westward movement of
of western Europe. The story has been Cerdic and his son, Cenric. Then trans
told in poetry and prose,in verse and pired some of those twelve great battles of
Jiistory, so that it has become fascinating Arthur, enumerated by the historian Nen-
and amusing to all classes of people, and nius, and so sublimely referred to by old
has made him the renowned hero of the Llywarch and other British poets of that
Christian world. He goes forth with a age, and which culminated in the great bat
Celtic generosity, and the embodiment of tle of Badon. It is claimed by the Britons
chivalry, with the image of the Virgin on that though that battle was one of terrific
his shield, with his celebrated sword in his slaughter on both sides, it was still a decid
hand, to vindicate justice and relieve the ed victory for them, and in support of the
oppressed. claim is the fact, that Cerdic was checked
But there is enough in the true history and for many years curbed .within his sea
of Arthur, when relieved of this accession, shore possession.
to render him a true hero and secure him In the battle of Badon, Arthur was aid
in renown. He was the son of the re ed by a body of Armoricans, sent to him
nowned Uther, who as pendragon had suc as allies by his kindred people and their
ceeded Aurelius, and was born at Tintagel king, Howell, upon his solicitation and
Castle in Cornwall. His mother was Eigra, promise to aid them in return against the
a piincess of Cambria, and on her side the barbarians who were attacking them in
celebrated scholar, divine and prelate, St. Armorica. Such reciprocal aid was al
David, was his uncle, by whom he was ed ways and continually going on between
ucated at Gurleon on the Usk. While quite these kindred people, as was done bv Cass-
young he served as an officer under his wallon in the times of the Venetians, and
father, Uther, with great distinction, which in the then very recent times bv Uther.
indicated his future greatness, in those two Arthur being satUtied as to the check and
great battlesLongborth, and that in limits thai had been put on the progress
which Natanleod (Nathan Lloyd) was of Cerdic, deemed that a favorable moment
slain. Then Uther' departed this world as to perform his promise to aid his friends,
Ambrosius had before him, each heroically the Armoricans, in return for the aid he
had received from them. He accordingly
7 Sec Turner, B. iii, ch. 3, p. 197, ;ind notes ;/, vj
and x. passed over to the continent, and was there
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
engaged in the wars against the barbarians
It is said that while there he rendered great
military service, and formed a confederacy
of Armoricans and other Gauls in an ex
pedition against the barbarians of the
north, and checking the Saxons by carry
ing the war into their own home and coun
try. The northern historian3 alludes to a
transaction of this kind, which may form
a particle of truth for the romantic account
of his great northern conquest. After an
absence of about five years he returned to
Britain, where he found his affairs in a
most distracted condition. When he left
Britain he had confided the management of
his affairs at home and with his people with
his nephew, Modred, who was an artful,
plausible and popular man, especially with
the Loegrians and the Roman party. He
had betrayed his duty to Arthur, had se
duced a portion of the people into his fa
vor, and set up his political interest against
that of his principal. But what was still
more unprincipled, it is said he had stolen
the affections of Gwenhyfar, the wife of
his distinguished uncle." His treason is
denounced by the Cymry, and his name
consigned to infamy in the triads, as "the
third arch-traitor of the Isle of Britain."
Partisans became arrayed against each
other, and these lamentable and untoward
events, made war inevitable. After various
conflicts the parties came to a final battle
at Camlan (Camelford) in Cornwall. It is
reported as a most terrific battle, in which
a great number of men were slain on both
sides, and in which botli Arthur and Mo
dred fell mortally wounded. The former
was carried by his friends to the monastery
of Avallon, Glastonbury, where he was
tenderly cared for, but nothing could save
him from death.
This unfortunate event produced among
the Britons great lamentation, and they
could not be comforted. They execrated
everything and everybody who were the
cause of it, and particularly Modred as the
special cause. It was an untoward nation
al calamity, and it is probable that it was
S S:ixo-Gr;unm:Uiciis, the historian of Dcnm.irk.
9 Turner, ut supr:i.
[Book in.
this which indviced Gildas' scurrility as to
the partisan and distracted character of the
people. But it is difficult to see how it is
to be charged to the people, any more than
that of Absolom against David or that of
Brutus against Coesar. Such unfortunate
dissensions have happened among all peo
ple; but certain it is, it is not in the mouths
of Saxons of the Heptarchy, after, their
war and treachery upon each other, to
charge it upon the Cymry. Notwithstand
ing the bitter reproaches with which Mod-
red is branded by the Cambrians, because
their favorite Arthur was slain in a war
which his treason had produced, still in
their record they admit his gentleness,
good nature, his affability and engaging
conversation, and declare that it was diffi
cult to deny him any request. B ut it is of
such material that traitors are formed : for
a patriot it requires the further qualities of
a good heart and sound principles.
The death of Arthur was long conceal
ed ; it was reported, and their great poet,
Taliesin, industrously sung that he had
withdrawn from the world to some magical
region, from whence, at a proper time, he
would return to lead the Cymry in triumph
throughout the island. "The Ancient
Britons lived and breathed in poetry," says
Thierry ;'<> but it was a poetic idea to ex
press a hope that yet some one would ap
pear, imbued with the spirit and genius of
Arthur, to redress their wrongs and re
trieve their country a conviction that
God was just, and would not permit them
to be robbed of their country and property
with impunity. But upon all occasions
and under every circumstance did the Cym
ry, as Britons, bravely and perseveringly
defend the right and maintain their free
dom ; that even after Saxons had given it
up, the Normans in the time of Henry II
'A. D. 1189) conceived it as an easy way
to conquer to convince the Cymry that
Arthur was really dead and buried. Upon
some occasion when that monarch yisited
Wales, an aged bard disclosed to him
where, in the cemetery at Glastonburv, the
grave of Arthur was to be found. The
10 The N'orm:m Conquest, B.i, p. 55.
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
king took an occasion in a very open man can be no more doubted than that of Cer-
ner, with a number of persons, among dic and Edward I. But the transaction had
whom was Giraldus Cambrensis, to resort no effect on the Cymry, for whether he
to Glastonbury to test the truth of his in was buried or not, the poetic idea remained
formation. He communicated to the abbot vivid in the hearts of brave and patriotic
and monks of the monastery the informa men.
tion he had received, and also that the body
had been buried very deep to keep it from
the Saxons,that it would be found not in
a stone tomb, but in a hollowed oak. They
dug at the designated place till they came
to a leaden cross lying under a stone,
which had this inscription, and which Gir
aldus says he saw and handled: "Hie jactl
refill/us Rex Art/nirns in iusiilit Avallo-
."" Some distance below this, a coffin Erken win, and settled east of London and
of hollow oak was found, containing bones
of an unusual size. The skull was large,
and showed the marks of ten wounds.
Nine of these had concreted into bony
mass, but one had a cleft in it, and the
opening still remained, apparently the mor
tal blow.
The bones were removed into the great
church at Glastonbury, and deposited in a
magnificent shrine, which was afterwards
placed by order of Edward I, before the
high altar. He visited there with his queen,
in 1276, and had the shrine of Arthur opened
to contemplate his remains, which they
both did with great interest, and then had
them reverently returned to the shrine.
These are the actual facts in relation to
Arthur's life, as near as they can be gather
ed from actual history, but which have
been buried up in other writings of ro
mance, stories and legends, which has in
duced those inimical to his memory to
deny his existence, and claim he was a
mere myth. But one can hardly believe
that this story about the bones is a mere
hoax to deceive and mollify the Cymry,
lor there are too manv facts to prove the
sincerity of the transaction; but however
that may be, the actual existence of Arthur
ii This Latin inscription on the leaden rross has
caused suspicion and examination) hut it was found
th;il Latin
ihat the wils corresponded
letters commonly taujrht
withinthose
the schools, ami
of Arthur's
day. If the transaction had been an imposition the
inscription would, unquestionably, have been in the
language of the CvmryCyinracg. See Turner's
Hist., ut Mipra, p. joi, n./r; also, Yvhitaker's Man
chester.
2"
$53. T/ic Establishment of Ihe Saxon Stairs
North of the Thames. A. D. 530 to 600.
During the latter part of the time just
passed over, while the Saxons in the west
were quiet, restrained from further progress
west after the battle of Badon, another
body of Saxons arrived in Britain under
north of the Thames, laying the founda
tion for the kingdom of Essex. This tide
of emigration, a few years later, brought
another body of men, who were said to
belong to the tribe called Angles, who set
tled in what is now Norfolk and Suffolk,
and established the kingdom of East An-
glia. And a few years still later came the
most formidable force that ever arrived in
Britain, since the time of the Romans,
under Ida and his twelve sons, and laid the
foundation of another kingdom, known as
Northumberland, between the Humber
and the Firth of Forth. These came in
forty ships, and consisted of Angles and
Saxons proper, and their settlement became
one of the most formidable states of the
Saxon conquest. These states were form
ed between A. D. 535 and 550; so that at
the latter date there had such partial settle
ment been formed by this Saxon fraternity
along the eastern and southern coasts of
Britain, all the way from the mouth of the
Tweed to that of the Avon. The king
dom of Northumberland was sometimes
divided into two kingdoms,that of Ber-
nicia on the north, between the Tweed and
the Tyne, and that of Deira on the south
and north of the Humber. Thus we per
ceive that until after A. D. 550, a hundred
years after the first Saxon settlement by
Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon acquisitions
were limited to the sea shore, leaving the
great body of the interior of what is now
England untouched by them. This great
body of the territory of Britain, afterwards
212 THE SAXON PERIOD.
known as Mercia, may be said to be then
bounded on the east by these Saxon states,
south by the Thames, west by the central
ridge, or the British Apennines, and north
unlimited. It included London in its
south-eastern angle. Besides North and
West Britain, this great territory was still
entirely in the possession of the Britons,
entirely under their laws and government.
All Britain was then divided up into small
local states, kingdoms and principalities,
probably corresponding with those of an
cient times, at the advent of the Romans;
and these were united in a confederacy,
with a common head as a sovereign, called
the pendragon or penteyrn. He was sov
ereign of the confederacy, and commander-
in-chief of its forces. He was frequently
a sovereign of one of the minor states,
but without regard to that, he was elect
ed to the position by a general assembly
of delegates from the several states, but
his jurisdiction and authority was confined
to matters which interested the confeder
acy, and not those which were confined
specially to the interest of a minor state.
It was an office subject to the control of
the general assembly, which might remove
him, as was done in the case of Vortigern.
He was elected on account of his supposed
abilities and fitness for the position, as for
instance, Nennius says: "Then it was that
the magnanimous Arthur, with all the
kings and military force of Britain, fought
against the Saxons. And though there
were many more nobler than himself, yet
he was twelve times chosen their com
mander, and was often conqueror." ($549.)
This undoubtedly means, that there were
others who on account of their hereditary
estates and rank in society were his super
iors, but he was elected on account of his
great abilities and fitness for the position.
Possibly that in these respects Modred
was his superior. Just what Nennius has
said of Arthur, might be said of our
Washington when first appointed.
After the Saxons have now formed and
established their several settlements and
states along the sea border, it is well, before
they move out for the acquisition of more
territory, that we should look over the
[Book nr.
whole ground and see how the affairs of
each party actually stand. It is probable
:hat it was a long time after Hengist first
made his appearance, and offered his feeble
force of a few hundred men as auxiliaries
to the British forces, before the Britons
dreamed there was danger of a conquest,
or of their being overrun by a foreign im
migration. They probably held such an
idea in contempt; and so they might, if it
had not been for the rapid and continued
re-enforcements that came to them from
Germany for about one hundred years, and
until they had at least three generations of
Saxon Britons born upon the soil. They
would say that it took all the skill and
power of the Roman empire forty-two
years of constant effort and fighting to
conquer us, and now is it to be done by
these desultory pirates? Impossible! Hen-
gist only asks for land enough for him and
his men to settle upon, and for which they
promise loyal service. Four or five years
passed before it was discovered that they
were greatly increasing in numbers, and in
creasing their demands still faster. And
when Vortimer drove and expelled them
from the land, it was not on account of the
fear of any conquest, but on account of the
outrageous impudence of their demands.
When they returned it was under the
specious garb of friendship and the propo
sition to settle down as friends And Hen-
gist and his people were confined to the
lower part of Kent, until now every Kentish
man of a Saxon origin were natives of the
soil, and many of whose mothers were na
tive Britons; and to drive them from the
land into the sea would have been such an
act of cruelty as to require the hard heart
of a Saxon pirate to accomplish.
Besides these considerations which aided
the Saxon conquest, there were others that
more essentially contributed to the same
end, in the difference of population between
the east and the west side of Britain. The
population of all Britain except the ex
treme northwest, was essentially Cymry
originating from the same ethnic family,
speaking the same language, differing only
in dialect, perhaps not so much as the
English of Lancashire differs from that Of
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
Kent. Still there was a distinctionthose
of the west were known as Cambrians, and
the east as Loegrians ; there were later im
migrants from the original family in Gaul,
and received here as friends and brethren ;
and though they were the same people, yet
the latter were looked upon as new comers.
They were much mixed, readily associated
with each other, still there was a line of
distinction between them, probably as we
now find a line of distinction between the
Pennsylvanians and the Virginians. Con
ventionally that line was found running
south with the British Apennines towards
the Isle of Wight, in the vicinity of the
Avon. The only exception to this homo-
geneousness of population, was that an
cient settlement south of the Humber,
known as the Coranians.i and that other
colony established by Probus in the neigh
borhood of Cambridge Though these had
assimilated in the long course of the many
generations of their stay, and had become
Britons, *till there was an indefinite dis
tinction that the Saxons appreciated and
courted to their advantage. These readily
coalesced with the Saxons, and who, in con
sequence of it, showed them much favor.
As the most decided opposition and hostil
ity to the Saxons came from the Cambrians,
the former showed more favor also to the
Loegrians, who in a great measure united
with the Saxons, and were swallowed up
by them as they advanced. Against that
advancement the Brilons exerted, with
great patriotism and bravery, all their
available means, but in consequence of the
numerous enemies by whom they were
sunounded on all sides, each locality being
compelled to care for themselves, it was
impossible to bring the force of the nation
to defend any particular place chosen by
the Saxons as their point of attack. Those
of the north even united with the Picts, in
making a common cause against the Brit
ons. The threatening hostilities of Ida at
the north and that of Cerdic at the south,
t Thierry, that* impartial French historian of tin;
Norman conquest, s;iys (B. i, p. 14): "The ancient
population of the Coranians, established for several
centuries south of the Ilumher, and \vhom so long" a
sojourn anymjj the Britons had not reconciled with
them, readily joined the An^ln-Saxon invaders as
Ihey formerly joined the Romans."
213
would prevent the Britons of those distant
points in uniting, while the Saxons would
increase at any desirable point by immigra
tion from abroad.2
Soon after Ida became firmly settled in
Deira, he began to extend his dominion west.
The west side of Britain from the mouth
of the Clyde to Cambria was occupied by
two larger political divisions,the northern
one called the Strath Clydey-strad-Clyde,
i. e., the valley of the Clyde, and the south
ern Cumbria, and the people were as decided
Cymry as those of Cambria itself. These
were divided, as all the rest of Britain, in
to smaller states and principalities. Among
them was that of Reged. and this was
the proper dominion of Urien, who was
the distinguished hero of that time and
was made pendragon or wledig of the
whole confederacv. After the departure of
the Romans the Cymry paid great atten
tion to literary improvements, as such
schools as those of Caerleon and Bangor,
and such scholars as Pelagius, St. David,
Gildas,Nennius, the numerotisWelsh poets,
and Asser, the friend and companion of Al
fred, prove. No less in these respects were
the northern dominions, until their course of
improvement was annihilated bv the wars
of their enemies. These countries pro
duced those great poets, Llywarch Hen,
Taliesin and Aneurin. But these matters
did not in the least restrain the destroying
hands of the Saxons. Ida soon made his
invasion upon them, and his terrific course
was witnessed by wild destruction in the
flames of burning buildings, that they de
nounced him r>y no other name than as the
Flainddwyn, the flame-bearer. But he is
met by the heroic Urien and his people,
who are celebrated bv their poets in epic
poetry ; who sung, that when their bar
barous enemy demanded hostages, replied,
"No, we will give thee no hostages;" and
2 "The twelfth battle was a most severe contest,
when Arthur penetrated to the hill of Badon," * *
* * "in all these cn^aiiemcnts the Britons were
successful." * * * "The more the Saxons were
vanquished, the more they sought for new supplies
of Saxons from Germany; so that kini^s, command
ers and military bands wci e invited over Irom almost
everv province. And this practice they continued
till the reign of Ida, who was the son of'Eoppa, he,
of the Saxon race, was the first kinLT in Bernicia,
and in Cair Ebrauc (York).1' (N'ennius 49.)
314 THE SAXON PERIOD.
Urien, the chief of the land then cried:
"Children of one race, united by one cause,
let us, having raised our standard on the
mountains, rush into the plain ; let us throw
ourselves upon the flame-man, and com
bine in the same slaughter, him, his army,
and his auxiliaries."-''
It would seem that Urien, at the head of
his patriotic northern Britons, gained sev
eral victories over the confederate Saxons
and Picts, and that the chief of the Ger
mans perished on the banks of the Clyde.'
But in the great final battle of Cottraeth,
in which a large number of noble men
wearing the golden collar were slain, the
cause of the Britons was lost.5 This fixed
the Saxons in the north, and enabled them
to unite the two states of Bcrnicia and
Deira into one kingdom of Northumbrian
Cerdic and his son Cenric afler the battle
of Badon refrained from pressing west
ward, but in the meantime, bv a considera
ble battle and much slaughter, subdued the
Isle of Wight to his command. B-ut now,
{A. D. 55J,) Arthur being dead, and Ida
having his demonstrations at the north,
Cenric, who had succeeded his father, Cer
dic, now began to manifest his intention to
take what territory he could, met the Brit
ons in battle near where Salisbury has since
been built, or perhaps at Old Sarum, where
a very severe contest was had, which, after
many lives lost on both sides, resulted in
favor of the Saxons.
That result, however, was -.ucli as to
keep Cenric quiet for another space, of
four years, when he advanced again to
meet the Britons at Banbuiv. The Brit
ons here to meet him were in considerable
number, and formed ith great military
3 Sot- Thierry, tit supra, p. i.$, who cites Taliesin;
Archaiology of \Vak-s. See, also, Turner.
4 Sec, as Above, Turner, p. m>, n. I . Thierry us
above.
; This U the subject ol the great poem of Aneurin
the (iododin.
(i I'algrave, in his Anglo-Saxon {fi. ii), says: "I. la's
dominions were intersected by IracU still intersected
and bi-lontjintr to the Hritonft, who ultimately viclded
to the in\ ailefs. In Deira the progress of the Angles
wasSaxons,
the slow; York,
.. .
(A. I).il Sq|).
*- i.
is true,andhadarchbishop
: . .
fc.-t.-n plundered"
. ." .
Sampsonby
compelled to Hike refuge in Armoric.i or rlrm.my;
hut until the accession of Klla (A. D. 55V5<n) Di:ira
Is not known to huvc been subject to any Kng'.ish
kinir. Kll:i \vannntnt the family of Ida; "both were
children of Woden."
[Book in.
skill; and "their battle array," says Henry
of Huntingdon, '-was formed in nine bat
talions, a convenient number for military
tactics.,three being posted in the van,
three in the centre, and three in the rear,
with a chosen commander to each, while
the archers and slingers and cavalry were
disposed of after the Roman order. But
the Saxons advanced to the attack in one
compact body with such fury, that the
standards being dashed together and borne
down, and the spears being broken, it be
came a hand-to-hand fight with the sword.
The battle lasted till nightfall, without
either party being able to claim the vic
tory." This description of the battle, given
by Henry, will well suffice for those of in
numerable others fought along the whole
line of the Saxon frontier, or Mark or
.V>r//, as the border limits between the
two nationalities were always called by the
Saxons, from the mouth of the Southern
Avon to that of the Tweed. Every division
of territory \vas made a battle field, which
was not to be given up without a heroic
contest for the right. For seventy years
after the last date (A. D. 552) the like bat
tles and conflict" were renewed, until thou
sands upon thousands of men were slaugh
tered, towns and houses burnt, and the
country, in many instances, rendered a
desolate waste. But still constant immi
gration came into Britain from the neigh
borhood of the Elbe, to recruit and fill up
the gaps made in the army of the Saxon
invaders. This enabled them to progress
at one point or another, and whatever they
once acquired they were thus able to hold.
It was long before Wessex was able to
extend their dominion west of the Avon;
that river long remained the limits between
the Saxons and the Cymry," as it had been
between the latter and the Loegrians.
Slonehenge and Avcburv, and the great
monuments of their ancestors, were still
within their territory and jurisdiction.
During the period we are now consider
ing two events transpired which demand
jI U1
_.... ,..:.... l,,.|ori' pMMUg
<* Belore nisviiio- tO
tn anotntr.
irmthcr- the
thf
j establishment of Morcia as a separate state
. .
or Kingdom; and next, the introduction <>t
.
7 I'algrave'< Anglo-Saxons, B. ii, p. 33.
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST. 215
Christianity among the Saxons. heterogeneous, mostly Cymry and Loe-
We have already pointed out that great grians, with many natives of a Roman
interior territory of Britain lying between descent, and many foreign adventurers.
the Cyinry on the west, and the narrow These and their descendants became En
border occupied by the Saxons on the east glish without their being aware of the
and south. This territory was almost as transition.
large as all the rest of England. It had a This central territory called Mercia, from
large population scattered through it, and the Saxon word Mark or M.irchthe
many towns and cities. Its people were boundarywas from time to time entered
more diversified in origin and character by Saxon adventurers, generally seeking to
than any other part of Southern Britain at settle among the Britons as peaceable citi
the advent of Mcngist. The larger part of zens; but at length (A. D. 585593) there
them were Loegrian* Cyinry, some the appeared among them a Saxon, who claim
Cymry proper, the Coranians, the colony ed to be a prince, and Crida bv name, and
established by Probus, some more or less like most of them desirous to obtain some
of the mixture of the Roman blood were political position. What he had been was
left here; and occasionally, in the mean uncertain ; but it is generally supposed he
time, a Saxon one after another would en was a vassal under the supremacy of
ter as a peaceful citizen, form his family Northumbria. He obtained some retain
connection and raise his ofl'spring, which ers and set up some dominion of his own.
they would think to be much more agree War and battles ensued; but the conflict
able than to be slaughtered in Saxon ser \vas peaceably settled by a treaty, that
vice in order that a Ilcngist, or a Cerdic, Crida should exercise his claim of sover
or an Ida might rule under pretense of eignty, and that the people of both, or all,
divine right. For many years this large nationalities might settle down in peace
district of England so progressed, while the all enjoying equal rights. Cricla at hi&
country remained under the old British death left his possessions, of uncertain ex
local, state and city government; and Lon tent, to his son, Pida or Wippa, who in the
don" was one of these, at its very south due course of nature in the same manner
eastern angle. London was never taken left it to his son, Penda, (A. D. 626,) a man
by the Saxons, for the reason that their of great ambition and energy, but entirely
strong walls gave them some protection, destitute of any righteous principles. He
and might, by its capacity to manufacture was of the age of, at least, fifty years when
and administer to the wants of the Saxons, he assumed the government of Mereia, and
induce them to take a tribute rather than for thirty years with uncommon activity
burn it down, as was done with many oth and vigor kept the surrounding states in
er cities. It was, long afterwards, for a continual warfare. That the prince and.
short time tributary to Essex ; but was soon people of any of the neighboring states
relieved of such annoyances, and was part were inclined to be peaceable, was sufficient
of Mercia, and finally part of Middlesex cause for him to attack them, illustrating;
without ever being robbed, plundered or by his practice, his pagan principles of
burnt by the Saxons, as many other places Woden, that man's true existence was only-
were. It possessed a large population at war, and his only acceptable destiny was
the time the Romans left, and since then the death of a soldier. At the age of eighty
manv others sought its protection as a he fell in battle with Oswy of Bernicia, in
place of safety. Its population was quite to which he rushed with the fury of a mad
man, and which his opponent could not
S Palgrave's An^lo-Saxons, ch. ii, who says: avoid by earnest prayer for peace.10
"The Britons of Loegria appear to have united
more readily to their invaders; they appeared to
have less nationality." 10 l Turner's An^lo-Sax., H. iii, ch viii, p. 244-^1
9 Paljrrave, same as above, who says: "I doubt who i:ays: "\Ve may inter from an intimation of
much whether London was ever incorporated in any Nennius that Penda first separated Mercia from the
Anglo-Saxon kingdom: and think we must viexv it kingdom of the Northern Angles, it must have been
as a weak tributary, vassal state." in subordination to the kingdom of Deira, which
216 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
4. The Introduction of'Christianity Among which they were surrounded. And as evi
the Saxons. denced also by the great schools they had
at Winchester, Cterleon, Bangor and C<er-
The Saxons who settled and established islc.
the Heptarchy in Britain were frequently It is sometimes queried why the Britons
distinguished and divided into three fami did not teach Christianity to the pagan
lies or branchesthe Jutes, Angles and Saxons. The reason why is perfectly
Saxons. But they were generally called manifest. They met in too severe a hostili
by the latter name, as the general name for ty and conflict for such a thing to be possi
all. They were known and called by the ble; and then the Saxons were too rude
Britons by no other than the general name and illiterate pagans, and the principles of
of Saxons. They were all of the same their paganism too deeply rooted in the
racethe Teutonicthe same manners, very cause and business that brought them
habits and customs, of the same religion, to Britain and kept them there. It requir
and differed only in dialect as to language. ed them first to be educated and improved
All their chiefs and leaders claimed to be by what they found and received in Kent,
the immediate descendants of their god and the long peace of a hundred and fifty
Woden, who was claimed to be the divine years which they enjoyed there, so differ
author and head of their religion; and ent from the rest of their countrymen, in
these chiefs claimed their sovereignty by order to prepare them for the change,
divine right to rule, and there was no other which was adopted but very gradually.
test of right. Their religion was unmiti These reasons, with the unjust war and
gated paganism, and so far as humanity hostilities that they brought with them up
was concerned, of the very worst stamp. on Britain, are obvious answers to the in
War and slaughter, blood and carnage quiry. But in the progress of Providence
were among the first elements of their re the great change was wrought upon them,
ligion. Their hopes of heaven and a life through the instrumentality of Pope Greg
of future reward was founded upon it. It ory, who then (about A. D. 596) occupied
was, therefore, a great boon to them, so the "Chair of St. Peter," at Rome. It is
far as humanity was concerned, to have of said that Gregory, at an early period in his
fered to them the doctrines and principles life, in going through the market on one
of Christianity. On the other hand the occasion, observed some children there, of
Britons were Christians, well taught in its great beauty and fair complexion, offered
soundest principles according to the learn in the market for sale as slaves, which in
ing of the day. Their clergy had attended duced him to inquire where they were from,
the various great Christian councils, and and was informed they were from Deira in
were well informed as to what was ortho Britain. Upon hearing the name of the
<lox doctrines of the Church. The people country, he made a play on words and said
had listened 10 the great polemic discussion in his Latin language : "De ira Dei liber-
upon the great subjects of philosophy and andi sunt,"from the wrath of God they
metaphysic involved in the doctrines o: are to be delivered. And upon making
Pclagius, as well as its theology. The\ further inquiry, he took great interest in
were a people fond of literature and its the island, and the spiritual welfare of its
cultivation, as is evident from their culture people. But these poor beautiful children
of what came to them from the ancien: whose interesting appearance was leading
Druids, as well as their own literature to so great results, who were they ? We
produced in the sixth and twelfth centuries are not exactly informedif they were of
in the midst of all the difficulties with a fair complexion they were as likely to be
the children of British Celts as Saxon Teu
formed its northern frontier." Up to the time of
Cridu. Merciii remained untouched by the Saxons in tons. If the former, then they were sell
possession of the Britons, and it is probable that he ing the children of their conquered ene
went ir.to it as an emigrant and_ colonist from Deira, mies ; but if of the latter then they were
and made a settlement in tile midst ol the Britons.
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
selling their own children, or that of their
own peoplewe are not informed which.
B ut however that may be, Gregory nev
er rested easy until he accomplished his
humane and benevolent object, of Chris
tianizing the people. Of the people he
knew little or nothing, except what he saw
and heard there in the slave market. Being
.a scholar, though of that rude and ignorant
age, he may have read Caesar and Tacitus,
about the Britons, but that was uncertain.
But, as I have already said, Britain had be
come an unknown land to Italy and the
east, in consequence of the destruction and
desolation brought upon Western Europe
by the savage barbarity, with which the
country had been desolated by the barba
rians of the north, who had overrun it.
The Roman roads had gone to decay ; the
former civilization had disappeared before
the savage ferocity of those who were
plundering and desolating the land. Ac
commodations for travelers had disappear
ed, and robbers and pirates had become so
numerous as to render it dangerous to
travel. By these means Britain had be
come a distant and an unknown land at
Rome, and it was considered dangerous to
go there. Gregory then had no knowledge
or idea that at that time there was a Chris
tian community in Britain, with their bish
ops and priests, and well organized church,
imbued with the sound, primitive doctrines
of Christianity as in any part of the world;
and >vith such scholars as Gildas, and oth
ers, who were able to read and quote
"Virgil, the Ecclesiastical Fathers, and the
Holy Scriptures of both Testaments" ; and
all this taught in their schools and prac
ticed in their churches. If Gregory had
been told all this it would have been en
tirely new to him. However, he was bent
upon the project of carrying the tidings of
great joy to the pagan and heathen ; and
for that purpose he selected Augustin and
forty other monks to accompany him, and
commissioned them on a mission to Brit
ain. They started on their journey, and
were commended by the Pope to several
persons and places on their way, invoking
their aid in their laudable and Christian
undertaking. But after proceeding some
217
considerable distance on their way, they
became so discouraged by the dangers and
difficulties uf the way, that they sent back
some of their numbers to represent matters
to Gregory, and beg of him to recall them
and excuse them from their hard and dan
gerous task.
But the Pope was not to be turned awa}-
from the great object of his hopes and as
piration. He told them that now to turn
back from their mission was a greater dis
grace and shrinking from duty, than to
have refused it in the first instance. He
commanded them in God's name to proceed,
and for Christ's sake to accomplish their
mission. They accordingly proceeded, and
after a time landed in the Isle of Thanet,
and sent a messenger to the sovereign of
Kent soliciting an interview. The king of
Kent at that time (A. D. 597) was Ethel-
bert, the fourth in succession from Hengist.
His kingdom for many }'ears had enjoyed
peace, and had made greater progress in
peaceful improvements than any of the
Saxon states. On this account, and also
that his queen, Bertha, was a Prankish
princes, who had received her education in
the Christian faith, the way appeared to be
open for the reception of these missiona
ries. Augustin's application was, there
fore, at a propitious moment, for the
conversion of these people from their es
tablished paganism to Christianity. Eth-
elbert received his proposition with a good
deal of suspicion, but the missionaries were
received by the sovereign with much favor.
The king at first excused himself on ac
count of his want of interest and attention
in his exhortations; but he received them
kindly, and gave free liberty to preach to
the people. Ethelbert soon became a list
ener, and then a convert.
In a short time the people of Kent re
ceived with favor the doctrines of Augus
tin and were generally baptized ; of which
the pope received tidings of great joy.
The king became much interested in the
new religion, and convinced not only of its
truth but of its superiority over their pa
ganism and the worship of Woden, the idol
of their ancestors. He erected a church
and endowed it w^h means to support its
218 THE SAXON PERIOD.
future clergy, which was erected on the
foundation of an ancient British church
destroyed by the pagans, and which has
since become the cathedral church of Can
terbury.
While the Christian religion was thus
prospering among the Saxons of Kent,
Augustin was desirous to have an interview
with the heads and representatives of the
church in Britain among theCymry. Ac
cordingly a conference was proposed to be
held between the Kentish and the Cymric
clergy, which was readily accepted by the
latter and which was so held A. D. 603,
at Aust on the banks of the Severn. Au
gustin, who for his success in Britain had
been created archbishop by the pope, now
appeared at this conference with his clergy
in great state, clothed with all the impor
tance and dignity conferred upon him by
the pope. He addressed the British clergy,
admonished them that they had departed in
their practices in keeping Easter and some
other' matters of equal importance from
that of the Christian church, and proposed
that they should join with him in preach
ing the gospel to the heathen. Upon con
sideration of the matter, the British clergy
declared, in spite of the admonition they
had received, that they preferred their own
tradition to the opinions of other churches.
To enforce upon them the firm belief of
his power and heavenly mission, he there,
in their presence, pretended to perform the
miracle of restoring a blind person to his
sight. Still the British clergy declared
they had no power to abrogate or alter
their ancient customs without the national
consent, and desired that another confer
ence might be held, at which their church
might be more authentically represented.
This was agreed upon, and the time and
place for its being held duly fixed. In the
meantime the Cymric clergy were greatly
perplexed as to the conduct they should
pursue and what they should do. They
resorted for advice to a nameless sage and
holy hermit, saying:"Tell us whether
i The principal objection to the practice of the
British clergy was these two: That they did not
keep Kaster on the proper day, and did not observe
the proper tonsure m trimming the hair of their
head.
[Book in,
we ought or ought not, at the bidding of
Augustin, forsake our old traditions."
The hermit answered, "Follow him if he is
a man of God." "How shall we ascertain
that?" they then asked, and were told that
they might test that by his meek and lowly
or by his stern and haughty demeanor. On
further inquiry as to the means the}- might
use to ascertain the character of Augustin,
he advised them to allow him to arrive be
fore them at the appointed place of assem
bly, so that his manner of receiving them
might sufficiently assure them either of his
pride or humility and decide at once
whether they should hear his words sub
missively or not.
At the conference there were assembled
a very large assembly of learned and dis
tinguished men, several bishops of the an
cient British church, learned monks with
their abbots, and the learned heads of their
several schools. These venerable repre
sentatives of the clergy and learned men of
Britain were more numerous than the for
eigners whom Augustin had brought with
him on this occasion ; yet he kept his seat
on their arrival, with lordly appearance of
superiority, little thinking that his doing so
insured the disappointment of his ambi
tious project, as is often the case in such
matters. Provoked by this evident preju
dice against him, Augustin made a summa
ry proposition that the British clergy
should conform with the Roman church in
keeping Easter, in the tonsure ot the
clergy, and in the administration of bap
tism; and that they should join with the
ordinary clergy of the church in preaching
the Gospel to the heathen Jutes, Angles,
and Saxons. On these conditions he offered
to tolerate all other customs ol theirs which
differed from those of his own church.
The British clergy declined all these
propositions and refused to acknowledge
the supremacy of any other church than
their own ; nor would they receive him as
their primate. They said that in the bonds
of love and charity they were all willing to
be the servants of the church of God, and
of every good Christian, and even of the
pope of Rome, helping them forward by
word and deed to be the true children of
 Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST.
God. Other obedience they disclaimed,
being governed, under their heavenly Lord,
by the bishop of Caerleon. They determ
ined to submit to neither the pretension of
the Roman church nor the usurpation of
the Saxons.
Provoked by these refusals, Augustin
threatened, that as they refused to unite as
brethren, they should be made war upon
by enemies; and since they would not
preach the word of life to the Angles, they
should suffer from that nation's deadly-
vengeance.2 The object of Augustin was
to bring the British church into the juris
diction of the church of Rome; but his
haughty and supercilious course defeated
it, and the British church continued separ
ated from the Roman church many years
longer.
Augustin's mission in Kent was attend
ed, for some time, with great success.
Ethelbert became zealous in the cause of
Christianity. The people of Kent, in the
lapse of a hundred and fifty years from the
time when the Saxons under Hengist had
settled there, had greatly improved, by
mixture with the original British inhabit
ants and adoption of their civilization.
They were, therefore, prepared to appre
ciate the superiority of Christianity over
their paganism, and their habits and cus
toms arising out of it. An ancient British
church3 in Canterbury, which had been
destroyed by the Saxons, was now rebuilt
by the king for Augustin and his proselvtes,
who had become numerous. There was an
intimate connection between the people of
Kent and those of London, who continued
to be made up of the original people there
when the Saxons first came. They con
tinued their manufactures and trade as an
independent people and retained their
habits and customs, as when they were a
part of the Roman empire. They proba
bly retained much of their Christian no
tions which they had before they became
surrounded by the Saxon population. They
2 Sec Miss June Williams' History of Wales; see say still, because ii had been equally pre-eminent in
Bede, B. ii, ch. ii: sec the eloquent account piven of the Roman times. And the great confusion conse
this transaction and that of the burning of me mon quent upon the Saxon conquest had scarcely injured
astery at Bangor, in Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. me prosperity of London, which had continued in
>, P- 3S-39-
3 Bedc, ch. xxxiii.
219
readily received Augustin and his priests,
and immediately built a church for them,
which was the beginning of the erection of
St. Paul's church in London. That city
continued to grow and extend its influence
as a manufacturing and commercial me
tropolis, so that it may be truly said, that it
is London and the people of Kent, and
those of its vicinity who have molded and
made the English people what they are.*
At that lime the king of Essex was Sabert,
a son of Ethelbert's sister, and their favor
able influence enabled Augustin to extend
his mission to the Saxons of that kingdom
with success, and to consecrate two Ro
mans as bishopsone as the bishop of
London, and the other as bishop of Roch
ester in Kent.
Augustin soon after this departed this
life; still while Ethelbert lived, who sur
vived him eleven vcars, the Christian re
ligion continued to prosper. But after his
death his son and successor, Eadbald, re
stored paganism in Kent and expelled the
Christian clergy. And the sons of Sabert
followed the example, and did the same in
Essex ; and for a while it seemed as though
Christianity was to be expelled from the
land, and that it would be again restored to
Saxon paganism.
But fortunately this unpropitious appear
ance did not last long. The tide was turn
ed by a pious fraud, perpetrated upon the
weak Eadbald, by a priest who showed him
a terrible lacerated and bleeding back, say
ing it had been done the night before by St.
Peter, because he meditated his departure
from the island. The story accorded with
the superstition and intellectual weakness
of the king, who immediately ordered the
Christian religion to be restored to the po
sition in which his father had left it. From
that time (A. D. 616) Christianity contin
ued to make its way and spread through
out Saxon Britain, but its progress was
4 Palgrave's Anglo-Saxon, ch. iii, p. 50, where he
says: "London was still noted for its opulence; its
fame was diffused far and wide, and the city was the
resort of merchants from all parts of the world. I
creasing from the times of the Romans till the pres
ent day."
32O THE SAXON PERIOD.
slow. It was adopted by Edwin, the king
of Northumbria, in 628, after muchconsid-
ation among the leading men of his people ;
and four years afterwards he prevailed up
on Eorpwald, the king of East Anglia, to
follow his example. About A. 0.640, the
Christian religion came to be pretty gener
ally adopted in Wessex, a period of very
nearly two hundred years after Hengist's
first landing in Britain, during which time
in the Saxon dominion the paganism of
Woden prevailed.
5. The Sequel of tlie Period. A. D. 576 to
626.
The fifty years that transpired previous
to A. D. 626 have in them important his
torical events besides those alreadv related ;
the commencement ol the settlement of
Mercia, and the introduction of Christiani
ty among the Saxons. At the commence
ment of this time (A. D. 576) the acquisi
tions of the Saxons were confined to quite
a limited space from the sea shore. But
the sovereigns of Wessex on the west and
those of Northumbria on the north, had
each of them had severe hostilities and
several bloody battles with the Britons,
without much extending their limits. The
time now, however, had arrived when at
both ends of this line they were prepared
and determined to make a more strenuous
effort to grasp more territory, and extend
their power. These powers were acting
independent of each other, but it had the
same effect to distract and divide the ef
forts of the Britons, as though the former
acted in concert.
In this career of conquest Wessex moved
first. In the year 577' Cuthwine and Ceaw
lin went forth to extend their dominion to
wards the Severn and the Bristol Channel.
A number of the British sovereigns had
confederated to oppose them; and these
met them in battle at Derham in Glouces
tershire, where a severe battle was had, in
which three of the British sovereigns were
slain, some of whom are the princes la
mented by Llywarch Hen in one of his
elegies. We are not informed as to the par-
l Saxon chronicle, p. 314.
[Book in.
ticulars of the battle, except that it resulted
in the capture of three noted cities, Glou
cester, Cirencester and Bath, which were
annexed to Wessex.
Seven years passes by and Ceawlin again
pursues his hostilities against the Britons
on the Severn ; and a bloody battle ensues
at Frithern. Here the Britons fought with
earnest resolution for their rights, and for
some time with great success. The broth
er of the Saxon king was slain, and his
part of their forces gave way ; But Ceaw
lin rallied his men, and after an obstinate
and bloody conflict secured a victory. The
issue here again, though long, obstinate
and doubtful, enabled the grasping king to
take a number of towns, annex more terri
tory, rob the people of a vast amount ol
property, which as booty was divided
among the conquerors. Notwithstanding
these defeats and losses, the Britons still
stood manfully in defense of their rights,
and with a patriotic perseverance deter
mined that if they were to be robbed, it
should be after a conflict. In a few years
they were again compelled to meet their
enemies upon another raid at Wanborrow,
where a terrible battle and slaughter took
place; and the Saxon chronicle says : "There
was great slaughter in this battle, and
Ceawlin was expelled." The same chron
icles records (two years afterwards, A. D.
593) "This year Ceawlin, Cwichelm and
Crida perished, and Ethelfrith succeeded
to the kingdom of the Northumbrians; he
was the son of yEthelric, and grandson of
Ida."
The end of Ceawlin thus noticed is wor-
thv of a further remark. He was one of
those men upon whom the progress of the
Saxon conquest depended; who, in the
true spirit of Wodenlsm, was ambitious,
grasping and heartless ; and was as odious
to his peaceable Saxon neighbors as to the
Britons. At that time Ethelbert was king
of Kent, whose people had long been in a
peaceable and improving condition to
wards civilization. This sovereign had
come to the throne at the youthful age of
sixteen, and inspired with ambition as the
direct descendant of Hengist, he was tempt
ed to teach the overbearing and hateful
Chap, i.] THE SAXON CONQUEST. 221
Ceawlin a lesson, which might teach mod arisen be made between them.
eration and justice. B tit the war was as Ethelbert reigned over Kent fifty-six
imprudent as it was in itself unjust. The ears,2 with less of the difficulties of war
king of Wessex soon drove his youthful nan any of the Saxon States; the only
opponent back into Kent, and was divert xception being that which he had with
ed, for the present, from making it a con :eawlin. He has the honor of being the
quest, by being tempted first to conquer jrince by whom Christianity was first in-
Sussex. In that he was successful to the roduced to the Saxons, and of continuing
great relief of Kent. he peace and progress enjoyed by the peo
Bv this time Ceawlin had fully stirred up ple of Kent after the death of Hengist and
the jealousy and hatred of his neighboring )is son ^Ese, for the period of more than
Saxon monarchs; and they were deter one hundred and fifty years, of which his
mined to curb him. They dreaded his eign was fifty-six. But an entirely differ
energy and ambition, as they did his cruel ent state of things existed at the north end
ty and injustice. It was thought prudent of the Saxon dominion. There existed the
in the fir*t place to secure sufficient force. same state of war and turmoil as had been
The most active enemy against him was experienced in Wessex, at the other ex
Coalric, his nephew, who first allied him tremity.
self with the Cymrv and had reason and The great north from Humber to the
cause enough for doing so. Ceawlin was Tweed has generally received the name of
compelled to meet this new combination Northumbria; but for a limited and uncer
of races in battle, and all his energy and tain period of time it has been divided into
conduct could not save him from a defeat ant Bernicia at the north, and Deira at the
death; while his unnatural kinsman as south. Ida, whom we have noticed in his
sumed the sovereignty of his uncle's ,vars with Urien, first took possession of
kingdom. Bernicia, and who was now succeeded by
This was the commencement of a long Ethelfrith, his grandson, who claimed all
series of war between the Saxon kings o Northumbria. Deira was first taken by
the Heptarchy, frequently carried on into Ella; but he was no sooner dead and suc
each other's dominions, with a most relent ceeded in his rights by his infant child Ed
less cruelty, which did not cease while win, than Ethelfrith took possession of the
there were two kingdoms left in the Hep whole of Northumbria, and claimed it as
tarchy. If the evils of these wars fell 01 his own. Ethelfrith at the time appeared
the sovereigns themselves we might no to be the most powerful of all the Saxon
lament its justice, but its dire consequence; monarchs ; and no one of them was bold
fell upon the innocent people, who were enough, or dared, to draw a sword in de
compelled to suffer for the ungovernable fense of the infant Edwin. The child, how
ambition and wickedness of their rulers ever, was cared for by some of the noble
In the course of these wars we frequently hearted people, and carried into Cambria,
witness civil war in its most terrible aspect and there entrusted to the care of Cadvan,
accompanied with revolting treason, th who was one of the British kings who
violation of the rights of kindred and hos were now being robbed of the patrimony
pitality, and charges of poisonings and as and the territory over which his fathers
sa.-sinations. Charges of this kind hav had for ages ruled. It is romantic to think
been made by the querulous Gildas upo that the infant son of a Saxon king should
his unfortunate countrymen, and some be compelled to flee from his own kindred
times repeated by way of comparison bj to a Briton for protection, whom his own
others. Too true it is, that such charge people were about to deprive of his coun
may be made against all nationalitiesthe try and home. Perhaps they knew then,
Greeks, Romans, Celts and Teutons, with as thev know now, that a trust of that kind
lamentable justice; but for the sake of hu
manity I would recommend that no com- 2 Henry of Huntingdon, p. 83.
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
is never betrayed by a Celt; nor that good
faith or hospitality is ever to be forfeited in
the hands of a Cymric people of Armorica,
or Britain, or Scotland, or Ireland. The
greatest guaranty that General Drucot
could give to the Empress Eugenia, that
she might rely upon his honor and fidelity,
was a pledge given upon the faith of a
Breton.
Ethelfrith had warred against the Cym-
ry and desolated more of their territory
than any of his predecessors; yet the in
fant Edwin was to be reared and educated
among them. He was cared for, though
they kne wnot whether they were cherishing
a friend, or a viper who would yet sting and
kill them. Ethelfrith was even in pursuit
of Edwin, whom he considered to stand in
the way of his holding Deira. The young
king was compelled to keep his name and
rank a secret, and even in fear that his
great enemy would be after him, and cap
ture him. In the meantime Ethelfrith was
actively engaged in the conquest of the
Northern Cymry, and the extension of his
dominion. He was a man of blood and
cruelty, and was accomplishing his object
in the most heartless manner some of the
people he reduced to slavery, and others
he would compel to pay heavy tribute. A
confederacy was formed against him by
the Cymry of the kingdom of Strath Clyde,
and those of Cumbria, uniting with the
free tribes of Scotland. This formidable
coalition encountered Ethelfrith in battle
at Dagratan A. D. 603. This became a
deadly conflict, and was fought with des-
paration on both sides. The Britons con
ducted the battle with skill and courage, in
which the brother of Ethelfrith was slain,
with all his followers. At length the
Northern Britons were compelled to give
way, and were followed with a deadly-
slaughter, from which only their king and
a few attendants escaped.3
Ethelfrith was now, in the course of vic
tory, at liberty to turn his attention towards
Edwin in Cambria; and with a view of re
claiming him and carrying on his hostili
ties against the Britons, he proceeded with
3 Turner's Anglo-Saxon, B. iii, ch. v, p. 224,
[Book in.
a large army to Chester. There he was
met by Brochwel, the prince of Powys.
which then included Cheshire, Shropshire,
and its capital cities were Pengwern
(Shrewsbury) and Chester. In the en
counter with Brochwel, he observed stand
ing at a distance a venerable body of un
armed men, and upon inquiry was In
formed that they were the monks of Bangor,
twelve hundred in number, offering pray
ers tor the success of their countrymen.
'If they are praying against us," he ex
claimed, "they are fighting against us;"
and he ordered their immediate attack, in
which they were principally destroyed.
Brochwel, appalled by their fate, wavered,
and fled with his little army. This gave
Ethelfrith a decided victory, which he pro
ceeded to improve, in his usual manner, w itli
fire and the sword. He proceeded to Old
Bangor Iscoed, there massacred the monks
and students who had not fled at his ap
proach, and demolished the city. The
walls of the noble Monastery and Univer
sity were leveled to the ground ; its large
library, the collection of ages, and the re
pository of the most precious monuments
of the literature and science of the Ancient
Britons, was consumed; and all those
magnificent buildings, with their record*
and other objects of national interest to
the Britons and mankind, were reduced to
dust. Thus, it was said, was fulfilled the
threat and prophesy of Augtistin as to
what should befall the Cymry.
This calamity aroused the Cambrians to
the utmost of their exertion, with the force
they were able to raise. Cadfan, the pro
tector of ICdwin, joined Brochwel, and they
pursued Ethelfrith in his retreat out of the
country, and succeeded in inflicting upon
him terrible defeat and disaster. ThU vic
tory against Ethelfrith of Northumberland
was gained about A. D. 610, and was fol
lowed by another in favor of the Cambri
ans, upon their own soil, against Ceohvulph
of Wessex,< who were constantly oper
ating in aid of each other. The latter
monarch, with a very large force of his
people, was ravaging the country occupied
4 Turner, B. ii, ch. v, p. 225.
Chap ii.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
by the Britons on the Severn, and had principal persons and powers constituting
actually crossed it into Cambria, proceed the subject of our history in the next chap
ing into Glamorgan. The people there, in ter.
their distress, heroically rallied in defense
of their country, and for aid and counsel CHAPTER II.
repaired to Tewdric, their former king, THE SAXOX HEPTARCHY. FROM THE AC
who had abdicated in favor of his son CESSION OF PENOA TO THE DEATH OP
Mowric, to pursue a solitary life of piety EGBERT. A. D. 6j6 TO 836.
amidst the beautiful environs of Tintcrn
Abbv. He was solicited to assume the Thus far we have been considering the
command of their military forces, in which history of the Saxon immigration and set
capacitv he had had great reputation, and tlements in Britain, and the formation of
had never sustained a defeat. The dread those settlements into separate States; the
ed Saxons were on the Wye; but the re time has now arrived when they may be
membrance of his own achievements in properly considered as having been formed,
spired him with hopes, and the welfare of and known as a confederacy under the
his son and people induced his consent name of the Saxon Heptarchy. The year
He assumed his wonted armor, conducted 6261 is stated as a convenient epoch, wlien
the tumult of the battle with his former Mercia, the last of those States, had as
skill, and drove the invaders over the Sev siimed, and was acknowledged to be
ern. A mortal wound received in the one of the confederacy; and when
midst ofhU triumph produced his death, Penda assumes the sovereignty of that
and he breathed his last on the banks of kingdom. Mercia up to this time existed
the beautiful Wve, in prayers for the res within a vast territory without any fixed
cue of his country and people from the boundary, and the extent of the state un
devastation of their savage enemies. known. It is very doubtful whether any
During the late difficulties in Cambria, Ed of those states had any fixed and acknow
win was taken for greater safety at the time, ledged boundaries, except where some na
to Redwald, king of the East Angles, who tural object made it convenient to be re
was then the Brctwaldu among the Saxon cognized as such. When Crida and his
sovereigns A. D. 616. This transferred adventurers (A. D. sS>4) assumed to govern
the war of Ethelfrith to East Anglia, and some portion of this territory, he found it
resulted in a terrible battle between these convenient and politic to acknowledge the
two Saxon people, on the banks of the Id- numerous Britons residing within it as his
del, which caused it.it is said, to flow in rightful subjects. After about twelve years
blood; in which Ethelfrith lost his life and Crida departed to his fathers, and left his
the victory, and by which Edwin was re- dominions, whatever they were, to his son
-tored to his people, as sovereign of North- Wippa, in the same condition, who, after a
umbria. This event, with the accession of reign of thirty years, left it to his son Pen-
Pendii to the sovereignty of Mercia, and da. This man was a person of extraordi
Cadwallaxt n as the pendragon of the Cym- nary loree and vigor, to be classed with
rv, brings us to a decided epoch in the pro Ceawlin of Wessex, and Ethelfrith of
gress of our history. Northumbria; men who neither feared
The time had now arrived, A. 1). 626, retribution, or regarded right or justice;
when the Saxon state- in Britain were no whatever they had the power to take, they
longer in a state of formation, but being deemed that evidence of their right to do
actually formed, and collectively known as so. They neither regarded the home or
the Saxon Heptarchy. \\'e must now, dominion of others; nor their property or
therefore, notice the Heptarchy, in our his- life itself, when it stood in the way of their
tory, as a power gradually consolidating ambition or selfish desires.
itself, until it becomes England on the one
i As to this ihite see The An^to-S;\\<m Chronicle
hand, and Cambria on the other, as the annexed to Belle's Hist., p. 317.
324 THE SAXON PERIOD.
At this time we may look upon that
portion of Britain which was formerly un
der the dominion of the Romans, south of
the northern wall from the Firth of Forth
to the Clyde, as being divided into two
dominions, that of the Saxons on the east,
and that of the Cambrians on the west.
The Saxons possessed what was known as
the Heptarchy, which included these seven
states: i. Wessex; 2. Sussex; 3. Kent;
and these three were east of the southern
Avon and south of the Thames ; those
north of the Thames were :4. Essex ; and
5. East Anglia; and north of the Humber
was, 6. Northumbria, which included Bcr-
nicia and Deira; and lastly, 7. Mercia, in
the interior with an unknown or uncertain
boundary. Then Cambria would include,
beginning on the north, these countries;
I. Strath Clyde, north of the Sol way Firth,
and west of a line drawn from the Solway
Firth to that of the Forth ; then, 2. Cum
bria, south of the Solway, west of the Cen
tral Ridge, and north of the Dee; 3. Cam
bria, west of the Severn and the Dee; and
4. Cornwall,2 which included the country
south of the Bristol Channel and west of
the Avon.
Thus Southern Britain was divided into
two great nationalities : The Saxonsthe
Teutonic race, and the Cambrian or Cym-
rythe Celtic race. The Teutons called
all people who were not themselves Welsh
Wi'lsch, or Wcalliaswhich term was
by them indiscriminately applied to all
strangers and foreigners. Even the Ital
ians were called Welsh, and the Gauls
were by them usually denominated Wehch-
er. From the time the Saxons acquired a
permanent foothold in Britain they called
all the people and territory outside of them
selves respectively Welsh and Wales; so
that whatever of Britain or the Britons
remained unsubdued to their dominion
was called by the Saxons by these names.
a Sec Palstave's Anglo-Saxons, ch. u, n. 39,
\vhere he.* says: "Part of the Bri'.ons retained jxis-
scssion of Strath Clvdc and Cambria extending; from
Alclnyd, now called Dunharton South. * * * *
Another ffreat mass of British population continued
in possession of Damnonia or Devonshire with its
dependences, Cenaw or Cornwall, which countries
the Saxons called West Walts (about A. D. 6381."
* * # * "T,astlv, the noblest ot' the Britons main
tained themselves in Cambria."
[Book in.
Thus the Ancient Britons became to be
known by a name entirely foreign to them
selves, who only acknowledged that of
Cymry, or its Latinized equivalent, Cam
brians. On the other hand, the Britons
called all the Teutonic settlers in Britain
Saxons, whether Jutes, Angles, or Saxons
proper; and that part of the island which
had been brought under their subjection
Saxondom, or Saxon dominions.
At this time all that part of the island
known as Cambria proper, and by the Ro
mans as Britannia Secunda, and then called
by the Saxons Wales, was divided into
three divisionsGwvnedd, or North
Wales ; Dehenbarth, or South Wales ; and
Powys on the East, including what is now
Shropsblre< Herefordshire and a part of
Radnorshire. Thus we find that part of
Britain under the Saxons, divided into
seven or eight kingdoms, with each a king,
and that under the Cymry divided into
about the same number, or possibly a few
more.
The Cymry, since the time of Ca?sar at
least, had been in the habit of considering
their country a confederacy, and electing
one of their prominent and most worthy
sovereigns as pendragon or Wledig; i. e.
head chief or emperor, to manage and dis
charge the duties of their national aftairs.
This had been so done for more than seven
hundred years, except when it was super-
ceded by the Roman government. This
officer, and the mode and manner of his
election, as well as his powers and duties,
had existed and so long exercised, that it
was all looked upon as constitutionally es
tablished. It had been held and exercised
by men as able and renowned as any that
Britain has ever produced. They were
elected by what was supposed to be the
general voice of the nation ; and this was
obtained by a general assembly of the rep
resentatives of the several states, which
had not onlv the power to elect him, but
also, for cause, to depose him, and elect
another. He was not an arbitrary mon
arch, but a constitutional sovereign; and
the kings of the several states were looked
upon as mere chiefs of their respective do
minions.
Chap, ii.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
The several states or kingdoms of the
Saxon Heptarchy were entirely independ
ent of each other; there was no established
confederacy or political union between
them : whatever union took place was the
result of conquest upon one another.
There was sometimes, however, acknow
ledged ainong these sovereigns a leader or
supreme king, called the Bretwalda;3 but
by what authority appointed, or what his
powers and authority constitutionally were,
are equally unknown to history. It is sup
posed that he was acknowledged to be the
Bretwalda, who, from his power and au
thority, was acknowledged to be of superi
or dignity to the rest; and whose position
by common consent was not to be ques
tioned. It passed from one king and king
dom to another without any account of an
election, and always remaining in the
hands of him who had apparently the
greatest power and dignity. All these
Saxon kings claimed and were admitted
to be descendants of Woden ; and all eal-
dermen claimed to be connected with the
same descent, before they were admitted as
such. It would seem, therefore, that the
Saxon government in Britain was an Oli
garchy, as descendants from their pagan
gods, in which the people would have but
little to do; being confined to those who
claimed to some divine right.1
Cadvan, the king of Gwynedd, who had
been the fosterer and protector of Edwin,
and who had been the pendragon during a
long reign, was now deceased and succeed
ed by his son, Cadwallawn, who was also
elected pendragon. lie was a man of great
force, energy and enterprise. He seems to
have had much intercourse with the Sax-
3 See Turner'* Anglo-Saxons, B. iii, eh. 7, p. 235,
where it is said: "Reawald ascended to the national
pre-eminence which Ella, Ceawlin and Ethelberl
had possessed under the title of the Brelwalda, and
on his death it was assumed by Edwin;" and on p.
25.2 it is said: "Perhaps ihe conjecture on this digni-
tv which would come nearest the truth, would be,
that it was the Walda or ruler of the Saxon king
doms against the Britons, while the latter maintained
their struggle for the possession o( the country. See
also Palerave ut supra, p. 63; i Pictorial History of
England, B. ii, ch. i, p. 137. As the title has no
continental origin, it is rational to conclude it was
borrowed as an affair in imitation of the pendragon,
as manv other things have been borrowed in their
institutfons from the Britons.
4 Palgrave's Anglo-Sax., p. 42 and 62.
ons in both peace and war ; and while Ed
win was under his father's protection they
were schoolmates together. He had mar
ried for his first wife Penda's sister, the
daughter of VVebba of Mercia; and for his
second wife, a princess of Wessex of the
house of Cerdic.
About ten years before this, as already
stated, Edwin, upon the death of Ethel-
frith, the tyrant who had expelled him
from his country, was restored to his peo
ple and sovereignty, and was now in the
enjoyment of great possessions and power,
and the acknowledged Bretwalda. These
men, so distinguished for their fortune and
marked for their capacity and abilities,
should have been friendly neighbors, as
well as old acquaintances; but this their
ambition and rivalry would not permit.
Protection and gratitude were forgotten,
and their fortunate prosperity and success
was only a signal for hostility and war.
Edwin* required of Cadwallawn that he
should acknowledge him as his superior
sovereign and pay tribute. This the Cvm-
ro refused to do, and asserted his rights
and independence. This resulted in a con
flict between these two sovereigns, and
dragged their respective people into a war.
The armies of the two powers met in bat
tle near Mospeth, in which Cadwallawn
was defeated, and most vigorously pursued.
Edwin succeeded to reduce to his com
mand, temporarily, the hereditary dominion
of Cadwallawn, with the isles of Anglesey
and Man; and the pendragon sought his
safety by passing over to Ireland, and from
thence to his kindred friends in Armorica.6
In the meantime Penda, who had just
e; Edwin's power at this time was very great, hut
greatly :ind extravagantly magnified by some histor
ians; thus Palgrave, p.o^savs : "Edwin's, of North -
umbria, power and authority extended over every
purl of Britain which was inhabited, either by the
Cymry or by tin- English and Saxon natives." (A.
D'. 617<>3.v) This is a very extravagant assumption
made lor Edwin by Pal grave and others. He was
acknowledged bv some of the Saxon kings as the
Bretwalda, but doubtful if acknowledged by Pcnda
of Mercia, or bv Cwichhelm of Wessex, who had
sent an emissary to assassinate him. But over the
north of Scotland, Strath Clyde, South \Valt-s and
Cc.-nwall he had no power or authority. At this
time the Pope, in an address to Edwin, he is styled
"Rex Anglorum," king of the English, not king of
BriUun. i Pictorial Eng. Hist. B. ii, ch. i, p. 135.
6 Palgravc's Anglo-Sax., ch. iii, p. 43.
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
come to the throne of Mercia, with great of the attempted assassination, was en-
vigor, was forming tor himself a distin- gaged in a war with Wessex; and Penda,
guished position among the sovereigns of! as his ally, was besieging Exeter. Cad-
the Heptarchy, and placing his country at I wallawn, after his defeat at Mospeth, hav-
the head of the states. This was done, ing fled to Ireland and after that to Anno-
without, on his part, the least regard for rica, had now landed on the north coast
the demands of peace, or the rights of oth of Britain, with a large army he had gath
ers." During these times all manner of ered up, after an absence of five years, and
violence and war, treacherv and assassina proceeded to relieve Exeter against Penda.
tion were common among these Saxon The siege was raised, and Penda routed
kings. At this time Kinigils was king of and taken prisoner by Cadwallawn. At
Wessex, anil had associated with himself the instance of Penda's sister, the wife of
his brother Kichehn. They had employed the pendragon, a reconciliation and coali
an assassin, under the pretense of a mis tion was brought about between these two
sion, to assassinate* Edwin of Northum- noted sovereigns; Penda xvas liberated and
bria. In the attempt to accomplish this swore allegiance to the pendragon, which
act the assassin, with a poisoned dagger, was religiously observed by him during
wounded Edwin and killed the man who his life. Cadwallawn and Penda now act
attempted to defend him. This wound, ed in concert. The former was embittered
and heinous attempt on his life, brought against Edwin, on account of the ingrati
upon him very serious contemplation, tude manifested in his entire forgetfulness
which with the influence of his Christian of the hospitality and protection shown
wife, may have been the means that him by Cadvan, the father of the pendra
eventually brought him over to Christiani gon, and of their association as school-fel
ty. These kings of Wessex about the lows; nor could he well forgive, under the
same time had a great battle with the two circumstances, the attack and defeat at
kings of Essex, in which the latter were Mospeth, and its consequent severity.
slain, and ol "their entire army scarcely a Cadwallawn conceived that there was neith
man effected his escape over the masses of er faith nor gratitude to be found in a Sax
the slain and the torrents of their blood."" on. He, therefore, took a vow, as solemn
Soon after this we find the two kings of as that of Hannibal against the Romans, to
Wessex engaged in a battle with Penda at wage eternal war against the faithless Sax
Cirencester on the head waters of the ons. A terrific war was now waged by
Thames. Whether this place was then with him and Penda against Edwin. This was
in Mercia or Wessex is doubtful; but that not the first time that the Cvmrv and a
made no difference with these sovereigns. portion of the Saxons had united against
It is represented that the armies on both another. A great battle was now fought
sides were powerful; each "having vowed by Cadwallawn with his Cymry and Mer
not to turn their back* to their enemies, cian allies against the Saxons at Hatfield,"
each firmly maintained its ground until in Yorkshire, (A. D. 633) in which Edwin
they were happily separated by the setting and the flower of the Saxon nobility
of the sun. In the morning, as they were fell, and which was long the subject of a
sensible that, if they renewed the conflict, national lamentation by their poets and
the destruction of both armies must ensue, historians.
they listened to moderate counsels, and The confederate armies, it is said, com
.concluded a treaty of peace."1" mitted horrible slaughter and cruelties
After this Edwin, for some cause, or per among the people who opposed or were
haps for none at all, or maybe on account obnoxious to them. It seems that the
reigning family of Northumbria were prin-
7 Sec ante, B. iii, ch. i.
S Turner's An^lo-Saxons, II. iii, ch. vii, p. jj6.
9 Hi-nrv of Huntingdon, B. ii, p. 57. II The Aniflo-Saxon ("lironii-le, p. llS, A. 6ji;
Bcde, R. ii, ch. xx, p. i<xi; i Pieiurial I list., B. ii,
to L't supra. ch. i, p. ijS.
Chap n.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
cipally extirpated, except Oswald, the
nephew of Edwin. Cadwallawn remained
at York governing Northumbria, and
Penda went into East Anglia with equal
success. But it may still be questioned,
notwithstanding this complaint of cruelty,
if it was not in accordance with the customs
and practices of the Saxon leaders and
chiefs from the time of Hengist until they
were taught better bv adversity and the hu
mane principles of Christianity. When Ed
win was restored to his government, upon
the death of Ethelfrith the Fierce, he ex
pelled from the kingdom of Northumbria
all who could set up any claim against him,
as his cousin Osric the grandson of Ella,
and Eanfried, and other sons of Ethelfrith.
These were, on the death of Edwin, restored,
and Northumbria again divided Osric to
Deira and Eanfried to Bernicia, who in the
meantime had found an asylum among the
Scots, where they had been educated as
Christians, but upon being restored to their
respective kingdoms, relapsed to paganism.
"But," says the venerable Bede,12 "soon af
ter, the king of the Britons, Cadwallawn,
slew them both, through the rightful ven
geance of Heaven." Thus it would seem
that then it would depend upon which side
such acts were committed, in order to their
being the rightful vengeance of Heaven.
There were times of terrible uncertainty as
to either facts, dates or principles. The
times were "unhappy and hateful," says
Bcde. "Hence it has been agreed, by all
who have written about those perfidious
monarchs, to abolish their memory, and as
sign that year to the reign of the following
king: Oswald, a man beloved by God."
Oswald of Bernicia was now (634) the
Saxon ruler of Northumbria, and must
soon come in conflict with Cadwallawn.
Oswald, for his day and generation, was a
very exemplary and reputable man, and, be
ing a professed Christian, he receives high
commendation from his historian, Bede.
12 B. iii, ch. I, p. 109. It is said by Henry of Hunt
ingdon, B. iii, [A. D. 635] p. 96, says that these two
princes were put to death at different times and for
different causes. Cadwallon, "Cedwall slew Osric;
for, beinjj besieged by him in a free to.wn, Cedwall
made a sudden sallv, and, taking him by surprise,
destroyed him and nis whole army." N. B.This
expression "free town," is worthy of note to the
-student.
327
Cadwallawn was energetic and fierce, hav
ing spent his whole life in war, in endeavor
ing to save his country from Saxon con
quest. Elated with success, and triumph
ant with the fame of fourteen great battles,
sixty skirmishes," he despises Oswald, and
with too eager confidence rushed into the
conflict. In a battle with his competitor, on
the banks of a rivulet of the Tine in North
umbria, he lost his life with the destruction
of his army.
Penda was now left alone to sustain the
war. He had brought Mercia to an extent
of territory and position as a kingdom,
which placed it prominently in the Heptar
chy; and was now apparently desirous to
be the acknowledged bretwalda. Oswald
had departed thi life,1* and left to Oswy
his brother the conflict with Penda. Treach-
erv and assassinations were common in
those davs among these belligerent and
blood-stained men. Oswy had become jeal
ous of Oswin, a kinsman of the lamented
Edwin, whom he had set up as prince over
Deira. He was a young man of a fine fig
ure and comely appearance, but this did not
save him from Oswy's determination to de
stroy him Oswin was probably too good
a man for his day, and desired to avoid the
conflict of arms, took refuge, and concealed
himself in the home of a nobleman whom
he had aided and set up. This obligation
to his patron did not restrain him from the
betrayal. He lead the soldiers of Oswy to
their victim, who was defended by a friend,
whose only consolation was to die with
honor in the midst of perfidious deeds, in
saving his friend and patron.
In the meantime Penda had, on various
pretexts, or perhaps on none at all, carried
war into all his neighboring statesagainst
Celwalh of Wessex, because he had repu
diated his sister, and expelled her from his
kingdom. Then he turned against Sigebert,
the son of Redwald of East Anglia, where
13 Turner's Anglo-Saxon, B. idi, ch. vii, p. 243.
14 Turner represents Oswald as extremely anxious
to avoid war with Penda, yet states his death as
having laken place in battle with Penda in Shrop
shire at Oswarlry. This places him, instead of
avoiding the war, an invader of the territory of both
Penda and the Cvmry; for Mercia was between
Northumbria and Shropshire. See, also, Palgrave's
An^lo-Saxon, ch. iv, p. 65.
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in
they had made much progress in improve clers, by the treachery of his wife.'5 Others
ment and civilization, and apparently for relieve her of this charge, by alleging that
this reason was carrying war against them, it was procured by the pagan party, because
and in a disastrous battle conquered them. Peada had become a devoted Christian. But
it is more generally attributed to the machi
But in that warlike age there was nothing
nation of the house of Oswyeither that of
that was safe from violence and wrong
Peada's wife or her mother.
neither kingdom nor property, and Penda
The Mercians submitted to the rule of
himself was soon to experience the truth of the Northumbrian monarch with reluctance
this. Oswy, though no very righteous in and detestation. They had taken care to
strument, was to be the means of freeing keep Wolthere, the heir, another son of
the country of this odious tyrant and op Penda, out of Oswy's grasp ; and ere long
pressor. At the age of eighty years he re found an opportunity of placing him at their
joiced at the chance of engaging in another head, expelling the government of Oswy
conflict and the tumult of battle. He reject and his officers, and asserting their inde
ed every negotiation for peace, and hastened pendence.
with his veterans, whom he trained to war,
and like himself delighted in scenes of blood But soon (A. D. 659) another enemy was
and carnage, to number Oswy with the five to arise in conflict with Mercia; and it would
sovereigns he had already sent to the world seem that no event, either of victory or de
to come. He rushed into the battle with feat, was to bring to the people of the Hep
tarchy lessons of peace and its prosperity,
Oswy confident of victory, but unexpected
ly the issue turned disastrously towards and that the battle was the only honorable
him. This battle (A. D. 655) was fought instrument, and war the normal condition
on the plains of Yorkshire, and at first Pen- of man. Wolfhere was soon to encounter
da, with a blind confidence, carried every an enemy in Cenwalch of Wessex. The
thing before him, until some unforseen event latter had met with some success in a recent
turned the tide, and the detestable tyrant conflict for more territory, with the Britons
was left slain upon the field, with the most of Devonshire, and this success, with the
of his principal men, and a large portion of disagreeable memory of his old scores with
his army ; many of those who escaped the Penda, induced him to think this a favora
sword met death in a disastrous retreat ble opportunity to make an attack upon
amidst the unusual floods of the rivers. Mercia, and [make Wolfhere pay for the
disgrace he had received from his father.
Thin disaster relieved the Saxons of the But the event transpired different from
Heptarchy from the wicked ambition of a what was expected, as it sometimes does.
man who was determined to conquer them, For a while Cenwalch and his army pros
and annihilated the unjust aspirations of pered, but reverses came, and the Mercians
Mercia. so far prevailed as to expel their enemies,
Penda's death relieved the Mercians for and annex a considerable portion of Wessex
a -while from a tyrant of his character, but to their own dominion.
not from war and its incidental turmoil and In A. D. 674 this hostility between Wes
wretchedness to its people. Oswy now ran sex and Mercia was repeated by ^Escuin, a
over the country and brought it to his sub nobleman descendant of Cerdic, in the ser
jection. Peada, a son of the deceased mon vice of Wessex. "He lead a powerful army,
arch, who had ruled as his father's viceroy against Wolfhere; a battle, in which mutual
over a portion of the country for some years, destruction was more conspicuous than any
and had received a daughter of Oswy as decision, ensued at Bedwin, in Wilts. It is
his -wife upon the condition of his becoming worth our while," says the moralizing his
a Christian, was now in the way of his fath. torian, "to observe how contemptible are
er-in-law; and in the spring after his father's the glorious wars andjnoble achievements
death Peada was assassinated at his Easter
festival; and, at reported by their chroni- 15 Turner, B. iii, ch. viii, p. 149.
Chap, ii.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
of the great. Both of these contending
kings, whose vanity and pomp hurled thou
sands of their fellow creatures to their
graves, scarcely survived the battle a year.
Within a few months Wolfhere died of a
natural disease, and in 676 yEscuin followed.
Kentwin is denominated his successor; and
Ethelred, the surviving son of Penda, ac
ceded to the crown of Mercia, and ravaged
Kent."'6
Such is the history of the Heptarchy
which had now been over two hundred
years in the course of formation, and such
are the interesting wars of the three great
states forming the western line along the
boundary of the country still remaining in
the possession of the Britons. These three
statesXorthumbria, Mercia and Wessex
extend from the mouth of the Tweed to that
of the Southern Avon. The continued bat
tles we have referred to of these three king
doms are only part of those which have
transpired within them during that time.
The other four kingdoms to the southeast
of these were also subjects of the same kind
of war and battles; and to relate their events
would only be repeating the same kind of
Saxon names, and account of interesting
battles distinguished for their blood and
slaughter. But that was the necessary re
sult of that pagan and savage discipline
taught and enforced by the people who fol
lowed and worshipped Woden. The three
western kingdoms continued much longer
under its influence than the four eastern
ones. The latter had been more under the
influence of the civilization they met with
in Britain, which prepared them the soon
er to receive the doctrines pf Christianity ;
and as Kent was the oldest, it was the eas
iest to accept the change, so beneficial to
themselves and to Britain.
Let us turn our attention to the people
on the other side of this line, and see what
history may record of them. It has been
our theory that the first inhabitants of the
British Islands of the Arian race, were the
Gallic or Gaelic, who were the same people
as that of Gaul, and originally came from
thence. These are frequently called the
16 Turner, as above, p.
229
Gaels, and by the Cymry, Gwyddy. Af
terwards came the Cymry, a large portion
of whom remained in Gaul. The historic
account we have of their coming, was that
they came and settled among the Gael,
peaceably and by mutual consent.'7 They
all belonged to one and the same family,
originating in those who were called by
the Greeks Cimmerians, and all classed in
a common family and known as the Celts.
When the Cymry came some of the Gaels
withdrew to the north, while others re
mained and became assimilated with the
Cymry. As the Cymry increased, the
Gaels retired to the far north and to Ire
land to the northwest highlands of Scot
land and to the south and west of Ireland.
When the Romans came, many of the
Cymry withdrew to the northeast, and
were known as the Caledonians and event
ually the Picts. These became more and
more hostile to the south, because of their
opposition to the Romans, until they v~re
the decided enemies of the South Britons.
Others of the Cymry withdrew to the
north and east of Ireland, and became
known as the Scots. This emigration from
South Britain has ever existed whenever
it was disturbed bv war or conquest.W The
principal part of the Scots eventually
passed over from Ireland to Western
Scotland, and conferred upon it their
name. These nationalities were being
formed during the whole time that the
Romans were in possession of South Brit
ain, and they were the cause of them and
their distinctive denomination. Thus
eventually the Scots, the Picts, and the
17 Thierry's Norman Conouest, p. 2; Triads,
Ynys Prydyn,n. l ; Myvvrian, Archaiology of Wales,
, 57-
18 We frequently have r.istoricul evidence of emi
gration from Brita'in to Ireland. See Richard of
Cirenccster, B. i, ch. S, 59. "The Scots emigrated
from Ireland to the Britons and Picts in Albion.
But I cannot agree with Bede, who affirms that the
Scots wtre foreigners. For according to the testi
mony of other authors, I conceive they derhed their
origin from Britain, situated at no considerable dis
tance, passed over from thence, and obtained a set
tlement in this island. It is certain that the Damnii
Voluntii, Brigantes, Cangi, and other nations, were
descendants from the Britons, and passed over thith
er after various generals had invaded their original
country. Lastly, the ancient language which re
sembles the old'British and Gallic tongues afford an
other argument, as is well known to persons skilled
in both languages." See, also, Ibid , $17.
330 THE SAXON PERIOD.
Gaels the old Albanians, met in the north
of Britain, as a people originating from the
same source,as brethren from the same
family, and friends; and eventually formed
one nationalitythe Scots of Scotland.
The great hostility with these people were
ever their opposition to the conquering and
oppressive Roman. Soon after the Ro
mans withdrew from the island, and es-
pecially when they became Christians,
these hostilities to the south ceased.
About the time that the Romans departed
from Britain, St. Patrick, the great apostle
of the Irish and the Scots of Ireland, carried
Christianity with extraordinary success to
that people; and soon after that the same
was done by St. Columbia, in carrying
Christianity to the Scots and Picts of Scot
land.is Columbia fixed his headquarters in
the Isle of lona on the western coast of
Scotland, near the eastern shore of the larger
island of Mull, where arose a celebrated
monastery, distinguished for religion and
learning, and which became the holy sanctu
ary of Christianity to the North Britons.
This success of Christianity under these
holy men at once ameliorated the character
and disposition of those people, which will
account, in part, for their declining hostility
in subsequent years against the Southern
Britons, until it was revived as hostilities
against the pagan Saxons.
The people of Scotlandbrave, hardv
and intelligenthave the honor of having
successfully resisted everv attempt to con
quer them, either by the Romans, Saxons or
Southern Britons, and this under whatever
name may have been given themcither
Albanians, Caledonians, or Scots; and may
possibly be admitted to be the only people
who have never been conquered, or have
had any other people rule over them, but
themselves, except where an union was
formed bv mutual consent.
At the period we are now in our history,
the kingdom of Strath Clyde, which in
cluded the whole vallev of the Clyde, was
in a flourishing condition and had been so
19 Sec Six Old Knjjli^h ChronicU-s in Bohn's Li
brary, pp. 401), 4*0; Ni-nniu.-, S;'1: llcnrv of Hunting
don, B. iii, p. (>S; sec, also. Thierry's Norman Con
quest, B. i, p. j6.
[Book in.
for manv years. It was included within the
great Cymric confederacy under the illus
trious Arthur, which embraced all the west
part of the island from the English channel
to the Highlands of Scotland at least, and
tradition makes Strath Clyde illustrious by
the exploits and doings of Arthur there.
The capital of this kingdom was the town
of Alcluyd, since called Dumbarton, situated
on an insulated and precipitous rock at the
mouth of the Clyde, being a natural fortress
of itself.
West of the assumed dividing line between
the Saxons and the Cymry the island was
divided by natural boundaries into tour sep
arate and distinct territories, being each a
distinct lobe of the island, or peninsular pro
jection ; each a separate state, but frequent
ly, if not always, under one confederacy,
and inhabited by one racethe Cymry. Of
these four territories the first on the north
was that of Strath Clyde, extending from
the Firth of the Clyde to that of the Sol-
way; then Cumbria, extending from the
Sol way to the estuary of the Dee; then
Cambria, as called by the Latins, Wales by
the Saxons, and Cyinru by the people them
selves, which included all west of the Dee .
and the Severn ; and lastly the peninsula of
Cornwall, including all south of the Bristol
channel and west of the two Avons, and
this by the Cymry was called Cernyw.
At the death of Penda (A. D. 655) this
division of Southern Britain between the
Saxons on the east and the Cymry on the
west, would appear to be pretty much fixed.
It would seem that the Saxon Heptarchy,
thus far, had cost a continual war and battle
for a period of two hundred years from the
final invasion of Hengist, in its establish
ment. But now this line between the two
nationalities remained witiiout anv perma
nent alteration for a period of a hundred
years, to the time of the accession of Offa.
Whatever hostilities took place in the mean
time between them, partook more of the
character of a raid than a conquest. But
war and bloodshed were the normal condi
tion of the Saxons, and when that did not
exist with their neighbors it generally exist
ed between themselves. It was a part of
their Woden ivligion, and it took Christiani
Chap, n.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
ty and civilization a long time to reform and
cure its teachings. But this was gradually
accomplished.
Alter the death of Cadwallawn his son,
Cadwaladyr, succeeded to his hereditary
state, Gwynedd ; was afterwards elected, by
the general assembly, to the pendragonate ;
and it is said that he was the last native
British sovereign elected to the dignity of
king of all Britain, (Brenhin Prydain Oil).
At this time there was a singular subor
dinate state and nationality existing on the
border between the Saxons and Cambrians,
of which Worcester was its center and capi
tal, occupying both sides of the Severn but
principally on the east. This state was
called by the Saxons Hwiccas, or The Wic-
cii, and was considered as subordinate to
Mercia. In a great measure it was treated
as an independent state, but subject to the
sovereignty of Mercia. It was then made
into a separate diocese, when Mercia became
organized under the Christian church.
These people were originally a powerful
tribe of Britons (Ingantes) who were subju
gated by another tribe of Cymry, the Or-
dovices from Salop and North VVales, who
were called Wiccii. This should be noted
as another instance of the preservation of
the Ancient Britons among the Saxons.
The precise date of Cadwaladyr's election
to the pendragonate is uncertain, and when
compared with various dates stated in his
tory in connection with the subject, it be
comes very conflicting and distracting. To
take that which is the most probable, A. D.
660 is selected. But then, if his father Cad-
wallawn,2o was killed in the great battle with
Oswald in 634, why the interregnum of
twenty-six years between the death of the
father and the election of the son? It is
difficult to answer; but some of the British
historians state that he survived that battle,
and withdrew from active life to London,
where he died at the age of seventy-four,
about the time that his son was elected.
This would render the matter consistent
with itself ; but which is the true version of
the conflicting statements is uncertain. Then
again it is stated by some ot these historians
20 I Turner's History Anglo-Saxons, B. iii, ch. S,
254, ;mc! n. T ; Becle, 64, p. ^15.
that Cadwaladyr after acommemlaMc reign
of four years, became discouraged by the
great calamity ot his people, produced by a
terrible pestilence which afflicted the whole
of Britain and Ireland in 664, ho emigrated
with many others to their friends in Ameri
ca, where they were very ho-pitably re
ceived, and in 686 went to Rome, where he
died in 703. Others say he die.! o,' the pes
tilence before the emigration ;o k place.
However these conflicting statements may
be, it is true that Cadwaladyr was 'lie last
sovereign elected to the pendragonate and
paramount sovereign over the kings of
Cambria. It is equally true that his mother
the wife and queen of his father, Cadwal
lawnwas the sister of Penda, and that his
own daughter was the wife and queen of
Cenbert, king of Wessex ; and the father
and mother of Cadwalla, who also became
the king of Wessex. So that between the
royal families of Wessex and Cambria there
was an intimate connection. But in those
days of war and hostilities such relation
made no difference. In those Saxon times
war between brothers, and other near rela
tions, was no uncommon event.
Although hostilities and war were fre
quent between the Cymry and the Saxons,
if not almost constant, and the encroach
ment of the latter progressing, yet no great
change of the boundary of territory between
them took place during these times until the
coming of Offa. Frequent raids were
made and battles fought, yet soon parties
were restored to their former position'..
After Cadwaladvr's death Alan, the king
of Brittany, and his near relation, sent his
son Ivor, and his nephew Inor, witii a pow
erful fleet and armv to regain the territory
recently taken from Cadwaladyr in Devon
and Somerset. Ivor at first was successful,
and drove the Saxons to their former posi
tion ; but Centwin, collecting the whole
force of Wessex and his allies, was soon
able to drive Ivor back to the sea; and
again the Cymry were disappointed in their
rights and hopes, while the wrongas is of
ten the casewas becoming a success. But
this success was soon checked by Rodri
Maelwynawe, who had assumed the para
mount sovereignty of Cambria on the de
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
parture of Ivor; and the peninsula of Corn
wall was again put into its former position.
In the meantime Egfrid, the king of
Northumbrla (A. D. 684), was giving the
Celtic race trouble at the north end of the
line which separated them from the Saxons.
He was among those who delighted in war
and in constant contention with his neigh
bors. When not fully engaged in war with
the Scots, he must have it with the people
of his own race. Bede and Huntingdon
give us numerous instances of this kind, and
one of Egfrid is now at hand. In 679 lla
great battle was fought between him and
Ethelred, king of the Mercians, near the
river Trent, and Alfwin, the brother of king
Egfrid, was slaina youth about eighteen
years of age, and much beloved by both
provincials, for king Ethelred had married
his sister Osthritha." Great fears were en
tertained that another battle would ensue;
but by the Christian interference of bishop
Theodore, it was prevented; so "no man
was put to death, but only the usual mulct
paid to the king for his brother that had
been killed."2i
We arc also informed that about the same
time this same Ethelred, having nothing
better to call his attention, "ravaged Kent
with a powerful army, and profaned churches
and monasteries without, regard to religion
or the fear of Godhe among the rest de
stroyed the city of Rochester; and, having
overrun the whole of Kent, returned with
an enormous booty."22 And in 6S6, Cead-
wall (Cadwalla) became king of Wessex, on
the death of Ccntwin. Ccadwall and his
brother, Mul, who was a man of courteous
and pleading manners, of prodigious strength
and of noble aspect, so that he was general
ly esteemed, and his renown was great,
made "an irruption into the province of
Kent for the sake of exhibiting their prow-
They met
with no opposition in their invasion of Kent,
and plundered the whole kingdom. For
Lothaire, the enterprising king of Kent, had
been wounded in a battle with the East
Saxons, against whom he had marched in
21 Bede's Eccle. Hi**!., B. iv, ch. 21.
22 Henry of Huntingdon, B. ii, [A. D. fr;s}; Bede's iv, p. 114. "He failed to be dissuaded irom invading
Hist., B. iv, ch. u.
[Book in.
concert with Edric, son of Egbert, and so
severe were his wounds that he died in the
hands of those who endeavored to heal
them."23 Instances of this love of war and
freedom to plunder, in those days, among
the Anglo-Saxon kings are unlimited ; and
this was then tolerated in spite of the re
straint of the Christian religion, which had
then been professed in the country for
about a century; so deeply had the princi
ples of Woden been inculcated and tolerated
in the minds of the people.
This Egfrid of North umbria had had
numerous conflicts and battles with the
Scots of Strath Clyde, and was desirous of
inaugurating a war against them upon a
broader field, and against the whole race.
He therefore sent an army into Ireland un
der his general Beorht, who in a most mis
erable manner wasted the country, and
heartlessly misused the people, despoiling
their propertv and sparing neither churches
nor monasteries. And this was so cruelly
done, although as Bede says, "that harmless
nation had alwavs been most friendly to the
English." In those davs friendship and in
nocence had no regard or protection against
such cruel outrages and injustice. The Irish
people did all in their power to resist and re
pel the invasion, and implored the assist
ance of Divine mercy for relief and ven
geance against their cruel and unjust op
pressors in vain.
The next year (A. D. 685) this same king
led a large army to ravage the province of
the Britons of Strath Clyde, much against
the advice of his best and most judicious
friends. When he came into the country
of his hostilities, his enemies made a feint
a show as though they fied, and he was
drawn into an ambuscade in the midst of
inextricable defiles of the mountains, where
he and the greater part of his army were
slain. "Having refused," says the venera
ble Bede, "to listen to the most reverend
father, Egbert, advising him not to attack
the Scots, who had done him no harm, it
was laid upon him as a punishment for his
sins. "2' This defeat of Egfrid had a very
23 Henry of Hunt. B. iv, [A. D. 6S6].
24 Bede, B. iv, ch. 26, p. 32p; Hcnrv of Hunt., B.
the Irish, who had done him no wrong;."
Chap, ii.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
material effect upon the future of Britain ;
for, as it is said by Bede, "from that time
the hopes and strength of the English
Crown began to waver and retrograde," and
at the same time enabled the people of
Strath Clyde and the Scots and Picts of
their neighborhood to unite in forming that
confederacy which was the foundation of
that glorious stateour modern Scotland.
After the death of Egfrid the Northum
brian throne came into the possession of
Alfred, a prince of a very different charac
ter from the other Saxon princes of his
day of the race of Woden. He must be
distinguished from his name-sake, Alfred
the Great, king of Wessex, though a prince
of very much of his character and merits.
He was the son of Oswy and an older
brother of Egfrid, yet the nobility, under
the allegation of the illegitimacy of his
birth, had been deprived of all share in the
government. He was a scholar and fond
of study, and his opposition and adversitv
afforded him an opportunity to improve
himself by study and reflection, and for
that purpose had spent much of his life in
monastic austerity. When, therefore, he
came to the government, he was well pre
pared by discipline and adversitv to be of
real service to his people, whose interest
and welfare were greatly promoted, and the
country improved, in a manner so different
from the example of other states around
him, that he became the noted ruler for his
day. War and oppression ceased to be
considered the object of government and
of laudable ambition. No hostilities were
carried on against neighboring states; but
his own was improved and exalted, and his
people led to appreciate the advantage of
peace and its prosperity. A very different
state of things were realized by the people
of Mercia, during those times, whose prin
ciples and actions appeared to be governed
by those of the children of Woden. In the
midst of these general wars and conflicts,
Kent appears to enjoy the greatest amount
of peace and prosperity; and as the people
there were the first of the Saxon race who
came to Britain, so they seem to be the
first to appreciate the advantage of the
fruits of peace and civilization which they
a 33
found there.
Although Kent was frequently afflicted
by wars brought upon her by the surround
ing states, yet she frequently enjoyed long
periods of peace : first, in the reign of Eth-
elbert, who reigned fifty-six years, almost
wholly in profound peace, except, at the
very first of it, he learned, by its reverses,
the folly of war; and then again (A. D.
692725), Witherd, king of Kent, "freed
his nation by his zeal and piety from for
eign invasion," and "held the kingdom
thirtv-two years in honor and peace."
When Ina of Wessex marched against
Kent with a large and formidable army to
obtain satisfaction for the slaughter and
burning of his kinsman, Moll, Witherd
met him with persuasive eloquence, and
prevailed on the incensed king to lay aside
his arms and receive from the people of
Kent a large sum of money as a compen
sation for the murder of the young prince.
"Thus the controversy was ended, and the
peace now concluded was lasting; and
thenceforth the king of Kent had a tran
quil reign."25 For that day, and people,
this was an extraordinary instance of the
preservation of peace, and demonstrates
the blessing received by the people of Kent
by the introduction of civilization and
Christianity.
The peaceful days thus enjoyed by Kent,
and those by Northumbria under Alfred,
were merely a few days of sunshine in the
midst of a whole season of tempestuous
and terrific weather. As a specimen of
the history of those times, we abstract the
following from Henry of Huntingdon, as
the history of forty years (A. D. 715 755),
keeping Ethelbald of Mercia a central fig
ure in the midst of similar events and
transactions over the whole Heptarchy ;
and to repeat the whole would only give
additional Saxon names and similar cruel
and terrific battles, with little or no addi
tional interest, unless it was to add another
lesson to the cruelty, wickedness and folly
of the times :
"There was a battle between Ina, in the
twenty-sixth year of his reign, and Ceol
25 Henry of Hunt.. B. iv, pp. 117, 120.
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
red, king of Mercia, the son of Ethelred,
near Wonebirih [Woden's town or Wan-
borough, on the Wiltshire downs], where
the slaughter was so great on both sides
that it was difficult to say who sustained
the severest loss. The year following the
same Ceolred, king of Mercia, departed
this life, and was buried at Litchfield. He
was succeeded in the kingdom of Mercia
by Ethelbald, a brave and active prince,
who reigned victoriously forty-one years."26
This period expired just before the acces
sion to the throne of Mercia of that mon
ster, Offa, the fit historical companion of
such princes as Ethelfrith of Northumber
land, Sigebert, a most cruel, tyrannical and
wicked king of Wessex, and Penda the
strong of Mercia. These men made war,
oppression and cruelty the common events
of their day, and the lives and happiness of
the people who happened to be brought un
der their rule were of no more consequence
to them than that of the brute. But
men of this character were common among
the kings of the Heptarchy.
"Ina, the powerful and prosperous king
of Wessex, resigned his crown to Ethel-
ward,27 his kinsman, and went to Rome.
In the first year Ethelward fought a battle
with Oswald, a young prince of royal blood,
who aspired to the crown. But the follow
ers of the young prince being outnumber
ed by the royal troops, though for some
time he stoutly bore the brunt of the battle
and resisted to the utmost, he was com
pelled to flee, abandoning his pretensions
to the crown. Ethelward was, therefore,
firmly established on the throne. He was
distinguished by his great qualities above
all the contemporary kings and resolved
to reduce all the provinces of England, as
far as the river H umber, with their respec
tive kings, which he accomplished." This
last assertion of Henry is a great mistake,
for Ethelbald of Mercia, during all that
time, held iarge dominions most success
fully between him and the Humber.
"Ethelbald,2* the haughty king of the
Mercians, a prince of a different character
26 Henry of Hunt, B. iv, p. 119, [A. D. 715].
27 Ibidem, p. 121, [A. D. 728].
28 Henry of Hunt., p. 128, [A. D. 737].
[Book-ill.
in this royal fellowship, despised holiness,
and setting might above right, invaded
Northumbria, where, meeting with no re
sistance, he swept away as much booty as
he could transport with him to his own
country."
"King Ethelward, of Wessex, died* in
the fourteenth year of his reign, and Cuth
red, his kinsman, who succeeded him,
reigned over Wessex sixteen years. Mean
while the proud king Ethelbald continually
harrassed him,sometimes by insurrec
tions, sometimes by wars. Fortune was
changeable; the events of hostilities were,
with various results, now favorable to the
one, then to the other. At one time peace
was declared between them ; but it lasted
but a short interval, when war broke out
afresh. In the fourth year of his reign
Cuthred joined his forces with those of
Ethelbald, king of Mercia, with whom he
was then at peace, against the Britons who
were assembled in immense numbers.
But these warlike kings, with their splen
did army, falling on the enemy's ranks on
different points, in a sort of rivalry and
contest which should be foremost, the
Britons, unable to sustain the brunt of such
an attack, betook themselves to flight, of
fering their backs to the swords of the en
emy and the spoils to those who pursued
them. The victorious kings, returning to
their own states, were received with
triumphant rejoicings."
"In the ninth year of Cuthred, Klnric,
his son, was slain, a brave warrior and bold
hunter, tender in age but strong in arms,
little in years but great in prowess ; who,
while he was following up his successes,
trusting too much to the fortunes of war,
fell in a mutiny of his soldiers, suffering
the punishment of his impatient temper.
The same year died Eadbert, king of the
Kentish men, who wore the diadem twenty-
two years."
In the eleventh year of his reign, Cuth
red fought against Ethelhun,3 a proud
chief, who fomented a rebellion against his
sovereign, and although he was vastly in
ferior to his lord in number of troops, he
29 Ibid., p. 128, [A. D. 741].
30 Henry of Hunt., B. iv., p. 129, [A. D. 750].
Chap, n.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY.
held the field against him for a long time
with a most obstinate resistance, his ex
ceeding caution supplying the deficiency of
his force. But when victory had well nigh
crowned his enterprise, a severe wound,
the just judgment of his traitorous inten
tions, caused the royal cause to triumph."
"Cuthred, in the thirteenth year of his
reign, being unable to submit any longer to
the insolent exactions and the arrogance of
king Ethelbald, and preferring liberty to
the hope of life, encountered him at Here
ford with bannered legions. He was at
tended by Ethelhun, the aforesaid chief,
with whom he was now reconciled, and
supported by his valor and counsels, he
was able to try the chances of war. On
the other side Ethelbald, who was the king
of kings, had in his army the Kentish men,
the East Saxons, and the Angles, with a
numerous host. The armies being drawn
up in battle array, and, rushing forward,
having nearly met, Ethelhun, who led the
West Saxons, bearing the royal standard, a
golden dragon, transfixed the standard
bearer of the enemy. Upon this a shout
arose, and the followers of Cuthred being
much encouraged, the battle was joined
on both sides. Then the thunder of war,
the clash of arms, the clang of blows, and
the cries of the wounded, resounded terri
bly, and a desperate and most decisive bat
tle began, according to the issue of which
either the men of Wessex or the men of
Mercia would lor many generations be sub
ject to the victors." * * * "There was
no thought of flight, confidence in victory
was equal on both sides. The arrogance of
their pride sustained the Mercians, the fear
of slavery kindled the courage of the men
of Wessex. But wherever the chief be
fore mentioned fell on the enemy's ranks,
there he cleared a way before him, his tre
mendous battle-axe cleaving, swift as light
ning, both arms and limbs. On the other
hand, wherever the brave king Ethelbald
turned the enemy were slaughtered, for his
invincible sword rent armor as if it were a
vestment, and bones as if they were flesh.
When, therefore, it happened that the king
and chief met each other, ** each gathering
themselves up, in turn struck furious blows,
235
the one against the other. But Ethelbald's
wonted confidence failed him, and he was
the first to flee, while his troops continued
to fight. Nor from that day to the day of
his death was anything prosperous permit
ted by Divine Providence to happen to
him. Indeed, four years afterwards, in an
other battle at Secandune, in which the
carnage was wonderful, disdaining to flee,
he was slain on the field, and was buried at
Ripon. So this very powerful king paid
the penalty of his inordinate pride, after a
reign of forty-one years. From that time
the kingdom of Wessex was firmly estab
lished, and ceased not continually to grow
prominent."
"In the fourteenth year of his reign,
Cuthred fought against the Britons, who,
being unable to withstand the conqueror of
king Ethelbald, soon took to flight and
justly suffered a severe defeat without any
loss to their enemy. The year following,
Cuthred, this great and powerful king, after
a prosperous and victorious career, ended
his glory in death. Sigebert, a kinsman,
succeeded him on the throne ; but he held
it only for a short time. For his pride and
arrogance on account of the successes of
his predecessor became intolerable even to
his friends. But when he evil-entreated
his people in every way, perverting the
laws for his own advantage or evading
them for his own purposes, Cumbra, the
noblest of his ministers, at the entreaty of
the whole people, made their complaints
known to the inhuman king, counseling
him to rule his subjects with greater lenien
cy, and abating his cruelty, to be more
amiable in the sight of God and man. For
this counsel the king most unrighteously
put him to death; and, becoming still more
inhuman and insupportable, his tyranny
increased. In the beginning of the second
year of his reign, when his pride and wick
edness appeared incorrigible, the nobles
and people of the whole kingdom assem
bled, and after a careful deliberation, he
was by unanimous consent expelled from
the throne. Cynewulf, an illustrious youth
of the royal race, was elected king. Upon
which, Sigebert, driven from his states, and
fearing no less than he deserved, fled into
336 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
the1 great woods called Andredeswald, to the crown, it is said, by violence and
where he concealed himself. There a blood, and during a long reign of thirty-
swineherd of Cumbra, the ealderman, nine years he sustained that character. He
whom he had iniquitously put to death, was inordinately ambitious to bring all
found the king lying in concealment, and, South Britain under his control, and for
recognizing him, slew him on the spot in that purpose carried war into all the ad
revenge for his master's death."3! joining states, with a cruel and unrelenting
"In the first year of king Cynewulf, hand.
Beornred succeeded Ethelbald in the king The people of Kent, from their long res
dom of Mercla, but his reign was short. idence in Britain and mixture with the
For Offa dethroned him the same year, and Britons, had become the most peaceable
fillc-d the throne of Mercia thirty-nine and civilized people of the country, and
years. He was a youth of the noblest ex were the first to experience his attacks of
traction," whose lineage is deduced from injustice and oppression. In 773 he fought
Woden. against the men of Kent, at Ottanford in
I hope the reader may kindly receive Kent, a great battle, in which, after a dread
these extracts from Henry of Huntingdon, ful slaughter on both sides, he gained the
which covers fortj years of the English victory. Soon afterwards he had a conflict
history of those Saxon times, for nothing with Cynewulf, the king of Wessex, at
could be given, original or otherwise, which Benson, Oxfordshire, where Offa worsted
could so characteristically delineate those the king of Wessex, compelled him' to
times and the condition of the people,the evacuate the town and took the castle. The
continual wars and slaughter of the people, historian of the times says: "Offa proved
the habit of the kings of one part of the a most warlike king, for he was victorious
country, whenever it suited his notion or in successive battles over the men of Kent,
was, thought desirable for his renown or and the men of Wessex, and the North
enterprise, to make war upon another part umbrians. He was also a very religious
of the country without anv other cause* man, for he translated the bones of St. Al-
with fire and sword, desolating the whole ban to the monastery which he had built
and carrying off everything valuable as and endowed with many gifts. He also
spoils and booty, leaving the people, who granted to the successor of St. Peter, the
were not wantonly slaughtered, to suffer in Roman Pontiff, a fixed tax for every house
want and wretchedness. The history of in his kingdom forever."** It is well that
these forty years thus given by Henry, un such a man should be religious, for at an
der circumstances which would warrant a other time it is said he gave orders that St.
fair delineation, may be accepted as a fair Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, should
history of any other forty years as to its be beheaded.
wars, crimes and wretchedness, in the But of the wars carried on by Offa, the
course of more than four hundred years most noted and terrific was that against the
from Hengist to Alfred the Great; and Britons of Cambria, and by which he ac
this saves us the trouble of repeating many quired the appellation of "Offa the Terri
names and terrific battles and desolation of ble." Offa and his people coveted the fair
the country. and fertile lands of Powys, being the west
The accession of Offa to the crown of side of the valley of the Severn, from the
Mercia is an important event in the history estuary of the Dee to the Wye, and in
of the Heptarchy. He was a man of great cluding the beautiful country of the Mel-
force and energy, unscrupulous and daring. vern hills. This was the birth place of
He was well qualified to act with such men Caractacus and his brave Silures. Into
as Ethelfrith, Penda and Egfrid, and a this country Offa poured his Mercians and
true representative of Woden. He came their allies. Subjugation was the inevita
Henry of HimL, B. iv., p. 131, [A. D. 753]. 32 Henry of Hunt., B. iv, p. 133, [A. D. 755).
Chap, ii.] THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. 237
ble consequence; while the West Saxons captured country. Offa the Terrible, as he
were constantly attacking the Britons on vas called, with adequate force marched
both sides ot" the Bristol Channel, and thus igainst them to retake his lost ground and
dividing their efforts for defense. On the ake vengeance against the Cymry for de-
death of Rodri Maelwynwg, in the year ending what was their own. He inflicted
755, he left his dominions to his son, Cy- death upon all who fell into his hands
nan Tindaethwy. The reign of Cynan whom he suspected to be opposed to his
was one of incessant war against the in )ossession. In detail he retook his fortifi
vading Saxons. He now rallied his coun cations along his established line, but with
trymen in a brave and patriotic effort, to great opposition and resistance. At length
reclaim Powys from the clutches of the the Cambrians determined to meet their
rapacious Offa. With these he rushed with enemy in a great battle in defense of their
mortal strength to recover the territory, indent lands which they so well loved,
which now had been left by Offa and a though their forces were inadequate to
large part of his military strength; and meet in equal numbers with those that
drove out the intrusive occupants, and re Mercia could muster and bring into the
instated the former native proprietors. field. A memorable battle accordingly
Cynan's success in recovering his fair land, took place at Rhuddlan, resulting in a ter
might have been successful in holding it rible and bloody conflict. In it Caradoc,
as his birth-right, if his antagonist had king of Gwinnedd, was slain, with the
been anv other person than Offa and his nower of the British youth and nobility.
power. But that sovereign, commanding The British bards mourned this event by
the resources of the best part of England a poetic lament, entitled Afon-a RlntiWhin,
with the experience of a successful warrior, the strains of which is often heard upon
mustered as in a common cause the forces the harp in Wales. "We may yet listen,"
of several Anglo-Saxon states, and march savs Palgrave, "to the rich and plaintive
ed with an invincible force into the contest melody which, to us Saxons, commemor
ed territory; which the Cymry were com ates the victory of the Mercian Offa."33
pelled to abandon and flee to their strong From this time this part of Cambria be
holds in the midst of the mountains, and came permanently part of Mercia and af
there wait for a favorable moment to at terwards that of England, consisting of five
tack and repel their enemy. counties, including Salop, Hereford and
Offa well knew the resolute and per Monmouth. Powys being thus robbed of its
severing character of the Cymry, and well fairest lands, its seat of government, Pen-
judged that they would never submit to be gwern,Shrewsbury,was removed to
robbed without a blow in defense of their Methrafal, within the more secure parts o
property, and a determined effort for its Wales.
recovery. To secure his acquisition, Offa The reader's indulgence is asked while
constructed a vast intrenchment, extend the following extract is introduced from
ing from the waters of the Dee near Ches Paigrave, so truthful and appropriate, not
ter, to that of the Wye, called "Clawdh only at this time, but at any time during
Offa," or Offa's Dyke, by the Cymry. This the Saxon conquest of Britain. It is a
dyke was an immense work, at least a hun matter which is supported by concurrence
dred miles in length, protected and securec of all history, but frequently controverted
with ramparts and towersample evidence by a class of English historians who assert
of Offa's opinion of what he had to en that all the Ancient Britons were by the
counter and defend against. On the Christ Saxon invaders either slaughtered or
mas after its completion Cynan and his driven into Wales ; which assertion is not
valiant countrymen attacked it along the only savagely wicked, but palpably untrue.
whole line, captured the towers and fortifi Palgrave says: "Upon the conquests of
cations with their garrisons, destroyed tlv
dyke, and repossessed themselves of the 3) Palp-ave's Anfflo-Saxons, ch. iv, p. 71.
 338 THE SAXON PERIOD.
Ofta and his predecessors it is necessary to
inake une important observation, namely,
that the political subjugation of Powys and
the adjoining countries did not necessarily
' lead to the total expulsion ol' the British
tribes. English colonies were partially in
troduced ; but the British peasantry con
tinued to dwell upon the soil, though the
domain was transferred to other lords ; and
so numerous were they that the country
continued British in appearance even until
the reign of king John, when, in common
language, Hereford was still con>idered to
be in Wales. In fact, the whole of this
border was held and peopled nearly as we
see Monmouthshire at the pretext day.
The mass of the people are Cymri, speak
ing their ancient British language, and con
tinue to give the ancient denomination of
Caveat to the lands on which they dwell.
But the higher orders, the gentry and the
clergy and the magistrates, are almost
wholly of the English race, and the county
is an integral part of the realm of England.
Very many of the territories ruled by the
Anglo-Saxons had a double aspectAnglo-
Saxons, if you consider them as a state;
British, if you view the populacy by which
they were filled ; and by recollecting this
circumstance, we may reconcile and ex
plain many seeming anomalies and contra
dictions in our histories."
"The results of these conflicts seem to
have confirmed the authority of Ofta over
the Britons of Cambria, who became the
vassals of his crown. Ofta lived to accom
plish the subjugation of ail the Anglo-
Saxon states south of the Humber. Kent
was conquered in open battle (A. D. 775-
776). The West Saxons, after loosing part
of their territories, submitted by compro
mise. The East Saxons were subdued;
and the great and opulent city of London,
with the "Pagus" of Middlesex, had been
annexed to Mercia, perhaps by the volun
tary submission of the inhabitants."
Ofta's life had been distinguished by in
cidents of the romantic, as well as those of
violence and outrage. Of his queen, Drida
or Cynedrida, there is told a very singular
and adventurous storv, which possiblv may
not all be true. She was allied to the
[Book in.
French king, and in her youth was charged
with some crime. She by favor escaped
the ordeal of iron and fire, but was banish
ed by being set adrift at sea, in a boat, to
be carried wherever the wind and waves
might fortunately waft her. Fortunately
she was drifted to the British shore, and
her romantic story and adventure com
mended her to Ofta's protection, which
soon accomplished a more enduring con
quest over his affections. She made a tit
wife and companion for such a man as the
king of Mercia. In the latter part of their
lives, the young king of East Anglia, Eth-
elbert, a prince distinguished for his ele
gance of manners and beauty, came to Of-
fa's court, as a welcomed guest, paying his
address to their daughter, Etheldretha.
Ethelbert relied upon the honor of a king,
and proceeded with confidence with his
friends and retinue to the palace of his in
tended father-in-law. But the cruel and
crafty queen, Cynedrida, said to Ofta, "You
have him now in your power, whose king
dom you have so long coveted." To a
man of Ofta's principles that was a suffi
cient suggestion. Before the next morning,
after a splendid reception, the young prince
was beheaded, and his kingdom reduced by
Ofta's power to his own possession. Thus
was accomplished one of the most treach
erous, dishonorable and wicked crimes ever
perpetrated.
But crime was no uncommon transac
tion with, the Saxon princes of those days,
and especially with the house of Ofta.
Upon the death of Cynewulf by assassina
tion, Bertvic became king of Wessex; and
Egbert, the rightful prince, was obliged to
flee as an exile. He first went to the court
of Ofta for an asylum. Bertric then sent
his embassador to Ofta charged with the
double duty, to demand the hand of Ead-
burgn, one of OnVs daughters, and the
head of Egbert. The first request was
readily granted, for Bertric could not have
sent to him a greater curse; but the sec
ond was denied him. This caused Egbert
to flee to the court oi Charlemagne, where
he remained many years, until Bertric's
death. Eadburga, the queen of Bertric,
became an active, profligate and vicious
Chap, ii.] THE SAXON
woman. When any thwarted her purpose,
or crossed her love, her vengeance became
terrible, and either the king, whom she held
under her control, or she herself with a wo
man's skill would carry it into execution.
She had prepared a cup of poison for a
young nobleman who was her husband's
favorite, which by some accident was so
deposited that the king as well as the in
tended victim drank of it and died a horri
ble death (A. D. 800). The crime was dis
covered and the queen degraded and ex
pelled by the nobles of Wessex; who at
the same time enacted, that for the future
no king's wife should be called queen or
suffered to sit by the side of the king on
the throne. Eadburga fled with great
wealth to the court of Charlemagne, where
at first she was well received ; but after a
checkered life of affluence, profligacy and
degradation, she died the horrible death of
an outcast, in the streets of an European
city.
In the meantime Offa soon after his war
with Cambria died about A. D. 794, and
was succeeded, one after another, by two
of his sons, neither of whom were able to
sustain his kingdom as he had left it. One
of these, Kenwulf, not long after, overran
and ravaged Kent, took and carried off
their king, and perpetrated many outrages
upon the people and country. During the
same thus the princes and nobility of
Nurthuinbria were equally successful in
perpetrating all manner of outrages, crimes
and injurie: upon each other, and their un
happy country and people.
Upon the doath of Bertric, Egbert re
turned to Wessex, and was gladly admitted
to the government, and successfully and
with great vigor maintained his reign thir
ty-seven years. Having been banished
from his country many years by Bertric,
his predecessor, and having spent that time
with Offa anJ at the court of Charlemagne,
he came to his government much improved
by observation and experience. By nature
he was endowed with great executive tal
ent and administrative capacity. He be
came the most distinguished and prosper
ous sovereign of his day; and brought, in
the course of his reign, the whole of F.ng-
HEPTARCHY. 239
land under his rule. But this was done
without any definite constitutional union,
leaving each division of the country to be
ruled by a subordinate king, or kinglet,
without a federate union. Egbert is ac
knowledged to be the eighth bretwalda, as
os Oswy of Northumbria had been the
seventh, bearing a space of a hundred and
thirty years (670Soo) between them. This
shows the uncertain and unfixed character
of that denomination. Offa was not ac
knowledged as one of the bretwaldas,
but his rule over England was fully as
extensive and decided as that of any king
who preceded him. It is probable that the
designation of bretwalda depended upon
common consent; and that Offa, with all
his power, was too obscure a character in
lineage to be thus admitted. If the posi
tion depended upon an election, or an es
tablished right, his power and elevation
would have demanded it.
As characteristic of the age, it is said,
that, "On the day that Egbert succeeded to
the throne, Ethelmund, the ealderman,
rode over from Wic, and coming to Kemps-
ford met Weoxtan, the ealderman, with the
men of Wiltshire. There was a great
fight between them, in which both the
chiefs were slain, but the Wiltshiremen got
the victory."3' But Egbert soon brought
his dominions to order, as far as those
times ot' war and fighting would permit.
Gradually during his long reign he ex
tended hi* rule and dominion over nearly
all South Britain, and some have designa
ted him as the first king of all England;
but that title was neither adopted or ac
knowledged until more than a hundred
years later, in the reign of Athelstan, the
grand son ol Alfred the Great. Notwith
standing the progressive conquest and rule
of Egbert over Britain, the several states
and kings by which the country had been
distinguished, were still kept up and ac
knowledged for a long period after Egbert's
time, as subordinary powersvassals and
tributaries to the kings of Wessex.3*
Fora long time the kings of Wessex
J^ Hunrv of Huntingdon, p. 141 [A.
35 Palyr.ive's Ansrlo-Sax., ch. iy, iv, p. 81 and 97;
Turner's Aniflo-S.ixons,
> ixnns, B. iii, ch. xi, p. *Si.
240 THE SAXON PERIOD.
had maintained a continual war against the
Britons of the peninsula south of the Sev
ernSomerset, Devon and Cornwall ; but
all their efforts to subdue them were only
a temporary operation, while the Britons
were collecting their lorcesto recover their
lost ground, until now, in Egbert's time,
they were able to reduce it to Saxon rule,
which they were able ever afterwards to
maintain. Now, by the conquest of Offa
and Egbert, the dominion of the Britons
west of the acknowledged line running
from the South Avon north to Scotland,
was broken in upon, so that all had become
subject to English rule, except that which
is now properly included within Wales,
west of Offa's Dike; and that which was
included in Cumbria, which still maintain
ed its independence, until about A. D. 950,
when it became a part of England.
It would appear that (or some years after
Egbert came to his throne, he maintained
a peaceable relation with the adjoining
states, and his first wars, like all those of
his race, were those ag'ainst the Britons di
rectly west of Wessex, to which we have
alluded. This was fiercely prosecuted dur
ing a number of years (A. D. 809814).
Against this encroachment the Britons
made their usual gallant resistance; but,
with the power which Egbert was able to
control and bring into the field, it was un
availing. It terminated in a great battle at
Camelford, in which several thousands fell
on both sides.
With the customary disposition of the
Saxons for war, it was impossible for two
such states as Wessex and Mercia long to
remain at peace. The king of Mercia,
Bernwulf, becoming jealous of the prosper
ity of Egbert, invaded Wessex with a form
idable army. Egbert met them near Elian-
dune, near Wilton in Wiltshire, with an
inferior force but superior in discipline and
equipments. There a terrific battle took
place, of which the old historians say, that
"Ellandune's stream was tinged with blood,
and was choked with the slain, and became
foul with carnage." After a prodigious
slaughter on both sides, Egbert gained a
complete victory; which enabled him to
expel the king, and annex Mercia to Wes-
[Book in.
sex. The subjugation of the kingdoms
east of these soon followed, leaving only
Northumbria, out of the union of what
now constitute England. But that state
had been for many years in a state of de
cline, in consequence of the bad govern
ment inflicted upon that people by its
rulers. These under pretence of a right to
rule, imposed upon their subjects the con
sequences of unjust wars, crimes and op
pression, so that a party sufficiently strong
to relieve the people, submitted their coun
try as a subordinate and tributary govern
ment to that of Wessex, and received Eg
bert as their paramount lord. Thus this
prince (A. D. 828830) had become fully
established in the state and majesty of bret-
walda and sovereign of all England ; but
generally with vassal and tributary kings,
in each of the several states, as subjects of
Wessex.
In the meantime a new element of dis
turbance had arisen in the history of Brit
ain, and repeating upon the country again
that scene of conquest, oppression and in
justice perpetrated by the Romans and
Saxons. This was the commencement of
the invasion and conquest of Britain, by
the Danes or Northmena people from
Scandinavia. These were kindred and rel
atives of the Saxons; who, in their own
country, were of the same race and subjects
of the same customs, habits and religion,
but differing in language as a separate dia
lect. They both followed the savage doc
trines of Woden's religion, in which the
cultivation of war, with its consequent
blood, carnage and death, was its principal
teachings. Their form of government was
part of their religion; all who participated
in it, both kings, nobles and ruling men,
were part of the family and descendants of
Woden. They were never at peace,3* al
ways engaged in some piratical enterprises,
and wholly dependent upon war and plun
der for sustenance and life. In the pursuit
of their object no act of cruelty or viola
tion of faith was revolting to their princi
ples. Such -were the enemies that the
Anglo-Saxons were now to meet, after they
36 Palgrsve's Anglo-Saxon, ch. v, pp. 87-88.
Chap, ii.]' THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. -41
had been sufficiently reformed, by civiliza ife, with the fame of a great king who
tion and Christianity while in Britain, to lad rendered his country important ser-
understand and feel the keenness of the ce.
change. Offa's hostilitv to Cambria was contin
The first appearance of the Danes or ued by Egbert with that unscrupulous se
Northmen in Britain was very much like verity that has ever characterized their
a repetition of that of Hengist, in history. dealings with them. Cynan, the king of
It is said that the Danes landed in Britain Cambria, succeeded to the throne in
from three ships, to plunder the country.3' A. D. 755, upon the death of his father
The magistrate of the place, being igno the brave and patriotic Rodri, the same
rant who the people were, who had landed, eventful year that brought OiTa to his
or for what purpose they had come, incau throne, and its consequent hostility to
tiously went to them to ascertain, and if Cambria. Cynan ruled until his death in
proper, to take them into custody. But he A. D. 819, and consequently sustained a
was instantly slain in the throng. "He long reign of sixty-four years. It was this
was the first Englishman killed by the prince, therefore, who sustained his coun
Danes, but after him many myriads were try so faithfully and vigorously against Of-
slaughtered by them; and these were the fa the terrible when supported by Mercia
first ships that the Danes brought here." and Saxon power. Offa, alter wrenching
But from this time until that of William Powys from Cambria, and securing it by
the Conqueror, the Danes continued their his dyke, died twenty-five years before Cy
war and depredations upon the English nan did ; during which time the latter was
people. A few years afterwards (A. D. frequently annoyed by the hostilities of
795), the Danes "heathens," as the English the Saxons at his home, and upon his
historian calls themravaged Northum- brethren on the peninsula of Cornwall on
bria, and pillaged Egbert's monastery "at the south side of the Bristol channel. He
Donemuth." The most warlike of the was also annoyed in his latter years by his
English people there met them in battle, brother Howell, who was desirous to se
and repelled them ; and their leaders were cure the inheritance to himself in opposi
slain, and they retreated to their ships. In tion to Cynan's daughter, Essyllt, his only
their flight some of their ships were wreck heir. But this daughter did succeed to the
ed by a storm, many of the men were crown upon the death of her father, and
drowned, and some were taken alive and by whom, with her husband, Merfyn, a
beheaded on the beach. Thirty -eight years royal chieftain and heir in right of his
after this, near the close of Egbert's reign, mother to the kingdom of Powys, Cam
the Danes again made their appearance; bria was governed twenty-five years (A.
and the first place they ravaged was the D. 819844). After the battle of Elian-
Isle of Sheppey in Kent. The next year dune, in which Mercia was defeated, Eg-
they came over in thirty-five very large bet proceeded to bring Cambria to his
ships, and Egbert met them with his army, tributary, and for that purpose first pro
at Charmouth, in battle, in which the Danes ceeded against the Britons of the peninsula
were victorious, and two bishops and two of Cornwall, which resulted in the battle
ealdermen of the Anglo-Saxons were slain of Camelford already alluded to. He then
The following year they again landed in reduced to subjection as tributaries the
Devonshire, where they were joined by people of Northumbria, and next proceed
some of the Britons in a revolt againt Eg ed, with the whole force of England at his
bert, but against these the king was success command, to subject what remained of
ful in routing them triumphantly. The Cambria, now Wales, in the same manner
next year (A. D. 836) Egbert, in the midst to his interest, as tributaries. In 828, Eg
of his succesfc and triumph departed this bert accordingly led his powerful army
into North Wales and enforced submis
37 Henry of Huntingdon, B. iv, p. 138, In Ofla's
time about A. D. 789. sion to his demand for the payment of trib
 242 THE SAXON PERIOD
ute, and his control as their paramount
sovereign.
In order to secure for the future what he
had thus accomplished, and put Essyllt
and her husband Merfyn and Wales com
pletely under his control, as his vassals,
Egbert seized upon Mono, Anglesy, which
contained the capital of Gwynedd; and up
on Chester, which formed the key to the
communication between the Cymry of
Cumbria and those of the south. Thus do
we, for the present, leave the Saxons and
the Cymrynot only the Cymry of Wales,
but their number greatly multiplied in the
descendants of the Ancient Britons left
throughout Britain.
CHAPTER III.
FROM THE DEATH OF EGBERT TO THE NOR
MAN CONQUEST. (A. D. 836 1066.)
1.From the Death of Egbert to that of
Athdstan. (A. D. 836940.)
Egbert, whose reign had just transpired,
had brought all the Heptarchy under one
government, not as a consolidated union
or a confederacy, but as one superior and
powerful state commanding subjection and
obedience over another. It was not Eng
land, but Wessex extending its rule and
command over the other states of the Hep
tarchy. Most of these states still, for a
long time, preserved their respective kings
and government, but they were subordi
nate, as vassals and tributaries to Wessex.
Some of the bretwaldas had been addressed
as king of the English; but none assumed
the title of king of England until Athelstan,
the grandson of Alfred the great, about a
hundred years alter Egbert. The name of
England was not used as a general name
of the country until after that time; the
previous names were, Britain, Saxonia,
Saxondum, or Heptarchy.
But the country, by whatever name It
was then known, was hardly put under
one government by Egbert when the new
enemy of the country, under the general
name of the Danes, made their hostile ap
pearance, and kept the country in contin
ual war from that time until the Norman
[Book in.
conquest, a period of about two hundred
and thirty years. As already stated, the
hostilities of the Danes commenced upon
the Saxons precisely in the same manner
as the Saxons commenced upon the Brit
ons about three hundred and eighty-seven
years previous. Both commenced as a pi
ratical operation, with a view to the acqui
sition of spoils and booty; but after ac
quiring a foothold in the country, they
adopted the idea of conquest. As profes
sors of the religion of Woden, both made
war their principal study and practice,
with all its horrid consequences, injustice
and wickedness. Their religion taught
them to love battle and the shedding of
blood; and that death in battle was the
most honorable, and a sure way to heaven.1
Their future hopes were concentrated in
the soldier's future reward in the halls
of Valhalla, "where the souls of those who
bravely perished on the hard-fought bat
tle field were at once wafted." These were
their hopes and incitement to action, with
out the least regard to justice or iniquity
of the cause, or the misery and suffering it
brought upon others.
The Britons gave the name of Saxons to
all the invaders of their country who came
from the neighborhood of the mouth of
the Elbe and the Eider, though among
themselves they were distinguished as the
Jutes, or the Angles, or the Saxons proper,
because to strangers they appear all as one
people, and hardly distinguishable, except
among themselves. So the Anglo-Saxons
gave the denomination of Danes upon all
these new invaders who were now about
to trouble England so fiercely, though
some of them came from Sweden and Nor
way, as well as from Zealand and Jutland
the proper Denmark. These were all
called Danes in popular language, tor the
same reason that the former invaders were
called by the one designation of Saxons.
All these people were so similar in their
habits, customs and religion that it was
difficult to distinguish themprobably the
Danes and Saxons originally differed more
I Sec Turner's Anglo-Saxon, appendix to B. ii,
ch. iii, p. 147163; Miller's Anjflo-Sax., ch. vii, p.
SS-70.
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
in language than in anything else; but the
foundation of both was the Teutonic lan
guage. The probability of the difference
is this, that when the old Cimbri left the
Cimbri Chersonesus, in the time of the
Cimbri and Teutons, there was a part of
the Cimbri who went north, as well as the
others went south, and became mixed up
and absorbed with the Teutons of the
north, which accounts for the difference
between the Dane or Northman and the
Teuton of the south. This caused consid
erable change in the language of the North
man, but their habits, customs and religion
continued to be that of the savage Woden.
These Northmen, so called Danes, were
all addicted like the Saxons before them to
a sea-faring life, and to piracy and plunder
ing. The settled and improved part of their
country became too populous, and required
emigration, and they chose the enterprise
and piracy of the sea, rather than the honest
pursuits on land.
"It is declared," says Turner,^ "to have
been a law or custom in the north, that one
of the male children should be selected to
remain at home to inherit the government
The rest were exiled to the ocean to wield
their sceptres amid the turbulent waters.
The consent of the northern society enti
tled all men of royal descent, who assumed
piracy as a profession, to enjoy the name
oi king, though they possessed no territory.
Hence (he sea-kings were the kinsmen of
the land-sovereigns. * * * * We may
expect that the ocean swarmed with sea-
kings. * * * * Piracy was not only
the most honorable occupation, and the
best harvest of wealthit was not only
consecrated to public emulation by the in
dustrious who pursued it, but no one was
esteemed noble, no one was respected, who
did not return in the winter to his home
with ships laden with booty. The spoils
consisted of every necessary of life, clothes,
domestic utensils, cattle, which they killed
and prepared on the shores they ravaged,
slaves, and other property. It is not sur
prising that while this spirit prevailed, every
country abounded in deserts."
2 Anglo-Sax. Hist., B. iv, ch. ii, p. 291.
16
243
"Even the regular land-kings addicted
themselves to piracy. It was the general
amusement of their summer months; hence
almost everv king commemorated by
Snorre is displaved as assaulting other
provinces, or as suffering invasions in his
own. With strange infatuation, the popu
lation of the day welcomed the successful
vikings with the loudest acclamation; al
though from the prevalence of the practice,
domestic misery became the general lot.
The victors of one day were the victims in
the next; and he who was consigning with
out pity the women and children of other
families to the grave or to famine, must
have often found on his return but the ashes
of his paternal habitation, and the corpses
of those he loved."
Such is the description given, by a com
petent historian, of the enemies who were
now attacking Britain, as pirates and con
querors; and as these were from the imme
diate neighborhood from which the Saxons
came, and essentially the same race of peo
ple and customs, we can conclude from
these facts as well as from the positive
narration of history, that the invasion of
the Danes or Northmen was only a repeti
tion, in all its essential features, of the
former invasion of the Saxons upon the
Britons. When Henry of Huntingdon de
scribes the Dane* as a most barbarous na
tion loose, "like a swarm of wasps, sparing
neither age nor sex,"3 the editor charges
him with overstating the atrocities of the
Northmen as compared with other invaders,
and says: "The progress of the Saxons in
subduing and settling the country would as
fitly apply as that of the Danes." And so
it would, and- it would be hard to distinguish
them. Both the Saxons and Danes de
stroyed and plundered wherever thev went
burned and destroyed all churches and
monasteries, and where there was anv oppo
sition all towns, and frequently slaughtered
all the inhabitants without regard to age or
sex. It is the favorite theory of a class cf
historians that the Saxons slaughtered all
the Britons who did not flee the countrv.
This was true in some instances, but by no
3 Henry of Huntingdon, B. v, p.
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
means universally so; for if it were, it would
have 'been the most inhuman, cruel and
wicked war recorded in history. There was,
however, enough of" it done to make it the
most barbarous war on record; to destroy
the improvements of the country, and re
mit it back to savage desolation. In the
dispensation of human affairs, it is often
the case that one crime or wickedness pro
duces a return as a just retribution. This
was an instance of it, when the Danes in-
flicted upon the Saxon's the same injustice,
barbarity and oppression which they them
selves had upon the Britons.
The governtment which Egbert (A. D.
836,1 left to his son and successor, Ethelwulf,
stood in need of a consolidation by means
of some constitutional union. The Saxon
aristocracy did not care for it, for that would
lessen their power, and restrain their license
and liberty of controlling and oppressing
the people. The people themselves were
too ignorant of the principles of govern
ment to understand and require the benefit
of it; for they were all in the hands of their
aristocracy, who all claimed they were
descendants of Woden, and therefore ruled
by some divine right. The rule which
Ethelwulf had thus acquired over the
Heptarchy was a divided government,
that of a powerful and superior state over
its neighbors, who were bound to obey, and
not the acknowledged and chosen sovereign
of the whole. There was this difference
between the British pendragons and the
Saxon bretwaldas, that the former were
elected bv a general assembly of the states,
and was therefore a sovereign of a confed
eracy ; but the bretwalda became such by
some tacit conventionalism, as the most
powerful and distinguished sovereign in the
Hepfarchv, to whom the other kings were
vassals or tributaries. The Bubordinary
kings were ol'ten at war with eacli other,
and sometimes at war with the paramount
sovereign. This was often the case to the
great advantage of their common enemy,
the Danes. Such want of union has been
often charged against the Britons, as the
cause of the Saxons' success against them ;
but the same charge is fully as conspicuous
against the Saxons themselves, as the cause
[Book in.
of the success of the Danes.
Upon the death of Egbert the sovereign
ty of the Heptarchy passed to his son,
Ethelwulf, as king of Wessex and para
mount lord, and continued in his family
himself and four sons in successionsixty-
five years (A. D. 836901). Ethelwulf
reigned twenty-one years,4 and was suc
ceeded by his son, Ethelbald, who reigned
three years; and he by his brother, Ethel -
bert, who reigned five years ; upon whose
death his youngest brother, Alfred the
Greatson of Ethelwuli', ascended the
throne as king of Wessex, and reigned
thirtv years (A. 0.871 901). During these
sixty-five years South Britain experienced
most calamitous times from war and inva
sion; not only from the war of the invasion
of the Danes/> but frequent wars among
the Saxons themselves, and against their
neighbors, the Ancient Britons. For after
Egbert's time the Danes renewed their war
and piracies against Britain, with great
fierceness and barbarity. These new ene
mies of Britain, like their Saxon predeces
sors, were renowned for their enterprise in
the pursuit of piracy and plunder, and for
the indifference with which they encounter
ed the dangers of the sea, and death in
battle. They assumed that ordinary death
in the course of nature was dishonorable,
and that death in battle was a sure road to
heaven. They boasted that "they never
slept under a smoke-dried roof; and had
never emptied a cup seated in the chimney-
corner."'' They despised the comforts of
civilization, as well as the dictates of hu
manity. The sea-king, or viking, who had
built up his reputation upon these principles
4 Henry of Hunt., B. v, p. 148.
5 Thierry's Xormiin Cofiiiucsl, B. ii, p. 56. "The
Danes nr Norlnim:n descended from the same primi
tive rjiee," s:ivs Thierry, "with the Anjflo-Saxorts
and the Kranks; their lanii'ua^e hud roots identical
with the ijnins of these two nations: but this token
of an ancient fraternity did not preserve from their
hostile incursion, either Saxon Britain or Frankish
Gaul, nor even the territory beyond the Rhine, then
exclusively inhabited by Germanic tribes. The con
version of the Southern Teutons to the Christian
faith had broken all bonds of fraternity between
them and the Teutons of the north. In the ninth
century the m:m of the north still gloried in the iitle
of son of Odin, and treated as bastards and upos-
lates the Germans who had become children of the
church; he tn.ulc no distinction between them and
the conquered population whose rcii^inn they had
adopted "
6 i Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. ii, p. 57.
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
and practices, who was asknowledged king
on board his ships as well as when he was
on land, was sure to rally around him suf
ficient number of his hardy and ignorant
countrymen who believed in his doctrines
and principles, and were ready to join in
his enterprise. Three days of favorable
winds would enable them to sail from their
own country, north of the Elbe, to the
southeastern part ol Britain. Here they
perpetrated upon the country the greatest
calamity, wherever they happened to strike;
and none could tell what port would be the
first, or who would be the first sufferers.
Their object was spoils and plunder, and
nothing was secure or sacred from their
grasp. Whenever they arrived neither
man nor property was safe from their vio
lence, and when they departed the country
was left in desolation.
When the Danes first made their ap
pearance their object seemed to be piracy
and plunder; but like the Saxons, who pre
ceded them, as they proceeded their de
mands increased, until they laid some claim
to the country itself. It is said that at an
early appearance of the Northmen, a sea-
king, Ragnar Lodbrog by name, had be
come renowned on account of his enter
prises as a pirate on the borders of the
Baltic. He afterwards, in large ships, with
his three sons and followers, came to Brit
ain to gain spoils and to return with booty.
As in other places lie landed in Nortlnim-
bria; and after many battles and conflicts
he was taken prisoner, and cruelly treated,
by being thrown into a den of vipers.
While thus suffering and calmly waiting
death, he composed a celebrated epic and
biographical song, in which he recites his
adventures, exploits and misfortunes, and
conjures his children and people fearlessly
to pursue his adventures and avenge his
death. Ragnar's death is supposed to have
taken place in Northumbria, about SOo,
while Ella" usurped a sovereignty there;
but Ragnar's song of his adventures and
cruel death, appealing to his people in the
terrific spirit of Woden for war and re
venge, excited them to renewed exertion
7 Turner's History Anglr>-S:ixons, B. iv, ch. 3, p.
.307, n. i].
245
against the people of Britain; and induced
them to set up a claim of the right of con
quest, instead of piracy and pillage.
In the meantime, soon after the accession
of Ethelwulf, his whole kingdom was at
tacked by the Danes in various places, and
their system of pillage and plunder became
intolerable, and injurious to the country.
The first year of Ethelwulf's reign the
Danes, in two large parties, attacked the
country in the vicinity of Southampton,
where they had come in thirty-three ships.
Against these the king sent his army di
vided into two divisions; in one of which
the}- were successful, and beat the Danes
with great slaughter. In the other instance
the Danes triumphed; the Saxon com
mander was slain and his army defeated.
The next year similar events took place in
the eastern part of the kingdom; and the
Danes reduced to their subjection the east
ern coast of England from the H umber to
the south of Kent, putting a vast number
of the inhabitants to the sword. The next
year the pagan and heathen army, as they
were called, penetrated further into the
country and committed great ravages and
slaughter about Canterbury, Rochester and
London. The year alter the Danes landed
at Charmouth from thirty-five ships crowd
ed \vith men, against whom the king sent
his army which were defeated. Five years
afterwards (A. D. 845) these pagan enemies
of the country landed in the south west
in Devon and Cornwall in large numbers,
and a great battle was fought against them
at the mouth of the Parrel, in which they
were defeated and great numbers slain.
These attacks and depredations of the
Danes were becoming frequent, if not con
stant. In the sixteenth year of Ethelwulf's
reign they came in great force, and landed
from two hundred and fifty ships at the
mouth of the Thames, took London and
Canterbury by storm, and defeated the
king of Mercia in battle. Soon after this
the royal army met the pagan, in Surrey,
when a very great battle occurred, in which
the English were signally victorious. The
same year the English gained a naval vic
tory over their enemies near Sandwich, in
which they captured nine ships and put the
246 THE SAXON PERIOD.
rest of their fleet to flight. About the same
time another battle occurred in Devonshire,
in which the English were successful in
defeating and expelling their enemies. The
English now greatly rejoiced upon their
triumphs over their heathen and detested
enemy, although the Danes were able to
spend their first winter (A. D. 851) in Eng
land, on the Isle of Thanet, a place subject
to the visits of every sort, of both friends
and foes of Britain.
During these times the Cambrians were
compelled often to meet one or the other
of these hostile partiesthe Saxons or the
Danes. In one or two instances the Britons
south of the Severn united with the Danes
in an attack upon their Saxon enemies,
with the hopes of retaining that part of the
island within their own jurisdiction. At
another the Angles united with the Danes
in endeavoring to conquer the country be
tween the Dee and the Con way, with the
object of gaining common plunder. No
policy was pursued towards the Ancient
Britons but war and conquest. The Saxons
appear incapable of inaugurating a policy
of peace, and like the Romans under Ag-
ricola satisfy the people by affording a gov
ernment of peace, conferring justice and
safety ; but the only i>olicy was that of war
and spoils, of conquest, vassalage and trib
ute, without any accompanying benefits.
Whenever the Saxons were not sufficiently
engaged in war with the Northmen, they
were sure to be engaged against the Brit
ons. In 844, Bushred, king of Mercia, at
tacked the Cambrians, and in a severe battle
defeated them, in which was slain Merfyn,
the king consort of queen Essyllt. Upon
the death of the queen, which soon there
after occurred, their son, Rhodri Mawr,
(Roderic the Great,) acceeded to the
government of the whole countrythat of
Gwynedd in right of his mother, that of
Powys in right of his father, and that of
Dehenbut th in right of his wife ;" by means
of which these three provinces were
brought under one common government,
and Rhodri Mawr was acknowledged king
of all Wales (Brenhin Cymru OH).
S Miss Williams' History of Wales, ch, x, p. 121 ;
Annals of Cambria, p, uo.
[Book III.
Rhodri was now compelled to sustain
the war waged by the Mercians against the
Cambrians, in which lie was so successful
as to expel them from the country, and
compelled Bushred, the Merciari king to
call on Ethelwulf for aid. Ethelwulf hav
ing now just passed a very successful year
against the Danes, was ready to join in
any war against the Welsh. Between the
two kings a very powerful army was raised
and sent against Wales. This army was
able to march through and ravage the
country, without being able to extort any
concession of the territory thus overrun ;
but were induced, by this determined re
sistance, to accept a renewal of the usual
tributary allegiance. This peace was soon
more effectually cemented between the two
parties by the marriage of the daughter of
Rhodri to Bushred, the Mercian king; but
in those days no family alliance was much
guaranty to any lasting peace.
From the year 851 to S66 the accession of
Ethelred, Ethelwulf's third son, England
witnessed its portion of war and tumult,
both with the Northmen and among its
own rulers ; but now the Danes were about
to make a more determined and systematic
effort, not only to rob and plunder, but to
subdue and conquer the country. The
people of East Anglia and Kent made
some efforts to purchase their peace, and
bribe the Danes to depart. After paving
them large sums, they found them faithless
and treacherous, always finding some pre
tense for evading or violating their prom
ises.
In A. 0.871 Alfred, the fourth son, as-
sended the throne, and about the same time
the most determined efforts were made bv
the Danes to invade Britain anew by the
most formidable navy and army ever raised
for that purpose. This enterprise was
headed by three sons of RagnarHalf-
dane, Hingwar, and Hubbawho had ex
cited the whole north, by reciting orallv
and singing the epic of their father's re
nowned piracies and death, and rallied them
to revenge. They intended to land in
Northumbria, the scene of their father's,
sufferings and death, but some fortuitous
chance carried them south of the Wash,
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. 247
and they landed in East Anglia. These borious position, he was still better qualified
poured their heathen and barbarous hordes by those rare gifts of Providence, by which
over the country, and their victories, which he was so greatly distinguished, in his
were gained as well by their artifice as by mental character, for wisdom, discretion
their prowess and fighting, placed the land and prudence, as well as in his love of jus
wholly in their power. Great inanv of the tice, humanity and improvement, which
people were slain, and all sorts of pillaging have induced all people to fondly contem-
and devastations were committed. They template him, and readily ascribe to him
proceeded west and south, and wherever the appellation of Alfred the Great. The
they went booses and towns were sacked Danes then had overrun the country,
and burned, and those which were in anv and in many places, especially north of
manner connected with the Christian re London, had made permanent settlements ;
ligion were special objects of their malevo but wherever they went or settled their first
lence; and the monasteries at Croyland, introduction was that of desolation, which
Peterborough, Thorney, Ramsey and Ely took savage pleasure in the slaughter of all
were sacked and destroyed. Many acts of Christian people, and the destruction of all
cruelty and barbarity were committed,no sacred places; of which the Saxons so
respect was shown to the rights of humani justly and greatly complained ; which was
ty or lives of individuals, which were often a retribution, exactly the same in kind
disposed of without regard to age or sex. but perhaps to them unconsciousof those
They took possession of East Anglia, and injuries which the Saxons formerly inflict
placed it under their own government ed upon the Britons.
made a prisoner of the pious king Edmund Alfred took possession of the govern
who governed, who was put to death with ment at a time when the Danes had become
cruel barbarity, which has sanctified his well acquainted with England, and when
name as that of the martyred king. their forces there had become powerful.
The Danes pushed their success across During his first vear he was compelled to
the island to the west, with great sagacity fight against his heathen enemy nine great
and military skill, taking and occupying battles in his hereditary dominion of Wes-
important points in the interior as well as sex, besides encountering them, in a real
securing eligible ports on the sea shore. progress of conquest, in East Anglia, Lin-
It was their common practice as soon as disse and Northumbria. In all these places
they landed to take possession of whatever Alfred and his people were compelled to
they desired, and especially of all horses, meet a most fierce contest with the Danes,
with which they would organize an army not only for the preservation of their rights
of horsemen to invade and take by surprise and property, but also for the possession of
the interior of the country and collect spoils their country. In this contest the loss of
and bootv. life, and the consequent suffering, was ter
It was in the midst of this war and these rific. To the Saxon people this was la
difficulties that Alfred was called to the mentable, and appreciated by them; but
throne, upon the death of his brother to the Northmen it was considered as a
Ethelred. He was now twenty-three years matter in their vocation, and death as on
of age; and had been, from his birth, their way to heaven. Though many thous
reared and educated, according to those ands of the invaders fell, yet the same
times, with a view to his ascension to the country, in the neighborhood of the Elbe
throne. During the reign of his late broth and the Baltic, was constantly sending re
er Ethelred, he had been much trusted with cruits to fill up the void in the ranks of the
the administration, and had rendered much invaders." It now became a conflict bs-
service in the war against the invasions of
9 Turner's Anglo-Saxons, B. iv, ch. vii, p. 342;
the Danes. But as much as he was quali Paljrrave's Anglo-Saxon, ch. vi, p. 104, \vnere it iy
fied by opportunities and experience for his said: "During these transactions a continual preda
tory warfare was carried on in every part of Britain
elevation to his high, dangerous, and la by "the Danish or northern chieftains. They mfesied
248 THE SAXON PERIOD.
tween the Danes and the Saxons of Eng
land, as to the possession and government
of the country, just as it had been by the
Britons against the Saxons, and the Ro
mans. Whether the Saxons were capable
to appreciate that this repetition of the very
same kind of infliction was, in the ways of
Providence, a just retribution, may be very
questionable ; but it is a sad lesson to the
world, teaching the justice and propriety
of leaving every people to govern them
selves. Apparently the Danes had now
made up their minds to possess themselves
of the country, and it was no longer a
mere question of piracy and plunder, but
of settlement and dominion, in which ev
ery Briton was again called upon to con
tend for his rights, property and liberty;
and it is probable, as it will be seen, that it
was only the efforts and merits of Alfred
that prevented the intention and efforts of
the Danes from becoming a success.
In the winter of 872 the Danes took their
winter quarters in London; and no part of
the island was now exempt from being sub
ject to their excursions. Halfdane with
his men had overrun and subjugated North-
umbria, and proceeded to invade and harrass
the people of Strath-Clyde and Cumbria,
and from thence into Cambria, so that the
Cymry were made the object of their hos
tility as well as the Saxons. They pene
trated into Gwynedd, crossed the Menai
into the isle of Mona, where Rhodri twice
met them in battle, and gave them an ef
fectual check ; while other bands of Danes
were marauding and carrying fire and
sword through South Wales.
During the years of 876877 the Danes
had completely subdued the country north
of the Humbcr and were rapidly doing the
same with Mercia. Their progress was
from the northeast to the southwest, as that
of the Saxons had been from the southeast
to the northwest. These two invasions of
Britain were almost exactly alike in the
character of the invaders and their mode
the co.ist of France with equal pertinacity. Sonic-
time they were dcfc:itcd; but after every reverse
they seemed more pov.-erful than ever. 'If thirty
thousand rtre slain in one day/ suid the English",
'there will be double that number in the field on the
morrow."
[Book in.
of warfare. The great difference between
the two events is that the Saxons proceed
ed slower. It was about one hundred and
fifty years after these took possession of
their first settlement before they obtained
possession of the whole of that part of the
island included in the Heptarchy. They
proceeded slow and cautious, first securing
possessions on the sea shore and holding
them, and getting well established before
moving into the interior; which they did not
do until they had three or four generations
of native born, as well as continual acces
sion from the country of their ancestors.
Much progress into the interior was
attempted to be made; but the progress of
the Northmen was more rapid. They
made hasty marches, and rapid movements
from one part of the country to another,
acquiring spoils, until they succeeded in
making a fixed settlement.
The continued and perplexing invasions
of almost every part of the country at the
same time became very annoying and dis
couraging to Alfred and his people. In
January, 878, transpired an affair which
rendered the times still more discouraging
and desperate. While the Saxons were one
night celebrating the festival of epiphany, at
Chippenham, in Wessex, tne Danes made
an attack by surprise, and, upon a desperate
fight, slaughtered and captured many; and
but few made their escape, among whom
was Alfred himself. This sad defeat and
other discouragements brought on Alfred
much depression of spirit, that for a while
he apparently had given all up for lost He
wandered to the west in the disguise of a
peasant or a beggar ; and at length, as such,
sought the home and protection of a herds
man, at an obscure and forlorn place, in the
midst of woods and marshes, at the junction
of the Thone and the Parrett, in Somen-et,
where there is now a highly cultivated
country, still known by its ancient name of
Athelnay, or Prince's Island. Here he
spent the most of the sorrowful winter in
meditating his sad condition and devising
plans for his future conduct, and to retrieve
the lost condition of his unhappy country.
Many romantic stories are told of transac
tions in domestic affairs between the herds
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. -49

man's good wife and her unknown royal further action, and redeem their country
guest.'" Here he spent the winter as an from its oppressors. That place was Eg
outlaw, but by the means of faithful friends bert's stone, on the verge of the forest of
received intelligence of proceedings in the Sclwood; "which, by the Welsh or British
country, in connection with the Danes. inhabitants of Somerset, who perhaps con
In the meantime the Danes were active stituted the majority of the population, was
in desolating and subduing the country. called by the name of the great forest, or
Good news was brought to Alfred that the Coil A/VniT."11 Here he unfurled his
Danes had come in a great fleet from Kent standard, and the people of the whole coun
and attempted to make a landing in Devon, try joyfully rallied to his call, and zealous
but that the people there had met them ly engaged in his good cause.
and given them a successful battle had Alfred was now ready for operation, and
slain many of the enemy, with two of their he was enthusiastically supported by the
most distinguished chieftains, Biorn and people. He soon organized his army, and
Hubba, and had taken their magical ban advanced to a place called Ethandune in
ner, the Raven, which loss, added to the front of the enemy, on the Avon, and but a
death of their renowned leaders, depressed little distance below Chippenham, and
the Danes with the idea that they had met within five months of the time he was de
with a fatal loss, which would be irrepara feated at that place. A battle was inevita
ble. This good news met Alfred's anxious ble, and Alfred addressed his men as Brit
hopes and inspired him with a new resolu ons had been often before addressed, when
tion. He disguised himself as a minstrel, called upon to repel an invading foe, either
and as a gleeman made his way into the Roman or Saxon ; and when perhaps they
Danish camp in Wessex. His singing and were told that it was the last opportunity
music were joyfully received in the Dani*h of securing themselves from a disgraceful
camp, and added much to their rude hilari slavery. "The battle began by a flight of
ty. Without raising the suspicion of the arrows. The English and British lances
enemy, Alfred was able to make all his de were next hurled against the Northmen,
sired observations, and departed. Return and when the missiles were expended the
ing to his hiding place at Athelney, he set combatants engaged hand to hand." After
tled upon his plan of operations, called in a terrible conflict, a remnant ot the Danes,
his friends and proceeded to fortify and in under their chief, Guthrun, were compelled
trench the place. The news spread, and to seek refuge within their intrenchments,
the men of Devon and Somerset rallied to where they were closely besieged by Al
his aid. These people were a mixture of fred. Within fourteen days they found
the Ancient Britons and Saxons, who now, themselves without hopes of relief, and be
not for the first time, met as allies in a mu ing upon the point ot starvation, they were
tual cause of defense. compelled to accept the terms of surrender
Alfred now issued his proclamation to offered by Alfred. He saw a country large
his people, announcing his situation and enough tor both people, if they would re
hopes, and calling upon his people to meet sort to the peaceable pursuits of agricul
him at a given place and day to prepare for ture, instead of pillage and plunder. He
also saw it was impossible to expel the
10 Palgrave's Anglo-Saxon, fi. vi, p. 107. says Danes; he therefore offered to divide the
that Alfred had there with him his moihcr. Osbur- island between them, they to take the east
gha,
whenbut this lawas
Altred doubtful; tor Elhelwulf,
only about his offather,
eight years age, and he the west, "by a line stretching to
married Judith, the daughter of Charles, the Bald, of the river Thames, and from thence to the
France. Other historians say she was dead. But
Palgrave (p. 92) says : "It must be th.it Ethehvulf;
in order to make way for Judith, had put away Os- waters of the Lea, and thence to its head
burgha, the mother of his children. This lact'is not waters; thence straight to Bedford, and fin
mentioned in express terms in our ancient historians, ally going along the river Oure, and let
but Osburjfha is noticed in a manner which cannot
be explained by any other hypothesis." And this
may be noticed'as part of the evidence of the man- II Palgrave's Anglo-Saxons, ch,vl, p. no. i Pic
o rs ot ihe times. torial Hist, ot England, B. ii, ch. i, p. 151.
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
tween the Danes and the Saxons of Eng
land, as to the possession and government
of the country, just as it had been by the
Britons against the Saxons, and the Ro
mans. Whether the Saxons were capable
to appreciate that this repetition of the very
same kind of infliction was, in the ways of
Providence, a just retribution, may be very
questionable; but it is a sad lesson to the
world, teaching the justice and propriety
of leaving every people to govern them
selves. Apparently the Danes had now
made up their minds to possess themselves
of the country, and it was no longer a
mere question of piracy and plunder, but
01 settlement and dominion, in which ev
ery Briton was again called upon to con
tend for his rights, property and liberty ;
and it is probable, as it will be seen, that it
was only the efforts and merits of Alfred
that prevented the intention and efforts of
the Danes from becoming a success.
In the winter of Sj2 the Danes took their
winter quarters in London ; and no part of
the island was now exempt from being sub
ject to their excursions. Halfdane with
his men had overrun and subjugated North-
umbria, and proceeded to invade and hurras*
the people of Strath-Clyde and Cumbria,
and from thence into Cambria, so that the
Cymry were made the object of their hos
tility as well as the Saxons. They pene
trated into Gwynedd, crossed the Menai
into the isle of Mona, where Rhodri twice
met them in battle, and gave them an ef
fectual check ; while other bands of Danes
were marauding and carrying fire and
sword through South Wales.
During the years of 876877 the Danes
had completely subdued the country north
of the Humber and were rapidly doing the
same with Mercia. Their progress wa
from the northeast to the southwest, as that
of the Saxons had been from the southeast
to the northwest. These two invasions of
Britain were almost exactly alike in the
character of the invaders and their mode
the coast of France with equal pertinacity. Some
time they were defeated ; but after every reverse
they seemed more powerful th:m ever. 'If thirty
thousand are slain in one day,' said the English',
'there will be double that number iu the licld on the
morrow."
[Book in.
of warfare. The great difference between
the two events is that the Saxons proceed
ed slower. It was about one hundred and
fifty years after these took possession of
their first settlement before they obtained
possession of the whole of that part of the
island included in the Heptarchy. They
proceeded slow and cautious, first securing
possessions on the sea shore and holding
them, and getting well established before
moving into the interior ; which they did not
do until they had three or four generations
of native born, as well as continual acces
sion from the country of their ancestors.
Much progress into the interior was
attempted to be made; but the progress of
the Northmen was more rapid. They
made hasty marches, and rapid movements
from one part of the country to another,
acquiring spoils, until they succeeded in
making a fixed settlement.
The continued and perplexing invasions
of almost every part of the country at the
same time became very annoying and dis
couraging to Alfred and his people. In
January, 878, transpired an affair which
rendered the times still more discouraging
and desperate. While the Saxons were one
night celebrating the festival of epiphany, at
Chippenham, in Wessex, the Danes made
an attack bv surprise, and, upon a desperate
fight, slaughtered and captured many; and
but few made their escape, among whom
was Alfred himself. This sad defeat and
other discouragements brought on Alfred
much depression of spirit, that for a while
lie apparently had given all up for lost. He
wandered to the west in the disguise of a
peasant or a beggar ; and at length, as such.
sought the home and protection of a herds
man, at an obscure and forlorn place, in the
midst of woods and marshes, at the junction
of the Thone and the Parrett, in Somerset,
where there is now a highly cultivated
country, still known by its ancient name of
Athelnay, or Prince's Island. Here he
spent the most of the sorrowful winter in
meditating his sad condition and devising
plans for his future conduct, and to retrieve
the lost condition of his unhappy country.
Many romantic stories are told of transac
tions in domestic affairs between the herds
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. 249
man's good wile and her unknown royal further action, and redeem their country
guest.10 Here he spent the winter as an from its oppressors. That place was Eg
outlaw, but by the means of faithful friends bert's stone, on the verge of the forest of
received intelligence of proceedings in the Selwood; "which, by the Welsh or British
country, in connection with the Danes. inhabitants of Somerset, who perhaps con
In the meantime the Danes were active stituted the majority of the population, was
in desolating and subduing the country. called by the name of the great forest, or
Good news was brought to Alfred that the Coit Jl/Tir."> l Here he unfurled his
Danes had come in a great tleet from Kent standard, and the people of the whole coun
and attempted to make a landing in Devon, try joyfully rallied to his call, and zealous
but that the people there had met them ly engaged in his good cause.
and given them a successful battle had Allred was now ready for operation, and
slain manv of the enemy, with two of their he was enthusiastically supported by the
most distinguished chieftains, Biorn and people. He soon organized his army, and
Hubba, and had taken their magical ban advanced to a place called Ethandune in
ner, the Raven, which loss, added to the front of the enemy, on the Avon, and but a
death of their renowned leaders, depressed little distance below Chippenham, and
the Danes with the idea that they had met within five months of the time he was de
with a fatal loss, which would be irrepara feated at that place. A battle was inevita
ble. This good news met Alfred's anxious ble, and Alfred addressed his men as Brit
hopes and inspired him with a new resolu ons had been often before addressed, when
tion. He disguised himself as a minstrel, called upon to repel an invading foe, either
and as a gleeman made his way into the Roman or Saxon ; and when perhaps they
Danish camp in Wessex. His singing and were told that it was the last opportunity
rnu-ic were joyfully received in the Danish of securing themselves from a disgraceful
camp, and added much to their rude hilari slavery. "The battle began by a m'ght of
ty. Without raising the suspicion of the arrows. The English and British lances
enemy, Alfred was able to make all his de were next hurled against the Northmen,
sired observations, and departed. Return and when the missiles were expended the
ing to his hiding place at Athelney, he set combatants engaged hand to hand." After
tled upon his plan of operations, called in a terrible contlict, a remnant ol the Danes,
his friends and proceeded to fortify and in under their chief, Guthrun, were compelled
trench the place. The news spread, and to seek refuge within their intrenchments,
the men of Devon and Somerset rallied to where they were closely besieged by Al
his aid. These people were a mixture of fred. Within fourteen days they found
the Ancient Britons and Saxons, who now, themselves without hopes of relief, and be
not for the first time, met as allies in a mu ing upon the point ot starvation, they were
tual cause of defense. compelled to accept the terms of surrender
offered by Alfred. He saw a country large
Alfred now issued his proclamation to
his people, announcing his situation and enough lor both people, if they would re
hopes, and calling upon his people to meet sort to the peaceable pursuits of agricul
him at a given place and day to prepare for ture, instead of pillage and plunder. He
also saw it was impossible to expel the
10 Palgrave's Anijlo-Saxon, B. vi, p. 107, says Danes; he therefore offered to divide the
that Alfred had there with him his moiher, Oshur-
gha, but this is doubtful; for Ethclwulf, his father, island between them, they to take the east
when Allred was only about eight years of age, and he the west, "by a line stretching to
married Judith, the daughter of Charles, the Bald, of the river Thames, and from thence to the
France. Other historians say she was dead. But
Palgrave (p. 92) says: "It must he that Ethehvulf; waters of the Lea, and thence to its head
in order to make way for Judith, had nut away Os-
burgha, the mother of his children. This tact is not waters ; thence straight to Bedford, and fin
mentioned in express terms in our ancient historians,
but Osburgha is noticed in a manner which cannot ally going along the river Oure, and let
be explained by any other hypothesis." And this
may be noticed as part of the evidence of the man- ii Paltrrave's Anglo-Saxons, ch. vi, p. no. i Pic
p rs of the times. torial Hist, ot England, B. ii, ch. i, p. 151.
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
them end at Watling-Street." East of this and cultivate the arts of peace And so it
was to be Dane-laugh, or their dominion, was ; but then, what could be depended upon
which would unite with Northumbria, a people who loved war better than peace,
which was already fully in their possession. and who were taught to believe that death
This proposed treaty contemplated to sur in battle was the sure road to heaven?
render to the Danes all the eastern part of But the treaty was in a great measure
England, but retaining to Alfred the west, observed, and each party for a considerable
including London. time did much to observe its terms. Guth
Alfred was suspicion* of Guthrun's good run, as long as he lived, appears to have
faith and honest adherence to the terms of continued in peace and friendship with his
the treaty, and observing the peace. About godfather, and rendered to him that subjec
a year previous, Guthrun with his Danes tion which was due from a vassal to his
had taken Exeter, where he was soon after lord. Guthrun settled in East Anglia,
besieged by Alfred. He was compelled to a where he was king; and the whole of the
surrender as in this case ; and in his pagan country east of the treaty line was divided
manner made oath to observe the terms of up between different Danish chieftains un
that treaty and surrender, which Alfred der their own government : and Northum
found to be of little or no restraint upon bria was already so. Peace prevailed for a
his conduct or action. The Saxons gener while, and the country began to improve
ally complained of the Danes as being des and recover from the effects of war and its
titute of good faith, just as the Britons did desolation. In about eighteen years after
of the pagan Saxons. Alfred urged this this (A. D. 906) all this territory was re
want ol good faith upon Guthrun as a rea covered from the Danish government by
son for hesitating to ratify the treaty. He Edward the Elder, Alfred's son and suc
urged upon him to become a Christian, the cessor. The people for a while seemed to
propriety of their principles, and the obser enjov the just reward of peace, and to be
vance of good faith in treaties. Guthrun come sensible of the dire effects of their
listened to these propositions and arguments own wars and their cruel barbarity.
with all the candor that a heathen would Alfred now proceeded to vigorously renew
be supposed to be capable of, and consented and restore the country to its wonted pros
to become a Christian and be baptized. perity in time of peace. He confided the west
This was done, and at his baptism and con part of Mercia, which by the treaty remain
firmation Ailred stood as Guthrun's god ed within his dominion, to his son-in-law,
father. Ethelred Earl of Mercia, who had married
This treaty was thus concluded between his daughter Elfleda, to be governed sub
the parties, but much censured by many of ject to his control. He soon proceeded to
the Saxons, because Alfred did not insist London, took possession of it .as part of
upon the Danes leaving England. But Mercia, and restored it to its former con
Alfred had wisdom enough to perceive dition, by repairing its walls and battle
that the other Danes, except those who ments
were parties to the treaty, would have But this state of affairs did not continue
laughed to scorn its supposed binding torcc but a few years, before the Northmen again
upon them; besides the Danes had com began to show their hostility. Though
mand of the sea, ami could pour into the Guthrun, during his life, continued to ob
country their thousands of new recruits the serve the terms of his treaty in good faith,
next year. In fact, Alfred saw it Mas just he died in a few years, in the government
as impossible lor him to get rid of the Danes of East Anglia; yet the Danes, as pirates
in that manner as it was formerly for the and marauders, hovered on the sea about
Britons to accomplish the same thing with the coast of Britain and France, and often
the Saxons. Alfred justly thought it attacked various places for spoils and
the best policy for both people to settle plunder. To meet the naval force of the
down in peace in their respective territory, Danes, Alfred proceeded to build a navy
Clinp in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
of his own, which among the Saxons had
been neglected for inany years, and for
that purpose sent into Wales for workmen,12
where they, as Britons, had long beeh dis
tinguished as mechanics He was soon
able to send out a fleet capable to cope
with the Danish pirates, and in some in
stances gained signal victories over them.
The Northmen had troubled France in the
same manner as they had Britain, and
were now returning down the Seine from
a siege of Paris. They first went to take
St. Loo in Armoric.i, where the Bretons
fought them; and driving them into the
nver, where many were drowned. They
next collected a great army and a large
lift-:, with i view of making a descent up
on Engl .::id. They came with a fleet of
250 ship-, i A. D. 890) and disembarked in
the south ol' tvent. In the meantime Hast
ing, a-fiotorious chieftain, with eighty ships
and another part of their pagan forces, landed
within the Thames, and constructed a camp
at Milton ; but here he came to terms with
Alfred, and solemnly swore he would never
injure him in any manner. The king
therefore showed him, his wife and chil
dren great favors, and were baptized, the
king standing as godfather for one of them.
Alfred thought these favors and solemn
promises would secure the good faith of
this disciple of Woden ; but it was not so,
lor Hasting was as faithless as ever. He
merely changed his camp to Batnfleet;
and thence issued forth to plunder the
king's country. Alfred stormed his in-
trench'ments, and took his wife, children
and ships. He restored his wife and chil
dren to Hasting, for he had been their god
father, and hoped it would have good efiect
on his pagan enemy. But that was an act
oi generosity which he was incapable of
appreciating. He collected his forces, went
into the interior of Mercia, and for a time
carried on a war of ravage and plunder in
the heart of England.
At the same time Alfred was informed
that the Danes had landed, and were be
sieging Exeter, and committing acts of dep
redation and plunder on the coast of Dev-
u This is so stated by Mr. Southey in his X:ival
History.
onshire; and similar intelligence came
from other quarters. Alfred was now per
plexed with various attacks of his enemies
as formerly. Those in the interior proceed
ed west as far the Severn under the lead of
Hastings. Ethelred, the earl ol Mercia,
vigorouslv pursued him with his forcer-, and
called upon his allies, the Cymry, for aid.13
These came with alacrity under the com
mand of the brave and gallant sons of Rhod-
ri, uniting with the Saxons in the preserva
tion of their own country. The Danes
were now beset bv forces on both sides;
and to save themselves they formed an in
trenched camp on the banks of the Severn.
After being here besieged several weeks,
having lived some time on horse flesh, and
being on the point of starvation, they took
the resolution of cutting their way out,
which they accomplished by unexpectedly
rushing with desperate force through the
ranks of the Angles, avoiding those of the
Cymry. They made their way back, with
great loss, to their shipping in Essex. The
next year Hastings, still full of enterprise
in war and mischief, collected another large
army, confided the care of their women,
children and property to their Danish
friends settled in the cast, made a rapid
march to the west across the whole island,
took Chester by surprise, fortified and in
trenched it, together with the adjoining
peninsula between the Dee and the Mer
cy. Alfred pursued them with his forces,
laid siege to Chester and their intrench-
ments, but soon found that the Danes had
fortified themselves with so much skill,
that it soon became hopeless to reduce their
works. He therefore laid waste the coun
try round about there, and withdrew into
Mercia. Forthwith, upon being relieved,
Hastings and his hungry followers rushed
into Gwyncdd and plundered it ot whatever
was valuable to them. He then returned,
laden with spoils, to Chester; and finding
his service being called for in the east, he
proceeded thither with his army, around
Alfred's position, through Northern Mer
cia and East Anglia to his Danish people
in Essex. He next proceeded with his
army and shipping up the Thames, and
13 Florence of Worccs., p. 83.
 THE SAXON PERIOD.
then some Jistance up the Lea, where he
secured himself in an intrenched camp with
in a few miles of London, with a view of
plundering and living upon the country
around it. The Londoners bravely sallied
forth to attack them; and heroically en
gaged them in battle, in which they were
victorious, having slain many of the Danes
and a number of their chiefs ; they drove
them into and confined them to their forti
fied camp. Hither came Alfred (A. D.
895) with his army, and besieged them. He
tound their intrenchments so strong that
he had to make his approaches with great
labor. He first diverted the waters of the
Lea from where the Danish shipping were
moored. This was so done as to leave the
shipping stranded in the bottom of the
river.n When Hastings and his Danes
had discovered that their shipping had been
rendered useless, he adopted a new resolu
tion, characteristic of his enterprising na
ture. He abandoned his shipping, and
marched across the country to Bridgenorth
near the Severn, in Shropshire, where they
erected, in their usual manner, a strong
fortified encampment for their winter quar
ters; again having confided the care of
their families to their friends in East An-
glia.'s In the meantime the citizens of
London were active. They seized upon
what was left of the fortification and ship
ping on the Lea, destroyed all they found
there, except the most valuable of the ship
ping, which they took around to London,
where they were received with great tri
umph and rejoicing.
For three years had Alfred now been
particularly harrassed by new and succes
sive attacks of the Danes in almost every
part of his dominions. They had landed
in Kent and Sussex, and were ravaging
and plundering the country. They had
done the same in Devonshire, and thev
M "He dujf three deep channels from the I.ea to the
Thames, in order to lower the level of the tributary
stream. So much was the water thus drawn oil,
that where a ship might sail in limes past, then a
little boat miifht scarcely row, and the whole
fleet of Hastings was left aground and rendered
useless."/Hit.
i, p. iS.
[Book in.
were again besieging Exeter. The sea was
swarming with their piratical ships, and
none could tell where they would first land
to rob and plunder. In the midst of all
this Hastings had escaped from his hands
when near London, and was now intrench
ed on the border of Wales. The Cymry
there detested them as they formerly did
the Saxons, and called them black stran
gers, (cftroiiioit tin) whom the Cymry now
found to be as implacable enemies as the
Saron had been. They readily joined their
Anglo-Saxon neighbors again to expel
these unwelcomed visitors. Hastings again
crossed the island, much discouraged. The
Danish army dispersed; one portion with
drew to the Danish settlements in East
Anglia and Northumbria, while others,
with Hastings, crossed over to France and
settled among the Danes there; and llast-
ings, worn out in his active and pestilent
life, and the opposition he met with in Brit
ain, never troubled it again.
Alfred had now a little more leisure to
pursue those objects so near to his heart
the cultivation of his people in the arts of
peace and humanity. He was, what was
so uncommon among the Saxons oi his
day, by nature and laste fond of literature
and study, and whatever tended to civiliza
tion and the improvement of humanity.
He died at the age of fifty-three years, and
had reigned thirty years; and during his
reign no man in high position ever labored
more earnestly or economized more time
for the improvement of himself and people,
and for the promotion of the general wel
fare ol the country. Everything received
his attention, from the education of his peo
ple to the building up the navy of the na
tion. The Saxons, after settling down in
Britain, became indifferent of naval affairs,
which dwindled to nothing. But Alfred
revived them, and Modern Britain is in
debted to him for laying the foundation of
that which is their greatest security and
glory.
The reminiscence of Alfred has come
down to us a legend or tradition of a most
excellent character, not only as a superior
sovereign, but also as a sage, and a man of
extraordinary benevolence and humaniu.
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
We conceived him to be a person of almost
an ideal perfection. And such undoubted
ly he was, to an extraordinary degree. But
how much we are surprised, when we
learn from historians, that in the early part
of his career his character did not so com
port with that of the latter and greater part
of his reign; for character generally be
longs to natureis uniform and seldom
changes. -But that this change did take
place in Alfred, is testified to by historians,
and there can be no doubt of it.ii> Thierry
says: "The rigor of Alfred toward the great
[in their administration of justice] was not
accompanied by affability towards the small ;
he defended these, but he did not like them ;
their petitions and their appeals were dis
tasteful to him, and his house was closed
against them.""' And Turnersays: "When
we reflect that Alfred had, in the beginning
of his reign, transgressed upon this point,
he claims our applause for his noble self-
correction [i. e. his subsequent reform]. It
was highly salutary to his subjects; 'for,'
says Asser, 'in all his kingdom the poor had
no helpers, or very few besides him. The
rich and powerful, engrossed with their own
concerns, were inattentive to their inferiors.
They studied their private, not the public
good.' "
This extraordinary change, in the char
acter of Alfred, is readily accounted fon
by the natural effect that the suffering, ex
perience and discipline, that his forced re
tirement wrought upon him at Athelney.
Previous to that time Alfred's education
and experience, though without liturature
and its culture, was the best afforded by
that ignorant and benighted age. It was
characterized by the governing Saxon aris
tocracy, which excluded from the govern
ment all princes and nobility who were not
the descendants of Woden; excluded from
their society the great mass of the people.
This induced the officers of the govern
ment to be proud, haughty and supercilious
towards those who had no share in the
government, but were its unconditional
16 Asscr'sLite of Alfred, in Boh.i's Lib. Six Old Irvinen, and to search nut hi.* own means, hut he had
Chron., 61 ; I Turner's Anjflo-Sax., B. v, ch. vi, p. also to struggle against difficulties which would
476; i Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. ii, pp. 66, 67. have extinguished the inl.'.nt desire in a mind of less
17 Thierry, ut supra, who cites his authorities.
JS3
subjects. As its natural consequence, sucli
an organization had its tendency to treat
the people and poor with indifference or
contempt. It promoted a want of "affabil
ity towards the small," and fostered a spirit
of contempt towards "the poor," and non-
official. Alfred being a part of, and brought
up among, such a people, it is no wonder
that he was. affected by that spirit of
Wodenism, which even the meekness and
affability of the Christian religion did not
remove. But when his affliction and hum
ble experience at Athelney had brought
him to realize the realities of human life,
he was taught to feel and sympathize with
his fellow man, and understand his wants
and interest in humble life, in a manner
that the aristocratic ruler who claimed a
family relation and descent from the divine
Woden could not at all appreciate. But
Alfred had by nature a fine and sympathet
ic heart, so uncommon in that family of
men, that it required this experience and
education only to bring it to its proper
tone, which in its future action commanded
the admiration of the world. He then could
sympathize with the humble in life, and
divide with the needy beggar his only loaf
of bread. This constitutes the difference
in the character of Alfred before his retire
ment to Athelney, and that developed in
the after twenty-five years of his noble life.
This shows the value of such experience
to those who are called upon to rule, as il
lustrated by Alfred, Washington, Lincoln
and others; and as the want of it in num
erous tyrants who have disgraced humanity
and the world.
After his restoration Alfred exerted him
self in every manner possible to improve
himself, his people and country. In that
illiterate and ignorant age, the education of
Alfred in literature and science had been
neglected. Like that of the age, his had
been confined, and depended upon his in
tercourse with the men of the world.15 He
iS i Turner's Anifln-Saxon, B. v, ch. i, p. 3$6.
"When Alfred be^an his own education he had not
only u> hnd the stinuihir- in himself, tn cherish it in
opposition to the prejudice and practice of his coun-
energy. * * * The Aniflo-S.ixon lamjimee h;ltl
been al this 'period very litUe appiird to the purposes
254 THE SAXON PERIOD.
now did all in his power to retrieve his
neglected education, and devoted as much
as possible of his leisure hours to the culti
vation of literature and science, and acquir
ed for himself the laudable appellation of a
self educated man. For the purpose of
aiding him in this, he called around him
some of the very few learned men of that
age; and his liberal sentiments, and ab
sence of that national prejudice so common
to the ignorant and disgraceful to our na
ture; he sought from other countries those
masters who were able to render him that
aid which he so fervently desired. Accor
dingly there came to his aid : from France,
Grimbald, the Frenchman, the priest and
monk, "adorned with everv moral excel
lence, and skilled in vocal music;" from
the learned men collected on the continent,
Johannes, or John the Irishman, whose
great intellect was "acquainted with all the
treasures of literature, versed in many
languages, and accomplished in many arts ;''
from Wales, Asser, the Cvmro, known to
his countrymen as Gcraint Bardd Glas
/<;'./)/ of St. Asaph who then presided over
the great college at Menevia, and bore the
highest reputation for his intelligence, learn
ing and piety. This sage became Alfred's
most intimate friend and counselorhis
historian and biographer.w With such
anxious care and assiduity did Alfred seek
his own education, and in the midst of the
most arduous attention to the interest of
his government, and to the continued hos
tilities of the Danes. Nor did he neglect
any matter connected with the government
or interest of the country or their improve
of litcrutui * * Thu hostilities of the North
men augmented every obstacle; on every occasion
they hnrnl the books \vhich h;ul been collected, and
destroyed the men who could use them, in their pro
miscuous persecution of the Christian clergy."
10 See Turner's Anglo-Saxon, B. v, ch. i, p. 3SS,
where he Drives an interesting account ot Asscr, and
his biography of Alfred. "The merit of Asser
reached the king's ear, which was open to every
rumor of extraordinary merit. 'I was called by the
king,' says this plain, but interesting biographer,
'from the" western extremities of Wales. I accom
panied my conductors to Sussex, and first saw him
in the royal city of Dene, I was benignly received
by him. Amongst other conversation, he asked me
earnestly to devote myself to his service, and to be
come his companion, lie requested me to leave all
my preferments beyond the Severn, and he promised
to compensate them to me by greater possessions.'
Asser expressed a hesitation at quitting without ne
cessity, and merely for profit, the place where he had
[Book in
ment, his devotion to literature and
science, and his own cultivation; for all
these were made subservient, in the due
division of his time, to the best interest of
bis people, and to the progress of the com
mon welfare of humanity.
Another of the great qualities of Alfred,
so unusual in that age, was his strong de
sire and labors to promote peace, honest
dealing and good faith, between his gov
ernment and that of his neighbors. He
labored in good faith to protect and main
tain the treaty made between him and
Guthrun; still the other Danes continued
to trouble him the whole of his life, but
was gradually declining as the good of his
policy towards them became more and
more apparent. But it was with the An
cient Britons, the Cymry, that this nation
al liberality and justice was the most ob
vious. Between him and them war seems
to cease to exist. This to the Saxons and
Danes would appear very strange; for to
them war would seem to be the normal
condition of man, for their religion of
Woden taught and inculcated it, so that it
was difficult for even the Christian religion
to eradicate it. Through Asser the good
and pacific policy of Alfred was made
known to his people. Its good effects be
came immediately manifest. They were
found now to be in character just as Taci
tus and Agricola had testified to nearly
eight hundred years previous; that the
Britons were peaceably inclined, and when
well treated easily governed, and readily
performed all duties; but when injured or
oppressed with injustice, were terrible in
their indignation. This character holds
been nourished, and taken orders. Alfred replied,
If this will not suit you, accommodate me with at
least half of vour lime. Be with me six months, and
pass the rest in Wales.' Asser declined to engage
himself, till he had consulted his friends." Thi= was
so arranged with the consent of his countrymen, and
he became the most devoted friend of Alfred, who
conferred upon him many honors and possesMons;
and among other preferments mode him bishop of
Sherburn, where a large portion of the people were
descendants of the Ancient Britons, and called by the
Saxons Welslikind. The king gave him Ex'eter,
with all the parish belonging to it in Saxnny and
Cornwall. "Asser states the donations with which
Alfred remunerated his attachment. N'o eloquence
can do more honor to any human character, than this
unadorned narration. The condescension, hur.igni-
ty, the desire of improvement, and the wise liberal
ity of Alfred, are qualities so estimable, as to insure
the veneration of every reader."
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
good to all Britons of the present day, ing and piracies, than the army by land'
whether they be known as Welsh, English le therefore made great exertion to in-
or Scotch. rease his navy so as to meet and conquer
Asser's announcement to his country men, hem on the sea. In this he was very suc
and especially his appointment as bishop cessful. He had great genius for invention
among his countrymen in Devon, Somer and improvements, and he is credited with
set anj Cornwall, had their effect in con aving produced many ; but in regard to
vincing them of Alfred's good faith and lis navy he ordered many improvements
honest intention. The distinction between of great value and success, in which was
the two nationalities as called by Asser adopted whatever had been found the most
'Britaiiifi and Saxaitin, may be noticed as valuable in the former Roman navy. This
evidence of the old distinction still exist rendered him successful and superior
ing. But with Alfred's liberal and just against the Danes on the sea.
policy, the people for once were forgetting The great exertion made by Alfred to
their just animosity, and fast assimilating mprove his people and country ; the pro
as one people, as they really have within gress he was making in literature, arts and
the century past, by the exercise of the science; his strict administration of the law
same rational and just policy. and justice; and his liberality in matters of
The effect of Alfred's policy upon the charity, as well as in his dealings both with
Britons, the Cymry, is well stated by Miss lis own people and those of his neighbor
Jane Williams in her history of Wales, and ing countries, raised him to the summit of
as I believe it to be just and true, I take fame in his own time, and made him one
the liberty to transcribe it here: "The ap of the most renowned and deserving sover
prehension of the Welsh being soothed by eigns of any age or country. His kind and
the moderation of his demands, by abstain liberal policy towards all of the variuus
ing from infringements upon the Cymric people of the island, would soon have pro
soil, and by treating them with confidence duced an union of all as one people under
as brave and friendly coadjutors, he won a consolidated government; but as soon as
and retained their real affection. The ex he had departed, the old policy, of war and
perience of his justice, his faithfulness, and conquest, and subjection to tribute and tax
his martial prowess incited the district ation for the benefit of others, was renewed
kings of the Cymry to appeal to him from us the only policy then known or appre
the encroachments of his Mercian deputy ciated.
and from the despotism of their own sov In A. D. 901 Alfred departed this life,20
ereigns. Even the redoubtable six sons of and immediately the void left was felt
Rhodri sought his favor; and Anarawd, as throughout the island. No longer was his
the paramount sovereign of Wales, was policy appreciated or understood, or ahead
accepted to be a direct tributary of the king or heart found capable of carrying it out.
of Wessex, without the intervention ot The system of mutual benefits, and recip
Mercia, to which he had previously been
20 In l Pictorial History of England, p. 15*5, it is
subjected, and on the same terms of fealty said of Alfred: "Itis many labors in the co.ist, the
and dependence as those by which Ear camp, the field, the hall of justice, the study, must
have been prodigious; and our admiration of this
Ethelred held Merciaever obnoxious to wonderful man is increased by the well established
the Cymry because its wide western border fact, that all these exertions were made in spite of
the depressing influences of physical pain and con
stant
had been torn away from them. The high afflicted had health. In his early years he was severely
by a disease, which" only left him at about
est courtesy of England was usually shown twenty years of a^e, to be replaced by another, still
under the Teutonic kings in some religious skill of the a^-e. malady,
more tormenting which baffled all medical
* * * This malady never left
ceremonv, king Alfred therefore acted as him till the day of his death, which it m'usthavc has
tened. He expired in the fifty-third year of his
king Anarawd's sponsor in the rite of con ag, and was buried at Winchester." This sad ca
firmation." lamity came upon his people while he was in the
prime of his official usefulness, and while they mitfht
During the latter part of Alfred's reign reasonably hope, according to the ordinary course of
nature, that he mipht be left to them twenty years
he was more troub.ed by the Danish ship longer.
256 THE SAXON PERIOD.
rocity, in the government and intercourse
of two or more states in the same country
or territory, was an idea beyond the con
ception of the age, unless it was in the
mind of the departed sovereign.
At that time East Anglia, the northeast
part of Mercia, and the whole of Northum-
bria, was under the rule of the Danes;
_north of that, including Strath Clvde and
.Scotland, was under the rule of independ
ent princes, and so was Cumbria. Wales,
was under the rule of its own kings and
princes, and these were the sons of Rhodri,
or Roderic the Great, of whom Anarawd,
the hereditary king of Gwyncdd, was the
paramount sovereign of all Wales, by the
election of their general assembly. Corn
wall was under its own kings, as tributaries
to We-sex. All the residue of the island,
now included in England, was under the
rule of Alfred.
Edward, the *on of Alfred, came to the
throne ot' Wessex with all the advantage
ofbe ; the successor of so renowned a fath
er. His reign wa- comparatively success
ful, but more resembling the former kings
of his country than that of Alfred. He
sustained with vigor the supremacy of
Wessex over the other states constituting
his government, although his right was
contested by his nephew, a son of Alfred's
older brother, which brought on a war, in
which he joined the Dr.nc- against his un
cle and country. Mercia had been placed
by Alfred under the government of Ethel-
red, the elderman, his son-in-law, who had
married his daughter, Ethel fleda, who gov
erned it as subordinate sovereigns; but the
Saxons were scrupulous in calling her the
queen, and therefore denominated her the
Lady of Mercia. Her husband soon after
died, and she continued to govern Mercia,
with great success, more after
the manner and policy of her father, Al
fred, until her death in 920; when Mercia
also came into the possession of Edward
without a subordinate sovereign. In the
meantime Edward had hostilities with the
Danes settled in England, as well as with
those \\~\\o continued their piracy on the
sea; in the course of which he recovered
and subjected to his dominion East Auglia,
[Book in.
and all south of Northumbria.
This Edward, called the Elder, died in
A. D. 925, after a successful and prosper
ous reign as compared with the kings of
the Heptarchy, except Alfred; and was
succeeded by his son Athelstane, a still
greater and more prosperous sovereign
than his father. He prosecuted a strenuous
war against all the surrounding states
which did not readily submit to his terms
and sovereignty; for his policy was not a
peaceful and conciliatory one, like that of
Alfred, but one of coercion and consolida
tion.
This first demonstration was against the
Danes, who continued to govern North
umberland; and reduced that to be a part
of his own dominion, and not a separate
Danish state. He next turned his atten
tion to his relation with Wales. At
that time the paramount sovereign of Wales
was Howel Da, or How el the Good. It is
said that Athelstane summoned all the vas
sal or tributary kings west of the Severn
to meet him .it Hereford; and accordingly
Hovvel and Owen, king of Monmouth, with
other tributary kings, met him there. Owen
made his complaint, and claimed a district
which had been recently taken from him
by the Mercians At this meeting all the
tributary kings met there were received
and considered members of the king's
Great Council, or Witangemot. Howul
was anxious that this claim of Owen
should produce no hostilities, and be set
tled peaceably, suggested that the claim
should be determined and settled by the
meeting as the king's parliament. By com
mon consent this was done by this assem
bly as the representatives of the inhabitants
of Great Britain; and it was thus deter
mined that, for the future, the river Wye
should he the eastern boundarv of South
Wales.. This perhaps was the best effort
ever made at that day towards a peaceable
and harmonious settlement, and consolida
tion of the kingdom.
Some difficulty having taken place in
Devon, the king's attention was called
there. The population of the peninsula
west of the Avon was principally the de
scendants ol the Ancient Britons, but with
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. 2S7
in the government of Wessex east of the how and his popularity carried all before
river Tamarwest of that they were still lim. The native sovereigns of the neigh
under their own tributary king. In the boring territories were induced to unite
midst of that population was the city of vith them, with the hopes of liberating
Exeter; which was said to be a free city, hemselvcs from Saxon rule, and bettering
and was inhabited by both people Britons heir condition und"er the fair promises
and Saxons. It is probable that these two nade to them. All the Cymry of the
people occupied different parts of the same norththose of Cumbria, Strath-Clyde,
city, and governed by their respective mag ind the Picts and Scots of Scotlandwere
istrates. Some misunderstanding took asily persuaded into this alliance to rid
place, and Athelstane permitted the Brit hemselves of those they considered to have
ons to be expelled and take refuge with been their oppressors. In the north, the
their brethren west of the Tamar. It is Wessex power and authority were soon
probable that those thus expelled included overturned. But Athelstane with great
only the official and ruling part of the energv and expedition collected all the force
British community, and did not include ind power of South Britain to meet this
those who chose peaceably to remain and crisis; in which he appears to have been
come under the Saxon laws; yet William very successful. He was at Brunnaburgh
Malmesburg speaks of the transaction as a or perhaps Brambaugh, in the neighbor
very laudable one; and deems the city to hood of Aulaf, with his forces, with that
have been thereby cleansed of a "contamin expedition, which took the latter by sur
ated race." I'ndoubtedlv so; for it was prise; but who was soon able to assemble
very natural to consider them a~ a "con his forces, including his northern and west
taminated race," who were so tenacious of ern allies, and prepare for the contest,
their rightsso obstinate, and difficult to which he must have expected to be decis
be robbed of their property and liberty. ive. Aulaf, hoping to gain by surprise,
But strange it is that Alfred did not enter made a bold midnight attack; which Ath
tain the same opinion of Asser and his elstane met with his usual courage and
countrymen who were with him, whom he vigilance. When the sun arose the fury
held in such high estimation as to have of the battle had begun; and the conflict,
made As*er bishop of this same part of the hich lasted all day with the greatest fury
country. on both sides, terminated in a total defeat
In A. D. 937 great events took place to of the allies, who were entirely routed. On
trv the power and capacity of Athelstane. their side five kings and seven of their great
The Danes of N'orthumbria became dis earls had fallen in the strife; Constantine,
satisfied with their condition, and anxioue the king of the Scots, making his way home,
to throw off their Saxon government. Foi mourning the loss of his son.
this purpose a general call was made to This very great battle and victory has
come to the rescue; and a general rusl been a theme upon which the English his
was made from all the sources of Danish torian" have dilated with great satisfaction,
and Northmen people. A Danish chief and raised him in high estimation among
tain known by various names, as Olave, or his neighbor^ on the continent, as well as
Aulaf, or Olaf, had been a successful ad with the vassal kings in Britain, who were
venturer; had taken Dublin in Ireland anc readily brought to their former allegiance.
maintained a successful rule over the conn He became popular, and always bore the
try in its vicinitv. This chieftain came reputation of being generous and charita
around with the fleet at his command; the ble. Like Alfred, his bearing and conduct
pirates and adventurers in all directions towards the Cymry was such as to over
Hocked to him, so that he was able to en come their just prejudices against the Sax
ter the mouth of the 1 lumber with a flee ons. When the Northmen invaded Armo-
of six hundred and twenty sails.21 Thi rica, and the Bretons flying for a refuge,
o's Anf?lo-Saxan*, ch. x, p. 173. Athelstane kindly afforded them a. hospita
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book HI
ble asylum among their kindred people in younger branch of the descendants of
Devon and Corn-well ; and he became the Rhodri Mawr. But the matter was peace
sponsor of the infant Alan, grandson of the ably settled, and Howel set himself earn
Breton sovereign. When he became of age estly to work, peaceably, to promote the
he was permitted to assemble his emigrant true interest of his people and country.
Bretons, and return with them in a success Howel's first official intercourse with
ful expedition, in which Alan was enabled to the Saxon government was with Edward
take possession of Dol and St. Brien, by the Elder and his sister, the "Lady ot'Mer-
mean; of which this tbstjr son of Athel- cia." With these Howel was able to keep
stane was restored to his throne. Athel- upon tolerably good terms. At one time
stane, however, well knew that these acts the Lady Ethelrleda was called upon to
of kindness would not be lost upon the subdue the clajms set up by Owen, a su
grateful and susceptible hearts of the Cvm- bordinate king in the valley of the Wye.
ry. These matters rendered the reign of This being accomplished, she proceeded, in
this great sovereign successful and peacea accordance with her usual |x)licy and that
ble to the end of his life, which expired A. o't Alfred her father, to secure her posses
D. 940. It is said that he the first of sions by casties and fortifications erected
the Saxon kings who, on account of the ex in every important place in her dominion,
tent and character of his dominion, received for its protection and security; and her
the title of the king of England instead of territory on the borders of Wales and in
that of Wessex. the valley of the Severn was especially
The Cymry in Cumbria and Strath-Clyde cared for in the same manner. For this
during this time were generally under the purpose Chester, Bridgenorth and other
government of their ovn princes, but sub- strongholds were strongly fortified; and
ordinary or tributary to the Saxon or able t6 cut off all easy communication be
Danish rulers of England. They were tween the Cymry of Cambria and their
much encroached upon by Danes and Scots brethren in the northin Cumbria and
from Ireland settling among them, by Strath-Clyde.
means of which they have become some Howel, during an administration of
what distinguishable from those of Wales. thirty-three years, labored with great skill
In the latter country, we are in one of their and judgment to preserve peace, both in
interesting periods of their historythat of his own country and with his neighbors.
Howel the Good, or Howel Da. His success was great, and his country un
In A. D. 915 Anarawd, the king of der his rule was rendered prosperous and
Gwynedd by inheritance, and supreme happy. The increase of production of
sovereign of all Wales, and of the Bretons every kind became so great, thateverv one
by the national election, died ; having been apparently was becoming wealthy and
preceded in their position by his father, poverty unknown. This according to the
Roderic the Great; and was succeeded by policy and maxims of that day with their
his son Idwal, surnamed Foel (the Bald), surrounding neighbors, was only creating
as king of Gwynedd; and Howel abCadeil, a temptation for others to make a raid up
(or Howel Da) was king of Dehenbarth on them, and return from thence with rich
and Powys by birthright, and was elected booty. Howel, with his wisdom and
supreme sovereign of all Wales Brenhin sound policy, was able to preserve peace
Penraithin accordance with law and cus with his Saxon neighbors, but not so with
tom. It is supposed that the character of the surrounding Danes. In A. D. 91$, in
Howel must have had a potent influence particular, though such visits were fre
upon Idwal, to induce him to submit to the quent, a large fieet, bearing a large Danish
election ol Howel without opposition; and army, passed along the western and south
see the supreme sovereignty transferred ern shore of Wales, and landing wherever
from his family, who had received so many the surprise would permit them, for the
distinctions from Ahred the Great, to a purpose of ravaging and plundering the
Chap ui.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. -39
country. They proceeded up the estuary and welfare of the people then required-
of the Severn, without any serious opposi This was done, and it produced one of the
tionfor they kept out of its wayand most noted literary productions in relation
taking plunder and booty on both sides. to law and codific ation of that age. Great
Elated by this success, they were led far up pains were taken to make it accurate and
the Severn until the men of Hereford and satisfactory. Copies were made; and for
Gloucester had time to collect and meet the purpose of giving it greater sanctity
them. A battle ensued in which the Danes and authority, Howel was desirous it should
were terribly worsted and punished, and receive tin- sanction and commendation ot
they escaped with difficulty, and their num the Pope. For this purpose he proceeded
bers much reduced. These raids of the to Rome, (A. D. 926), with a large retinue
Danes into Wales were frequent, and some of distinguished men, where it was recited
times they were the cause of much fighting to the Pope in a Latin version, and re
and severe battles. But in them the Danes ceived his confirmation. It was also ap
resorted to every means to plunder and proved and ratified by the great national
gain booty. In one of these they took a council at home; and made the general law
British bishop as a prisoner, and demanded of all the provinces of Cymru. All viola
ransom, for which 40 were paid. tion of it was to be denounced by church
Every means of improving and bettering and state; and no alteration, except by the
the condition of his people and country consent of an assembly as numerous as
were looked to and sought for with avidity that by which it had been enacted.
by Howel. Nothing, that was known at The preamble to this code declares that
that day, available for this purpose, was Howel found the ancient laws of Britain,
left by him untried. Like Justinian and a of Dyfnwal Moelmud, more excellent than
few other great sovereigns, he was anxious any other, and therefore made them the
to give his people a good Code of laws. basis of his own. The body of the code
This laudable object engaged much of his is divided into three parts: the first related
attention and exertion. To this end he to the organization of the government,
called to his aid, at his residence, at Ty the rights and duties of the king, his court,
Gwyn ar Daf, (The White-house on the and officers ; the second, to the common
Taff), the archbishop, principal ecclesiastics wealth,the rights and duties of individ
of the country, and nobility of Cambria, uals, the domestic relations, and the right
with six of the wisest and most learned and protection of private property; and
men from each cwmwd (township), to con third, to the administration of the law and
sider and advise with him upon the subject justice in regard to all the previous matters.
of his proposed code. After many days This code specially designated the rights
spent in considering the matter, and in re and duties of the king as sovereign; such
ligious exercises, in invoking the aid of as the exclusive right to coin monev, the
God's Holy Spirit, in reforming the laws duty to command the army, to preserve
and customs of the country, in such man the peace, and sec that justice was admin
ner as would best promote the welfare, istered. It prescribed the officers, and the
peace and happiness of the people. number of persons constituting his admin
When this meeting was closed, Ilowel istration, court and household, with their
appointed a commission to form such code, rights and duties.
consisting of twelve of his most lenrned The rights and duties of private persons
and experienced men, at the head of which were well guarded and protected, as well
was placed Blegwyrd, chancellor of Llan- in their private as in their social relations
doft", a person distinguished for learning, wis a husband and wife, parent and child,
dom and pietv, and which were charged with master and servant ; and protected to everv
the labor of composing such code, by sc man certain property, necessary to his wel
lecting from the ancient laws, and customs fare and support, from levy and execution,
and making such changes as the interest so that the tanner, the mechanic, the arti
'7
260 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
san and the scholar, should not be deprived population and wealth of the country, and
of the necessary implements of his profes in the prosperity and happiness of the peo
sion, "or the man unmanned." ple, that some began to suppose that the
In the administration of justice it pro soil itself had become more productive.
vided, that the judges should hold courts The only drawback to this general success
in the several provinces of the country, was the continued attacks and depredations
and that every cantref and cwmwd should made by the Danes upon various parts of
be entitled to its local judge. All crimes the country. They ravaged and plundered
and offences were declared to be punished, the country, wherever they found they
and their several penalties fixed. could. But generally they were vigorously
To this code were annexed those ancient met and repelled. They were never able
triads, which were principles and maxims to obtain a footing and make settlements in
in the administration of the law, and the Cambria, as they were in other parts of the
dispensation of justice and equity; so as to island. Howel being the supreme sover
protect the freedom, rights and liberty of eign, the numerous sons of Anarawd and
every man in accordance with the due ad Idwal, the former sovereigns, were subor
ministration of the law. These ancient dinate kings and princes of the various
maxims clearly pointed out the distinction provinces into which the country was di
between the legislative, the executive, and vided. Many of these were slain in various
the judicial duties of the government, and battles which took place in repelling the
kept them distinct. The code also clearly Danes. Their efforts in thus defending
recognizes these distinctions and the prin their country were always meritorious and
ciples upon which it is founded, with this gallant. The great merit and influence ot
exception : that all causes concerning the Howel during the whole of his time was
inheritance of land should be heard by the able to keep down and settle all conflicting
king in person, or in case of sickness or claims and hostilities between the various
inability, by his special commissioner. princes, provinces, and their people, as to
This exception, contrary to the ancient the right of succession and other matters
maxim of the British law, that the dispen in dispute, which so often occurred amongst
sation of justice should be by the judge, all people, where they are not definitely
separate and distinct from the executive settled by law and constitutional principles.
department of the government; and in an
cient times the office of judge was per
g2.From the Death of Alhehlanc to thr
formed by the druids; and this exception
Norman Conquest. (A. D. 940 1066.)
was undoubtedly introduced into the code,
by the influence of the example of the That part of Britain which heretofore has
English fudal law which made their king been known as the Heptarchy, and of late
the source of all title to land; and the ex generally ruled by the king of Wessex as
ception was intended to enable the king to its supreme power, and at last consolidated
place the title to land, when in dispute, in into one kingdom and government by Ath
the hands of his friend instead of his ene elstane, may be hence known bv the name
my; and in this, the ancient sound princi of England. Upon the death of Athelstane
ples of justice were violated." he was succeeded by his brother Edmund
Athelstane ended his reign and life in A. I, who, in the course of a reign of seven
D. 940, and the good Howel continued his years, conducted vigorous measures against
eight years longer, to the great advantage the Dunes, and the Cymrv of North Brit
and prosperity of his people and country. ain. Some difficulty took place between
His influence and peaceful policy produced Edmund and Idwal Foel, the subordinate
so happy an (.'fleet in the increase of the king of Gwynedd, which Howel, the su
preme sovereign, was unable peaceablv to
21 SL-C Ancient Laws :im1 Institutions of Wales, control, and Edmund attacked Gwvnecld
published In- the Record Commission of England in
with an auxiliary of Danes, in which Id
 Chap. HI.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
wal and his brothers were slain ; but which
ended without the English king taking
any more territory from Cambria.
In A. D. 945 Edmund waged war against
the Northern Cymry of Strath-Clyde and
Cumbria, in which he was successful in
ravaging the country and bringing the peo
ple to his subjection, which he turned over
in vassalage to Malcolm, king of Scotland ;
and these provinces were for many years
thereafter governed by a prince of Scot
land as vassal of England; but otherwise
very much as the heir to the British crown
is made prince of Wales. The next year
after this conquest Edmund, "the magnifi
cent," was slain by a vile and obtrusive
robber at a festival upon the revelry of a
holiday by the English people. He was
succeeded by another brother, 948, Edred;
and he by his nephew Edwy, in 955. These
several changes and successions produced
no great alteration in the condition of Brit
ain, except what will be noticed in the next
chapter. But as to Cambria, there occurred
a period of about fifty years, (948992)
from the death of Howel the Good to the
.accession of Idwal ab Monrlg, in which
the country suffered much by wars of all
kinds, with Danes, the English, and dis
sensions amongst their own princes, a very
large number of whom were slain in these
wars, who seemed more ambitious to earn
the reputation of a gallant soldier than a
great and beneficent ruler like Howel the
Good. The continued war and enemies
with which they were surrounded had a
natural tendency to produce this result.
The wars they were compelled to encoun
ter in those rude times tended more to
make them brave and skillful warriors rath
er than able statesmen; as was the case
throughout Europe, in this dark period in
history.
Edwy died in A. D. 958, and was suc
ceeded by his brother Edgar, who was
quite a young man, of a mixed and doubt
ful character, but who managed by the aid
of able and vigorous ministers to rule
Southern Britain for seventeen years, with
very great success ; nnd brought it to the
height of prosperity for that day. He was
called Edgar the Pacific; and during his
-C.I
reign there is hardly any evidence of a war,
yet such obedience was rendered to him as
had never been enjoyed by any other Sax
on king. His first display was to meet his
old British neighbors and make himself
sure to be right with them. For this pur
pose he ordered his large navy consisting
of five thousand vessels, it is said, to pro
ceed around the south end of the island to
meet him at Chester; and thither he him
self proceeded by land with a numerous
army. On his arrival there was performed
one of the most splendid pageantries of the
day. Around his throne were assembled
all the vassal kings and princes of the island ;
among them were Kenneth, king of the
Scots; Malcolm, the son of Kenneth, king
of Cumbria; Maccus, the Dane king of
Mona and the Isles; then the kings of the
Britons, Dyfuwall, Sifeth and Idwal, and
the kings of Galloway and Westmere
stand amidst their compeers. All these
appear before king Edgar, and take their
feudal and vassal oath, in accordance with
the form of that institution. On the next
morning Edgar and his vassals entered the
royal barge, moored in the Dee,1 in front
of the palace. Edgar took the helm, nd
each of the royal vassals an oar, they made
their way across the Dee to the monastery
of St. John. After divine service had been
celebrated there, the barge, with Edgar and
his royal party, was rowed back to the pal
ace in the same manner; with the glory of
king Edgar being helmsman, and each
oarsman a king.
This triumphant feat of Edgar wag his
alone and was never repeated. It may
have had the effect, by its eclat, to harmon
ize the discordant elements of his kingdom;
and aided in rendering pacific the residue
ot Edgar's reign.
There was no special event that particu
larly distinguished the prosperous reign of
Edgar. It was a prosperous and progress
ive reign, of fifteen years of peace and suc
cess. No person so distinguished and
characterized that age as he who acted as
the principal minister of Edgar. This was
Dunstan, the archibishop of Canterbury.
i P;tlgrnvc's Anglo-Saxons, ch. xii, p. *>S.
262 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book IK.
He was distinguished for learning and ca courtedand married Elfrida himself. Jealous
pacity of every kind. He had been a dis courtiers soon found opportunity of inform
tinguished and prominent person during ing Edgar of the dishonesty that had been
six reigns, from Edmund I. to Etheired the played upon him. He disguised his resent
Unready, including a period of sixty years ment, and look an occasion to inform Eth
in the midst of disturbances and distrac elwold that he would pay a visit with him
tions of every kind. He was the Wolsey to his wife upon a stated time. The officer
of his age; but between him and Wolsey, was fearfully alarmed, disclosed the matter
though in position and in many respects to his wife, and begged of her to save him.
they resembled each other, there was a Upon the visit, however, Elfrida was more
striking difference. Dunstan was of an excited by her ambitious hopes than by her
aristocratic and royal descent, which was attachment or duty to her husband; and
necessary in those Saxon times, in order to she made ostentatious display of her beautv
acquire a position amongst their nobility ; and accomplishments. Understanding and
and yet he was rough, rude and harsh. concert were speedily formed between this
Wolsey was a plebianthe son of a butch guilty couple. Soon after that Ethelwold
eryet he possessed all the learning and was found assassinated in a woods, and, as
acquirements of his day, with much of the it is said, by the procurement of Edgar,
refinement and elegance of the aristocracy ; with the assent of Elfrida. It was not long
and was much nearer in character and thereafter when Edgar was married to the
manners to a modern Briton, while I>un- beautiful widow.
stan represented that of a Saxon. Both The success and reputation of Edgar an a
were devoted to the church, the exaltation sovereign was greatly tarnished as a man,
of its power, and the importance of their by acts of high handed wrongs and injus
clerical position. Dunstan despised per tices of this kind ; and It is said on another
sonal wealth, because he deemed it unne occasion he caused a beautiful young lady
cessary to the advancement of his native to be abducted from a monastery. For
powers; while Wolsey coveted it, as means this last offense, and especially the viola
to enhance the attraction of his natural tion of the sacred character of a monastic
powers, and to gratify the gaze of the mul institution, the church made him pay pen
titude. Both loved power, and exercised ance and suffer contrition. Whatever pri
it with princely authority but little subor vate Injury he might commit, he was not
dinate to their royal masters. Dunstan suffered to violate the institutions of the
was distinguished, amongst other matters, church with impunity. In those times in
for his exertion to enforce the celibacy of stitutions and persons in power were cared
the clergy, and to make them a distinct for and protected; but the rights of the
class of the people. In this he had a hard masses were but little regarded.
task, and a slow progress; but as one of Edgar had but just attained the summit
Edgar's great ministers, the prosperity of of his power and prosperity, when in A. D.
the reign WBS, undoubtedly in a great 975 he departed this life ; and was succeed
measure, due to the vigor and capacity of ed by his son Edward, known as the mar
Dunstan. tyr. Edgar had left two sons; the eldesl
Another incident in the reign of Edgar was Edward, the son of Elfleda the Fair;
is characteristic of the people and age. Ed and Etheired, the youngest, the child of
gar was much of a gallant and libertine. He his second wife, Elfrida, whose memory is
had heard of the extreme beauty of Elfrida, tainted with so many suspicions. These
the daughter of the earl of Devonshire, and children were only of the ages respectively
sent his earl, Ethelwold, to examine and of fifteen and seven vears. To secure the
return to him the truth of the report. This succession to Edward, Edgar had exer
officer became himself smitten with the ob cised the usual privilege of the king, to
ject of his investigation, and made a false nominate him as his heir. But the mother
report to his master. He soon after that and her friend*, were partisans in favor of
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS. 263
the younger, Ethelred, who was then a try and people suffered more from wars'
mere infant. Edward was supported by distractions, and adversities, if not from
the powerful Dunstan, and was fully in humiliation, than in any other period of
stalled as sovereign and successor, but not
their history.
without great opposition and division, of From the commencement of Edgar's
the nobility, both in the church and in the
reign, the Danes who had settled in Eng
state. land had quietly submitted to the govern
But another great crime transpired in
ment set over them; but now the North
A. D. 978, which transferred the sovermen began to invade the country anew,
eignty from one head to the other; ot and harrass it with continual scenes of de
which the English historian says: "It was
struction and plundering. This happened
the foulest deed which ever stained theoccasionally in every part of the country;
English name." Between Edward and in Wales as well as in England, though
Ethelred there was friendship and brother
in the former these enemies frequently
ly affection; still Elfrida entertained ex
landed, plundered, and carried oft' much
treme aversion towards her step-son, and
bootv, vet they were never able to acquire
plots were formed at her instigation against
a permanent footing there as in other parts
his life. An opportunity soon offered to
of the island. These hostilities were ex
effect their intention. Edward, having perienced, not only along the sea coast,
been engaged in hunting deer in a park,but frequently in the interior, in all direc
proceeded incautiously to the royal mantions from the mouth of the Humber to St.
sion, where Elfrida and her son EthelredDavids and the Lands-End. "Everywhere
resided. It is said he was led alone to the
they repeat the 'plunder, the devastation,
residence by a favorite dwarf servant of the
and the merciless destruction of human
mother. She received him with great aplife which had marked the path cf their
parent kindness at the door, and kissed
predecessors two centuries since." All ef
him. Before the youthful king had timeforts to resist and repel were but temporari
to alight, a cup of wine was offered him;
ly successful ; and Ethelred's attempt to
and while he was taking the draught, one
purchase peace with them by money proved
of Elfrida's attendants stabbed him in the
equally so; for the Danes paid but little
back. He immediately put spurs to his regard to their agreement, and the money
horse, with the hope of proceeding to his
they received was only an inducement to
companions; but on the way he fainted, repeat their aggression. Large sums were
fell, and was dragged by the stirrup with
thus paid; but no sooner were they re
ceived and the oath taken to observe the
the affrighted horse. He was found dead;
and upon examination they found evidence
peace than it was forgotten.
of the crime and cause of his death, which At length these hostilities and injuries
conferred upon him the appellation of "Ed
produced upon the Saxons strong antipa
ward the Martyr." thies and hatred against the Danes; which
Ethelred thus came to the throne, but at
affected the king as well as his people. It
that tender age which acquits him of a was an age of crime and cruelty ; and it is
participation in the crime which broughtnot to be expected that those who had been
disciplined In the war tchool of Woden
him there. But he was still afflicted with a
bad name, of the Unready Although he would lotahe at anything because it was at
was personally acquitted of any participation
tended with blood and carnage. At this
time there were many Danes in the coun
in the crime, yet the story of Edward's death
clung to him ; but as there was no strong
try, besides those who had been long resi
dents, and had acquired a permanent settle
competition against him, he and his party
were permitted tc assume the government.ment. Many had but temporary residence,
Thus Ethelred, the Unready, commenced and some were only quartered upon the
people as soldiers. The king and his peo
hie reign, and exercised it for a period of
ple, during his reign of twenty-four years,
thirty-eight years, during which the coun-
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in
had endured these wrongs and oppression, stroyed Canterbury; took the archibishop
and it was resolved to avenge themselves as a prisoner, and who, heroically refusing
by the commission of one of those darkest to permit himself to be ransomed, was by
national crimes, which have been but sel them most cruelly put to death. After
dom perpetrated to disgrace mankind. ravaging the greater part of the kingdom,
Ethelred and his people, having lost all Thurkil was induced, by the payment of a
faith in the Danes, and smarting under the very large sum of money, to enter the ser
injuries received, though forgetting that vice of Ethelred, and many of his men
they were the same, which they themselves settled in the country. This arrangement
had formerly perpetrated upon the Britons, displeased Sweyn, who had sworn, upon
came to the resolution to put all the Danes the death of his sister, to possess himself of
to death. Accordingly it was ordered, in the sovereignty of England.
the spring of the year 1002, that on the ap Upon this Sweyn again came to England
proaching religious festival in honor of St. with a most extraordinary large and well
Brice, the Saxons should fall unawares up prepared armament of both naval and land
on the Danes and put them to death. The force. He landed on the Humber, sent
order was kept secret; and on the appoint the fleet under the command of his son
ed day the massacre ensued. The fury of Canute to the Thames, while he himself
the people, in many places, added much to went there with his army by land.. He
the cruelty of the destruction. It is possi spared Northumbria and the Danish set
ble that this massacre did not extend to tlements ; but the rest of the country was
those permanent settlements, where the in wasted far and wide with fire and sword.
habitants were principally Danes; but London, which was occupied by Ethelred
where it did prevail, neither sex nor age and Thurkil, held out with patriotic resolu
was spared. In some instances special tion against Sweyn. The citizens greatly
claims upon gratitude and mercy were to distinguished themselves for their martial
tally disregarded, as in the case of the sis spirit; and made such resistance as com
ter of Sweyn, the great Danish chieftain, pelled the Danes to retreat. But he met
whose husband had rendered special ser no such resistance elsewhere. Wessex
vice to the Saxons, were allthemselves soon fell under his control; and he took
and childrenconsigned to the game un and made Bath his headquarters. Ethel-
merciful doom ; but not without the wife's red and the people became discouraged;
prediction, that all England would have ere and he retired to the isle of Wight (A. D.
long to meet a dire retribution for the wick 1013), sending his wife, Emma, and her
ed deeds of that day. two children, Edward and Alfred, to the
As might be expected, the Danes seemed protection of her brother Richard, the duke
to be called upon for a new exertion, and of Normandy, where he soon after followed.
to deem their ordinary works of injustice In the meantime Sweyn had assumed the
to be the righteous acts of retribution. The sovereignty, and was acknowledged by the
next year Sweyn made a new descent up people.
on England, and took possession of Exeter. Sweyn controlled and governed Eng
For four years the country was in a great land as its sovereign for three years, when
measure, at his will and mercy. He came in A. D. 1015 he died unexpectedly; and
as an avenger, not only to plunder, but to was followed and succeeded by his son, af
consume with fire, and to slay with the terwards known as Canute the Great. He
sword. He then consented to leave the returned to England with a vast fleet and
country upon being paid the sum of thirty- army, which is described by the historians
six thousand pounds of silver; which was of the times in glowing terms as magnifi
paid. But no sooner had he departed with cent. The English submitted to him with
his army than another appeared under the reluctance, but resistance was apparently
chieftain Thurkil, who perpetrated all kinds impossible. A large party was in favor of
of outrage and depredation in Kent; de Ethelred's return, but he was irresolute and
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
inefficient. His son Edward, a person of armies, and Edmund was compelled to
great promise, force and vigor, attempted yield to it; and upon negotiation Wessex,
independently to resist Canute, but in vain. Essex, East Anglia and London were as
In the meantime (A. D. 1016) Ethelred de signed to Edmund, and the residue of Eng
parted his checkered and troubled life. land to Canute, subject to the superiority
Ethelred died in London while the city of the former.
was surrounded and besieged by Canute It was not long after this that Edmund
and his Danes, and while Edmund was ceased to live; and his death was not free
with him ; who was immediately proclaimed from suspicions of violence; nor but that
the successor by the citizens, who supported Canute was an accomplice. Canute, how
him with resolution. Edmund was enti ever, claimed that he had the legal right to
tled to their confidence, even In that de the sovereignty of all England, by the
sponding crisis. He was subtle and val terms of the treaty ; and this was yielded to
iant; and his subsequent heroic deeds ac him. From this time Canute continued to
quired for him the appellation of Edmund rule over England until the time of his
the Iro nside. He made his way out of the death in the year 1035, when he was buried
city, through the midst of the Danish fleet, at Winchester. During these nineteen
and for the country to the rescue. Nu years Canute, without neglecting his other
merous battles immediately followed. At three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden and
Assingdune Edmund encountered the Norway, exercised a very beneficial and
Danes under Canute, where a very severe vigorous rule over England, with great
battle ensued, in which the former would impartiality restraining hostility, and en
have been victorious but for the treason of couraging peace between the English and
one of his officers, Edric, who had slain a the Danes, and people within his English
thane who resembled Edmund in a re jurisdiction. England flourished ; and he
markable degree, and holding up the head, became popular with the English people,
the cry was immediately raised, "Flee, and well entitled to the designation given
Englishmen, flee; Edmund is dead." He him of Canute the Great.
and his troops then took flight, and the Canute became not only connected with
whole army was thrown into consterna England by a beneficial government, but
tion, and entirely routed. Thus did Canute connected with the ruling family of the
gain a victory, procured by a treacherous country. Queen Emma, the wife of Ethel-
stratagem, while almost all. the English red, had by him two children, Alfred and
were against him.* Edward, and these were heirs and claim
Canute then hastened with his army to ants to the throne. After the death of
wards Gloucestershire, and spiritedly fol Ethelred, Emma, as the widow, returned,
lowed by Edmund. A deadly battle was and became the wife of Canute, and again
upon the point of being again fought, when the queen of England ; and had by him a
Edmund stepped forward and challenged son, called Hardicanute, who was also
Canute to a single combat, "for it is a pity," claimed to be heir to tne throne of England.
he said, "that so many lives should be put Besides this, Canute had two illegitimate
in jeopardy to satisfy their ambition." sons by an English lady of Southampton,
This was declined by Canute, alleging Sweyne and Harold Harefoot. Canute in
that he, a man of small stature, would have tended, by some devise by him made, to
no chance with the stalwart Edmund. To divide his dominions to his three sons
this prudent determination he added that thus, to Harold he intended England, to
it would be better that they two should Hardicanute Denmark, and to Sweyne Nor
divide the realm between them, as their way. But upon his death there was great
fathers had done before. This proposition strife as to who should rule in England.
was hailed with gladness by the respective The children of Ethelred had their parti
sans as well as those of Canute.
10 Palgrave's Anglo-Saxon, B. xiii, p. 261, Upon the death of Caunte, the question
366 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book III.
of succession was assumed by a great coun The name of Godwinthe Great Earl
cil of the nobility of the English govern Godwinhas already occurred, and no man
ment, held at Oxford, called Witenagemot, in English history, within the Saxon
in which the known wishes of the citizens period, presents to the reader so great and
of London had great influence. In the interesting a character. He was almost the
midst of great conflict of wishes and opin only man among the Saxons who was per
ions, this council determined that Harold mitted, by his own talent and capacity, to
should be king of Mercia and Northumbria, rise to importance and power; for the Sax
and all north of the Thames, with London on aristocracy, or rather oligarchy, did not
as his capital; while all the country south permit a peasant or one of the commonal
of it should go to Hardicanute. The latter ty to rise to any important position in the
being absent, his mother, Emma, and Earl government. No one who was not a
Godwin, governed in his name with Win descendant of Woden, or within that sacred
chester as the capital.3 But the claims of family relation, was so permitted to aspire,
Alfred and Edward were not forgotten, whatever his talents might be.
though the mother with doubtful principles In one of those battles fought between
was negligent of them, and placed her the Saxons and Danes, in the time of Ed
whole regard to those of Hardicanute. Al mund the Ironside and1 Canute, in the
fred was inveigled by some false pretenses southwestern part of Warwickshire, when
to come to London to assume his rights. the Saxons had been victorious and the
He was there betrayed, with 600 followers, Danes dispersed, a Danish captain missed
who came with him, into the hands of his way and came upon a peasant lad en
Harold. These followers were immediate gaged in taking care of his oxen. The
ly seized and slain, and Edwin sent to a stranger saluted him, and inquired his
monastery, where his eyes were forcibly name. "I am called Godwin," said the
torn out, and he soon after died from the young man; "and you, if I mistake not,
injuries inflicted upon him. Such horrible are one of the Danish army." Obliged to
crimes and wickedness were constantly acknowledge himself, he begged the young
perpetrated by the ruling class of that day. herdsman to tell him the distance he was
Harold was active in making preparation from their vessels stationed in the Severn,
to seize the government ol the country, and by what road it would be possible for
was threatening war, and resorting to all him to reach them. "The Dane must be
means of intrigue to accomplish it. But in mad," said Godwin, "who looks for his
the year 1040 the country was relieved of preservation at the hands of a Saxon."*
his. worthless care by death, after a short The stranger earnestly entreated the herds
and inglorious rule. Immediately the En man to guide him on his way, and urged it
glish friends of Hardicanute, who had as with the most tempting promises of reward.
yet remained with his friends in Denmark, To this the young man replied : "The way
gent a strong invitation to him to come is long, and it will be dangerous to guide
without delay to assume his royal rights.
They soon found cause to repent of their the sages in the old writers, we should conclude that
Suxons themselves were sufficiently addicted to
haste, for he proved to be a worthless ruler drinking, and the pleasures ot the table, and requir
ed no instructions in those particulars ; yet it is pretty
a drunkard and a glut'.on, and soon died generally stated tlr.il hard drinking became fashion
of their effects.* able under the Danes; and more than one chronicler
laments that Knglishmcn learned from the cxamplr
of Hardicanute their excessive gormandixing and
3 i Pictorial History of England, B. ii, ch. i, p. immeasurable tilling' of their bellies with meats and
drinks." And Sir !'. Palgrave says: "The death of
174- Haidicanute is singularly characteristic of the a ge
4 i Pictorial History of England, B. ii, ch. i, p (A. D. 1041). * * At the marriage of tfie
174. The lust cited history say*: "During Hardica- king's marsh;,], Hardicanute graced the banquet
mite's short reign, Earl Godwin and Emma, the with his presence. * * * * The potations were
oueen-mother, who were again in friendly alliance, prolonged deep into the night. In the midst of the
divided nearly all the authority of the government revel Hardicanute dropped speechless upon the
between them, leaving the king to the tranquil en ground, and a few days afterwards he cxpirritt."
joyment ot the things he most prized in lifehis
banquets, which were spread four times a day, and 5 i Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. \ . vit pp. 106,
his carousals at night. From many incidental pas-
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
you. The people are elated with our vic
tory of yesterday, and are armed through
out the country ; they would show no mer
cy to either your guide or yourself." The
Danish chieftain attempted to bribe him
with such article of gold as he had about
him. These were tempting enough to the
young peasant, but not sufficient to over
come his integrity. After looking at them
with great curiosity, and considering a mo
ment, he returned them, saying: "I will
not take them, but I will give you my aid."
After passing the day in the cottage of
Godwin's lather, as they departed in the
night, the old peasant said to the chieftain :
"This is my only son who trusts to your
good faith; there will be no safety for him
with his countrymen from the moment he
serves you as a guide ; present him, there
fore, to your king, that he may take him
into hi* service." The Dane was faithful
to his promi-cN, and took every opportunity
to promote tin- young man, who was found
so worthy as to be made his son-in-law by
a marriage to his daughter. And Canute,
when informed of the affair, was pleased to
confer upon him a military rank; and sub
sequently the herdsman attained the digni
ty of governor of a provine in that part of
England occupied by the Danes.
This extraordinary man, by this casual
good fortune, but principally by his own
great talents, energy and perseverance, ul
timately attained the highest position, next
to his sovereign, in wealth, power and in
fluence, of any man in his country. It was
his singular destiny and good fortune, after
being thus involved with the foreigners, to
be enabled to contribute more than any
other man, to liberate his country from a
foreign rule which then oppressed it. This
he was able to accomplish without inherit
ance, or patrimony, or family Influence, by
his own native genius, guided solely by
good common sense and patriotism, which
ultimately placed him in the history of his
country amongst the first and greatest men
of his age. His great energy and abilities
placed him In high and responsible stations
during the reigns of Canute, Harold Hare-
foot, Hardicanute and Edward the Confes
sor, as will be seen in the course of our his-
,67
tory.
We are now called to turn back to our
last special notice of the Cymry of Cam
bria, at the death of Howel the Good (A.
0.948), and take a review of their history,
from that time to the close uf this period,
a space of one hundred and eighteen years.
During this time we find both in England
and Wales one of the most forbidding and
wretched periods in the annals of man.
We find war, with its slaughter and car
nage, treachery and treason, assassination
and murder, and unusual cruelty and
crime, in every page of that lamentable
history, to whatever part of unfortunate
Britain it may refer, or what people it may
concern whether pagan or Christian,
whether Dane, Saxon or Cymryall are
involved, more or less, in the unhappy
charge. It is only necessary to refer to
such instances as the horrible treatment
perpetrated by her people upon Algiva, the
queen of the king Edwv; the murder of
Edward the Martyr, by his stepmother, El-
frida; the massacre of the Danes on St.
Brice'sday; the murder of Edmund by
the procurement of Canute; the constant
practice of disposing of adversaries by
burning out their eyes; the common disre
gard of good faith, treachery, treason, and
violation of treaty obligation. These mat
ters were common during that age, and
they were the natural concomitants of such
desolating wars, slaughter and carnage as
the Saxons and Danes brought with them.
If It be said, that during this particular
period the Cymry have imitated and prac
ticed the same offences and violence, it
must be admitted that it ia too true. Mor
als, between nations as between neighbors,
are contagious, and whether good or bad
they are often imitated. These offences
may well be considered as the natural re
sult of the dire principles inculcated in re
lation to war, by the pagan religion of
Woden, introduced into Britain by those
people; which took Christianity a long
time to eradicate.
During the time referred to, what is now
known as Wales was divided into three
provinces, or kingdoms, as Gwynedd, or
North Wales; Dehenbarth, or South
 268 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
Wales; and Powys;each of these were to deliver annually the heads of three hun
separate states and kingdoms, with a local dred wolves; which would result advan
king at its head, and usually one as a su tageously to both countries.
preme sovereign over the whole. Some About the same time occurred the cele
times these provinces were further divided brated feat of Edgar at Chester, and his
into smaller districts, and local kings ruled display in the barge on the Dee. Similar
over them ; but such subordinate might occurrences would sometimes transpire, in
well be considered as mere chiefs of the which were enjoyed the triumphs of peace,
people or tribes. During most of this time in the midst of these scenes of war and de
the country was sorely distracted and af vastation; which were prosecuted here
flicted by various wars and hostilitiesfre with the same fierceness as in the adjoin
quently by incursions from the adjoining ing country. Notwithstanding these wars
states of Wessex, Mercia, or Northumbria, were frequent and distressing, both in do
or plundering expeditions of the Danes or mestic contentions and with the Saxons
from Ireland, or by competition amongst and Danes, still Cambria enjoyed some in
the chiefs for the supremacy. It appears tervals of peace and prosperity, between
like a change for the worse, that the Brit the time of Howel the Good and the Nor
ons had ceased to elect a pendragon or a man conquest. Among the princes of that
supreme sovereign by a general assembly day was one Howel ap Jefan, a king of
of the states; but followed the example of Gwynedd, who was distinguished for his
the Heptarchy in establishing the bretwal- fierceness and pugnacious disposition, and
da, to permit that to be assumed by him, for his contests with all around himwith
who, by his power and influence, was able lago ap Idwal his kinsman, with Alfric the
to maintain it. The example of the long, Mercian, with Godfrey the Dane, and with
peaceful and successful reign of Howel Da, all with whom the Cymry had to contend
and that of many of his predecessors, was and repel. But in repelling Alfric the duke
entirely neglected. That good sovereign of Mercia, (A. D. 983,) this Howel at length
left four sons, who by inheritance were en was slain, in valiantly fighting in defense
titled to rule in Dehenbarth and Powys, of his country and freedom ; yet in conse
and were specially distinguished for their quence of his character being tainted with
personal appearance, their gallantry and some cruel and detestable acts, as the blind
patriotism; while Idwal Foel left three ing the eyes of an opponent who had fallen
sons, who in like manner were entitled to into his hands, by scorching them with hot
rule in Gwynedd. Contention and war ironsa crime common in that dark age in
arose between these two sets of sovereigns Europehis countrymen detesting his
as to the supreme sovereignty of the whole character, while contrasting it with that of
(A. D. 954). After battle and hard fight his royal kinsman, whose honored name he
ing, in which a number of these princes bore, distinguished him by the name of
were slain, the sons of Idwal gained the Howel Drwg, or Howel the Bad.
victory. Such feuds and war were lament But in the midst of this time, there were
ably frequent; and though these princes at least three of these princes whose mem
were brave and gallant men, and frequently ory deserve a more particular notice. Be
very talented, they were constantly sacri tween the year 984 and 998, Maredudd ap
ficing their blood and lives, either in these Owen was sovereign of all Wales,the
feuds or in defending their country from three provinces being united under him.
attacks made upon it, either by the Saxons His reign was a troubled one, by both do
or the Danes or expeditions from Ireland. mestic and foreign foes. In 987, Godfrey
Thus, about the year 960, Alfric, the earl with his Danish host attacked and ravaged
of Mercia, marched into Gwynedd, and un a part of the country. In a great battle
expectedly ravaged the whole country in with them Maredudd was defeated, when
order to enfoice the payment of a tribute; two thousand of his men were taken pris
which was compromised by the agreement oners, among whom was his brother, Lly
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
warch, whose eyes were put ont by the .dventurer, by the name of Rhun, from
foe. reland, of great plausibility and craft ap
Again, in 992 the Danes returned and peared, claiming himself to be the son of
ravaged and plundered the Isle of Mona, he late king Maredudd. With much ar-
and Gwynedd, and were repelled by Idwal ogance and pretension this usurper pre
ap Murig, the gallant and able king of pared to meet the forces of Llewellyn. A
Gwynedd. Five years after this the Danes jreat battle ensued, in which the pretender .
again, under Sweyn, the king of Denmark, was soon put to flight; but was fiercely
landed in Mona, plundering it ; in defense contested by the southern chieftains who
of which, at the head of his countrymen, lad been inveigled by his pretensions. In
the brave and patriotic Idwal ap Murig lost :he battle Llewellyn lost many men ; but
his life. The Danes then passed to St. :he pretender was pursued and slain. Dur-
David's, and the south, plundering and rav ng these difficulties, and while Canute
aging the country, burning the monasteries reigned in England, the southwest part of
and slaughtering the monks. Wales was again ravaged, by Eilat" the
In the midst of these calamities king Dane and his piratical horde.
Maredudd died, leaving a daughter, An- In A. D. 1023, this Llewellyn was assas
gharad, his only child. He was succeeded, sinated by the procurement of his political
as king of Powys and Dehenbarth, by enemies ; but the heinous act was so repro
Llewellyn ap Seissyll, who had married bated by the nation, that those who had en
the daughter, and became one of the most gaged in it gained nothing by the infamous
distinguished and praiseworthy sovereigns deed. The throne of Gwynedd was seized
of that day. In the year 1013 an usurper, by lago ap Idwal, a descendant of Rhodri
by the name of Aeddan, had become king Mawr, and that of Dehenbarth by
of Gwynedd, and Llewellyn collected his Rhydderch ap lestin. The succession to
forces to expel him and restore the country the rights of Llewellyn was due to his in
to the proper and united government. fant son, Gruffydd, which for sixteen years
This produced a great battle, In which Aed was kept in abeyance. In the meantime
dan and his four sons were slain, and Llew Idwal did for the north all that an able and
ellyn by the victory became king of the honest prince was able to do for his sub
three provinces. Hence lie conducted a jects; but in the south the various claimants
successful and prosperous reign over all for the government brought upon the
Wales, and became, it is said, "the chiel country hostilities and distraction, until
and most illustrious king of all the Brit Gruftydd had grown up to manhood, came
ons." Notwithstanding its affliction from forward full of energy and enterprise.
the hostilities of its numerous surrounding The memory of his illustrious ancestors
enemies, the country recovered from its readily induced this martial people to re
unhappy discord and desolation. "Under ceive him with joy ; and his own engaging
his good govermnent the recruited people personal appearance and brilliant qualities
employed themselves in agriculture anc secured to him general favor. He soon
commerce, the earth produced abundantly secured control of the south; but lago ap
the cattle multipled, beggary and poverty Idwal, claiming a. right as descendant of
disappeared, the land was fully inhabited Roderic the Great, was not disposed to
and all the inhabitants were well provided yield peaceably to him the north. A con
for."6 But this tranquil and prosperous flict therefore ensued, in which lago was
reign became disturbed in 1019 by the fac defeated and slain A. D. 1039.
tious rebellion of Meurig ap Arthfael, who This Gruffydd ap Llewellyn (or Griffith
was encountered by the king and slain in as usually pronounced) commenced his ad
battle. A more formidable insurrection ministration during the reign of Harold
soon followed in South Wales, where an Harefoot in England. He immediately
made a military progress through every
6 Miss Williams' History of Wales cb. zii, p. 163, district, receiving the submission and
and her authorities there cited.
370 THE SAXON PERIOD.
homage of his subordinate rulers. Howel
ap Edwyn, one of his opponents, and his
partisans, fled to the earl Leofric, of Mer-
cia, for protection and succor. A powerful
English army was raised with a view to
restore this Howe! to his claims, and to
gain a more decided foothold in Wales.
When these arrived at Pencadair in Wales,
and being joined by their allies there,
Howel believed his cause to be invincible,
and exultantly rejoiced in his anticipated
triumph over Griffith. The latter hastily
collected his forces, and a great battle en
sued, in which the earls Edwin, Thurkell.
Elt'gar, and many other English noblemen,
were slain. Griffith's victory was complete,
but IIowcl effected his escape.
After this triumph Griffith became re
nowned among the English, and his favor
and good wishes were courted, and lie be
came allied with the ruling families of
England by his marriage7 with Algitha,
daughter of the renowned Leofric, earl of
Mercia. This secured the friendship of
her equally renowned brother, Algar; and
these alliances gave rise to many important
events in the history of England and
Wales.
Considering the numerous difficulties
that Griffith had to contend with, surround
ed' by various enemies on all sides, it is as
tonishing that he was able to sustain him
self as supreme sovereign until his death,
after a reign of twenty-four years, in the
year 1063. There were but few years but
in which he was compelled to be engaged
in war. From the time of Ofta it was the
constant practice of the Saxon Heptarchy,
and the English government after them,
upon every favorable opportunity, to grasp
some small piece of Wales, one after an
other, with the hopes soon to take th
whole. One of their policies, as means to
accomplish this, was to patronize and en
courage every prince and aspirant to power,
in opposition to the legitimate and admitted
rulers of Wales. Of these Griffith had nu
merous ones to contend with. Many of
these were able and gallant warriors, who,
with the aid and encouragement given
7 Patgravc's Anglo-Saxons, ch. xv, p. 314.
[Book in.
from abroad, kept this active and most able
sovereign In constant war, in which he was
always successful, but which are too nu
merous lo be herein narrated. Griffith,
finding a constant pressure upon him to
take from him some more territory, was
frequently induced to counteract this by
military expeditions into English territory,
which were conducted with so much skill
and success as to baffle the efforts of his
enemies. "Griffith, for some years," says
Turner, "molested with good fortune the
countries near Wales, and for some years
his aggressions escaped unchastised."*
Frequently the English forces brought
against him were with great skill defeated
and cut to pieces.
During his time Griffith's renown be
came greater, and fugitives from other
countries were frequently seeking his court
and protection as an asylum. This was
twice done by the great earl of Mercia, Al
gar, and also by Fleance, the son of Banquo,
fleeing from the oppression of Macbeth.
It is said that such fugitives found a
friendly welcome at the hospitable court of
king Griffith. "Though cruel in his wrath,
that king was gentle and kind to his asso
ciates, courteous and hospitable alike to his
own people and to strangers, liberal to his
dependents, and equitable in the adminis
tration of the laws. He is said also to have
been costly in apparel and appendages, and
royal in every word and deed. His love
for his subjects, his adventurous daring,
his resolute courage, his majestic bearing,
and his extraordinary success in war, ren
dered him the idol of the Cymry, and the
frightful terror of his foes."*
Towards the close of the feeble reign of
Edward the Confessor, (A. D. 1055) by the
machination and power of the Godwin
family, Algar, who had been made earl of
Northumbria, was, by Edward's govern
ment, outlawed ; but trusting still to the
great power of his father Lofric, the great
earl of Mercia, he determined to resist.
For the purpose of making preparations,
he retired to the court of king Griffith, his
brother-in-law, who had married nig sister
8 Anglo-Sax. History. B. vi, ch. riv, vol. ^, p. y>.
9 Miss Williams' History of Wales, p. 174.
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
Algitha, who was then waging war against
Harold, the head, since his father's death,
of the Godwin family. Griffith and Algar
raised a large army, and marched triumph
antly through Herefordshire into Glouces
tershire, where they met Harold. After
much bloodshed had been occasioned, peace
was established between the competitors,
the sentence of outlawry being revoked, and
Algar restored to his possessions and dig
nity.10 During the negotiation for this
peace, while wrath was meditated against
Griffith and his people, he took the daring
resolution to appear before king Edward in
council at Gloucester, as a peaceful mem
ber of the Witangemot, where he eloquent
ly vindicated himself against the charges
made against him, and won the favor and
friendship of the English king. This gave
Harold a mortal offense, which he never
pardoned. Between Griffith and Leofric,
the great earl of Mercia, there was a double
alliance, for the daughter, the sister of Algar,
was the wife of this sovereign of Cambria,
and the daughter of the latter was the wife
of Algar. So that Griffith was at once the
father-in-law and brother-in-law of Algar;11
he was twice restored to his important
earldoms of Merria and Northumbria.
Whenever the Godwin family were politi
cally strong enough to expel members of
the Leofric family, the court of Griffith
was their asylum and their avenger.
. This Griffith, Gruffydd ap Llewellyn, by
means of the constant hostilities brought
upon him by his surrounding foes, anc
their continual advance upon his country
was during his whole reign compelled to
live in perpetual war; but always a lover
of peace when he could obtain it with safe
ty to himself and country. From this com
pulsion he usually kept up a large navy
and army. The number of battles in whicl
he was engaged are innumerable. It i
said that the constant attacks made upon
his country by the Saxons and Danes com
pelled him to fight over a hundred battles
in which he was the prominent actor; ii
some of which he obtained great victorie
10 PalRi-avc's Anjflo Saxons, ch.xiv,
11 Pictorial MLst. ol England, B. ii, ch. i, p. 184.
ver allied forces of English, Danes and
thers, as that over Leoiric, the great earl
f Mercia, in 1040, and that over Earl
lalph, king Edward's nephew, at Here-
ord, in 1055. At length, in the year 1063,
iarold, the son of Godwin, who then was
he leading spirit of the English govern
ment, and who had just been defeated in an
attack on Wales, determined to make the
freatest effort, backed by the whole power
f the English government, to crush Grif-
ith and conquer Wales. A large armv
and fleet was prepared for that purpose,
nd the two brothers of the Godwin fami-
y had now joined hands for the conquest,
liarold, with the navy, was to skirt the sea
shore, while Tostig marched with the armv
and ravaged the interior. Great pains had
>een taken to equip the army anew for th
jurpose. Light armor and shields of leath
er were procured, in order to render the
English troops as active at, the Welsh.
Every effort was made by sea and lanit
to ravage and subdue the country; but the
love of liberty in the hearts of the people,
and their loyal attachment to their heroic
king, rallied them in defense of the coun
try, and several severe battles were fought,
and when overcome by numbers, they re
tired to the mountains, putting into requi
sition the natural defenses of the countrv
in aid of their just and righteous cause.
Wherever a conflict had taken place the
kingly earl set up a monumental stone,
bearing the triumphant inscription, "Here
Harold Conquered." Griffith opposed him
with his usual energy and valor, and pro
ceeded south with a large army und navv
to meet this great and unusual hostility.
But his enemies resorted to means of suc
cess, common in those Saxon and Danish
times, instead ol fair and honorable con
test By some treacherous arrangement
Griffith was treacherously slain, and hi*
head, with the prow and tackle of his ship,
were sent as trophies to earl Harold. This
being accomplished, without further effort
to conquer and subdue the country, and it
being in the midst of harvest which called
upon the English people to return home,
the victorious army returned to Glouces
ter, the court of king Edward, presenting
 37* THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in .
him with the savage evidence of the actual and In the name of Emma as guardian of
death of king Griffith. her children, or under Hardicanute, from
In the meantime the Cymry in other the death of Canute to that of the late king,
portions of Britain were fast becoming the (A. D. 10351042) ruled all north of the
people of either England or Scotland, just Thames with royal authority.
as the Loegrian Cymry east of the Severn When Edward was informed of the death
and the South Avon had submitted to be of the late king he was struck with extra
come, in early Saxon times, the fixed peo ordinary consternation for his safety, and
ple of the country ; so at this time those immediately sought the great earl for coun
who resided in the peninsula east of the sel and protection. The great man, who
Avon and south of the estuary of the Sev had been but so recently charged with the
ern, and those residing in Cumbria, be death of Alfred, the brother of Edward, was
tween the Dee and the Solway Firth, were rather tardy in coming to the relief of the
fast yielding to the same inevitable change royal heir. But when he came he was
of time, and becoming Anglicised, but the greatly surprised to find Edward's requests
change of language and habits did not to be what they were. Instead of solicit
change their blood or race, but left them ing his aid in recovering the sovereignty,
still the descendants of the Ancient Brit he attempted to throw himself at the feet
ons. Those north of the Solway Firth, by of the lordly man, and prayed that he
a union with the Picts and Scots, formed would be pleased to assist him in returning
the independent state of Scotland, in which to Normandy to the protection of his uncle
the name Cymry and Picts have become Richard, where he might spend the re
extinct; but they too will claim to be the mainder of his days in peace and obscurity.
true descendant^ of the brave people who Godwin replied in a very different tone.
fought for their independence and freedom "Are you not," he said, "the lawful heir to
under Caractacus, Galgacus, and Arthur, the throne, the son of Ethelred, the grand
who still maintain their true character of son of Edgar; and why should you prefer
an invincible people. an inglorious exile?" Godwin proceeded,
We now have arrived at a time in our with his great ability, to restore his protege
history in which we have only the reign of to confidence and hope, and to assure him
Edward the Confessor to close the Saxon in his destiny, and the great good he was
period, to which we will return. calledupon toaccomplish. But Godwin in do
The death of Hardicanute was sudden ing this never forgot his own interest and
and unexpected ; and there was no one on position. King Edward was to be his friend.
hand ol the Danish dynasty to claim the Godwin and his sons were to retain all their
sovereignty. Edward, the son of Ethelred lionors; and Edward, by marrying Editha
the Unready by his queen Emma, was the Fair, the daughter of Godwin, was to
then on a visit with Hardicanute, and upon secome a member of his family. This dis
good terms. They were half-brothers by course was artfully calculated to restore
their mother, but Edward was without any Edward to his confidence, and to secure his
Danish blood still the rightful heir of Eth own ambition. But we are assured from
elred, and of the throne in the absence of he known character of Edward that lie
his cousins, the children of Edmund the cared as little for the pride and pleasures
Ironside, who were absent in Austria, hav ot royalty as he was unfit for its toil. Had
ing been sent out of the country for their ic returned to Normandv, he probablv
safety during the previous troublesome would have secluded himself in some mon
timesone of whom was known as Ed astery, without the slightest regret for the
ward the Outlaw. But there was no great lonors he had abandoned. The prince was
division of parties in opposition to Edward, persuaded with reluctance; and within a
the son of Emma who was also the mother few davs after the decease of the late king,
ol" Hurdicnnute, the late king. The earl the great men of the Anglo-Saxon realm
Godwin was the great man oi the kingdom, assembled at London and accepted Edward
Chap, in.] THE SAXON KINGDOMS.
as their king. This was principally pro
cured by the great influence and abilities of
the earl of Wessex, who was said to be elo
quenta quick and fluent speaker, witty
and clever, and well calculated to please
the multitude.
The government was soon organized;
and Godwin as the earl of Wessex, and his
six sons, Harold, Sweyne, Wulnoth, Tos-
tig, Gurth and Leofwine were well provid
ed for. The kingdom was partitioned off
into a number of earldoms to accommodate
them ; and Editha became nominally the
queen of England.12
Edward became a mild and merciful sov
ereign, without much force or energy, but
benign and with great sympathy for the
interest and welfare of the people. He was
generally desirous of relieving the people
as far as possible of the payment of taxes;
especially of that lax which had been laid
upon them by foreign power, so odious and
oppressive to the people, called DanegeM,
was entirely abolished. By these qualities
the name of Edward the Confessor was hal
lowed to their memory.
The reign of Edward extended over
twenty-four years, (A. D. 1042 1066) and
during that time the country was much re
lieved from the piracy of the Northmen,
and almost entirely from the hostilities of
the Danes in the country. Upon the whole,
it was a very peaceful reign ; the excep
tions wbuld be limited to occasional rising
and rebellion of some of the earls against
Edward, or the continued hostilities of the
Saxon population against the Cvmrv, with
a view to the conquest and taking more
territory, or to compel them to pay more
tribute; or in other words to take by force
that which was not their own, which was
an affair not very easily accomplished.
The first affair which produced any con
siderable commotion with Edward's gov
ernment was a matter caused, as usual, by
the interference of foreigners. Edward had
been brought up and educated in Norrnan-
dy, and was more of a Norman-Frenchman
than an Anglo-Saxon. Edward was, there
fore, continually surrounded by Normans
ivc's An^lo-S;ix., cii. xiv, p. 280.
and foreigners. These being patronized,
protected, and encouraged by the king, be
came overbearing and insolent, and became
very obnoxious and disagreeable to the na
tive people. In the year 1051, Eustace, the
count of Boulogne, a foreign prince, but a
brother-in-law of Edward, by marriage
with his sister Goda, came over from Nor
mandy with a large retinue of retainers, on
a visit to the king. When these were on
their return, passing through the town of
Dover, and preparing to embark in the
crossing of the channel, they behaved with
great insolence to the native citizens of the
place. Without the permission of any one
Eustace and his friends determined to take
free quarters in the town. Had thev been
enemies they could not have done worse,
or anything more obnoxious or insolent.
The retainers of the count dispersed them
selves over the town of Dover; and a cou
ple of them, under their resolution, at
tempted to force their way into a house, a
scuffle ensued between them and the own
er. The Frenchmen drew their swords,
and wounded the Englishman, and the lat
ter, in self-defense, slew one of the foreign
ers. All were now on an alarm; and count
Eustace and his retinue were immediately
armed and on horse, and attacking the house
of the unfortunate Englishman, they forced
their way in and killed him ; then scouring
the streets of the town as though taken by
storm, and killing and wounding several of
the townsmen. The people rallied against
the fearful array, and so effectually defend
ed themselves, that Eustace was driven out
of Dover, and the most of his men slaugh
tered.
Count Eustace resorted to king Edward
with a terrible story of his wrongs and
grievances. The king believed, and in his
credulity sympathized with his brother-in-
law. He ordered, unfortunately, without
any further hearing, earl Godwin to pro
ceed forthwith to Dover, and punish the
town with military execution. This in it
self was cruel, and Godwin strongly sym
pathizing with the people in opposition to
being thus run over by foreigners, refused
to obey the order; and perhaps rejoicing
over the unfortunate transaction, as giving
74 THE SAXON PERIOD.
him further opportunity for maneuvering
and ingratiating himself with the people.
This at once produced n feud between the
king and his father-in-law who made him
king, and might unmake him. Godwin, with
his six active and promising sons, was a
power. They rallied the people in their
favor, and were fast raising a large military
force. The king became alarmed, and
though Godwin was strong with the people,
he had many jealous adversaries among the
nobility. The king was, therefore, able to
call to his assistance the wise and powerful
Leofric, the earl of Mercia, and the fierce
and heroic Siward, the earl of Northumber
land, who were ready to engage against
Godwin, their envied political opponent.
Civil war was apparently inevitable.
The king and his party, in the course of
this delay, must have discovered that he
had been too hasty; and Edward was al
ways inclined in his sober thoughts to
peaceful measures. The result was a com
promise, and a truce negotiated. Each par
ty delivered hostages, and it was agreed to
-ul mi it all matters in dispute to the decision
of the legislative body to be assembled in
the tall. In the meantime Godwin's forces
dwindled away, and the aristocracy were
active in concentrating their powers against
Godwin. When that Witangemot met,
Godwin and his sons were summoned to
appear before them. This family, recently
to powerful, now became nlarmed for their
own safety, and with much wealth hastily
collected, and with some difficulty, made
their escape to Flanders.
This reverse of fortune was wonderful,
and it was asked : "Who would have ever
thought in the days of their power, that
this family would ever have become exiles."
But such is the mutability and uncertainty
of human greatness. These exiles were
men of talent and vigor, and were not to
spend their days in listlessness. Harold
went to Ireland and raised some ships and
an army of adventurers to effect his return
to his country, and his father soon joined
him with a similar force raised on the con
tinent. With this force they appeared oft'
the southern coast, and the king's marines
at Hastings were the first to join them.
[Book in.
The people of Kent, Surry, and Essex, wlio
were still smarting under the impositions
placed upon them by the aristocracy and
foreigners, and knowing that Godwin was
the champion of- their cause, at once de
clared for him. Many other districts fol
lowed the example, and declared, If neces
sary, they would die in the good cause.
The citizens of London beckoned to them
to come to their aid; and as they advanced
up the river their forces continued to In
crease. The people supplied them with
provisions, and all the country seemed to
be at their command. These appearances
overcame the 'king's reluctance; and the
people's dislike to divide and engage in
civil strife and spill fraternal blood were
pleased to favor some compromise. Ed
ward, however reluctant, was constrained,
under the circumstances, to yield to the
evident wishes of his people, and agree to
a compromise. Proposals were made which
satisfied the ambition of Godwin and his
sons, and that other matters should be sub
mitted lo the Witenagemot. Before that
council, consisting of th earls and the
great men of the land, Godwin appeared
and declared that he and his sons were in
nocent of the crimes with which they were
charged. To this the council not only
agreed, but decreed the restoration of their
honors and property ; and such was the old
earl's influence with them, that they adopt
ed all the views of his party.
All this revolution in affairs had taken
place and was accomplished in less than
two years; and the foreign satellites, who
so obnoxlous'iy surrounded the government,
were expelled from the country. The God
win family were now restored to an eleva
tion more firmly than ever, and the fair
Avsiha, who had in the meantime been
very badly treated, was restored to her
rights and position as queen. The sons
were assigned to various earldoms over the
country. But not long after this the great
earl died suddenly, in the year 1053. his
place being more than usually well supplied
by his son Harold.
Harold, who had now become a ruling
power in the English government, had fre
quent contention (A. D. 1053 10551 with
 Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
the old enemies of his father, the ear] forming a closer family connection with the
Leofric of Mercia, and his son Algar, and Mercian, by marrying Algar's sister, AI-
Siward the earl of Northumbria. Among githa, the widow of king Griffith, whose
the affairs arising out of these contentions husband he had beheaded. But it has been
was that already spoken of, in which Algar suggested by an able historian,1* that "the
fled to king Griffith of Wales, the husband obstacle arising from Harold's ancestry was
of his sister Algitha, for protection and aid. indeed insuperable. No individual, who
Although Algar was restored, yet Harold was not of an ancient royal house, had ever
was able to retain his place and influence been able to maintain himself upon an
with king Edward, and his brother Tostig Anglo-Saxon throne."
was made earl of Northumberland. This At length on the fifth of January, 1066,
Tostig had not the judicious policy and the good king, Edward the Confessor, ex
management of his brother Harold, became pired, and immediately Harold, the son of
tyrannical and oppressive to his people, and Godwin, rightfully or wrongfully, assumed
was expelled, and his place given to Mor- the sovereignty, and from that time until
car, a son of Algar. Because Harold sub his death at the battle of Hastings lOct. 14,
mitted to this expulsion, Tostig became his 1066,) Harold acted as king of England, a
brother Harold's mortal enemy, as wil be short reign, of a heroic and gallant effort,
hereafter seen. It was in this affair in of only nine months, which may be con
giving aid to Algar and Morcar, that king veniently considered in the next period, as
Griffith became involved, which brought the Saxon period must terminate with Ed
on his last war with Harold, in which he ward the Confessor, who is said to be the
lost his life.'3 "last legitimate Anglo-Saxon king."14
The mild and amiable Edward, who by
his meekness and religious devotion, had CHAPTER IV.
acquired the appellation of Edward the CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
Confessor, was now (A. D. 1063 1066) ap
proaching the end of his earthly glory. He gl The Condition of the Britons nt the Ad
was without a lineal descendant, and was vent of the Saxons.
anxious and distracted upon the subject of
a successor. He sometimes thought of In order to understand the condition of a
people at any particular period it is neces
distant relatives, as of William the duke of
sary that their origin and antecedents should
Normandy, of the descendants of Edmond
be known and understood. At the com
the Ironsides, and perhaps of his brother-
mencement of this period, which we have
in-law Harold; but whether he had made
denominated the Saxon period, it has been
any devise, as was sometimes pretended, in
assumed and attempted to be proved, his
favor of either, is very uncertain; and if he
had, its legal effect, as well as the respect torically, that the people of Britain, from
the British channel to the Grampian hills,
which would be given to it by the English
were especially Cymric. Then came the
nobility, is still as uncertain. But there is
Saxon; first the Jutes, and next the Sax
no doubt that Harold meditated upon the
subject, and aspired to the throne. He, on proper, and the Angles, who slowly and
gradually, in the course of a hundred and
therefore began to prepare the way, and
fifty years, spread themselves over the
conciliate his powerful enemies. For this
south and east part of what is now Eng
purpose he was desirous to be reconciled
land, and have generally been denominated
with the powerful Earl Algar, and possiblv
the Anglo-Saxon. West of them, that is
this may have been the reason why he sub
west of a line extending from the mouth of
mitted to the expul-ioii of his brother Tos
the Tweed south to the Avon of the British
tig, in favor of Morcar, the son of Algar;
channel, the people were still principally
but more certain it was the motive of
14 Piilffrnvc's Anjflo-S;ixons, ch. xiv, p. 300.
15 Palgruve's Anglo-Saxons, ch. xiv, p. 303.
18
276 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
and essentially Cymry. It has been an in if untrue, it is just and proper, if the truth
teresting question in the history of the is of history is worth anything, that that
land to know whether the Celtic Cymry truth should be vindicated. With this
inhabiting this part of England, as the Sax view the writer, in the midst of numerous
ons proceeded westward, were entirely ex other vocations, has read and consulted
tirpated, and the country became anew and history, and the result of his inquiry is a
exclusively settled by the Saxons; so that conviction, as that of a sworn juror, that
their descendants were purely or essential he impression thus created is untrue and
ly a Teutonic people ; or whether a large alse.
portion of the original Britons, becoming In the course of the inquiry the writer
subdued, became mixed with their conquer had sometimes to encounter the most bit
ors, and became absorbed and assimilated ter, if not malicious, hatred. On the other
with them. land, he sometimes met with too vivid
In reading most English history upon ove to be impartial, though perhaps with
this subject the impression is inculcated out the malicious intention to traduce an
that the Saxons, as they progressed over opponent. This extreme hate or love up
the country, drove the Ancient Britons be on this sub)ect has been protested against
fore them, some fleeing to Wales or Ar- by Pro. Matthew Arnold, in a noble article
morica, who were able to do so, and all upon the subject, has condemned this
others of the unfortunate people, men, wo prejudiced and partial feeling of a party,
men and children, were unmercifully "either as warm Celt-lovers or as warm
slaughtered in cold blood ; so that they had Celt-haters, and not as disinterested stu
a clear, unpeopled country in which to es dents of an important matter of science.
tablish a new and unmixed Saxon race. One parly seems to set out with the deter
They also inculcated the idea that these mination to find everything in CeltUm and
Ancient Britons were such barbarians and its remains; the other with the determina
savages that they were not at all entitled tion to find nothing in them. A simple
to a better fate, or to the commiseration or seeker of truth has a hard time of it between
sympathy of mankindthat it was all a the two."2
rightful and business-like affair that they If it were true, as above intimated by
were thus slaughtered. To inculcate this some historians, that the Ancient Britons
impression more thoroughly, one of her did not enter materially into the formation
most able and recent historians, in the most of Anglo-Saxon or English character, then
attractive language, says: "Her inhabit that part of England would have no more
ants, when they first became known to the to do with this Mtbject than as neighlx>rs to
Tyrian mariners, were little superior to the descendants of the Ancient Britons.
the natives of the Sandwich islands. Sh But it the Ancient Britonstheir blood
was subjugated by the Roman arms; but and raceform a material part of the Eng
she received only a faint tincture of Ro lish race, and that these may well claim that
man arts and letters. Of the western pro Caractacus, Boadecia, Galgaciis. and even
vinces who obeyed the Ca?sars she was the Arthur, are part of their glorious ances
last that was conquered, and the first that tors, as well a-; Hcngist, Horsu and Ida, or
was flung away. No magnificent remains any one who may have emigrated from the
of Latian porches and aqueducts are to In- mouth ot the Eider; and then the history
found in Britain."1 and condition of the English people form a
So much of the like matter is found ii part of our history, as well as those of Cam
English history, has induced the writer to bria, or Cornwall, or Cumbria, or Strath-
pause and inquire if it can be true. If so l Sec Matthew Arnold's IOIT essays on the study
let it stand; and neither complain or Ire nt' Celtic literature, in the Ne\v York Kcleclie M:iif; -
zine, in June. August, September and October Xos.,
against God, Providence, or fortune. Bu iS^io; 'akcn from the Cornhill Magazine then recent
ly published. These articles ai'e striking manite*-
talions of truth and candor; and especially so as it i>
Maeaulay's History of Kn^himl, ch. i, p. ^. iotimated that his father was a jrood CYM-huter.
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
Clyde and its adjoining parts of Scotland.
And it is intended to contend, as a matter
of fact and truth, that the Ancient Britons
did largely form a part of the original peo
ple of England ; and that, however com
placent it may be said, that all the Ancient
Britons who did not flee were heartlessly
slaughtered; still it is con tended that a very
large portion of them remained and were
absorbed in the English population, and
aided in forming their present character;
and this is the principal reason why the
English differ so materially from the native
Teuton. This has been indicated in the
course of the previous chapter; but it must
be further pointed out in the statement of
the condition of the people. But at pres
ent only the facts of history will be intro
duced as evidence of the position; but in
a future chapter evidence to the same
point will be deduced from language, phys
iology, and antiquarian researches. This
history and research are necessary, in or
der to know and understand the condition
of a people.
And as to the Ancient Britons, it is prop
er that the eye be cast back and see who
and what they were at the commencement
of this period, when Hengist and his fol
lowers first made a foot-hold on British
Roil. Previous to the coming ol C;esar, we
have frequent incidental accounts of the
Briton^- from the Tynans, the Carthagen-
ians, and the Greeks and Romans. These
represent them, during the course of many
years, in dress and appearance, as consid
erably civilized; kind and hospitable to
strangers; industrious, laborious and given
to work the earth for metals; accustomed
in a foreign commerce to exchange the
products of their country for foreign
goods : and disposed themselves to be en
gaged in shipping and commerce. The
great fleet of the Venetians, which struck
Ciesar with so much astonishment, and so
severely tested the Roman power. That
fleet was the product of the commerce of
that part of the world, and was collected
from the shores of Gaul and Britain for the
3 i Pictorial History of Kngland, pp. 31, So. sx. | rnkulated to create are rather enhanced than tlmiin-
127. Publius Crassas find, SS. i Giles' Ancient | i<licd. \Ve have commenced with tl
Brittms, 10- n, 05-6.
277
defense of the country. The state of things
then and there found would have gradually
and progressively grown up into a new
civilization of its own, had it not been for
that scourge of humanity and of the Celtic
raceCa-sar and the Roman power. This
commerce connected itself with Britain ;
and its greatest development was in the
neighborhood of Portsmouth, for there
was Victa, the great emporium of ancient
Britain. All history and antiquitv point
to that vicinity as the place to which the
ancient commerce resorted for tin and oth
er productions of the country : and where
the greatest progress was made in the arts
and civilization. There were gathered the
greatest population, and the greatest evi
dence of their labors and arts. There were
Stonehenge and Avcbury; and there the
twenty cities* taken bv Vespassian, alter
thirty-two hard-fought battles.' These
two ancient temples prove a dense popula
tion, with great industry, art and skill; and
consequently great progress in civiliza
tion.6 This part of Britain Cii'sar never
4 Sec B. i, ch. ,
5 KicharJ of Circncestcr, B. ii, ch. Jxiv. See
Bohn';''s Antiquarian Library, Six OUi Old Chronicles, p.
i Pictorial Eng. Hist.', p. 36.
6 Upon the subject of the arts and science exer
cised by the Ancient Hritons in the monuments left
by them at Stonehcnge and Avebury, a learned
writer in the Itritjsh Quarterly, and copied in the
Xew York Eclectic Magazine,' in April No., 1870, p.
398, says: "In the case of the Cromlechs, it is proba
ble that the use of the mason's iiwtls on the giant
slab was onlv of rare occurrence. In the case of the
circular buildings, on the other hand, there is reason
conclude that it was the rule. The principal
stones at Avebury impress the observer witli the
Idea that they have been caretuilv wroughi. It is
possible thai this idea is erroneous; but it receives
a very distinct confirmation^ from the investigation.
of Stonehenge. Of the masonic character of that
great edifice there is not the shadow of a doubt.
Carefully finished mortise and tenon joints are still
to be seen in tin stones. They \\ere no mere up-
piled blcvk*. A hori/onlal ring of wrought mason
ry was supported by urouirhi stone upright-, .it llie
night of from twelve to sixteen feel from the ground,
the whole structure being bound together b\ care-
fullv wrought and fitted joints. \W Jia\ e here as
distinct .111 instance of mason's work, -.trictly so
called, as in the (Jreat Pyramid itself." What great
art, skill and science it must h;ive required to trans
port these mightv blocks from the quarrv, and then
to hew, raise and Jit them. Il mav well be compared
with the great Pyramid. Thi> is an answer to Lord
Macaulav's enquiry tor a Roman portico.
The same learned author further sa\s. '"^toueheuge,
Avebury, and oilier prehistoric ruins, regarded 'in
this light, have a nev% import ami legend. The mys
tery that surrounded them mav be In a yre;it extent
expelled, but the wonder and awe which (hev are
vague- idea
that we had before us rude relic uf a u'i.int
J78 THE SAXON PERIOD.
saw, and knew nothing about it; but that
which he did sue was comparatively new
and not so much improved. These con
siderations, with the description given ol
them by Tacitus and others of his time,
prove that the Ancient Britons, before the
Romans, had made great progress in the
arts and civilization. Their organization
in defense of tlieir country, their spirited
contest for their liberties and freedom, and
the ready manner in which they adopted
improvements suggested to them, attracted
the admiration of Tacitus and other
Romans, and show that they were not to
be compared with the natives of the Sand
wich islands; but were among the most
civilized and interesting people of Western
Europe.
But the question is not so much as to
what the Ancient Britons were at the com
mencement of the Roman period, as it is
that of the Saxon period; and upon that
subject there is in general a very erroneous
opinion prevailing. It should be remem
bered that the Roman conquest of Britain
took place a hundred and thirty years after
that of Gaul, or Caesar's time. At that
time the Romans were essentially an agri
cultural people, desirous of acquiring land;
and did emigrate to and possess themselves
of some portion of the land in the countrv
they conquered. They therefore did emi
grate to and settle in Gaul ; to that degree
that they materially affected and changed
the language of the country. But at the
time of the conquest of Britain, all these
matters were entirely changed. In the
time of Claudius and Nero, the Romans
ceased to oe agriculturists and a land seek
ing people.7 They then, instead of cultivat-
barbarism; that tin' ancient jx:oplc. whom we agree
to term Druids, had piled up rough stones, by the
exercise of rude though gjgantic force, into sonic
mystic hypa-tliral court ol wor>hip. \Vc find, on
more careful investigation, the rtrin of carefully-
built, accurately -wrought Mnirturrs. the iuijwrisha-
ble remains of which attest such a high degree of
masonic skill and science, as well as such outlay in
transport and in labor of all kinds, as to indicate a
very nigh degree of craftsmanship and artistic edu-
ration. Ana above all must it be noted that we find
no trace of Image or of idolno indication of any
idolatrous form of worship, any more than any struc
tural reference to that astrologif.il erred, which we
know to have exercised an important infliu nee over
mankind."
7 Pro .sk i in Apple-ion's Journal, Oct., iStj-g. p.
"It nmsl le rvmi'inlHrrt'tl that the Ho-
[Book in.
ing and producing tlieir own agricultural
productions, obtained them as tribute
from other countries and were distributed
to the Roman populace at home. There
tvas, therefore, no emigration of the Roman
people to Britain. There were no Roman
people who went to Britain, except the
army, its officers, and its hangers on ; and
possibly a few merchants. There were so
lew outside of the armv that the Romans
never affected the language of the countrv.
We are also informed by historians that
the Roman laws prohibited the Roman of
ficers and distinguished men from settling
in Britain or acquiring lands there; and a
distinguished English historian savs, which
is very true, that grants of land were made
to the Roman veterans as brnrjicium in
Gaul ; but we have not equal full proof of
the same practice in Britain.* Indeed it
may be asserted that no such distribution
ot land was made by the Romans in Brit
ain. Where land was confiscated, it was
sold, and the Romans derived their revenue
frdm such confiscations, but principally
from taxes and tributes. The Roman peo
ple in Britain were always very small
usually an army of about fifty thousand
men against two or three millions of the
native population; and when the armv was
withdrawn there were no Romans left, ex
cept some half-breeds. The Romans never
improved Britain with a view to their own
personal property it was only a national
affair to increase their revenue by taxes
and tribute. The improvements were left
to the people themselves, which the Ro
mans encouraged with a view of increasing
the taxes they could collect; but they did
not make the improvements. The excep
tion to this was the roads, which were ne
cessary to facilitate their military move
ments and the collection of the taxes; their
camps and fortifications, which were neces
mans, a* a general rule, neither exterminated, en
slaved nor colonized. On the other hand, they a.v-
t-imifalfd, wherever it was possible, the people
whom they had overcome. 'Die Greeks were great
colonizers; but the Roman colonies were, in the
:nain, simply military posts." * * * "Thus, in
the fourth century, the population of Roman Itritain
must still have been almost purely Celtic; and dur
ing a long period of comparative peace, it cannot
have been less, but was prohablv greater in number
i than in the time of Ca.isar."
S Pa [grave's Anglo-Saxon, ch. xii, p. ^14.
 Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 279
sary to their security and to hold their pos although of these there are two designated
session; and some puhlic buildings neces as municipal and nine as colonial, there is
sary to the transaction of their public busi nothing to warrant the supposition that any
ness. Great complaint was made by the considerable number of Romans occu
Britons that they were compelled to lalxjr, pied any of them, except officers of the
by detail, upon these public improvements army for a temporary purpose. So that at
in addition to the payment of their taxes. the commencement of the Saxon period
All beyond this were the labor, the enter all these cities, population and improve
prise, and the improvements of the native ments were essentially British, and not Ro
Britons. Beyond this the Roman officer man; produced by their industry, skill and
only encouraged, and oscasionally pro capacity, only aided by Roman designs, just
duced a disign; and, as Tacitus says, "thus as English or Americans are now aided by
encouraged, the natives were induced to foreign designs.
build temples, courts of justice, and com The civilization of the Britons at this
modious dwelling houses, * * * * and period is conclusively proved by other facts
by degrees baths, porticos, and elegant in their history, as well as those already re
banquet halls."' And he shows that they ferred to. The Christian religion had then
readily understood and engaged in such been cultivated among them about three
improvements. hundred years; and for many years had
All the improvements in Britain during the bishops and Christian clergy been in
the Roman period which did not belong to the habit of attending all the Christian
the Romans as national property was the councils held, even before the reign of the
property of the native Britons, built and emperor Constantine; and their religion
produced by their industry, intelligence and principles were considered sound. At
and taste, and should be called British that time they had large and thriving
works and improvements, and it is unjust schools or universities at Winchester, Cterl-
to them to denominate it as Roman, in any eon, Bangor, and other places, which pro-
other sense than as certain buildings and luccd such Latin scholars Pelagius,
erections are now called Grecian, Roman whose scholarship was then admired and
or Gothic architecture. These names acknowledged by the Roman world; and
classify the character of the improvements, also St. David and otheis, whose learning
but it is the industry and talent of the na and attainments were well known. Not
tives of pther countries that produce them. withstanding the coming of the -Saxons
According to the testimony of Richard and their hostilities to civilization and
of Cirencester, there were among the Brit Christianity, which swept over Britain with
ons at the close of the Roman period nine destruction and desolation, these schools
ty-two cities, of which thirty-three were and their learning continued down, past
more celebrated and conspicuous, in proba the seventh century, where the Ancient
bly capitals of provinces and districts. And BritonsCymryremained.
9 Tacitus' A^ricohi, <&\xi. In Apple-ton's Jour-
A most decided matter in establishing
n:il (October 9, 1869, p. 243,) Pro.. Fitch says .
' tli.it the condition of the Britons just before the
Ca*ar "will not_allow iis to assume tor South'Hritain
(;. f.. Knfrlaml)
nfrla :i population ot less than a million coming of the Saxons is the account of the
and a half or two millions; while the working of tin visit of bishop Gcrmanus from Gaul, at (lie
mines, the use of metallic armor and wheel carriages,
the possession of neat houses, of roads, of riverdarns, request of the Britons, to aid them in con
and of stone piers, (Cicero, "Ad Atticmn," iv, 16,)
testify to a considerable progress in material civiliza futing the doctrines of Pelagius. His
tion. It apjTears undeniable thai theCymry of South preaching was in aid of the exertion made
ern Britain were as much civilized as their cousins of
Gaul, and that both were far more advanced than by the British clergy. He held his meet
the Teutonic tribes beyond the Rhine." These ob ings and preached at all eligible places, from
servations are just and true; but then how much
more advanced was the progress of the Krilons at his landing in Kent to the western shore
the commencement of the Roman conquest by Claud
ius: and still how much more so must their progress of the islands in North Wales. Every
in civilization have been at the termination of their where the people Hocked to these meet
rule in Britain.
10 B. i, ch. vii. ings in great multitudes, to be enlightened
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
on the various intricate questions involved sustenance in time of peace, and the battle-
in the Pelagian doctrine. Nothing could axe and hammer in war. It was their
be a more striking evidence of the progress greatest boast that they had never slept
made by these people in Christianity and under the smoky beams of a house, and
civilization than the account given by this that their battle-axe had been the most pro
transaction. They were also the people by lific in slaughter. When they were able
whose industry and care everything in the to take possession of any part of the coun
country had been produced, sustained and try, destruction and ashes marked their
protected, from the time of Constantine course; the ruling population who were
the Great, a period of one hundred and fifty not slaughtered in battle either submitted
years, during which there were no Romans to their exactions or fled ; the body of the
there, except the army and officers, and people succumbedthe men to pay tribute
most ot the time even they were withdrawn, and cultivate the land for sustenance; and
and difficult to keep them there. During many of the momen were made their wives
that time the people were unaccustomed and servants. Their residences were rude
to war or military affairs. The young men cabins, often built up against the ruined
who were taken into the Roman army walls of houses they had destroyed. These
were taken off to other countries, and gen rude soldiers, when settled in a part of the
erally never returned. They were there country, lived by means of the tribute paid
fore a highly improved, civilized and Chris them by the conquered people, in provis--
tianized people, unaccustomed to military ions and clothing; and as they brought
affairs, because the Romans, as far as pos with them but few or no women, they took
sible, prevented them from being so accus wives from the choice women of the land,
tomed. The British historians claim that and commenced a new household as rulers
after the Roman conquest all that part of of the country. In a few generations these
Britain south of the Thames was permitted matters would change and improve. The
to remain under their own organized gov two races would intermingle, assimilate,
ernment, of their own kings, subordinate and improve. The new comers would
to the Romans, paying them the required adopt such improvements as struck their
tribute and taxes. This is probably true; fancy; and the native.-, so overwhelmed,
for \ve never read of war or rebellion there, would gradually adopt their language. But
for the war.-- were alwav* to the north. I that language would not be Saxon, but a
We should also recollect that bv the decree new language gradually modified to adapt
of Caracalla, in the year 211, all Britons it to the new state of things ; and the adop
were made Roman citizens. tion of many new forms and words, espe
cially as lo names of things, and forms of
!;J The Condition of t/ir Saxom Darin expression.
this Period.
Over a hundred years the conquest of
The Saxon population who first became \ the Saxons was confined to the neighbor
inhabitants of England were a people in hood of the -ea shore; over a hundred and
character, habit* and training as different fifty years before it extended into the in
from the Britons as they well could be. terior and west as far as the line already
They were pagans, and despised Christian described, extending from the Southern
ity; and were particularly hostile to the Avon to the mouth of the Tweed; and it
Christian priesthood and churches, and de was over three hundred years before Offa
stroyed them as far as in their power. extended his conquest west of the Severn.
They aUo despised all special objects of In this slow progress the Saxons took pos
civilization, as architecture and literature; session of the country the rural districts,
and these were also special objects of their and in most instances left the cities un
hostility and destruction. They venerated touched. London was never taken by the
and protected nothing, except those which Saxons, and from this and other circum
afforded them the rudest protection and stances it is to be believed that the cities
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 281
were tavored by the Saxons, upon some whom they worshipped as their god; so
terms, perhaps upon paying tribute in that they governed by divine right, and
manufactured articles and clothing. There none other were permitted to rule. Every
are many facts which go to prove this, Saxon king in history, their pedigree is ac
some of which are entirely overlooked by curately deduced from Woden, and all the
English historians. As where Cadwalla, earls or aldermen and ruling men were
the British king, in the year 635, put Osric, connected with the same family, and all
king of Northtimbria, to death, because he other people strictly excluded. "Our An
had bpsirgeit a free /ottv/.l Ijuch free towns glo-Saxon alderman," says Palgrave, "con
or cities are frequently alluded to. Exeter stituted a kind of ruling caste or tribe, all
for a long time after that was a tree city, as sons of Woden, perhaps anciently invested
London and other cities undoubtedly were. I with sacerdotal functions, the priests as
Another instance is illustrative of this, in well as the law giver and leaders of the
the siege of the strong town of Andrede- nation. Collectively as a caste, and indi
caster by ./Ella in A. D. 490, where the vidually over their own immediate follow
Britons made such resistance as to drive ers and retainers, they possessed great do
the Saxons from the walls three times; but minion and influence, * * * * but
at length the town was, taken, and, because the rule expired with the urgency which
they had sustained such loss in the course had given it birth, and all the aldermen
of the siege, the Saxons became so "enraged were alike again."* This last expression
at the loss they had sustained that Ihev to of Palgrave conveys a false impression
tally destroyed the city, and the people all that all power so returned to the people.
fell by the edge of the sword, with their This was not so; it was a mere return of
women and children. "2 If it had been a "the rule" to the aldermen, as one family
common thing with the Saxons to destroy or caste, but the people had no part in the
all towns, and put all women and children government, which both in time of peace
to the sword, it would not have been said remained in the king and aldermen, who
that this was so done because they were all of one family and caste. This
were so enraged on Ihe account of the ex characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon govern
treme resistance they had made. The ment continued down to almost its very
probability is they refused to surrender and last. The first instance of its departure
agree to come under their government and was in the reign of Ethel red the Unready,
pay tribute, as other cities were doing. (A. D. 1009) when one Edric, "a man of
Another matter which goes directlv to low birth, but of great eloquence and abili
show the condition of the people, which ties," was greatly promoted and elevated
was so decidedly different with the Saxons bv the king. He became a great favorite,
than with the Britons, was their form of received the hand of Edgitha, the king's
government. It was as aristocratical and daughter, and was made earl of Mercia.
oligarchs! as any that history gives anv Upon this Palgrave says:"This promo
account of. This also is a matter that has tion, and still more, this misalliance ot a
generally been overlooked by historians; daughter of Odin, constituted an entire
and the Saxons represented to have been departure from Ihe ancient principles of the
under a very free and equal government. Anglo-Saxon government."
All the rulers of the Saxons in Britain But the greatest departure was jusl after
from the king down claimed to be descend this time, in the case of Godwin and his
ants from Woden,'1 their great ancestor, family. And as to this Palgrave again says :
"The obstacle to I larold's elevation, arising
1 Hcnrv of Huntingdon, B. iii, p. 96. Sec iintc,
B. ,ch. . from his ancestry, was indeed inseparable.
2 Henry of H., B. ii, p. 45. See :ll*o untc, B. No individual, who was not of an ancient
<h. . royal home, had ever been able to main
3 See Pictorial History ot Emfliintl, B. ii, ch. ii, p.
214. Also Mallctl's Northern Antiquity, in BohnN
Lih. 4 Palgjiive's Anjflo-Saxons, ch. iv, p. 60,
 282 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in
tain himself upon an Anglo-Saxon throne.'1 dom in the form of woman ; and for ten
And such was the character of this govern years the nobles shared the government."
ment up to this tiine, that by its prejudice These Saxons were rude warriors; and
in favor of birth, and against native tal war and slaughter wrere an essential part
ents, that by means of these principles of of their religion. They believed that to
aristocracy and caste the people were kept fight and die on the field of battle was a
as serfs fiom any participation in the gov sure passport to heaven, and a glorious in
ernment, and excluded such men as the troduction to Walhalla; and with the same
great Godwin and his son Harold, who zeal and hope as the Christian martyr met
were among the greatest men who ever his death, and courted it, so did the Saxon
ruled in the land, on their birth and hum warrior, with the same indifference, for
ble ancestry. And Palgrave further says : life, seek death In battle, and claimed that
"Hitherto the crown had been preserved he was only exchanging a mortal life here
from domestic invasion by the belief that ibr one that was immortal in heaven. They
royalty belonged exclusively to the chil were imbued with this idea, and it was long
dren of Woden. "6 * * * "The Dan before Christianity could diyest them of it.
ish chieftains imagined they possessed a This is well illustrated by the following
right to the government of the Anglian anecdote and character of Siward the stout
states of Britain. The Danish kings were earl of Northumbria, (about A. D. 1053)
sons of Woden, like our Anglo-Saxon who, when informed that his son was slain
monarchs."" Turner is to the same effect, in an expedition into Scotland, inquired:
who says: "The nobles were jealous of "Was his death- wound received before or
their race and rank. Nobles married no behind." The reply was, "Before." Then
bles only, and the severest penalties pro said he, "I greatly rejoice; no other death
hibited intrusions of one rank into the was fitting for him or me." The next year,
other."-1* They equally impugned the when he himself was about to die, and per
reign of a woman;9 and when the govern ceiving his approaching dissolution, said:
ment of Wesscx fell into the hands of the "Shame on me that I did not die in one of
queen Saxberga, the queen of the late king the many battles I have fought, but am re
Cen \\alch, "the proud barbarians of Wes- served to die with disgrace the death of a
sex disdained even a government of wis- sick cow! At least put on my armor of
proof, gird the sword by mv side, place the
5 Palgrave's Anglo-Sax., p. 300. helmet on my head, let me have my shield
6 Ibid, p. yit>. in my left hand and my gold-inlaid battle-
7 Ibid, p. SS. axe in my right hand, that the bravest of
S i Turner's Anglo-Sax., appendix to, II. ii, ch. ii, soldiers may die in a soldier's garb."10
p. 146. Palgrave says, ch. xii, p. 22^: "The curls
had many roval rights, though ot course inferior to These invaders had been pirates and
the king il dcgr
degree. One-third of ihc revenues ol
the carldoim belo'ng to them; other prerogatives var plunderers for generation after generation,
icd in different purls of the empire; and so did Ui.
prerogatives ->i the Anglo-Saxon kings, and we m:iy before they attempted a settlement in Brit
easily suppose that the further they were frum the ain. For a long time they had been in the
seat ot" government, the more would be assumed.
'Give him an inch und he will take an ell," may he habit of robbing and plundering the coun
fairly applied to ;ill mankind, and I do not see .m\
reason for excepting an earl 1 mean a Danish or try nearest the sea. Their experience in
Anglo-Saxon earl from the general rule."
The government was strictly an Oligarchy. The formed them that since the departure of
alderman, chieftains and nobilitv were all ol one the Romans, and the inexperience of the
family, :iml descendants of Woden, and they were
numerous enough for ruler**. In being summoned people in military affairs, it was easier and
by the sovereign to meet in council, ihey were called
as "their dear cousin." Turner says: "Their con safer to remain on shore; and hence caught
sent in their geinnl continued to lie necessary to the the idea of a permanent settlement. They
more important acts of authority. There were four
orders of men among the Anglo-Saxons: The no came as soldiers or pirates, without wives
bles, the freemen, the field men, and the servile. The or familiesnot as emigrantsand as such
nobles were jealous of their race and rank; and no
bles married nobles only"(Turner. Ibid, 146). And they were constantly sending to their orig
such nobles were of the s:ime family, and the king
and all were descendants of Woden.
9 Turner, Ibid, p. 252. 10 Henry of Huntingdon, B. vi, p. 201 5.
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
inal country for more aid. Re-enforce-
ments of men were constantly coming to
their aid, and forming new settlements.
Wherever they were able to establish a
permanent footing in the country they
formed new relations with the people there.
The priests and officials fled. They took
for wives such of the women as they chose
the men and the residue of the popula
tion were left to work and cultivate the
land; and instead of being plundered they
were only compelled to divide with them
as a tribute or mode of taxation.
These new-comers had only the habits
and disposition of warriors and pirates;
they were destitute of all acquaintance
with literature, and despised industry and
labor. They trusted only in their battle-
axe, and upon the labors and property of
other people. They had long been accus
tomed to pillage and plunder, and they
took from others whenever they could,
without remorse or any compunction of
conscience. They had no sense of the
rights of others, and were taught that
whatever they could take from others was
evidence of their right to do so. Plunder
by sea and land had been so long their
habit it had become their regular voca
tion.'1 The open heavens, or the tent or
cabin of the wanderer or .soldier was their
boasted home. When they had taken pos
session and settled clown, a new generation
grew up around them, a mixed breed of
Saxons and Britons. New enterprises
of this kind gradually and slowly spreading
over Southern and Eastern Britain, unlil
a new people had sprung up, known as
Anglo-Saxons. But this intermixture of
races not only took place upon the first
settlement, but also it continued in the in
tercourse and commixture of the two peo
ple throughout the whole country. And,
as we have seen, the people of the numer
ous cities were frequently left undisturbed;
and in the great interior, the great body of
the country included in Mercia, the great
mass of the original people, except the
priests and ruling people, remained, and
were swallowed up and assimilated with
Vaujrhan's Involutions in History, B. ii, ch. ii,
p. ioS.
the Anglo-Saxons. This mixture became
a new people, so very different from the
original Teutons. They, by these means,
became a different people in blood and
character, partaking some of both races;
even of their language, the foundation of
which was still Saxon; for the Germans
are, of all nations, the most tenacious of
their languageit is generally the last thing
they will part with. The oldest Saxon
settlements in the southeastern part of
England, bv this operation, soon changed
in their civilization and character; and this
accounts for the greater ease and readiness
with which Christianity and civilization
took in Kent, Sussex, Essex and East An-
glia than in Wessex, Mercia and North-
umhria, where the new importations of
Saxons were constantly coming in to carry
on their progress, and to lill up the con
stant loss in their numbers in the wars
against the Britons. This will also ac
count for the great difference in the char
acter and history of the people of the four
first mentioned from those of the three lat
ter named countries. In the former Chris
tianity took readily, but in the latter only
slowly; and these were in continual war
not only against the Britons, but also with
each other. The difference we see between
Ethelbert of Kent, and Penda ot" Mercia or
Ethelfrith of Northumbrta; and the pro
gress made by Christianity and civilization
in the several countries.
The Saxons, when they first came to
Britain, were as much as any people desti
tute of all acquaintance with literature and
science, and so continued for many year.s.
It was Christianity that first introduced
them to these. Up to the time of the con
version of Ethelbert of Kent to Christiani
ty they manifested a decided opposition to
the Christianity and civilization of the
Britons. Much :>f the architecture iirul
improvements of the country were utterly
destroyed, as matters that were utterly
woi thless and beneath their regard. But
when they Ix'came Christians they grad
ually paid some attention to architecture
and its concomitant improvements, but
their progress in literature was slow; in
this, their first production was Bede's EC-
 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
clesiastical History, which for its time was was divided into two classesthe freemen
a wonderful work, and highly credible. and the servile. The Saxons, without any
B ut that was the work of Christianity ; and apparent compunction, always recog
without the aid that Becle received from nized the right and institution of slavery,
the Christian priests, principally from nto this mass of people the subdued Brit
abroad, he have acquired the ons were admitted upon the same terms as
taste or literarv attainment necessary to other plebian people. It was only those
produce a historical work of the kind. vho were taken prisoners in actual war
Christianity was introduced a hundred were made slaves. And history furnishes
and filly years after the settlement made evidence that the subdued Britons frequent-
by llengist, and Bede's time was nearly y held land upon the same terms as the
a hundred and fifty years later. But it ree plebian Saxons.
was the great Alfred that first encouraged Before the Saxons attempted the con
and introduced a taste for literature among quest and settlement in Britain, they had
the Saxons, about 900, which until then been for many years as pirates and maraud
was entirely neglected. ers, the terror of the Roman empire.13 Du
It was many years after the Introduction ring that time they had become expert and
of Christianity before a priest existed among relentless warriors; and their religious no
the native Saxons; and when they came tions rendered them fearless, and taught
lo exist great distinction was made between hem to court danger and death in battle
the clergy who were from the noble fami is the happiest event of human life. In
liesthe descendants of Woden and those the course of this experience they had been
of plebian descent. The high positions in taught the arts of a rude war, and had
the church were secured by the children [earned what were the most deadly and
of the nobility, while the plebian priests ift'ective arms, and what was their most
were compelled to occupy an humble po efficient armor in their wicked warfare.
sition. The great distinction made in the Their most efficient weapons were the bat
English church between one class tle-axe and a club with spikes bristling
of the clergy and another dependent from a knot at the end of it; and these
upon their rank in society as represented were made with great length and weight,
by Lord Macaulay,'2 so very humble and in order to give the most deadly blow with
degrading to the humble priest, was a relic the greatest security, and fall with terrific
of that cruel distinction made among the effect on their enemies.'* They then sought
Saxons between those who were connected to clothe themselves in the most efficient
with the families who were descendants of and protective armora shield, a helmet
Woden and the great mass who constitu with metal projections to protect the head,
ted the humble people. This great dis neck and nose. With these weapons and
tinction in the Anglo-Saxon society, be defensive armor they generally went into
tween the aristocracv who descended from battle in a close solid body or in the shape
Woden and the plebian people, continued of a wedge. They were generally success
without anv encroachments upon it until ful, as any body ot men, thus armed and
the time of the great Godwin, who was disciplined, would be: but still they often
probably the first instance of its violation; found their match amongst the Britons, as
hut it is probable that the success of God when llengist was driven back into the
win was wholly due to the change wrought sea by Vortimer;'1 or at the great battle of
in the condition of society by the Danes Badon Hill, and under Arthur.'6 But
and their wars. This humble condition ol slow and progressive success attended
the great mass of the Saxon population
continued at least to the Norman conquest, 13 About 170 years, from the time of Carausius
and it included all below the nobility, anc about iSo, to the time of Hengisl in 450.
14 Vau^han's Revolutions, p. 108.
- M;ioinlny> History of England, vol. i, ch. iv 15 See ante, B. iii, ch. i, J .
16 Sec ante, B. iii, ch. i, j .
Chap. iv. | CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
them : principally by means of the Britons anity. But that improvement, though a
permitting them to acquire a settlement on decided one, was slow in making its way
the sea shore, without taking the alarm as against the principles and practices ot the
to the consequences, until alter a new race devotees of Woden.
ot" native Saxons had been fixed in the The next improvement was that produced
country ; and also for the reason that the by Alfred the Great. This was after they
part ol' England which first became subject had been in Britain about four hundred
to the Saxons, was the country of the years (A. L>. 450870). The exertion made
Lloegrian Cvmr\, who did not resist with bv him to establish peace upon solid basis,
that \ igor, which characterized the Cam and the exertion by him made for the intro
brian Cymry1" or the Cymry proper. The duction of science and literature, produced
Llocgrians more readilv united and assim an almost incalculable advancement in the
ilated with the Saxons than the Britons of condition of the Saxons; and from this
Cambria, and it was their country which time forward their improvement was pro
was first taken. There, until OfiVs time gressive. And strange as it may appear,
(about 777). the western line of the Saxon the coming of the Danes was an actual im
conquest remained as the western line of provement to the Saxons, though they
\\'esex, Mercia and Northnmbria, before complained that the Danes were savage
am porii.m ul Cambria was taken by them. pagans., who brought war and desolation
But the niv-tery ot" the conquest consists w ith them the slaughter of their people,
in the fact, that from the commencement and reduction of many of their towns to
to the end there was a continual re-enforce heaps of ashes, These complaints may
ment and acquisition of men from North have been only the just retribution of
western Germany. From the time of the Providence, in inflicting upon the Saxons
Romans to the time ot William the Con the very same misery and injustice which
queror (about 600 years) there was a con they had previously inflicted upon the
stant stream of Germans going to Britain Britons. But it taught the Saxons a severe
to find a grave there, until the lives of mil lesson of the demands of justice and hu
lions were spent in making that conquest. manity ; and the benevolent doctrines of
On the other hand the Cymry had no such Christianity, which they had slowly adopt
aid or resource, and in the battles with the ed, gave them an opportunity of practically
Saxons their numbers were constantly studying its benevolence and humanity.
being reduced. The force that is perpetual But wherein the Danes were of the great
ly increased must eventually overcome that est advantage in improving the Saxons,
which is on the decline without a re-enlorce was the partial reform they produced in
ment. their form ol government, and their social
During this time, from the year 450 to and political relations. Although the
1066, was the period which in the history Danes were a people of the same pagan re
of Europe is properly called the dark ages; ligion, and social relation taught by Woden
when all science, literature and improve to the Saxons, still the Danes were not so
ments were on the decline, consequent up thoroughly bound, in that aristocratical dis
on its being overrun by the barbarians of tinction which divided the Saxons, politic
the north ; and all these objects by them ally and socially, into the few, who claimed
subverted, until all Europe had become a descent from Woden, and the great body of
scene of desolation; Till commerce, friendly the plebeian people, who could never hope
and civil intercourse between nations lost, to rise to their condition, however great
and Europe thrown back into its original might be their merits. The Danes were
savagery. The first circumstance of im the cause of the first breaking in upon this
provement in the condition of the Saxons principle of the Saxon government, and
in Britain, was their conversion to Christi were the cause of elevating the first plebe
ian Saxon from a herdsman to one of the
17 Sec i Thierry's Xorinan Conquest, p. greatest and most powerful men in the
 2S6 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
land, in the person of the great earl God- and commerce with southeastern and civ-
win.w This break was of great conse- ilizcd Europe were cut off and destroved.
quence to the common of the Saxon peo- They did all in their power to preserve
pie. Hangar is y coed, on the Dee, and Ca-rleon
on the Usk, as centers of religion and
%3TAc Condition of the Britons during learning. The first of these, Bangor, was
the Saxon Period. (4571066.) destroyed about A. D. 605, by Ethelfrith,
the stout and destructive king of North-
As already stated, it is held that the umbria;2 the second, Ca;rleon on the L'sk,
Britons at the time the Saxons became first was wonderfully preserved amidst all hos
permanently settled in Britain were a civ tilities, so that in the time ot Giraldtts
ilized people, with cultivated arts, science
Cambrensis, about the year 1185, it especi
and literature. Upon their condition the
ally attracted his attention and description
coming of the Saxons had the most de
as wonderful specimen ol the architecture
teriorating and lamentable effect. Christi
and works of more ancient times. In the
anity had been for many years firmly es
midst of those wars and hostilities of the
tablished in all South Britain, and "their
Saxons, and then the Danes,, the Cvmn
theology had been recognized as sound and
maintained their attention to literature and
correct at the various councils previously
the Christian religion, as is fully proved bv
held on the continent, at which their bish
the prose writings of Pelagus, Gildas, Nen-
ops had attended. Archbishops had been
established at York, London and Winches nius and Asser; but especially by the pro
ductions of the bards during the sixth and
ter; and in the course of the excited con
seventh century, during Western Europe's
troversy U]x>n the subject of Arianism and
darkest hour, as is sufficiently proved by
Pelagian heresy, the true doctrines of
the poetic productions of Taliesin of Ban-
Christianity had been firmly engrafted.
gor, Aneurin of Cumbria, whose great epic
But in the course of a hundred and fifty
poem, Gododin, describing the circum
years, the Saxons had expelled from that
stances of the great battle of Cottraeth, in
part of Southeastern Britain, of which thev
which the poet himself was engaged as a
had taken possession with special hostility
warrior. The merits of this poet is such as
all evidence of Christianity with its bish
to designate him as the sovereign bard of
ops and priests, and destroyed all churches
lis times. These were followed bv numer
and schools. Those who Here not dis
ous other poets and bards, as Llvwarch
posed to submit, as the clergy and oflicials,
Hen, Myrddin and numerous others, who
fledsome to Armorica among their
lave not only received the admiration of
brethren there, and others to the Cymrv in
their own countrymen but of generous and
the west, while the great body of the peo
impartial Englishmen and others.-'' Of
ple remained, principally in the cities, and
Aneurin it has been said, that his descrip
were eventually swallowed up by their
tion of manners are happy, and the inci
conquerors and became Anglo-Saxons.l
dental allusions are strikingly illustrative
But in the meantime the Cymry, west of
of the age; but his chief power consisted
the Saxons, did all in their power to pre
in his palhctic lamentation, and his elegies
serve Christianity, literature and science,
have many fine sentiments These literary
so far as it was possible in that dark age, efforts of this people were continued to the
when a war was prosecuted against every time of Ilowel the Goad, which produced
thing of the kind, and all communication
his code; and survived the dark and gloomy
iS See ante, B. ;ii, cli.. times that followed him; and again burst
I This is sci declared repeatedly bv the British hN- i Sec ante B. iii.ch. : Henry of Huntingdon, B.
tprians. The triads say: "That the "Lilians, en- in, n. .82. Sec, also, the article Cacrlcon, in Cham
ticed hy the Coranians, entered into a conspiracy ber s Encyclopedia; also Giraldus Cambrensis.
with the enemy and became Saxons." This positive 3 See Turner's Vindication; Prof. Arnold's Study
declaration is in accordance with common sense- of Celtic Literature; also the writings of Southl
werenoeither
and one expelled
with thatorsense
put to will believe that they
the sword. and Wadsworth; also the able essay of Stephens on
the Literature of the Cymry.
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
out in a revival of literature in a subsequent It is rather strange that we have so many
age, in that of the twelfth century. ndoubted evidences of the love and cher-
At the commencement of O Oil's reign in shed fondness of the Celts of this Western
the year 755, west of the line already de Europe to literature, and their devotion to
scribed as then the went line of Wessex, under such adverse circumstances. Be-
Mercia and Northumbriu, the- people ides the Cymric names already mentioned
throughout Western Britain were almost n connection with their literature, there
exclusively Cymry; and this includes the re names of Scots and Irish, equally en-
peninsula of Cornwall west of the A von, itled to our regard and admiration. The
Cambria westot the Severn, Cumbria from reduction of Ireland and Scotland in early
the Dee to the Firth of the Sol way. Strath - imes, when \ve might justly expect noth-
Clvde, running far into the northeast of from them; some of whom are claimed
Scotland; including the Picts, who were by each country. But whether Scot or
the descendants of some of the Ancient Irish, they are equally due to the Celts.
Britons who fled from the oppression of Dssian is one of these; and though his ex-
the conquering Romans to the protection stence has been denied by the "Celt-hater,"
afforded in the recesses of Scotland. These vet that has been abundantly vindicated by
were in part the descendants of those gal rair and able men Mr. Giles in his history
lant men, who defended their country un of the Ancient Britons places Ossian in
der Galgacus. The exception to this, il the time of Carausius, and says that he re
there be any, were the Scots, and the High fers to him by the name of Caron. Anoth
landers in the northwest of Scotland. The er is John Scotus Erigena, who has added
Scots were, undoubtedly, originally Britons to the fame of his countrymen, but added
who fled from the invading Romans, tirst to the enlightenment and literature of
to Ireland, and afterwards passed over to Europe. Though we have abundant evi
Scotland; and by their enterprise and en dence of the extraordinary production of
ergy gave their name to the country. Foi literature at this period by the Cymry, the
the reason that the Scots last came from Irish and the Scot, yet the greatest devel
Ireland, they are frequently called by th opment of it belongs to the next period, in
ancient historians Irish; but wereprobabh the twelfth century.
dc-ciMtdants of the Ancient Britons. The Since the commencement of the Chris
Highlanders were Gaels the elder Celt tian era, literature, civilization and Christi
who inhabited Britain before the coming o anity have always gone on hand in hand;
the Cymry. These three Celtic national! and civilization requires the true and gen
tiesScots, Picts and Gaels, so nearly re uine principles of Christianity for its great
lated, by an union formed the new nation est development. Here again the Celtic
ality of Scotland a country and peopl population of the west may justly claim
who have most gloriously retrieved them priority and the superiority over the rest of
selves from the fierce and savage lite which Northern Europe. They were the earliest
the Romans compelled them to seek lor missionaries to the heathen. St. Patrick*
freedom and independence; until now they was induced to devote his life to the con
have, in literature and science, in arts and version of Ireland, which was attended
manufacture, and in the requirements of with extraordinary success about the same
peace and war, placed themselves upon an time that the Saxons began to overrun
equality with the first people of the world.
Such are the Scots, now made up of the territory. This limit the inhabitants of the South
never afterwards altered, making from that day the
Guels and Cymry of Ancient Britain, with new point of .separation between the two parts of
a small .sprinkling of Anglo-Saxon.1 Britain. The tribes of Anglian race who inhabited
the plains between the Forth and the Tweed became
bv this change embodied with the population of
4 Thierry (in his Nnrin;m Conquest, Vol. i. B. i, Picts and Scots, or Scotch, the name which this
mixed population soon took, and from which was
p. <;i.t say*: "After the. death nf Ivjfrith ol N'orlh- formed the modern n.diie of the countrv." See ante.
unibritt, l A. D. 684,) the Pins and Scot* improved B.iii. ch. .
their victory and advanced south of Ihc Tweed, the
banks of which thev ihen made the I'nuits of their 5 See ante. B. iii, ch. .
288 THE SAXON PERIOD.
England and extinguish Christianity there.
Out of thjs mission to Ireland came St.
Columba, who, about 550 or some earlier,
established his mission on the Isle of lona
on the coast of Scotland, which afterwards
became celebrated as the great seat of learn
ing and religion. The followers and stu
dents of Columba appear to have rendered
great service to Scotland, and even to
England, in matters of learning and re
ligion. Teachers were often sent from
among them to the seminaries of England
and the continent; and they undertook mis
sionary enterprises to Norway, and even to
Russia. They taught, in a great measure,
the principles of primitive Christianity, and
rejected the ceremonies of the Roman
church. But eventually lona became sub
ject to the Roman Catholic, and fell to ruins
in the progress of the Reformation. It had
produced the conversion of the Scots and
Picts to Christianity. It was among these
Scots and Picts that Osricand Eanfrid, two
young princes of Northumbria, when ban
ished during Edwin's time, took refuge and
became Christians, but on their return, af
ter Edwin's death, they abandoned their
Christian faith, and again became pagans
among their Saxon people.*
At this time the Celtic people, it i- prob
able, were the foremost in literary attain
ments, and the most advanced in Christian
ity, of any people of Northwestern Europe.
Elsewhere it was a dark period in the his
tory of Europe, during which the northern
barbarians were carrying on a war of ex
termination against civilization.
One of the most striking incidents of the
times, which affected the condition of the
Cymric people during this period, was the
continual scene of war in which thev lived.
This is specially observable with them from
the death of Howel the Good to that of
Edward the Confessor, (A. O. 948 1066,)
a. period of one hundred and eighteen
years;- during which there was almost a
constant war, either with the English gov
ernment, or the Dane.-, or marauding par
ties, or the dissension of partisan aspirants.
Either external or internal war was com-
6 SL-L- Henry of Huntingdon, B. iii, p. 90.
[Book m.
mon with them. But to this they were
compelled by the continual pressure and
war brought upon them by the Saxons and
Danes. They were compelled to keep
their armor on, and to live the life of a
warrior. Their enemies were always upon
them ; and in times of external peace, their
enemies were constantly aiding one party
out of power against another in power, for
the purpose of keeping them in war and
dissensions among themselves ; and for this
purpose advantage was taken of pre
tended claim or right, to aid it against the
peace of the country. But this has ever
been the unhappv fate of all people similar
ly situated. Tacitus said, that it was the
acknowledged policy of the Romans always
to aid the faction- and contensions. against
those in power amongst their enemies ; and
for this purpose they frequently aided and
allied the most pretentious claimant. The
same was the case with the .Saxon-. This
has brought upon the Ancient Britons the
charge that they were contentious and
quarrelsome ; which instead of l>eing a
charge against their national character,
should be laid to the charge of human
weakness; for we find the same weakness,
under the same circumstances, among all
brave people jealous of their rights and
liberties.
This charge against the Ancient Briton-
is principal! v supported bv what is said by
the querulous Gildas. He dealt in fault
finding philippic; but was no historian
dealing in facts. He was a priest probably
accustomed to preach in florid generalities,
and not in precise fact-. He \vas out of
temper with his countrymen, and laid
everything to their charge, because they
were not more successful against their en
emies; when perhaps that success was be
yond human power. The language of
Gildas is looked upon as untrue and unjust,
as applied to theCvmrv or Ancient Britons,
more than to any other people of whom
warriors could be made. The love of war,
and a pugnacious disposition is no more
manifest, if as much so, in the Cymry as
in the Saxons. In this respect the Ancient
Britons have sustained one uniform charac
ter from the earliest time in history to the
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
present day. Tacitus represents them as a
people who well understood their business
easy to be led by kindness, but hard to
drive. "Serving the government with alac
rity, provided they have no reason to com
plain of oppression." In this respect, Tac
itus pays the Britons the highest commen
dation ever given to any people.7 Alter
the Roman conquest under Agricola, the
Britons for nearly four hundred years were
as peaceable a people as any in the empire.
So they were even during Saxon times,
when they had to do with sucli men as Ed
gar the Peaceful, or Alfred the Great. So
they were under their own rule, during the
long reign of Howel the Good ; and so are
they now since the just govennent of
Henry VII. But they are a people who
know and understand when they are in
jured and oppressed, and when that is the
case, they will resent it; and when neces
sary, will fight for their rights.
4. The Condition of the Saxons at the
Close of this Period.
The Saxons when they first settled in
Britain were the most hopeless people as to
civilization. They had been marauding
piratesentirely destitute of literature and
science, and without any pretension to any
thing except their capacity for war. Theii
religion was the most hostile to civilization
of any that was ever invented; it made war
the supreme end of man, and death in bat
tie as a sure passport to the felecity o
heaven. For a hundred and fitly vears
they carried on a most implacable wa
against civilization and Christianity, and
the special objects of their hatred wer
Christian priests and Christian churches'
The Britons took them to be so Incorrigible
pagans that there was no hopes for them ii
Christianity; and they must have been sur
prised, if not astonished, when Augttstin
proposed to make Christians of such sub
jects. The Britons had been too glaring!
injured by them to have any other opinioi
of them. With the Roman priests it wa
otherwise. But their conversion of th
7 Tacitus' Aijricola, < P- 595 i see ante, 1
ii, ch. .
>axons to Christianity was to them and to
ic world a great boon, and was the first
tep in their improvement. But still their
rogress in improvement was very slow,
'he Roman priests in some measure intro-
.need to them letters; but until Alfred's
ime, about three hundred years after the
ntroduction of Christianity, their progress
n literature and science was slow, and al-
nost nothing. The good Alfred did all in
lis power to cultivate a taste lor these mat
ers among his people; and in this he was
really aided by the learned Cambrian,
Asser, who was his friend, companion, and
lis biographer. From this time to the
Gorman conquest their improvement was
considerable.
During the time just alluded to, with
very few7 exceptions, the Saxons were in
almost continual state of war, either with
the Britons, in taking from them their land,
or with each other. The seven states com
posing the Heptarchy were frequently at
war with each other when not particularly
engaged in robbing the Cymry ; and in
ternal, partisan war for the sovereignty was-
not uncommon. Although Christianity
greatly improved the condition of the
Saxons, and ameliorated their native rude
ness, yet it was a long time before the
habits and principles inculcated into their
nature were entirely worked out of them.
The love of war, with its exciting scenes of
blood and slaughter, for a long time re
mained with them; and long did thev pro
fess Christianity, Ixjfore its first principles
of brotherly love and that golden rule, to
do unto others as they would wish that
others should do unto them, could be in
culcated into their nature, us to induce
them to respect the property and rights of
others. Wlie 'hts inquired into,
it was too common a matter lor the sword
to be exhibited as evidence of their title,
and thoiicans by which it was acquired.1
I In ;i note Hcnrv of Huntingdon (H. iv, p. 1
is tin; follow " tables, which emhrac
period of little more th;in .1 century ;uul a lialf, ex
tending from A. D. 6Si to -S^o, conUtin a melancholy
record of the unsettled st;ite of liie times. \V;ir, rev"-
olutions, treason and murder so did their work, that
of the forty-five kin^'b of the Heptarchy enumerated
in the lists, fifteen only, and three ol these after a
veiy short reiii-n. died peaceably, :md in the posses
sion of tiieir kingdoms. Of the remainder, eleven
590 THE SAXON PERIOD.
This love of war was taught and im
pressed upon the common people, so that
they were always ready to fight; but the
great mass of plebeian people had no con
trol over it. That was a matter which be
longed, by divine right, to those who could
claim their descent from Woden. In war,
as in civil matters, none were presumed to
command but the king, his nobles and
chief men who were able to show their
right to command and to be obeyed, by-
showing their descent from that divine
personage which they all worshipped, when
the form and principles of their govern
ment were established. This caste, nobili
ty and family arrangement was not inter
fered with by their adoption of the Christian
religion. It was not changed until Danish
war, and Norman conquest, had beat them
out of it.
It has already been claimed that the
statement so frequently found in English
history, that the Saxons on their conquest
of the country expelled all the Britons
that those who did not flee to other coun
tries were all slaughtered"put to the
sword," was not and could not be true; and
this is a question which materially affects
the condition of the people of both races.
In the first place, it is contrary to the his
tory of German and barbaric conquest in
all other countries, as well as being incred
ible in itself. Historians universally say
that it was the practice with the German
conquerors to divide with the conquered,
and only take one-third of the land to
themselves;2 and this would be in accord-
were driven from the thrum-: eleven died violent
deaths, some in battle, hut most of them immlcrcd
hy their rebellious subjects; and eight iK'came monks, j
ys much. Henry of Huntingdon admits, to escape a
violent death as from motives of piety. The king-
!oin ol Norlhuinbria presents the worst spectacle.
There, of thirteen king* during the period above
mentioned, three only died possessed of the throne,
one ol them falling sick and dying in the second
year of his reign. II is remarkable, also, that all Hit
liirte died in less than half a century of the period
referred to. Afterwards, for a century and a qu.ir-
ttr, not one of the kings who successively fillc-ii the
throne of NorUlumbria died in it. Four were ex- I
pcllcd by their subjects: and of four who were killed, '
,i:een Eadburga, of Wessex.
2 See 2 Niebhur's lectures, r
[Book in.
ancc with what might he expected, and it
would accord with that which would sub
serve their best interest. The victors
would be only the warriors, the fewest in
numbers; the conquered the great mass of
the peoplethe disabled, women and chil
dren. The conquerors would seek to turn
these, as far as possible, to their advantage.
The choice of the women thev would make
their wives; others they would make pay
tribute in some shape. They would first
take the rural part of the country, and di
vide it, to supply their wants of its products.
Wherever terms could be made, the cities
and towns would be spared, to supplv them
with clothing and other articles which the
towns could produce. London and other
towns were never taken by the Saxons.
These were left under their own municipal
regulation, as they existed in Roman times/'
Christianity was expelled from the country ;
and in the course of the long time that
elapsed between Hengist and Alfred, the
Britons who submitted to the Saxon rule,
became Saxonized ; and the union of the
jl Palgrave (Anglo-Saxons, ch. x, p. 170) sav.s:
"The city [Exeter] was a kind of a little republic,
like the free cities of Italy or Germany; or like Mar
seilles, which, though rncltivrfd in Krance, had all
the rights of a free state, until it was seized by the
French kings. And this, I think, may have been the
case with many other great towns anil cities of Eng
land, which probably cnjoved their franchises and
liberties before any one of our Anglo-Saxon kings
had a crown upon his head, or a sceptre in his
hand." Again, (on page 185) he >av.s: "From the
Kibble, in Lancashire, up to the Clyde, there existed
a dense population, consisting of Kritons, who pre
served their national language and customs, agree
ing in all respects with the Welsh of the present
day. So that even in the tenth century the Ancient
Britons still inhabited the greater part of the western
const of the island, however much they had been
compelled to yield to the political supremacy of the
Saxon invaders." Also (page iSS); "The Britons of
Strath-Civile and Cumbria gradually melted away
into the surrounding population: and losing their
language, ceased to Vc discernible as a separate
race." See, also, pp. 195, 225.
Gibbon says (Vol. i, n. 5.7, ch. 18): "Neither
reason nor facts can justifv the unnatural supposi
tion, that the Saxons of ftritain remained alone in
the ch sort which thev had subdued. After the san
guinary barbarians had secured their dominion, und
gratified their revenge, it was their interest to pre
serve the peasant*, as well as the cattle of the unre
sisting country." To the same cflecl Woodward, u
his history of "Wales (page 130), says: "We knou
that there was not only a dense British population
in the western shires "of England, hut numbers of
the defendants of the original possessors of thr
--., - population was prest. .
to be useful to their conquerors." See, also, Miller's
Anglo-Saxons, p. 88; Florence ol Worcester'*
Chronicles, pp. i.) nnd 51.
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE. 291
two races produced what is called Anglo- Saxons.
Saxonsor the English people. This was London in Saxon times, when it ceased
specially the case with Mercia, which in to be under its own independent govern
cluded the great body of the interior of ment, became a part of Mercia; and these
England, where the mass of the people facts in relation to the population of Mer
united In mutual agreement, and without cia, with what must be equally true in rela-
much or anv war. The people of Mercia tion to other parts of England, must satisfy
w ere Llocgrians who were Cvmric, and the ! the candid student that a very large portion
CorarUans who were of a more recent tor- I of the Ancient Britons- were assimilated
eign element: and these were accused bv ! with the Saxons, in forming the present
the western Cymrv to have readilv united population of England. The fact that the
with the Saxons, and became a part of i Saxon language became the basis of the
themselves/1 But it was London, with its English, is no very strong argument against
great population, that, more than any other this; tor it is no strange matter for one
locality, aided in Inrming the character of race to adopt the language of anotheras
the English people; for with them there ! the French making the Latin the basis of
was a constant intercourse with oilier parts their language instead of the Celtic, or the
of the Heptarchy. In this manner the Africans in America becoming English in
Saxons, who came over as warriors, and I their language. But the English is a very
not as emigrants, united with the natives | mongrel language, being borrowed almost
and formed a new combination and nation from every other language with which it
ality, differing in character from either, but has come in contact, as will be hereafter
partaking of many of the qualities of both ; more fully shown.
but differing most decidedly from their an What is here said is supported by many
cestors and brethren they left in North English and other candid historians, as is
western Germany. said l>\ Valgrave: "L'pon the conquests of
The vast country occupied bv what was Otfa and his predecessors it is necessary to
tailed Mercia, extended from the 1 lumber i 'ke one important observation, namely,
to the Thames, and from the German j tllilt the political subjugation of Powys and
Ocean to the confines of the Severn. This ! the adjoining countries did not necessarily
extensive and fertile region was thicklv I' lead '<> the total expulsion of the British
^ . .
peopled, generally Lloegrians; but the tribes. English colonies were partially in
Coranians occupied a large tract of it, in troduced, but the Briti-h peasantry con
and about what is now Lincoln and Leices tinued to dwell upon the soil, though the
ter shires. This Mercia country remained domain was transferred to other lords ; and
untouched by the Saxons, for nearly a hun so numerous were they that the country
dred and fifty years after Hengist came; continued British in appearance even until
and then their progress wa- slow, and ap- the reign of King John, when, in common
parently without much war. Crida and his language, Hereford was still considered to
son, Peda, made some progress in acquir- j he in Wales. In fact, the whole of thu
ing a rule there, but a general government < border was held and peopled nearly as we
was not established over Mercia until Pen- see Monmouthshire at the present day.
da's time, about A. 1). 626, and the evidence The mass of the people are Cymri. * *
of history is strong that all this ancient * * Verv many of the territories ruled
population was swallowed up with the com- by the Anglo-Saxons had thus a. double
parativelv few Saxons in forming the sub aspect Anglo-Saxons if you consider them
sequent population called the Anglo- as a state. British if yon viewed the popu-
lacy by which they were tilled; and by
4 PjlarAvet Anjfln-Sitxons, ch. ii,, p. 401 where he
recollecting this circumstance, we may
*.iys:
.iys: "The Kmnaiii/.etj Britons of I^NJKTKI
"Flic Komani/.ed
' united K<H.' appear to reconcile and explain nmnv seeming anom
hu'vf mure rcadilv lt> their inv.ulurs. lapnrc-
ap[ .. ,. .. . . . . ...
lit-ntl thai they possi'ssctl li'ss n;ttiun:ilily; ;inu sonif- alies and contradictions in our history."*
limt's i-ven national prejudice* sin.1 the sjitVifiiurds of
independence. '' 5 l'ul>>rave's Aniflo-S;tx.T cli. iv, p. 71.
19
292 THK SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
Rut though the Britons who thus re- none participated except those who could
mained became subjects of the Saxon gov- i claim divine rights as a descendant from
crnment, yet it is very certain that they Woden.
were not slaves; for the Saxons considered j in English history there are many things
only such as were taken in battle; except said for the purpose of impressing upon the
the nobles, there were two classes of sub reader the belief that the government es-
jects the free and the slave. But all the tahli.-hed b\ the Saxons in England was a
people, both Saxons and Britons, were un very fine institution, in which the condition
der the abject rule oi the Saxon nobility, ot the people was equal and just ; that the
in whose hands was all the political power ] i,(K|v Ofthe people had a controlling influ-
who were a caste formed of only the I ence over the government by their repre-
children of Woden, to which none other | sc,,tati\ c-s in the Witr.iiagriiiot, as the coui-
were admitted. These were generally nlons ; the present day are represented
called ealdermen, and constituted the king's m parliament. Hut nothing can he further
council his IVilciiagemot. The king . trom the truth. All that is said for the
seemed to possess monarchial and almost I purpose of conveying the idea that the
unlimited power; and his council had but pe()ple had a just control over the govern^
little or no power over him when he pleased ment for the purpose of preserving their
to call them in council, or when they re- own rights and liberties, according to the
helled and deposed him. The aldermen notion and practice of the English people
wert subject to his orders, but they pos- j Of the present day, is creating a very false
sessed all the political power under the notion of the government of that dav.
king, and held and controlled the landed t'rom the very first establishment of the-
property of the country, which thcv let to Saxon government until after Alfred's
the freemen and villains upon such terms time, a period of very nearly live hundred
us they chose. The freemen had no pol vears, and perhaps not until after the Nor
itical power, unless it may he some police man conquest, there was nothing in the
regulation among themselves. If a plebe- Saxon government for the protection of the
ian, he had no hopes to exercise any part \ unities and freedom ot the people, or to
of the government or become an alder- : establish a just and equitable government,
man. The first instance of such elevatioi which can be traced to or found in the
was that of Godwin; and this was produced j English government of the present day,
by the disturbance and upsetting of all gov except that the Witenagemot had some
ernmental matters by the Danes. The distant resemblance to the House of Lords,
Danes themselves were governed by the in case the parliament was so changed as
principles and institution of Woden; but to abolish the commons and leave the king
they seemed not to hold so closely to an and nobles to rule the country without any
oligarchy as the Saxons. But this close restraint or balance of power. 1C very king
institution of the Saxons was gradual I v carefully traced his descent from Woden,
broken in upon by the Danes and the Nor and every alderman in blood and lineage
mans; and tinallv abolished bv the English was connected with him, and these onlv
people themselves. No government in j wt.re members of the Witenagemot; and
Britain ever existed in which the mass of then only as they were summoned h\ the
the people was kept at such a distance king as his dear cousin. The mass
from the government as that of the Sax people were entirelv excluded. These
ons.* It was a close oligarchy, in which were divided into two todies the freemen
and those who were not freemen, the vil
ft Pulgrave's An^lo-Saxons, ch. v, p. 8S: "Some of
the D;lmsh chieftains imagined thill they possessed lains and the slaves proper, and even in
u right to (he jfovcrnment uf the Anglian states ot'
Britain. The Danish kings were sons of \Vodcn.
like ouv An^lo-Saxon monarch*. Waltrmund and the conquests effected by the Danish hcptes in P.rit-
Or; ,. who appear in the genealogies o1 Mercia, as ,iin, at a very early period, can onlv he explained by
before mentioned, were the ancestors of the Norwe supposing that lliey related to flic chieftains bi
gian "si kinpJ.11 And the allusions in the SagUR to whom our island was roloni/ril.''
 CKap. iv.] CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE. J'j3
the time of Edward the Confessor these ] At that time great distinction was made
constituted more than one half ol" the peo- among the clergy between those who were
pie. The freemen had no political power, , of a noble birth and the plebeian priest. It
except police regulation among themselves. I was nearly six hundred years before the
The kins; and nobles, during this long pe- great (iodwin, a plebeian, became the first
riod, exercised all political powermade who was recognized as an alderman. These
laws, established peace or war, regulated Saxon nobles were governed with some
the taxes, controlled the landed property, sense of liberty and justice among them-
and owned most of the personal property; selves; but in that the mass of the people
and all this was so exercised and regulated exercised no influence or authority, the
as to promote and preserve their power. | nearest approach to it was their right to
During Ibis long period, two events trans- present a petition as to wrongs and gricv-
pired to ameliorate this Saxon rule: First ances to the Witenagemot, which was the
the introduction of Christianity; and sec- , great court of justice and political a Hairs of
ondly, the coming of the Danes and Nor- , the kingdom; and in which the king usual-
mans, and breaking up the government in \y presided, and therefore the kinglv and
a most violent manner; and though that i executive powers \vere not separated from
was very much like the homely operation , the judiciary.
of jumping out of the frying-pan into the
tire, it actually aided in improving the 5. Condition of Ihe Cymry tit the ('fuse of
condition of the people ;the greatest suf- this I'vriotl.
ferers were the nobilitv.
There was reason to believe that there
The introduction of Christianity made was no distinction
!. made i between
i . i
the rights
but a slow and faint impression upon the ' and privileges
... ,, ..
ot the Unions who submitted
form ol government or its action. It then and the native Saxons... .,,. ...
Ihev were either
verv rightfully assumed not to inter
freemen or slaves In the rules as the Sax
lerc with
ith the government. 15 nt then war ""ons themselves \\ere. were. ,li . there
, was any
existed for no other cause than a desire to dillerence it was in favor of the Britons;
plunder and take spoilsto make slaves
and enforce tribute. The right to make says: "Without the posse-ciion of ;i rct'lain quantity
it' landul properly, lln- diuniu nt silting in tliu
slaves in war, and to buy and sell them, , vVHenaifeniot could not be enjoyed." Mr. Turner
wa always a principle exercised ami con- i still differs from the MCV. - here expressed, and eon-
tended for by the Saxons until very mod- j ^^ ^ ^If,^ ^n^w^hl
ern times. We read, however, ot" bishops ' *Mnmi ayre.e: Still In- savs: -The IH.UIIHTS r.i tin- m-
| dividual* composing those classes were very iliuen
aild high Clergjl'men becoming members Ot t smaller indee-f than their pn srnl.iiMoimt.
the Witenagemot; hut whether thev were t bulk of the Alllo-Saxon population was in a servile
stale, and therefore without an ' -
not themselves of the nobility, in everv ' All ilu- rillami. lun-ari. \\-., ili'm is nil tlte working
", ' aurirnUiinil pointlalion, :i!il nnw-int tlmst: \\hnocfii-
case, is not veCTV Certain. I he threat and | |)ifd
j^d the station of small t;irniL-rs.
turniL-i>. * * * * and am
violent bishop Dimstim was himself a no all persons anal>it;<>us to our Interior artisans and
inochanit'f. %vere the properly of their rvsjujrtlse
ble man bv birth of the Woden caste. lords, and \\ ilh no more poliliral rights than tile fat-
tic and fumihiri' with wnicli ihey \\ere .-| i-sed and
transferred. Two-thinK, at Last, inr-re probably
7 Fal^rave (Anglo-Saxon.', ch. iv. p. on) sa\>: tliree-fuurlhs. nl" the Anflo-Sxon po;iul:ittofi We.rt-
"< >nr Ani^lo-S.ixon Mldennen contUillvd a kind ol' originally in this state, until \oluntar\ or purchased
ruling i-iste or tribe, all sous ot \Vodcn. pt--rlia|t> emancipations, and the eflecK of war and imaMon>,
Kiu-icntly invested with sacerdotal functions- -tile KTaduafly increased the number ol'ilie free. Domes-
priests, as well :is the lawgivers and leaders of the Hay-hooU lto\v.-i that ever, in ihe reiuri nf tin- t'on-
n.ttion. Collectively as a caste, and individually fushor. the largest part of the Knylish population
over their own immediate followers and retainers, was in the servile >-tate." -. And buck paye .
they possessed i^n-al dominion anil iniliience; but Turner a^ain says: "A freemen :inioni4 our ancestors
there was no political power of any wide extent ^v;^s no! that dignified inde])t-ndent l>einj;, -lord of th
|<iu( rv as to this] vested in any one individual, except lion heart and caijie eye,' which inir |n.-N lanc^ un
during hostilities. A i.hieftiun
. \yas then elected ti> der dus ap[H,-llation; he was rather an An^lo-Saxon
lead the n.tti U rule expired with ihe ursje he servile state: not prope rt\ attached lo
ey whirhhad ^iven il birtli, and all the tildcrmun land ;is tlic slaves were; he was freed from opnres-
were alike ajjain. Such was the ^ovormnent ol" the sive arbhrarv bond.'iye; he uas often H servant, ami
*O/J Saxons.' " AH tlh- a/ilt-riHi'ir twrf a/iJke agatH* ' \ had a master, bnt ho had the liberty to ()uit the st'r-
Tliat may be; but what difference did lhat make vice of one lord and ehoose another." And I can
with Ibi: 'great )>od\ of the peoplf? luinlly C..IH uive how a people could be Out in ;i more
i Turner's Anglo-Saxons ^B. vii, ch. ix. p. ^^4* \ humble condition, its to rights and privilrjjp'*.
-!94 THE SAXON PERIOD. [Book in.
for the most of them were the burghers of! Christian world to have been sound in its
the towns and cities, and maintained their doctrines and practices, except the Roma
guilds and corporations from the Roman priests complained that the British clergy
times down to the present day. They were did not adopt the right tonsure and did not
the manufacturers and artisans upon whom keep the right day for easier ; but w hether
the Saxon> greatly depended. But the in they considered this as an absolute obstruc
termixture of the Saxons and Britons took tion to the Briton's way to heaven or not,
place by the conquest in the manner point we are not informed.
ed out, but also by alliances and ordinary Although there were frequent and severe
intercourse between any two people; and wars between the Britons and Saxons,
they were not always at war. \Ve have principally on account of the continual ag
seen the great coalescence between Cad- gression of the latter, yet there were many
walla, the British king, and Pcnda, the things between them in common, and manr
king of Mercia. Their armies were united of their old institutions becoming that of
in all their operations. In Mercia, where the Saxons. But where they differed the
tile great body of the Ancient Britons who most during this period was in their laws
had united with the Saxons, they had no and institutions in relation to the adminis
war or fighting: but the great war of this tration of justice, which have since been
alliance was against the Angles of North- ! adopted by" the English people, and have
umbria. Frequent marriages took place ' become a part of the common law of Eng-
between the princes of the two nations, as land. The first ol- these is a matter which
the relation which took place bv marriage has alv appeared in their political or
between Cadwalla and Penda, and other ganization, that the judiciary must be kept
instances mentioned in this history. But distinct from the executive and the legisla
such relations took place between the Cvm- tive department!!. This was so adopted
ry and the Mercians, but also between | and acted upon in the tjmc ,- tlie clruids.
them and other Saxon people of other Another was, the equal distribution of the
states of the Heptarchy, to a far greater ex estate of a descendant among all his male
tent than history discloses. Where the heirs of the same class equally, and thus
princes marry we must suppose that mar discarding the principle of primogeniture.
riages take place between the humble peo This has always been adhered to bv the
ple to a far greater extent than history Cymry, until it was otherwise regulated by
notices. Of such unions is that of Cen- the adoption of the English laws in verj
bert, king of Wessex, marrying the daugh recent times. This mode of distribution it
ter of Cadwaladyr, the king of Wales, whose called in the English law gavel-kind ten
issue was Cadwalla, king of Wessex, their ure, and has been retained b\ the people
eldest son; and his successor Ina was a
of Kent from the British period, under all
near kinsman, who al way took great and changes and revolutions, a their most fa
affectionate care of (ilastonhury, because vored institution. A third difference majr
Arthur, \\hnm he considered one of his an be noticed in the institutions of the Saxons
cestors, was buried there. But we mav and the Britons, was the limitation that the
particularly refer to the friendly inter latter always held over the power of their
course between Alfred and Asscr and his kings, exercised by the people and their
WeNh friends. general assemblies. Cadwallon excused
After the conversion of the Saxons to himself to C;esar for what was done, bj
Christianity,' some better understanding reason of his being controlled by his peo-
inutually existed between the two people,,! pie. So probably would have said Carac-
thc churches of each were upon the same utcuv, Arthur and Cadualladyr; for the
terms and the like principles united with i institution of the general assembly of the
the church of Rome. But before such people was always specially acknowledged
union the British church was an independ- as a controlling power over the monarch
ent apostolic church, acknowledged by the [ and people. It is not probable that either
Chap, iv.] CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
Penda, Offa or Ethelfrith would ever have he acknowledges his inability to attribute
acknowledged any such limitation over much or any of the recent elevation of the
their powers; Cor there were none, except English people to Saxon origin, he does
the Witenagemot, which was only con great injustice to the Britons and their Cel
vened at the pleasure of the monarch, ex tic origin in diminishing or ignoring their
cept when the throne was vacant or in the great influence in producing the result
hands of an imbecile sovereign; and when which he so much glorifies. The [Nor
assembled it consisted of only the nobility mans were at least half Cymric Celts; and
none of the people, none of the plebeians, when the Saxons came to the island, in
however great their wisdom may have been. their ignorance and barbarity, they found
The commons was not represented bv any the island highly cultivated and improved
institution. Such representation is of a by Hritish industry and perseverance,
modern English growth, since the Norman guided by Roman taste and arts. The
conquest, and partakes more of the British Saxons found in Britain a people highly
general assembly than any institution of civilized and cultivated, with the true apos
the Saxons. And we may notice in the tolic Christia jion established among
fourth place, as a decided difference in the them, with its bishops and archbishops, its
laws of the Saxons and the British, in the ' churches and monasteries and schools of
decided acknowledgement and protection i learning well established. L'pon these the
given by the former to slavery and the op- ' new comers for a hundred and fifty years
position to it. The individual man was j made an exterminating war, with an utter
always protected by British laws as a man, hostility and contempt for everything that
that "nothing should be done to unman was Christian or civilized. All priests
the man." From one end of the island to j and bishops were compelled to nee; all
the other it has always been claimed bv churches, monasteries and schools were
the descendants of the Ancient Britons i destroyed wherever they conquered; all
that "man was a man for all that." What ollicials expelled ;md the people subjected
ever there is in modern English law which and compelled to submit to the rude cus
goes to the protection and elevation of toms and practices of their Saxon con
man, it is more to be attributed to the querors.
British law than anything of a Saxon ori But in the slow progress they were able
gin. to make, so much slower than the conquest
The present English people and their the same northern barbarians were able to
institutions are more the outgrowth of this make on the continent, it was impossible
mixture of people and their laws and hab but that the objects of civilization they
its on the island, than anything imported found there, especially in the towns and
or brought by the Saxons from the mouth with the people who became a part of their
of the Elbe or the Eider. Macau lav was families and society, should pass off with
therefore right in saying: "During the out making an impression upon them.
century and a half which followed the And so it did; and it so cultivated the peo
[Norman] conquest there is, to speak ple of Kent and preserved the people of
strictly, no English history. * * * Early London that they readily, and more readi
in the fourteenth century the amalgama ly than any other part of the Heptarchy,
tion of the races was all but complete; and accepted Christianity when Augustine
it was soon made manifest, hv signs not came to preach to them the doctrines of
to be mistaken, that a people inferior to salvation. After that England made slow-
none existing in the world had been formed progress in the recovery of the arts and
by the mixture of three branches of the civilization; it made a spasmodic effort un
great Teutonic family with each other and der the great Alfred, but it still required
with the aboriginal Britons."1 But while the "amalgamation" of Teuton and Briton,
spoken of by Macaulay, in the fourteenth
i i Macaulay's History of England, p. S 14. century, to lay the foundation for the pres
 THE SAXON PKR1OI).
cnt civilization of England. But that anial-
gamation and mixture has been going on
ever since its commencement, of Briton
and Saxon, of Cvmrv and Angles, and of
Celt and Teuton, to make the distinguish
ing character ol the people of England ;
and there has not been a day since its com
mencement, when any great act or event
took place, which added to the glory of
England or became renowned in historv,
but that when all these elements of the
[Book in.
English people were apparent in their ac-
complishment. Every battle fought for
the glorv and renown of England, from
that of Crecy to that of Alma, but in which
Cymric blood and Celtic valor has not aid
ed in producing English success; nor has
there been an achievement in English lit
erature, arts, or science but in which the
descendants of the Ancient Britons hare
added to its accomplishment.
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS,
AND THEIR DESCENDANTS.
BOOK IV.THE NORMAN PERIOD.
CHAPTER I.
'THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO TH K ACCES
SION OF EDWARD [. A. D. Io66 TO IJ/J.
Si. T/lr Conqitrs/, A. D. 1066.
Among the marauders and freebooters
who came from the north tc ravage and
plunder upon the- coast ot Gaul and Brit
ain there was one company under the di
rection and guidance oF Rollo or Roll.
This man was a native of that part of Nor
way then under the sovereignty of Harold
Harfuger: and liad l>een brought up in the
busines of the vikings, and enured to the
fatigues and dangers of a pirate. He wa-
tall and athletic, ami could by his muscu
lar power, as well as by his good sense and
judgment, command the respect and obedi
ence of his comrades, without reference to
his parentage. He was too tall to ride on a
small horse without his feet touching the
ground, and therefore generally chose to
walk, at which exercise he was so expert \
that he acquired the appellation of Gang- I
Rollo, or Rollo the Walker. On an occa
sion when IK- and his parly were in want,
they had indulged in taking by plundering
in their own countrv. tor which offense
Harold had banished them; for Harold's
sense ol justice would not permit them to
do at home what they were encouraged
ami IVeelv permitted to do abroad. As ex
iles he and his party sailed south, seeking
plunder, and hoping thai they might by
chance improve their condition. They
touched at some of the British islands and
in the north of Gaul, where they had in
creased their force in men and vessels. At
length they arrived at a place on the rivef
Seine, a few miles below the city of Rouen.
The report of the arrival of the pirates
tilled the city with consternation and ter
ror.
But the equanimity of the archbishop
saved them. He approached the maraud
ers with term,s of accommodation, by which
they were invited to the city and lupita-
blv treated upon the terms agreed upon;
bv a treaty between Rollo and his compan
ions on the one part and the city on the
other, and by which in consideration of
their admission to the city, they guaran
teed that no violence should be committed
by them. I'pon examination of the city,
its ramparts, its quays, its fountains, and
various improvements, they found them
so much to their taste that thev at once
resolved to make it the capital of their new
dominion, which they then determined to
establish.
Has ing thus obtained possession of their
new dominion, and made arrangements to
secure it, thev proceeded up the river to
i'i>ris, and soon laid siege to the city. This
was in the year 896, when Alfred was in
the height ol his prosperity and power;
and Paris and France were governed by
Charles the Simple, a feeble descendant
of the great Charlemagne. Without tak
ing the city, but after ravaging the coun
trv around I'aris and making much spoils,
thev returned in haste to Rouen, and soon
proceeded to take Bayeux by force, and
capture Kureux and several other towns'.
They soon made themselves masters of the
province to which the name of Nustria
had been given. This acquisition of Roll*
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
and his Norman companions was witnessed ius and taste for everything requisite for pro
with great repugnance by the French and gress and improvement ; they became archi
their simple king. But the Normans held tects, and built large and spacious buildings.
on with vigor and boldness worthy of a They paid attention to literature; and their
better right and title; but after much ne clergy became learned and refined for that
gotiation and threatened war, the matter age. And in the midst of progress and im
was accommodated by treaty in the year provement in every department they be
912, sixteen years after the arrival of these came noted for the progress they had made
invaders in the waters of the Seine. I5v in jurisprudence. But what particularly
that treaty Charles the Simple acknow distinguished the Norman in the rising
ledged the right of Rollo to his acquisi generation was his enterprise and gallant
tion in the valley ot the Seine, occupying ryand this he acquired from his Celtic
a certain territory, with Flanders to the motherand his attention to military af
north of them, and Hrittunv on the south, fairs, so that he was looked upon as the
and extending up the Seine about half wav embodiment of the knightly warrior. These
from the sea to Paris. The chief of these striking characteristics became developed
Norman adventurers was to become a by favorable circumstances; but princi
tenant in lief and vassal of the French pally hv the union of good qualities of two
king, as count of his territory: to become races; the enterprise and endurance of the
a Christian, with a change of his Norwegian, and the taste, quickness and
from Rollo or Rolf to Robert; and to have the love of literature and refinement of the
the daughter ot the French king, Gist-la, Celt. And in the union of the Norwegian
as his wife, and his former wife married with the Celtic people of Nustria, there
under pagan ceremony, now treated as a was probably a do.uble union of Celtic and
nullity, to be di-missed. These stipula Cvmric blood. When the Cvmry or Cim-
tions were carried into effect; during the hri left the Cimbria Chcrsonesus. it is not
performance of the requisite ceremony. improbable, and the idea is supported -by
Rollo and his companions displayed a great authors and circumstances in history,1 that
deal of rude independence and indifference some departed north to Norway, as well as
to the usual etiquette and ceremonies of others went south ; and these thev were who
the French court. Henceforth, however, I have given to the Norwegians so different
this chief became known in histor\ as Rob- a character from others who claim to be
erl, duke of Normandy. ; Teutonic: their quickness, their love of
These northern adventurers, who now | literature and enterprise. However this
became the acknowledged masters of Nor- ! ma.v tx"- the Normans, in fact, did make a
mandy. with the landed territory divided | progress in everything which constitutes
amongst ds of manors, were I the improvement of our race, tar beyond
generally warriors and single men, now ! and laster tha" an.v otller people of Europe
took native Celtic women for wives, who of that da.v- between A. 1). <ju and 1066.
were Cymric Celt-. Though the govern In these hundred and fifty -four years their
ment was entirely in the hands of these progress was wonderful; and for this rea-
Norwegian men, except church and clergy, ' s<) lnilllv of the elite of olhcr Parts of Eu"
yet the native population greatly outnuiii- I rPe Bought Rouen and the Normans, and
bered them; and these liberal and enter aided them in that progress.
prising men readily adopted the manners, Rollo was succeeded in his dukedom by
customs and language of the people among successors who were worthy of him. Of
whom they had thus settled. A rigorous these, those whose names are connected
system of feudal tenures wa.s adopted, and with our history are Richard II, surnamed
the mass of the peasantry became feudal the Good, the grandson of Rollo: and Rob
tenants; vet great and rapid progress was ert II, or Robert the Devil, the father of
made in every kind of improvement in the
i Prof. M. Arnold, in his essay on Celtic I.itcru-
course of civilization. They displayed a gen- urcj supports this idea.
Chap. i.J TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I.
William the Conqueror.
The first matter that connected and in
volved Britain with Normandy, was the
marriage of Ethelred the Unready with
Emma, the sister of Richard II, the Duke
f Normandy, in A. D. loco; and from
that time to the accomplishment of the
conquest by William, England and Nor
mandy were always more or less involved.
There had been some signs of hostilities
between the two countries, which was fol
lowed by a treaty; and this pacification was
followed by the marriage just mention
ed. On Emma coining to England, a large
retinue of courtlv persons of the Normans
accompanied her, who by their accomplish
ment and ambition obtained many honora
ble and lucrative places in the government,
to the great annoyance and chagrin of the
Saxon people. Between this time and the
conquest being accomplished, the English
people had many difficulties of this kind to
encounter, while the country was being
constantly overrun with Norman aspirants,
as priests and civilians; and Ethelred, and
his son Edward the Confessor, were con
stantly manifesting great attachment for
Normandy and her people.
William the Conqueror was the illegiti
mate son of Robert II, Duke of Normandv.
This Robert was a fierce man, and tor his
habitual violence had obtained the surname
the Devil. The mother ot William was
said to be the daughter of a tanner, and he
was frequently annoyed with frequent allu
sions to leather; and being surnamed the
Bastard. When only seven years of age,
his father was seized with the desire to
make a pilgrimage on foot' to Jerusalem as
penitence for his many sins; and when this
was opposed by his barons, as living inad
visable for them to be left without a duke,
Robert characteristically replied: "Bv niv
faith, I will not leave you without a lord.
I have a little bastard, who will grow and
be a gallant man, if it pleases God; and I
am certain that he is my son. Receive
him, then, as your lord; lor I make him
my heir, and give him from this time forth
the whole duchy of Normandy."* The
a Thierry's Norman Conquest, 11. iii, p. 134.
jc>$
barons were pleased with the reply ; pleased
to do as requested ; and forthwith .swore
fidelity to the child. Soon after that Duke
Robert died on his pilgrimage; and a party
rose against those who supported the title
of the young duke, claiming that a bastard
could not command those who were legiti
mate, and a battle was foughtbetween them
upon the question, in which the partisans
of young William were successful. As
the youth advanced in years he became a
general favorite, and became dear to
people. He was apt and skillful in all
exercises, especially in what concerned
military, which then gave hopes lo his
people of his future success.
When duke William3 arrived at proper
age he took a fancy to visit England; and
when lie arrhed there, he met so manv
Normans in official positions he did not
seem to have left his own country. He
was graciously received by Edward the
Confessor, whose education and habits were
Norman, and therefore their meeting very
cordial. Circumstances were such, that,
though he prudently kept all signs of his
ambition to himself, he could not help to
imagine a hope that he might be the suc
cessor to the aged king.
Godwin and his sons were now at the
xenith of their power; and the kingdom
divided up into earldoms between them.
Of those sons Harold was the most ad
mired and promising. Either business or
fancy induced Harold to visit William in
Normandy in the year 1065, contrary to
the advice of his king, who said: "1 know-
duke William and his crafty mind; IK
hates you, and will grant you nothing, un
less he gains great! v hv it." Harold, vith
honest confidence, disregarded the prudent
advice; and either storm or accident took
his two vessrU too tar north, and he land
ed in a tempest at the mouth of the Somme,
within the territory of Guy, count of I'on-
thian. In many places, in those days, con-
3 ' I' i-tori.ll linuhiml. K. ii, ch. i, p. 181 : "William
w;is th natural son nt Knlu-rt dukt- of Xonnnny,
tlu- younger brother of Duke Kk-h.ml Ill, ;imt son of
Kiehard II, who was brother to t^ueen Knnn:i, the
mother of Kdvvard ttic Confessor and the murdered
Alt'recl, by Ktlu'Ired, and also of the preceding king-,
Hardicanulc, by her second husband, Canute the
Great.''
300 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
trarv to humanity and justice and the an important part. And since you con
rights of hospitality, it was customary to sent to serve me," continued the artful
claim all properly thus thrown upon their ! duke, "you must give your sister in mar-
shore, and to demand ransom tor all per- riage to olle o(" my barons, and yourself
sons belonging to such vessels. Harold marry my daughter Adeli/a; moreover
was taken and imprisoned bv count Guv, .vou lmlst S've '"<' some guaranty tor your
in order to secure the ransom. 1 larold ! I)ron"se-" Harold no \v began to feel the
claimed that as he was the bearer of a dis- j lK'ri' '" which he had placed himself. Kut
patch from the king of England to the 1 William steadily pursued his plans of en-
duke of NormaiuU , imprisonment was trammeling his guest. On arrival at the
unlawful, and sent a message to that effect castle of Baveux, the duke held a court
to duke William, requesting him to obtain where everything was arranged for the ac-
liis release, that he might come to him. j complishment of his object. Here the
William did not hesitate to comply; and j duke, while on his throne in the midst of
immediately demanded of the count that i '"" court, calls upon Harold and says:
he should liberate the English official so 'Harold. J require of you, before this no
illegally detained. But Guy was inexora ble assembly, to confirm by oath the prom
ble, ami would not comply , until the ran ise you have made me, to aid me to obtain
som or a large bounty was paid him. Har the kingdom of England after the death of
old proceeded to Rouen, and the bastard king Edward, and other matters agreed up
rejoiced that he then had in his power the on on that event." Again most artfully
son of the Englishman who was the great surprised, Harold saw he could not with
est enemy to the Normans: and who safety withdraw: and the most solemn ar-
might lie his greatest opi hopes rangement had been taken to have him
to the English crown. The duke received "worn over a tub full of the relics of the
the -Saxon chief with great display of hon- 'ints. The victim of this intrigue was
or and apparent cordiality. He did every- | constrained, and could not safely retreat
thing in his power to entertain his truest lro111 what was now prepared for him. He
and to show him every place of attraction held UP ll's hand and was sworn in due
within the duchy. This agreeable deten form, "if he lived and God aided him." All
tion was done with a view to a more effect the assembly replied. "God aid him."1 liar-
ual accomplishment of the matter the duke old was now permitted to depart, and re
had in view, which connects itself so inter turn to England.
estingly with the visit and the history of In a tew months after these untoward
the time. After a while the wily duke events, of which Harold was the unwilling
took an occasion to tell Harold of the inti victim, king Edward the Confessor died, in
mate friendship which subsisted between January, 1066. There was no rightful heir
him and king Edward, and the pleasant in the kingdom; and both Harold and Wil
times he had spent with him in his vouth. liam, the duke of Normandy, were near
"We lived," he said, "like two brothers, un- relatives by blood or marriage, and both
Jer the same roof; and Edward promised j claimed the succession by the dying be-
me that if he ever became king of England j quest of the Confessor. Harold wasapow-
he would make me his heir. Now, liar- I erful lord, and present; and arrangement*
old, if \ou would aid me in realixing this were soon made bv which he was invested
promise, be sure that, if I obtain the king- I with the sovereignty of England. When
dom, you shall have of me whatever you William was informed of these events he
ask." Harold was taken bv surprise, and assumed to he outraged; heaped upon
Incautiously made some faint promise, Harold the name of traitor and perjuror,
which he could hardly help, to comply and prepared to contest the matter. A.
with his wishes. Upon this the duke be striking circumstance had already trans
gan to disclose plans of future operation, in
which the unwilling Englishman was to act 4 i Thierry, Ibid., p. 149.
 Chap. TO THE ACCESSION OK EDWARD 1. 30'
pired in his liivor. Tostig. a brother ol' i tician- some division of opinion and parti-
Harold, had been made earl of the exten- j san feeling as to who should be king,
sive province of Northumbria, where his Some claimed that the English sovereignty
had and tyrannical conduct caused him to was not subject to a devise or an election;
he expelled by a rebellion of his people. ] and those who were more Saxon claimed
Tiii.s earl was mortally otlended, because ! thai no one had a right to the throne wh
his powerful family did not defend him and j could not derive their divine right and lin-
sccurc hi> rule; and Harold was >o con- j cage from Woden. But Harold was at
vineed of his deserved punishment that he least ill- facto king; and William the Nor-
felt be could give him no aid. Tostig man was, with his usual vigor and resolu-
therefore formed a confederation with liar- ! tion, preparing to contest, which was about
lager, king of Norway, for the aid of a fleet , to culminate in one of the most notable
and army: and the duke of Normandy was i and revolutionary contests of Western Eu-
aNo rendering him aid and comlort. Rap rope.
id movements were made by these arrange- William proceeded to lav the foundation
ments to bring war into the north of Eng- for asserting his claim, and for the corn-
land to restore the exiled earl. Tostig was mencement of the war. lie forthwith sent
a -turbulent and bad man; and always af- I a messenger to Harold to remind him of
lee ted a rivalry with his better and more hf- oath, and demanded a performance of
worthy and popular brother Harold, lie their agreement. 1 larold promptly an
had already made a number of diversions swered: "It is true that I swore such an
ii-.'ainst the government, did the country oath to duke William ; but I swore it un
some injur\, and caused much trouble and der compulsion. I promised that which
anxictN.. lie was now approaching North- did not belong to me, and which 1 could
umbria, and threatening his country with not pel form; for royalty is not mine, and
the hostilities of the powerful Heel and I cannot divest myself of it without the
of N orway . In the meantime, the consent of the country; nor without the
duke of Normandy was making great pre consent of the country can I marry a for
paration to enforce his pretension; and eign wife."* Other messages were sent,
Harold, in the full control of the English protesting against Harold's conduct more
government, was makin vehemently, and ottering greater induce
tions to meet the conflict. ment to comply with the duke's wishes.
William, the duke of Normandv, while But no accommodations could be at
in his park hunting, near Rouen, was tained, and William was left to pursue
startled with the news of the death of Ed the best course he might.
ward, and that Harold had prevailed upon Besides his negotiations with Tostig,
the prelates and nobles to present him with greatly to the injury of England, he had
the crown. Both of these men, the one represented to the Pope the unpardonable
being the cousin ol Edward, and the other ' crime of Harold's perjury, and violation of
hir. brother-in-law, claimed their pretension liis oath over the saintly relics. The ec-
upon a supposed devise of the deceased i clesiastics of the church were greatly moved
monarch in favor of each, and against the hv the representations, and especially with
other. Neither was heir to the crown; for the consideration of the little influence of
that was admitted to he rightfully devolved the church over England. The Pope was
upon Edgar Atheling, the son of Edward : induced to pass sentence, that William,
the Outlaw,' as the descendant of Edmund duke of Normandy, was permitted to enter
the Ironside, who had been living all his England, to bring back that kingdom to
life at a great distance as an exile in Aus the obedience of the Holy See, and to estab
tria. Notwithstanding Harold's success lish there forever the tax of Saint Peter's
and popularity, there w as amongst the \to\\-
fi Harold wasalreadv married In Algitha. the sis-
tir of Kdxvin and Morfcer of Mercia. and the widow
5 Rillfravc, Ibid., ch. xv, p. 304: I Thierrv, pp. of Griffith, the late king of Wales. See ante; Pal-
5* 156; Henry of Huntin*tnn, Anno., 1057, J>. 205. sp-uvc's Anglo-Saxons, p. 314.
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
pence. A bull of excommunication against his intention, setting forth the hcinousnes*
Harold and his adherents was delivered to of Harold's perjury, the favors of the Pope,
William's messenger, with a consecrated and the excommunication of his opponent;
banner, and a valuable ring containing one I and sending them to all the adjoining coun
of the hairs of St. Peter. With this demon tries, inviting all brave warriors and gal-
stration of the church and religion in hi* lant men to join him in recovering his
tavor, he dismissed all doubt in resolutions, rights, ottering good pay and the pillage ot
and determined upon the invasion. He I England to those who would serve him
now assembled a council of his friends and | "with lance, sword or cross-bow." All this
the nobility, and demanded their advice i excited and increased the popular ardor;
and assistance. "His two brothers bv his } everv one did \\hat he could; mothers sent
mother's side, Eudes and Robert, one of their sons to enroll their names, as they
them bishop of Bayeux, the other count of thought, for the salvation of their souls.
Mortain; William Fitz Osbern, seneschal of | Multitudes came from all the adjoining
Normandy, or ducal lieutenant for civil ad- I countries. "They came from Maine and
ministration, and some high barons, at- Anjou, from Poitou and Brittany, from
tended the conference. All were of the France and Flanders, Aquitaine and Bur
opinion that it was proper to make a de gundy, from the Alps and the banks of the
scent upon England, and promised to serve Rhine." Such was the madness, reckless
him with body and goods, even to selling ness and want of intelligence on the part
or pledging their inheritance."' Hut when of the people; some running ahead trom
the people more at large were consulted, I intere>Ujd motives of gain at the expense
though some were as ready as his special I of others; while others blindly followed
friends, others hesitated and debated, while without inquiry as to what right they had
still others opposed the measure. They ' to bring this great calamity upon the pco-
alleged that they had already more debts j pie of England, or how they would like the
than they could pay. Some replied that ' same measures to be pursued upon them-
the duke was their lord and had a right to selves. During the summer these enthu-ias-
their service; "if you fail him now, and he tic efforts, right or wrong, were properly or-
gains his end by God he will remember it; ganized oy the duke intoa great fleet, an im
prove, then, that you love him, and act ac- j mcnse army, and necessary provisions for
cordingly." Others replied, "he is our lord 1 the invasion of England, with the hopes to
we know; but is it not enough that we pav ' expel Harold and take upon himself the
him our dues? We owe him no aid bevond sovereignty, not only without an election,
the sea; he has already oppressed us enough ' hut against the express will of the people;
with his wars; let him fail in his new en- an example which has Iwen often repeated,
terprise, and our country is undone." But and will he again if the people submit to
notwithstanding, the duke had sufficient ; it.
influence with his people to carry In the meantime, towards midsummer,
quest. Harold Manager, the then present king of
When the matter of the invasion of Eli" Norway, approached England, at the tnsti-
land had been determined upon, all the i gation ol'Tostigand in the interest of the
people of Normandy made great exertions : duke of Normandy, with an immense fleet
for the pieparation; and some of the no- i and army, which had called forth to his
bility showed great devotion to the cause ' requisition one-half of the population of
of the duke in providing at their own ex- ' Norway fit to bear arms, who were now
pense a large amount of shipping, men, borne over the ocean in five hundred ves
provisions and arms. Of these Fitz Os sels of the largest class. These arrived in
bern was specially distinguished. The the Tyne, and were joined bv Tostig, the
eluke issued his proclamation, announcing traitor to his country and the avowed ene
my to his brother. Such examples had
7 Thierry, Ibid., p. 159. been witnessed in unhappy Britain before,
Chap. i.| TO THE ACCESSION' OF EDWARD I.
but none wor?*e. The combined and allied Norwegians to open their ranks and begin
force entered the 1 1 umber and landed their a pursuit. The English instantly turned
lorces a short distance below the city of around and attacked them again, which
York. Here the Norwegian monarch un was attended with success. Harfager now
furled his standard, (August, 1066) and fought with frantic desperation, and struck
TostigV friends and retainers rallied in great deadly blows all around him, and no shield
numbers and enthusiastically joined the could resist his strokes; but an arrow
Norwegians, adding strength and conli- brought him to the ground, and a pause
denee to his army. Edwin and Morcar, in' ensued. Toslig now took the command,
command at York, issued forth to meet and rallied tor another effort; but Harold
the enemy with all the force they could sent a herald to ofler peace to him and the
muster; but alter a desperate conflict (Sept. Norwegians yet alive. But they gave an
joth) they were put to flight, and in such unanimous answer that thev would not
confusion that more men were drowned in : take quarter. The batlle then raged again,'
their attempt to cross the river than were and in this conflict Tostig fell. The fatal
slain on the Held ot battle. Many of the banner was now seized by a warrior named
men of the neighborhood joined the Nor- Ey sty mi Orri, and a third conHict began.
wegians, and others tied; -o that Harfager ; The Norwegians (ought with desperation,
had York at his command, and the inhab- and in this conflict mam of the English
Hants paid homage to the victor, who held fell: but they ultimately maintained their
his courts and administered justice agrefa- ground. Late in the evening the battle
We to usual forms sovereign of the was terminated by the death of almost every
country. This disclosed the intention of Norwegian.
Tostig and Harfager to be to attain the The next morning utter this desperate
government of all England, and not merely battle a messenger trom Sussex came 19
that of Northumbria, or the Danish por I larold and announced to him the landing
tion of it. of his mortal foe, the duke of Normandy,
When Harold heard of the landing of with his whole army. Harold immediately
Harfager and Tostig, he hastened thither marched south with what men he had;
with all the force at his command, with the made a short stay at London to gather
greatest expedition, and arrived at the seat what forces he could, arrange affairs, and
of war four or five days after the battle. "prepare tor an immediate attack upon the
Harold endeavored first to detach Tostig invaders of the country. But he found un
from his ally bv oflering him the earldom expected hostilities at home. Politicians
of Northumbria. When Tostig asked the appeared to scent coming difficulties, and
messenger u hat land would I larold give to declined, when they could, to commit
his ally, Harfager, he was an>w cred : ".Seven themselves. No ardor was infused int
feet of land for a grave." To thi- lie re the true cause of the country ; and the gen
plied in a spirit deserving a belter cause, erality of the people seemed ready to take
and said: "Ride back to your master, king j either master, as victorv might determine
Harold, and desire him to gird himself for bv chance or good management. None
the fight; for never shall it be said in Nor thought or acted as though it was a ques
way that earl Tostig abandoned Harfager tion at stake in which the people tliem-
and went over to his Iocs." j selves were deeply interested, which should
I larfager had encamped at Stamford be decided by themselves tor themselves.
UrUtjje, long afterwards known as the No public meeting of the people was held
Bridge of Battle. The Norwegians were or thought of, as we would now have done
firmly arraved tun. :>se to target, and in the I'nited States, to consult and deter-
called a ''fortress of; mine what was to be done tor the best in-
Oiields." bristling with spears, \\ liich could j terest of themselves and the country,
not be broken by the English, who were ! Things must have appeared discouraging,
compelled to retreat. .This induced the | if not desperate, to Harold; for he had lost
 THE NORMAN PKR1OI). [Book iv.
many of his best men in the recent battle, estimated from six hundred to three thou
and re-entbrcemenU came in slowlv and sand vessels, and troops from twenty-five
comparatively tew in number. Then some to sixty thousand. Hut the larger esti
of" those from whom he had a right to ex mates have In-en frequently questioned,
pect aid and comfort gave him a cold shoul and impugned by judicious calculation."
der. Edwin and Morcar, his two powerful However the precise number may be, \Vil-
brothers-in-law, stood aloof; and Agitha, lia'n's army was large, well appointed,
his wife, quitted him and abandoned him spirited and hopeful, as invaders gcnerally
to his fate.H His mother, (jitha, was weep- j are, at least until they meet with some re-
Ing bitterly over the death of her son Tos- \orscs. From the dav of the landing to
tig; and many friends earnestly dissuading the day of the battle (October 141)1) the
him from giving immediate battle to Wil Normans were constantly in the expecta
liam; but of these the most earnest was tion of an attack, and were wondering at
his brother Gurth, earl of Suffolk, who sus its delay; but in those days it was difficult
tained a reputation for many virtues and to < btain rapid information of the move-
merit. He pointed out to Harold many . ments of an enemy, as news did not rly with
dangers; that his army was fatigued and I our present rapidity. They proceeded to
exhaustedthe Normans fresh and vigor- ' secure and fortify a proper encampment in
ous. That his oath might rest heavy upon the vicinity, near Hastings. This was kept
his soul while in the field of battle, and of well guarded with outposts of cavalry to a
fered to relieve him of the danger and take considerable distance. In thus securing
the command Rut Harold their position and rcconnoitcring about fif
determined by a strong self-willed resolu teen davs were spent in anxious expecta
tion, declined the offer, and disregarded all tion ot seeing their opponents.
remonstrancesbeing led forward by strong At length Harold and his army came in
hopes or desperation, apparently placing -ight, and William, brave ami determined
much confidence in the army be was able as he as, could not but have been anxious
to raise,9 which he had some reason to be for accommodations, and desirous to ac
lieve was superior, at least in numbers, to quire a kingdom and people without a battle
that under his opponent, the duke; and if possible; but determined upon a con
withal was rather too much elated with quest if that accommodation was not had.
his recent victory to listen to the most pru-, He sent a mcs-age to Harold that if he
dent advice. would comply with his oath he should
The duke of Normandy, having com ha\e all the land north of the I lumber, and
pleted his preparations and arrangements, would give his brother Gurth all the land
had passed over the sea with a large arma that Godwin held; and if these terms were
ment, and successfully landed on the shore refused, he charged his messenger to pro
of the bav of Penensev, in Sussex, (Sept. claim before all the people that he was a
J.Sth, 1066) without any opposition, as liar- perjurer. The day was spent in fruitless,
old had gone north towards York to meet negotiations. The battle seemed to be in
Tostig and the Norwegians. The amount evitable. Some of the Saxon chief* ad-
of William's armament and forces arc un vi>ed Harold, a policy very apparent, to
certain. It has been said that he crossed avoid a battle, to return towards London,
the waves with a very large fleet variously and ravage the country in front of the en-
emv; and thus starve the foreigners out.
* Palgrave, as above. All this i> very surprising Harold received thi advice, which under
when we know the Saxons mitipHlhv ;iif:iinst tlu1
\orm:ms. Thierry dix-s no! nolire- M nmrli eolelm-ss many circumstances would be the \erybest
on tin- purl of tlu1 Snxons towards Il:irnlt1; thnuyh policy, indignantly as a charge upon hi.s
hoth of' thcw authors have well invcstijfated tin- sulv
' Revolutions, p. j-?. Tur-
jti-t. Sec also Vau|fh;ur Hdelitv ami braver v, and replied : "1 rava\-
m-r in his history does itol slate iht- nnniher i>l tbr
arniy, but inlimatcs their fleet to bo hiriii-: Vol. ii. p.
6<?. i Pictorial History, M)y- 205. i Hume's IM<iorv 10 See Macintosh's Histur> of Kujjl.md, jx v7:
ett ICttfrfund. ]. i^it- 151. SNinomii Hist, des Kranr, iv, 35.1, and Prof. I'i-kr's
9 i Thierry, p. 17^; l*;i!gr;*vef til ^uprri, p. .>IQ. Ess;*).
Chap. I.] TO THK ACCESSION* OF EDWARD I.
the country which has been con tided to my ]>erson, and where his own uunner was
Bv faith, that were indeed placed. Mow the -Saxons were arrayed we
treason, and T prefer taking the chances ol have little or no information; hut we iya\
battle with the lew men I have, my cour be assured, that as they were now natives
age, and my good cause." Perhaps, also, of British soil, and descendants of Caracta-
he too much feared delay, and the conse cus as well as of Alfred and Edgar. anJ
quence of it in his rear, to follow so good had been animated by the recital of the
advice, where the vital interest of the coun glorious deeds of Arthur, they were not
try and people were in peril. wanting either in courage or dutv on thc
On both sides they were now preparing lield of Hastings. Harold had selected for
his position a range ol' rising ground; and
for a battle, which Harold did not expect to
bring on until after the coming dav. and on his front somewhat protected by a palisade.
They had. unperceived by the eneim, dug
that night to attack his enemies by sur
prise. Of this the vigilant William became pits Collie distance in front, which were
slightly covered over, so as not to be able
aware, and well conceiving that any delay
to bear up either a body of horse or men.
would' be advantageous to his <>p]x>ncnt, de
termined that the battle should be brought Between the palisades and the hidden pits
n the next day, and thereby defeat his op Harold's army was drawn up in form of a
ponent's intended night attack. He order wedjje, and protected by a wall of their
shields and the palisades. When the Nor
ed arrangement^ to be made accordingly.
" It is said that on the night previous to the mans were formed ready to advance, a
battle, that the Normans spent their time Norman, named Taillefer, .spurred his
horse in front of the array, and as a bard,
much more judiciously than the .Saxons.
began the song, famous throughout Gaul,
The first in >ol~>er and prayerful considera
of Charlemagne and Roland. As he sang
tion of their situation and duties, while the j
he played with his sword, throwing it high
Saxons were engaged in noisy revelry and i
in the air, and catching it as it fell in his
drinking.
right hand; the Normans repeating the
The morning light of the memorable day burthen and shouting.
of the battle had arrived, and the Norman
The Normans at length charged u|xm
camp was in motion. William in full ar
the Saxons, who \\ere so well and strongly
mor, mounted on a tine charger, addressed
his officers, to satisfy them of the justice formed, that they were unable to make auv
of his cause, and to excite their cupidity. impressions, and the Saxons struck so
Raising his voice, he thus addressed them: heavy blows with their battle-axe, as to
"Fight your best, and put every one to break a lauce, or. cut through a -hk-ld or a
death; for if we conquer, we shall all be coat ol" mail. Unable ti> make a penetra
tion upon the English position, by a direct
rich. What I gain, you gain; if I conquer,
you conquer; if I take the land, you shall attiick in front, the duke ordered the arch
share it. Know, howeior, that I ha\ e not ers to advance again and shoot high in the
come here merely to take that which is mv air so as to fall on their enemies behind
flue, hut to revenge our whole nation for their shields and palisades ; bv which means
the felon acts, perjuries, and treason of main of the English were wounded in the
these English. They put to death th face. Again an attack ol infantry and cav
Danes, men and women, in the night of alry was made with great shouts But
Snint Urice. They des-imaled the compan again they were driven hack, and this time
ions of my relation, Alfred, and put him to the Norman men and horses fell upon one
death. On, then, in God's name, and chas another into the pits, and thus a great nuin-
tise them for all their misdeeds."" l>er perished. A cry was once raised in
William arranged his arm} in three di the midst of this terror that the duke was
visions; and the third he commanded in i killed; which was not quieted until the
duke was able to raise his vizor and show
n i Thierry's Norman Conqurst, B. iii, p. 175. his face, when he was able to stop the re
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
treat and renew the assault. Now 'the I were probably the best armed and discip-
duke ordered an attack ol a thousand horse | lined bodv of troops that ever appeared in
to bf made, and then an immediate retreat. that age in Western Europe. In point of
This ruse succeeded in bringing the En equipment they had greatly the advantage;
glish inrauliouslv from their position, and but they found their equals in their oppo
were at once fiercely attacked by the main nents in point of courage and bravery.
force of their enemy. A terrible melee en The result was what ought to have been
sued, in which the duke was wounded and expected under the circumstances. Harold
unhorsed; and Harold killed by an arruw as more patriotic and courageous than
which pierccc' his brain, through one of his wise and prudent in rejecting the judicious
eves. The Normans broke through the advice to temporize and harass William's
English lines, and captured their standard. means of procuring provisions, until he
After nine hours of hard battle, at the was able to meet him upon equal terms.12
close of the dav, and alter the two brothers But it was a blixxh battle on both sides.
of Harold, Gurth and Leofwic, were slain. The Normans acknowledge the loss of a
the victory of the invaders was complete. fourth of their men, and the loss was prob-
It was nearly dark when the success of ably fully as great or greater on the part of
the Normans procured for themselves the the English. It is claimed bv the friends
virtorv in a battle fought on both sides \vith of Harold that in the course of the night
desperation a battle which has created a they found and identified his dead body
revolution in the history and aspect ot amongst the slain, which thev bad properly
England. When the English were com buried; but there is another romantic story
pelled to flee, the night and the woods in told upon the subject, that he survived the
the vicinity afforded them protection from battle, but in despair retired to a monastery,
the pursuit of the Norman cavalry that incoffHitie, in a distant part of the country,
would otherwise have been tatal to ^nanv. where he lived unknown many years."1
But as it was many a hard contest was had
between those who were compelled to flee j-j. H'i/liaiu thf Conqueror, /roin his Cert-
tuition to ///.- Death. A. I.). iofi6 1087.
and their pursuers. We have no reliable
account of the number of troops engaged, After the Iwttle of Hastings. William
in this celebrated and well contested battle, pent some weeks before he proceeded :e
on either side; nor the number slain. It London to enjoy the fruition of his victory.
has been stated in a loose manner, that j Kor a while he made Canterbury his head-
William had sixtv thousand, and that quarters; took Dover, a very strong fortifi
Harold commanded one hundred thousand cation, without resistance; and now it
jnen. But it may be that neither had half appears very strange, instead of proceeding
of their re-pective numbers. Jt U quite to convince the people that they had good
probable that Harold had numerically the luck in the exclumge of rulers, be proceed-
mo<t men; but then it should be remem I ed to ravage the counties near him south of
bered that Harold had lost nianv of bis ; the Thames, as though be wished to con
best veteran troops at the recent halt le at vince the people they had now a master
.Stamford Bridge, and many of bis men who was hard to deal with, and that it was
were raw but brave volunteers just from their interest to make submission as soon
their civil vocations, badlv armed and nn- as possible. The English people were ap-
disciplined to war. On the other hand . p.ll.c,,th in moodv .olulitioll, .,
William's men were the daring and ambi- i , what to tlo. ARer a
men-the elite collected from all the whjle wmllmi pmcec<lcd with his army to-
countries around Normandv. There were wards London, without any lurther serious
in their ranks not onlv Normans but brave
and daring men from Brittany, from 12 See t'hartcs V. celebrated entrance into France,
\vht-rc he was utterly ddc:ited by these niran.s.
Anjou. Maine, Poitou, and various other lldhinsnn's Charles V.
parts of France, and from Flanders. The\ 13 See Palsgrave's Anglo-Saxons, ch. xv, p. ^j^.
Chap TO THE ACCESSION OK EDWARD I.
opposition ; but halting a few miles- out of For a short time William only claimed
town, sent forward a detachment of soldiers that he came to the sovereignty as heir of
to construct a fortress for his residence in Edward the Confessor, and did not set up
the heart of the city. Some of his follow his title as conqueror. B ut it was not long
ers became impatient at this delay in as before he and his friends set up that title ;
suming the crown and the fruit of their and ever since lie has been known in his
conquest. He hypocritically replied: "That tory by the title of William the Conqueror.
if it were God's will that he should become Thev were not slow in letting the English
king, the time to assume the title had not people know by what title they did claim.
vet arrivedtoo many counties and too At first even William thought it was only
many men still remained to be subjected; a question whether he or Harold should be
besides, he had not come to England for king, and that being settled by the battle of
his own interest alone, but for that of the Hastings, he thought his future course in
whole Norman nation." At length it was obtaining possession of the government
arranged that the coronation should take would be easy and as a matter of course.
place on the following Christmas, and for It must IK- that many of the English nobil-
that purpose the Abbv Church of West itv thought in the same way; for in no oth
minster was decorated, :u> when the lawful er way could the conduct of Edwin and
sovereigns of England were received by Mocar, the earls of Mercia, in declining to
the willing and loval acclamation of their aid Harold efficient! v, be accounted for.
subjects. William well knew that such a It is probable that those scions of Woden
reception was not to be his; he therefore did not deem that Harold came in by divine
had all the avenues from the camp to the right, to induce them to interfere in his be
church and around it guarded by strong half. It is probable, also, that many of the
lines of his men and cavalry. William Saxon nobility thought in the same way.
during the ceremonv was surrounded bv Hut whatever might have been the cause
two hundred and sixty Norman chiefs: which operated upon them, they soon by
and when Kldred, the archbishop of York, bitter experience had cause to repent of
put the question to those present: "Will ve their unpatriotic decision. In all these
have William. Duke of Normandy, for questions and movements, the rights and
your king?" the shout of the Normans liberties of the peopletheir right to have
was so loud,' that the soldiery on the out a stable and just government, in which
side suspected it to be some act of treason, their property, labors and earnings should
that some rushed there with drawn swords, be cared for and protected, were entirely
while others set fire to some of the houses overlooked as though all rightfully belong-
with a view to plunder. Upon seeing this ! ed to him whom chance or impudence
those in the church rushed out, and the placed in the government. The Saxon no
ceremony was concluded by a few tremb bility considered themselves by habit and
ling ecclesiastics; while the new king was, action a ca*te,proud, haughtv anil super
equally alarmed, reciting his pledge that he cilious, withal ignorant, illiterate and hold
would govern the English people according ing the great mass of the people in a very
to their own laws, and in all things as justly low position,^ and consequently held them
and humanely as the best of their kings in great contempt. The Normans by their
had governed them. intermixture with the Celtic people had be
come greatly distinguished for quickness
i Vuujfhan's Revolutions, B. Hi, ch. ii, p. 280. See and taste, were taking pleasure in literature
i Thierry's Norman Conquest. B. iv, p. 189, where it
is staled that the question was firs! nut bv Geoffrey. and objects of science; and although they
bishop of Conlance, in the French lan^ua^c, :ind adopted the feudal tenure, by which the
then archbishop of York [in! ihe ijucstion in the Kn
gtish
Irtish language,
king when the response was so vehement* landed property of the country was placed
This
iis would
wou I intimate that this response was of the
Knplish. But if true, we c:in reaoily conceive that | in the hands of the nobilitv, as it was with
tht Normans could ^.ilher there as manv weak 1
Kiij^Ushnien to make such response as to pet tfit Hrch- |
b'tvhop of York to perform tht* ceremony. See ante, B. iii, ch. .
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
the Saxons, yet they treated the mass ot vine right as the descendants of Woden;
the people more kindly and on an equality. and therefore they might politically hope
The Normans looked upon the Saxons as for more from them on the score ol com
a people more slow and stolid, and less mon Immunity. The .Saxon nobility soon
given to adopt improvements, and .subject lost their right and title to the landed prop
ed them to much contempt. It is hard to erty, for the manors were ultimately trans
determine how it was that one buttle, and ferred from Saxon lords to Norman lords;
the operation of four or rive years, an en the people generally retained their posses
tire revolution and change of govern sions upon similar terms, and only changed
menta conquest, was brought about; their landlords. The Saxon common peo
when with the Britons it cost the Romans ple could not have been, for this reason, so-
many battles and forty years of war; and attached to their country as the same class
the Saxons innumerable battles and four or of people with the Britons; for with the
five hundred years of war to accomplish latter the absolute ownership of the land
the same conquest. It can only bo account was with the people, and its mode of de
ed for upon the indifference of the Saxon scent was that of the gavel-kind;the land
people towards their nobility, who held ed estate, therefore, was not the manor, hut
themselves as a divine caste, born to rule, the farm of the family, very much as it is
and who held so exclusive a government now practically in England, but 'with a very
over them, and especially as to real proper unequal division among the families; but
ty. It must be that the Saxon people as in fact it is in the United States with all
looked upon it as a mere question of a the people. The landed property of Eng
change of masters, in which thev had no land, before the conquest, was held in large
decided interest, and not that patriotism estates (manors) by the Saxon nobility,
love of country and freedom, which dis and therefore the trailer from a Saxon
tinguished the Britons or the people of lord to a Norman made but little or no dif
England of the present day. But the En ference with the tenant, as it would have
glish of that day were soon taught by sad done if he had held the fee. They might
experience that the Normans were determ therefore be very indifferent as to the change
ined to make the most of their conquest; which was going on; for with him it was
and that they were really the masters, in only a change of landlord, and sometimes
possession of the government and people; there was a gain in the change of masters.
and controlled the land and property for William was a good executive sovereign,
their own best interest. The Normans and well enforced the administration of
soon found some desultory and unorgan justice; yet his followers soon became
ized hostilities; and the first manifested it clamorous for all the honorable and lucra
self in the vicinity of Exeter, where there tive positions in the government, both civil
was the strongest mixture of the Ancient and ecclesiastic, and for the confiscation of
Britons, and where the first confiscation of the property of those who had opposed
property took place.3 them, and the division of such properrv
Soon envy and hatred increased between among themselves. Much of this was im
the two people. But the Saxon nobility mediately done, and every occasion was
were losing by the change of government taken advantage of to extend it, from time
more than the people themselves. With to time, and from bad to worse, until the
them it was only a change of masters. Still government and most all the real property
in one respect the Norman nobility were of England was in the hands of the Nor
not so offensive as the Saxon, for they did mans. The two most powerful earls, Ed
not so oftensi very claim that they ruled by di win and Morcar, who were the earls of
Merda and Northumbria, and the head of
i i Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. iv, pp. J<H- the -Saxo nobility, who had played so cold
zoS; VauKlwn's Revolutions in English History, pp. > and indifferent a part towards Harold, a
aSliSj; Miicuulav's I n-! m.l. pp. S and 9: Henry I ...
f Huntingdon, 213. I brother-in-law, now became alarmed, and
Chap, i.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 509
The property of those who opposed him,
appealed to their relatives in Wales, the
and were active in regard to the action at
family of the late king Griffith. This wa.s
Hastings, had already been confiscated, and
discovered, and made the pretext of dis
posing of their power and estates for the
divided among the Normans, and there
benefit of the special favorites of the king.
were in his retinue abundance of foreign
The Catholic church had given Williamaspirants crying for more, and every new
manifestation of discontent was made the
much aid with but little cost, by sending
him a banner, the Pope's bull, and excom
occasion for urging further confiscation.
munication of Harold upon the assumption
William appointed a commission to ascer
of his perjury. This brought the majority
tain and report what opposition had been
of the priesthood, both in France and Eng
made to him, and who the persons were
land, in his favor; and this the new king
who were continuing such opposition. Up
wa.s not disposed to forget. Wherever an
on this inquiry and report, proceedings
excuse could be made for it, the king re
were had, and confiscation made, until in
moved the native clergy, and gave thethe course of a tew vcars almost the whole
place to a Norman. A host of Norman of the real property of the kingdom had
clergy attended him in the expedition,
become transferred from a Saxon nobility
among whom was his brother, Odo, archtoanewand Norman nobilitv,* from uhom
bishop ot Baveux; all of whom became many ot the present English nobility de
provided for with rich places. Neither
rive and hold their right and title.
warrior nor clergyman was neglected who The reader of British history is aston
had been serviceable, nor was the church
ished to find this revolution in English af
nor Pope forgotten; but all pay came at
fairs to have been accomplished In con
the expense of the unfortunate Saxons.
quest, with only one great and well organ-
i/ed battle, in defense of the principle, that
Within three months after the battle of
every people have a right to govern them
Hastings, the king upon some pretext de
selves; and that native patriotism which
termined to return upon a visit to Norman
arouses a people in favor of a native organ
dy ; and he did this with great display of
ization in opposition to a foreign one which
what he had acquired by his conquest. He
coines in to rule over them
placed the administration of the govern oppress
them. Almost immediately al'ter the bat
ment in the care of Odo and Fitz Osbern,
tle of Hastings, public matters began so to
as a regency while absent; and he took
develop themselves, so that there could be
with him a large number of the most dis
no doubt as to the position to be assumed
tinguished and influential of the English
bv the conquerors at Hastings. Indeed the
nobility, for the double purpose of gracing
his retinue and exhibiting liis success; and 4 See Vuujiflian1!* Revolution in History, U. iii, ch.
also holding them as hostages in his power ii, p. 2$. King \Villi;im took the lion's share of
both real and personal property. It is easier to fol
for the security of his government in Eng low llut real property, which had hern held by the
land during his absence. This visit was Saxon nobility in hirifc esl:ile>, and cultivated hy tlw
common people ;is serfs. Tin sc l:ir^r esbitcs vvrrt:
made the subject of great exhibition and re culleil by the \onn;tns id coultl bt- irusily
tnmi the Saxon Ui the
joicing in Normandy; but the uneasy af m. in. Mr. Vaui;han slates the appropriation of
Noruuin
fairs in England soon called him there; for ihe real
rcitl properly amon^r
iirnontj the conquerors
ronqu thus: " The
Crnwii hail nil ire tlwii 1400 manors, besides oiht-
his representatives were found to be unable property not fully dest-ribed. Th earl .)i AliirUiint-,
the Conqueror's hull" brother, K--' >se&tcil ot"
to manage all'airs with the satin vigor and nearly S< in;mor.s, spreml o
success as he himself. When he had re The u;irl of Hret.iB;nts who i'oimn;inded the re.ir in
thu b:itlle. ot" H:islin^s, hud 442. Odo. l.iihhop of
turned to England he found great difficul ItiiyeuK, brother ti Williu.ni, had 439, which if.ivc
him authority in seventeen countk'-. Th bishop ot"
ties and dissatisfaction in various parts of C'onslaiK.v, \vho. in common with Udo, was ;ilso ;i
the country, without any concerted and soldier, had **>. linger de Bresli had 174 in Not
tinghamshire. Hbert <lu L^ici i6(, fh icily in York-
well formed action for the relief and deliv sliire. William IVrccval, the Conqueror's natural
son, had 102. Robert cK: Sanlord, 150. Rogvr
erance of the country. Every effort was I-aci,, Il'i. de Montt'ort. more tthan 100.
i Wil
now made to bring the country to a quiet Ham de Warren had territory allotted him in Susse1
and eleven other English counties." See, also, I
subjection, and to complete the conquest. Hume's Kniflish IIi>t., p. 105; also 450, appendix ii.
3' THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
intercourse between the English and Nor By the year 1070, William had reduced
mans had been such for many years, that the whole of England to subjection; from
they had no reasonable grounds to expect the Tweed to the South, and from the Ger
any different result from that which did man Ocean to the Severn, his army over
happen. However that may be, it was sel ran and controlled everything. The last
dom, if ever, anv people endured so intol serious opposition was made by the Danish
erable a government as the people of Eng people, who constituted a large portion f
land did during the first half of the the people of Yorkshire and the country
Conqueror's reign. Not only was the to the north, formerly known as Northum-
landed property taken from the original bria. ]t is singular not only, that only one
proprietor*, and bestowed upon a new for great battle was fought bv the English for
eign aristocracy, but the Norman adven their independence, but that the leading
turers took without compunction or control Englishmen made their most effectual ap
whatever thev chose. It is repulsive to peals to the Danes of Yorkshire, to the
humanity to contemplate the oppression Cambrians in the neighborhood of the Dee,
and injustice perpetrated by the invading and the people in the vicinity of Exeter,
conquerors. Not only was the sword doing where the descendants of the Ancient
its work in accomplishing its object, but Britons did mostly prevail. All these were
the churchman was as eager as the warrior successfully put down by the Conqueror,
for spoils, and to enrich himself and the without any serious rising in the central
church. In a few years every native arch portion of England itself. When we no
bishop and bishop were removed and their tice this, and also the fact that at the com
places taken by foreign clergy. mencement of the conquest the two great
Those to whom William had promised est men of England, in wealth, in power,
land, received it of the dispossessed and in political influence and experience,
English; the barons and knights had vast Edwin and Morcar, the earls of Mercia
domains, castles, villages, and even whole and Xorthumbria, kept aloof and turned a
cities; the simple vassal had smaller por cold shoulder towards Harold and his cause
tions. .Some received their pay in money, until -it was lost; and the people themselves
others had stipulated that they should have never manifested a serious determination
a Saxon wife, and William, says the Nor to resist the conquest. May not all this be
man chronicle, gave them in marriage ascribed as resulting from the organization
noble dames, great heiresses, whose of the Saxon government? Edwin and
bands had fallen in the battle. One onlv Morcar belonged to the old aristocracy, the
among the knights who had accompanied descendents of Woden, a caste who ex
the Conqueror, claimed neither lands, gold, cluded everv other family from a participa
nor wife, and would accept none of these tion in the high and honorable offices of
spoils of the conquered. His name was the government. Harold, a-, we have seen,
Guilbert KHz Richard; he said that he had was of a plebeian origin ; and though in
accompanied his lord to England because the days of his power he was able to pro
such was his duty, but stolen goods had cure their sister for his wife, yet now in the
no attraction for him, and that he would contest with William they were able to
return to Normandy and enjoy his own persuade her to abandon him. They prob
heritage, a moderate but legitimate heritage, ably at first preferred William from a hope
and, contented with his own lot, would rob that he would best subserve the old aristoc
no one.' 5 racy ; and may ha\ e conceived that it would
result only in a change of sovereigns, with
5 r '("Merry'* Normnn Conquest. B. iv. p. 191. out otherwise interfering with the govern
'Iliis noble mnn, Guilbert, is far more deserving to
be remembered and honored lh:m (hi; Con<|m'rnr. It ment. But on the other hand the great
seems thai in those days almost every one thought he
had n riffht to tftke WMt ha could; even the rh-r^y mass of the people had been kept by the
practiced upon the s;ime rule. It seemed that they aristocracy at that distance from the real
n;ul forgotten the golden n]lc of their profession, and
Jeft it t<t be remembered and practiced by Guilbcrl. government, and all the lands in the hand*
Chap.,.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 3
.f that aristocracy ,-they cared but little as den should ascend a throne which for the
to the result; at most it was but a change past 600 years had known no other; and
of masters ; and hoped that their new mas especially so as to Harold, who was but
ters would not be so exclusive a caste. one generation removed from the peasant
This is the only manner in which we can and The herdsman. That he was then the
satisfactorily account for the English peo most talented of Englishmen; the one who,
ple submitting, with so little resistance, to by his education and experience, best quali
such a decided conquest. All at first hoped fied to occupy the position, was no reply to
for better things,it was the Saxon nobili themhe was a parrenu. With them,
ty, those who claimed their right to power therefore, as a matter of feeling, the ques
as descendents from Woden, who sustained tion was a matter of indifference whether
the great loss and injury; the great mass Harold or William should be king; it wa*
of the people lost but little, and perhaps only a change of sovereigns, and with the
gained much in the end by the revolution. latter there was some claim of a remote
As already stated, the Saxon population descent.
were divided into three classes: first the With common people it was a question
nobles, who were comparatively few, the of agreat deal more indifference. They were
descendants of Woden, and the holders of excluded from any participation in the
all the land. These were called thanes,* government and politics; and they had no
and, as aldermen, ruled the land, and held landed property. All this belonged to an
all the great offices. Secondly, the freemen, hereditary aristocracy; and if the landed
who were less than one-half of the people: estates should be transferred to Norman
exercised some police regulations among | IORIS- they might be able to make fully as
themselves; were generally, for their own j gO(xi terms, or better, with the new lords
safety, the retainers or clients of some lord ; | as w jth the old. With them there was no
and their greatest freedom was a right to ! ownership in the land no yeomanry, with
choose which of two or more lords to ! small holding of their own, as a guaranty
serve. And thirdly, the slaves, who in- for their patriotism and devotion to the in
cluded the villain, the serfs as well as the dependence and freedom of their country.
menial slave; and were the largest portion In these respects there is no safety for a
of the people. These were often sold and country when its government and landed
transferred with the land to which they estates are in the hands of an aristocracy.
were attached. There can be no doubt But since that time the commons and the
that the Normans in like manner claimed yeomanry of England have grown up and
them with the manor which had been as made Britain what she is proud to be, the
signed to them. The proud position now- foremost people in the world. When Wil
occupied by every intelligent Englishman, liam landed at Fervency there were no
as commoner of England, is a position at- \ commons or yeomanry, as these only existed
tained long after the conquest; which it in the times of the Tudors and Cromwell.
probably aided rather than retarded. The effect that may be produced by an
The indifference of the Saxon people to aristocracy upon the spirit and patriotism
the consequence's of the conquest, at its of a people may be well illustrated by the
commencement, was the logical result of condition of things in the Southern States
their form of government. The aristocra- previous to the great rebellion. There one
cv, who were almost the only class interest half of the people were slaves (Africans);
ed in the question, could not tolerate the and the landed property was held in large
idea that a person not a descendant of Wo- estates, in the hands ot a few of the leading
and most promising of the white people.
6 In confirmation of the close oligarchy or caste Thev represented the wealth and intelli
which existed in the Saxon irovernmenl, Hume (l gence of the country. Between these and
English History, appendix!, p.iciilsays: "We know
of no title which raised any one to the rank of n the slaves there was a large class of white
thane, except noble hirlh and the possession of freemen, who in every generation were be
land." .,
 THE NORMAN PERIOD.
coining poorer and more abject; despised
by both the slave and his master, as the
foor -vlritr man ; and the slave denominated
them, as a matter of contempt, "sanrl/iitl
crackrr." The slave-holder was the aristo
crat of the country, and the governing race
in the state. He was the senator and rep
resentative in congress; member of the
legislature or governor of the state; and
holding all important stations and official
appointments. There was no law fixing
or securing all this, but it was so arranged
as securely as though it was in the consti
tution, by merely a social understanding
among themselves. Among themselves
the slave-holder was a genuine patriot, and
always in favor of independence and free
dom: and frequently the most devoted
democrat. But this was always for home
consumptionthe poor white man and the
slave were never benefited by such display
of patriotism. Between the slave-holder
and the slavethe upper and nether mill
stone, the poor white man was ground to
powder. He was generally distinguished
as the ignorant, uneducated man, without
industry or ambition; for there was no ob
ject upon which to applv them. Bv social
arrangements they were kept within th
bounds. Now one may well imagine that
the freeman in Saxon times, Iwing between
the nobility, who were a family caste, and
the slave, was the -poor white man" of his
time; and if so, it may have been a happv
event that the Saxon nobility was exter
minated by a Danish and Norman rule.
After William had fiercely suppressed
the opposition that his conquest had met
with from the people in the vicinity of Exe
ter, in 1068, the next serious opposition was
from the people of Yorkshire and the north.
The Normans did not attempt the conquest
north of the Humber for about three years
after the battle of Hastings. In the year
io6y they encountered considerable oppo
sition in taking possession of York, and
securing it to their possession, by a castle
and intrcnchmcnts within the city. Before
the next year, and while the king was on a
visit to his home in Normandy, the people
of Yorkshire, by a patriotic effort, succeed
ed in recovering possession of York after
[ Book iv.
a severe struggle, and in their enthusiasm
not only expelled everything Norman, but
foolishly demolished the Norman castle
and its ramparts, which they soon found
cause to wish they had preserved.
When William was informed of his re
verses in Yorkshire and the fierce opposi
tion of the people to him there, he swore
vengeance against them and hastened back
to England in order to perpetrate it. He
first cautiously proceeded to buy off every
aid and alliance upon which the people of
York had placed any reliance, and then
proceeded with a powerful army against
them, with a fierce determination of effect
ing a conclusive conquest; and in that he
was fully successful. York was retaken,
and all north of it he brought to the most
cruel and abject subjection. The war and
revolution had produced in the north of
England a severe famine, and to this ca
lamity William was adding that of the
sword and fire, in exterminating man and
beast, and destroying every habitation in a
large portion of the country to the north of
York; and in the process of converting it
into a park for wild animals, upwards of
one hundred thousand people were de-
stroycd.
Upon this another apportionment of con
fiscated territory was made amongst the
followers of the conqueror; as to William
( de percv was donated over eighty manors,
the origin of the great estate of the family
under the name of the duke of Northum
berland ; and to others were granted like
favors. This being accomplished to the
north, the king next turned his attention
to the west. That portion of the island
west of the Cumberland hills, north of the
Merc}- and south of the Solway Firth,
which had been sometimes known as
part of the kingdom of Strath-Clyde, and
sometimes as Cumbria, was given over to
some of the Norman captains to bring over
to their rule. This was done in the usual
style. This country had been known as
the home of the Cymry of Cumbria; and
during the sixth and seventh centuries had
been distinguished for its Christian and
literary attainments. It is celebrated a s
the home of Aneurin, the author of the
Chap. I.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I.
great epic poem of Gododin, and of the
historian, Nennius. After that it had been
disturbed by the Saxons and plundered by
the Danes. Many of its principal citizens
had left and taken refuge in either Wales,
Ireland or Armorica; but the majority ol
the people were still Cymry, mixed with
Saxons and Danes. The country was now
taken by the Conqueror's officers; and the
chief of them divided the possessions among
their retainers. "The land of marsh and
moor, called Westmoreland, was also
brought under the power of a foreigner,
who divided among their soldiers the rich
domains and beautiful women of the coun
try. The conqueror gave the three daugh
ters of Simon Thorn, proprietor of two
manors, one to Onfroy, his squire, another
to Raoul Tortesmains, and the third to one
Guillaume de Saint Paul.'" In those davs
of terror and injustice, wherever the sol
diery of the Romans, Saxons, Danes or
Normans went, the unfortunate female
beauties of the country were made either
their wives or mistresses; and the great
body of the people their serfs.
After this reduction of the north of Eng
land the Conqueror immediately (A. D.
1070) marched with his armv to the border
oi Wales. The first place lie attained was
the city of Chester, the Cavrligion of the
Briton^ and Devana of the Romans. It
was nearly four hundred years after Hen-
gist's time before this city was taken from
the Cymry by the Saxons, A. D. 828. It
was probably here that the ConqAeror saw
the greatest remains of the Roman times.
Chester was on the right hank of the Dee;
and that river was the line between Eng
land and Wales ; and up to that lirle the
Conqueror was not much delayed. But
the Normans manifested a disposition
to cross that line, and Otta'-. dvke presented
but little opposition to their entrv upon
Cambrian territory. The Normans crossed
the line and the .Severn west of Shrews
bury, and upon Welsh territory, sixteen
miles trom the last named city, built the
first fortress in violation of the rights of
the Cymry. This was the commencement
7 l Thierry's Norin:in C'oiK|urM, B. iv, p. 229.
3'3
ol the subjugation of Wales by the Nor
mans, and which these conquerors of Eng
land diligently pursued for about two hun
dred years before its accomplishment at the
death of prince Llewellyn, in 1282; and
after the same object had been previously
prosecuted over five hundred years by the
Saxons; so that it required the continued
exertion of these two nationalities over
seven hundred years ot unjust and cruel
war, from the invasion of Wessex upon
the Severn to the death of Llewellyn, to
subjugate the Cymrv, these descendants of
the Ancient Britons. This fortress was
called by the Cymry Trc Fttldwin, the cas
tle of Baldwin, but the name retained by
the Normans was Monliromery, in honor
of Rodger de Montgomery, earl of Shrop
shire, as reated bv the Cconqueror.S!
After A. D. 1070 the conquest seems to
have been complete over the whole of Eng
land, and the form of its rule and govern
ment established. It was an arbitrary
monarchy, uncontrolled by any fixed par
liament or house of lords. Everything de
pended upon the will and pleasure of the
Conqueror, lie was once or twice Induced
in order to quiet insurrection, to promise
that the laws of Edward the Confessor
should be observed and enforced; but that
did but little better it, while those laws
were only enforced by Normans according
to their own notions and prejudice. There
were the great lords he had created; but
they were his surorti vassals, and- creatures
of his own creation. They formed no great
Established council, controlling as a neces
sary part of the ^overmnent. They had,
undoubtedly, their influence, but William
summoned them and consulted with them
as he thought best. Courts were estab
lished, records kept, and the ordinary ad
ministration of justice improved; for in
learning and the science of the day the
Normans were far ahead of the Saxons;
but then the whole was under the control
and influence of one presiding head.
The government of England became far
more arbitrary and despotic than that of
Normandy. At home William was a duke,
S i Thierry's Nornmn Conquest, H. iv, p. 232.
 3'4 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv
in England a monarch. Alter a while this Ham's sovereignty, which lasted about ten
became distasteful to some of the Normans years longer. All the amelioration and
themselves. About theyear 1074 the special improvement in form and constitution of
friend and right arm of William, Fitz Os- the English government are those matters
bern, died a violent death while on the which have taken place long after the reign
continent. His son Robert assumed his of the Conqueror;there are none of them
rights and dignity in England as earl of which go back for their origin to the time
Hereford, and control of the vast estate in of the Conqueror, or that of the Saxons.
England. "He took upon himself the They are the growth of British soil since
charge of providing for and portioning his those times.
young sister, Emma, and negotiated a mar It has already been noticed that when
riage for her with Raulf do Gael, a Breton the .Saxons as a conquering army took pos
seignior, who had become earl of Norfolk. session of various portions of the island,
For some reason or other this alliance was which has since become England, a great
displeasing to the king, who sent an ex mass of the British population must have
press order from Normandy not to con remained and become assimilated with the
clude it; but the parties paid no heed to this Saxon conquerors, as was the case in every
prohibition, and on the day tixcd for the such conquest, and especially with the
celebration the marriage took place at Nor Normans. The Saxon lords were disposed
wich, which proved fatal to all who were of, but the conquerors took wives from the
present at it. "9 Bishops and Norman bar choice of the widows and daughters of the
ons were there, Saxons, friends of the Nor land. As was the case with the Snxons,
mans, and several Welshmen, invited bv this intermixture of races made them Eng
the earl of Hereford, prominently figured lish, instead of German, greatly Celtic in
at the affair. The sumptuous repast and stead of pure Teutonic. But this change
generous wine rendered them imprudent, of race characteristics was greatly augment
loquacious and ambitious; great complaint
was made of the arbitrary conduct of the ed by the Norman conquest. The Nor
mans were more Celtic than Teuton, and
Conqueror, and his ingratitude to those to this was especially the case with William,
whom he wa-. the most indebted for his in consequence of frequent alliance by mar
crown, especially to Hereford, the son of riage between his house and that of Brit
that Fitz Osbern to whom was mostly due tany. But of the followers of the Conquer
his great success. He was accused of hav. or the Celtic character greatly prevailed;
ing forgotten his origin, and frequently for besides those who were from .Norman
called the bastard. A conspiracy was dy, the next greatest portion of them were
then formed, and a rebellion raised bv col from Brittany, from whence came Alain
lecting troops lx>th east and west, in Nor- and Brian, two of the sons of the duke of
folk and on the Severn, where manv of the Brittanv, Raulf de Gael, and other power-
11 T , . * *
Welsh on the border were induced to join ful lords of that country, with their numer
them, either for pay or out of hatred for the ous followers. From other portions of
conquerors, who menaced their independ Gaul did they flock to the standard of the
ence. But all this demonstration was ef Norman ; as from Maine, Anjou, Poitoii
fectually put down by William's govern and Aquitaine, the Cymric and Celtic por
ment before he had returned from Nor tion of France. So important w as the ser
mandy, which was followed by the usual vice of these to William that he rewarded
cruel punishment of the rebels who fell Raulf, as we have seen, by making him
into their hands, some by death, others by earl of Norfolk. It was not only the im
mutilation in having a limb, either an arm mediate followers of the Normans who aid
or a leg, cut off. This was the most seri ed in making this change of race; but
ous attempt made at rebellion during Wil- "when the conquest grew nourishing," savs
9 i Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. iv, p. .178. Thierry, "not merely young soldiers and
Matth. Pans I, o. old captains, but whole families, men, wo-
 . i.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I.
en and children, emigrated from almost
every corner of Gaul to seek their fortune
in England; this country had become for
foreigners, as it were, a land newly discov
ered, which had to be colonized, and which
belonged to every comer. 'Noel and Cel-
estria, his wife,' says an ancient deed,
'came in the army of William the Bastard,
and received in gift from the same bastard
the manor of Elinghall with all its depend
encies.' According to an old rhymer, the
irst lord of Coningsbv, named William,
came from Brittany, with his wife Tiffany,
his servant Manias, and his dog Hardigras.
Sworn brotherhood-iii-arms, societies of
gain and loss, for life and death, were
formed between those who together ran the
risks of the invasion."10 Thus was the
English people impregnated with an addi
tional portion ot Celtic blood, which has
been constantly increasing, and that too in
the higher class as well as in the lower.
This will hereafter l>e further noticed, with
ether evidence of the truth of this fact.
Between the Normans and the Saxons
there existed, for many generations, the
most hostile national antipathies," and the
former exercised over the latter the most
rigid -surveillance and domination. Not
nly were most of the landed estates forci
bly transferred from the Saxon proprietor
to the Norman, hut in some instances the
former, for the greater personal safety, re
signed their estate and voluntarily became
serfs. The Cymry did not take an active
interest in the matter of the conquest; for
there was a greater sympathy and affinity
of race l>etween them and the Normans
than the Saxons. With the Normans they
had greater friendship and association; and
immediatelv upon the conquest of England
numerous marriages and family alliance*
10 i Thierry'.-. Norman Conquest. H. iv, p. 233, who
cites numerous other instances of like names and
circumstances.
11 Sec 2 Thierry's Norman Conquest, B. viii, n. 40.
"Saxon women, s'cizcd upon itiul married !>y torce
after the buttle of K:i stints, or after the defeats ot
York, liad, amid their despair, home son>- to their
frernasters ; * * * * as soon as the conquest
seemed complete, rio Englishman was held nohle
*ou^h for a Norman woman to honor him with her
hand. * * * * The mixture of races was in
Kngland, al this time, more favorable to the oppres
sor than lo the oppressed, for the former lost his for-
cijrn character, the inclination to resist diminished in
th hearts of the latter."
3' 5
took place between these two friendly
races, to which many families of the Eng
lish nobility refer their origin. But all this
did not prevent the ambitious and unjust
from seeking opportunities of conquest and
extension of territory. That was a matter,
in those days, that no obligation or affinity
had any restraint.
After the first eight years, spent in fixing
the government in its accustomed require
ments and routine of business, William did
not meet with much opposition to his
reign, which lasted thirteen years longer,
when upon his death he was succeeded in
the gov eminent by his son William Rufus.
During the reign of the Conqueror, not
withstanding, it was a rule of severe op
pression and injustice towards the Saxon
people, it was a period of great improve
ment in England as a country. The Nor
mans at once produced a change for the
better in everything which constitutes evi
dence of progress in civilization. Archi
tecture at once began to make a progress,
unknown in England since the commence
ment of the Saxon period. Large castles,
churches, monasteries, and other public
buildings, and as a consequence private resi
dences began to appear throughout the
country in better style of architecture and
taste. They introduced a far greater de
O
gree of literature, arts and science into the
country, and applied it both in the affairs
of the government and that of the private
citi/en. Writing and records became com
mon, which before had been greatly neg
lected, even in the transfer of real estate.
A great number of learned men and pro
fessors were called to the country and pat
ronized. The law became a learned profes
sion ; and courts of justice were placed up
on a more systematic and regular basis. A
regular census was taken of the people and
property of the country, registered in a
book, the doomsdav book, which enable*
the government with greater certainty t
adjust its taxes and requisitions upon the
people. Abating its injustice and oppres
sion, the Norman conquest was the com
mencement of a progressive improvement,
and was not like the Saxon and Danish in
vasion, an indiscriminate robbery and plun
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
<Jer, and the wanton application of the mandy, who was then absent in Italy. His
sword and fire to the destruction of the reign he successfully held for thirty-five
country. It was the last time, now in the
years, without any material deviation from
lapse of eight hundred years that the land
the usnal course of administration of his
ed property of Kritain has been by force
lather and brother, until his death in 1135.
and violence transferred from those who
possessed aiu) cultivated it to those who Henry was a person greatly distinguished
had no right or claim upon it; and it is to for his personal appearance, and possessed
be hoped it will remain the last. many accomplishments, both natural and
acquired, and sustained a vigorous govern
ment. Previous to his death he had done
S3- ?'//< course of eivtits in English history all in his power to secure the succession to
from the death of William the Conqueror to his daughter, Matilda, known as the em
Hint of Henry III. (1087 12J2.). press dowager of Germany, and then the
wife of Geoffrey, count of Anjou, and re
William the Conqueror died in the year siding in Normandy. But his intention
1087, after a reign over England of twenty- was thwarted by his nephew, Stephen, the
one years, and was succeeded by his second son of his sister, Adelia, and daughter of
son William, surnamed Rufus in allusion William the Conqueror. Immediately up
to his red hair, which assumption is sup on the death of Henry, Stephen, with much
posed to have been in accordance with his energy, proceeded to usurp the govern
father's wishes, but in entire disregard of ment and secure it against the rights of
the right of primogeniture, or of any con Matilda. This prince, though ungrateful,
stitutional principle to support it. The unscrupulous, and hypocritical, possessed
government went on in its administration many qualities which fitted him for his po
precisely as the Conqueror had left it, with sition ; but his lack of legitimate right and
out any change in its constitution or prin his obvious usurpation brought on him
ciples. And so it continued as established and his country a distracted and disturbed
and practiced by the Conqueror, with very reign of nineteen years, which near its close
little modification, until after the accession was brought to a final adjustment between
of Edward I., A. D. 1272, except such as the contending parties by a treaty, by which
was produced by the charters granted bv Stephen was to hold the government dur
John and Henry III., which were conces ing his life, and that he should be succeed
sions wrenched by the barons, rather than ed by Henry, the son of Matilda, as heir to
any constitutional principles procured by the crown. Soon after this the king died
any rising of the people themselves. In in II54, and was succeeded accordingly by
the Saxon government and that established Henry II. This prince was one of the
by the Conqueror, there was no place or po- i most able of the Norman dynasty, and
sition in which the people could act to con- I ruled England forty-five years with dis
trol or effect the government for their bene tinguished ability. The principal events
fit; for that was entirely in the hands of tic which distinguish the reign of this monarch
king and his hereditary nobilitv, and during are, his war and difficulties on the conti
the Saxon dynasty these were confined to nent in sustaining his right to territories he
the descendants of Woden. Thus this gov inherited there, as Normandv, Maine, Poi-
ernment continued thirteen vears under the
tou, and others, which were only a misfor-
administration of William Rufus, without
, tune and a clog to the welfare and interest
any notable change, when in the year 1,00 | of the English pcople. The next was ,he
he met his death by a random shot from adoption of the charter of Claridon hv the
the bow of Tyrrel while engaged in hunting
king and his barons for the purpose of re
in a park. Immediately the government straining the abuses of the Catholic church.
was taken possession of by his younger It was important as a matter between the
brother, Henry I., in opposition to the right
people and the usurpation of the church
of his oldest brother, Robert, Duke of Nor-
and clergy ; but it hard!y touched upon any
Chap, i.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 317
civil or political rights of the people. This | merit was assumed by his brother, John, in
brought on his difficulty with Thomas A. derogation of the rights of Arthur, the in
Becket, the great and powerful archbishop fant son ol Richard. It is strange with
ot Canterbury, who was the champion of what inconsistency and want of any con
the church in opposition to the restraints, of stitutional principles that the sovereignty
the clKtrter of Clnridon. This distinguished of England was transferred from one person
man was a plebeian by birth, arid had been to another during these times. Of the men
raised, by the favor of Henry, first to be the who succeeded the Conqueror, John was the'
chancellor of the kingdom and then made interior. He soon had war on the conti
archbishop. Hut no gratitude due to his nent in defence of territorial rights there,
sovereign, nor patriotism or political con which were not well managed, and were
sideration due to his country and people unsuccessful. His reign lasted seventeen
could alienate him from contending for years, during which his reign became more
what he considered the rights and interest and more unpopular and odious. "His
of the church. This brought on great dif character," says Hume, "is nothing but a
ficulties and disturbances in the country complication of vices, equally mean and
and with the king; and the assassination of odious; ruinous to himself and destructive
Becket. which only increased the difficul to his people.'' lie had no skill to control
ties of the king. This plebeian, on account or pacify his barons, upon whom depended
of his native powers and abilities, may well all movements against him, and no other
be classed with Godwin and Wolsey. The class of his people could call his govern
next measure of Henry was the commence ment in question. His tyranny and op
ment of the conquest of Ireland, which Jin- pression were more keenly felt by his
gland has never abandoned. The last was barons, and they, towards the close of his
a. war with Scotland, instigated at the in reign, were determined to bring him to an
stance of the Saxons, at the instance of the account and curb his despotism. The per
old earls, Edwin and Morcar, in which they son most active in accomplishing this was
were unsuccessful, and resulted in favor of cardinal Langton, an Englishman by birth,
Henry. This long and able reign was but educated in Trance, and who had been
brought to a close hv the death of Henry made archbishop of Canterbury by the
II. in the year liSy. The last named king 1'ope, without the consent oi the king or
was succeeded by his son, Richard I. This people; but his views of reformation in
king was not distinguished for anv good he political affairs were so acceptable and
produced for his country, but for his gal plausible that he soon acquired an union of
lantry in war and engaging in the crusades the barons in his views. The king was ex
of that day, and greatly distinguishing him communicated; and to the barons' petition
self in the war at Jerusalem and in the Holy for redress and grants of freedom, he re
Land. On his way home, in passing turned a decided denial. The barons im
through Germany, he was captured and de mediately levied war, which soon brought
tained for a long time in prison by the em him to a conference at Runnemede, where
peror. Henry VI., until the people of En the Great Charter was agreed upon ; which
gland raised an enormous sum of money to secured important liberties and privileges
be paid for hi- ransom. Soon after his re to every order of men in England, and has
turn home in England he proceeded to ever since been looked upon by ever/
Normandy to reclaim that and other prop Briton as the palladium of their liberties.
erty on the continent. While engaged in But contrary to received opinion, it is not
this object he received a wound while tak in any sense the production of Saxon or
ing a place by an assault, of which he soon Anglo-Saxon genius. It is not probable
died, in 1199. By his great gallantry, dar that a single Saxon had anything to do with
ing and bravery he had acquired the appel its production. It was wholly the work of
lation of the Lion Hearted Cccur tie Lion. Langton and the Norman barons. The
Cpon the death of Richard, the govern- Norman barons had been so long oppressed
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
moncd or invited two knights from each
fcy despotism that they began to have some
shire and deputies from the toroughs.
feelings for human rights. Adversity and
This is often referred to by English witers
ppression is a good regulator to produce
as the commencement of the commons.1
this sympathy. It was for this reason that
It is uncertain what rights or authority
the Norman barons in securing the Great
these new members exercised there, if any,
Charter had it worded so that in terms, in
but certain it is there was no house of com
its general words, in securing their own
rights and liberties, was so worded that it
mons. To refer the origin of that great in
embraced the rights and liberties of everv
stitution, the British house ot commons, to
class; though none of the people underthat event as its origin, is like referring the
the class of barons or nobility had any part
origin of the constitution of the United
in its production. It was the beginning of
States to the May Flower. In the year
1272 Henry III died and was succeeded on
those strifes for chartered and constitution
the throne by his son, Edward I, a prince
al rights, the growth of British soil, with
then in the prime of life,able and accom
which the Saxons previous to the conquest
plished, and worthy of the position he as
had nothing to do; and whose principles of
government added nothing to its producsumed.
tion.
4.fitnvriuHfiilttl Mutters t>f the Cvinry.
In the year 1216 this prince died, proba-
fcly regretted by no one, and was succeeded (A. D. 10661272.)
in the sovereignty by his son Henry III Three years before the battle of Hastings
a prince who in the reign of fifty-six years, and the conquest the distinguished sover
ne of the longest known in English his eign of Wales, Gruffydd, or Griffith ap
tory, was principally distinguished for his Llewellyn, died ; and that event would have
caprice and weakness, and his incapacity to secured the conquest of Wales to Harold,
maintain a good government, though as a if it had oeen at all possible ; but against
nan he possessed some merits and w as dis these brave and patriotic people it proved
tinguished for his piety and devotion. Ho otherwise. Griffith during his sovereignty
tame to the crown at the immature age of and very long reign had been much con
eight years; but was fortunate in fulling in nected with England, both in war and
to the hands of the earl of Pembroke, the peace. His wife was the sister of the great
marshal of the realm, who was appointed earls Edwin and Morcar, and this princess
protector; who was a man of great abili soon after she became a widow was married
ties, of integrity to the government, and ot to Harold, and of course at the time of the
patriotism to his country. In the few re battle of Hastings was queen of England.
maining years of his life, he placed the ad The Cyinry took but little interest in the
ministration in a prosperous and satisfac question of the conquest by William. They
tory condition, which the government of knew that the event would not bring more
Henry was never afterwards able to maifi- hostile neighbors, while the Norman*
tain. The reign was frequently distracted courted them as kindred in race and sym
by turbulence of the nobility and civil war; pathy. and bore towards them none of that
the country greatly afflicted with lawless personal hostility which they manifested to
ness, robbery and plunder; and the barons wards the Saxons. But after some years
divided into partisan contest against the they coveted the possession ol Wales a*
government. At the same time the people the Saxon had done, which brought on re-
were misguided by the most corrupt and
abusive practices of the church of Rome. I i Hume's liiiijliah History, ch. xii, p. 53, who
says: 'Deputies from the boroughs, an order of
Towards the close of this reign, in the midst mc'n which, in former ages, had always been regard
f a civil war, a parliament was called, hv ed as too mean to enjov a place in the national
councils.1' This probably was the nrst time a class
the earl of Leicester, which regularly con of men. beneath the barons, during the Saxon or
Norman rule, ever hold any part in connection with
sisted of the barons and great dignitaries of the royal frovcrnmcnt. But it was lonjf after this,
the church, but to which was now sum before there was anything like a house of commons
or the people haying any control on the ^overnmel
Chap, i.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I.
pealed wars for many years in its accom al character. During thU period there were
plishment. In those ancient times people several instances of such dissension, which
were accustomed to look upon the sover in history were of no particular interest;
eignty as a personal right, which descended but in the meantime there were long reigns
by inheritance in the same manner as the of princes, who enjoved at least the usual
landed estate. The Cvnirv held their land length of peace, when not interrupted bj
in fee simple and in gavel-kind, and were foreign Invasion.
greatlv hostile to the feudal system, and At the conquest North Wales and Powys
therefore did not submit to the principle of were under the sovereignty of Bleddin, who
primogeniture in the admission of the sov was aided to the possession of his throne
ereign, unless the elder son was equally by Harold, in opposition to the rights of
worthy in physical and intellectual abili the heirs of Griffith; and this stroke of
ties. When there was anv question be policy was resorted to by Harold, when he
tween them, in these respects, for the eldest found himself unable to conquer Wales,
had only a frima facia right, an election when aided by all the power of Edward the
was had by the people. In such contest for Confessor. Notwithstanding that Bleddin
the right to the sovereignty it was custom was thus assisted to his throne against the
ary with the Saxons, and the Normans after rightful heirs, he is highly commended as
them, to coalesce with the defeated candi an able and wise sovereign ; a man of
date and bring on a war; and by these peaceful inclination and amiable manners;
means an internal war was frequently pro and anxious for the good of his people.
duced. But otherwise the reign of their About the same time Rhys ab Tewdwr, ah
princes were long and peaceful. Though Kinion, ab Howcl Dda was elected king of
they were sometimes afflicted with internal South Wales. This chieftain was also a
and Civil war, as unfortunately it has been man of much ability and vigor, and wa*
the case in all nations, but the great sources killed in battle at the age of ninety in the
of their wars were the interference with war against the Norman, Fitzhamon, who
their right and independence by foreign was then seeking a settlement in that
powers, as the Romans, Saxons, Danes and country. These two Cambrian chieftains
Normans. Soon after the conquest the were favored with long and advantageous
Normans absorbed within England that reigns, though surrounded with many as-
portion of Cumbria or Strath-Clyde south pirants and conflicts, some by adverse
of the Solway Firth, which until then had claimants and some by rebels, encouraged
been Cymric territory ; and by that means and aided bv the Normans of England, who
the Cymry of Wales and those of Scotland were continually pressing them with these
became separated, and more distinct. difficulties with a view to a conquest. Two
It was undoubtedly unfortunate for the instance- of the manner in which the Nor
Welsh, though favorable to individual in mans sought to obtain possession of Wales,
dependence and freedom, that their country and to compel them to snbmit to their rule,
was divided Into different principalities, and and enforce upon the C\mry their system
each considered a tribe, and their sovereign of feudal tenures, so objectionable to them,
as a chief, subordinate to the government call for a more particular notice.
of the whole. Whenever one was elected Alter the Conqueror in the year 1070
pendragon, or brenhin Cyinni Oil, such elec first came to Chester, and took possession
tion sometimes brought on a contention of it, as already stated, he put that piace
and civil war. Hut it is probable that such and the country in its vicinity into the pos
contention and civil war was not more fre session and care of a Norman baron, Hugh
quent with them than with other people d'Avranches, who was surnamed Lupus
with such elective form of government; (the Wolf) for his savage and ravenous dis
and therefore should be more attributable position; and was created earl of Chester.
to their constitutional form of government, He was a nephew of the Conqueror, as a
than to anv difference of ethnical or nation son of his sister. This earl had granted
320 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
the possession of Gwynedd (a part of North I tended his daughter for another man.
Wales) to ii countryman, Robert d'Av- Einion, indignant, pursuaded Fit/hamon
ranches, distinguished for his rapacious that Glamorgan comd he easily taken from
farming, at the annual rental of 40. Jestyn. The heuutiful and fertile fields of
Gruffydd ab Cynan, who was then king of Glamorgan tempted him to undertake the
Gwynedd, had been treacherously taken enterprise -o suggested. The neighboring
prisoner, by a competitor under pretense of and people holding Jcstyn in detes
holding a treaty, and delivered over to carl tation as being the cause of Rhys' death,
Lupus, who imprisoned him in chains at kept aloof and did not care to prevent the
Chester Castle. While the king of Gwy defeat of so treacherous and dishonest a
nedd was thus illegally retained in prison, man. Fitzhamon and his Normans suc
earl Chester summoned a number of the ceeded in wresting this lair land from
Norman barons of Mercia and their vas Jestyn, and partitioned it among them? el
sals, and with them made war upon the de It is supposed to he the first land of Cambria
voted territory (in 1080); and proceeded to that was Mibjected to feudal tenures; and
secure his hold, bv the erection of a num to its unjust and arbitrary rules.
ber of strong castles in advantageous posi Upon this example many of the Norman
tions, as at Bangor, Caernarvon, Abarl- barons became anxious to repeat the enter
leinwg in Mona, and other places; threat prise of Kitzhamon; and procured from
ening subjugation to the unfortunate and William Rufus liberty to do so; which was
disheartened people. The next year, while mucli easier to obtain than to accomplish
such was the state of affairs in North and its object ; and which >\ as not accomplished
South Wales, the Conqueror in person led to any considerable extent, for at least two
a powerful army into South Wales, procured hundred years longer, but defended by the
the liberation of many prisoners, both noble energy and best blood of her people.
Normans and Saxons, obtained the homage From this time, until the final extinction of
of king Rhys ah Tewdwr, and subordinate the independence of Wales by Edward I,
sovereigns; and then, with much military repeated attempts were made every few
pomp proceeded to Mynyw, and there years, by the efforts of individual lords, as
made rich presents and paid his devotion well by every king of England, supported
at the shrine of St. David, which had al by her whole resources; but repelled by
ready acquired celebrity, even among for the freedom-loving people with a bravery
eigners. and devotion unexampled in the history of
About the year 1089 Rhys ab Tewdwr the world. That story is yet to he told.
expelled Einion, on account of some rebel- It is impossible within the limits assigned
lion in which he had been engaged, who I to this abstract to do justice to the inter
took refuge with Jestyn ap Gwrgant, lord esting history of the Cymry within the
of Glamorgan, who engaged him on the period from the death of Rhys ab Tewdwr
promise of his daughter Nesta's hand, to to the invasion of the country by Edward
obtain the alliance of the Normans against I. It was a continual strife on the part of
Rhys. In pursuance of this agreement some of the greatest monarch s of England
Robert Fitzhamon and twelve knights and of the Norman dynasty, to conquer and ab
their retainers were introduced into .South sorb Wales within their dominion, and a
Wales. Rhys was defeated and slain in patriotic, devotion on the part of the Cvmrv
battle as already stated. This Rhys ab to maintain their independence and freedom.
Tewdwr was the descendant of Rhodri During that time the country enjoyed the
Mowr, and the last regular prince of South long reign of a number of able and dis
Wales, which now became too much under tinguished princes: as Gruffydd ab Cynan,
the control of the Normans, and the inde Owen Gwynedd, Rhys ab GrutVvdd (Lord
pendence of Wales confided to the north. Rhys), Llewellyn ab Jorwerth, and Llew
Jestyn now refused the promised reward, ellyn ab Gruffvdd, who were all talented
haughtily returning for answer that he in- men and distinguished princes. Never was
Chap, i.] TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD 1. 3"
a country, for so long a period, sustained were to meet the powers of Normandy
with more ability and patriotism against added to the accumulated wealth and pow
the overwhelming power of the Norman er of the Saxons. They were not only-
kings of England to conquer and oppress | compelled to meet the war ot' the Normans,
their country, than that which so eminent but also that of the Danes and other ma
ly distinguished these princes, especially in rauders, who in these times continued their
the repeated attempts of that very astute depredations, as well as frequent intestine
and able monarch, Henry II. It is also civil war of the adverse claims of chieftains,
surprising to see, while this war of con fostered and supported by their hostile
quest was progressing, the absence of that neighbors. William the Conqueror twice
personal prejudice and hostilities which invaded Wale- with all his powers; first in
usually characterizes the conflict of two 1070, after his successful reduction of the
people. Not only was their intercourse lorth of England, when he invaded 'North
frequently marked by friendly associations, Wales by the way of Chester, and proceed
but also by frequent romantic marriages. ed as far as the straits of Menai ; but w ith-
Fitzhamon, after the conquest of the terri out holding anything permanently bevond
tory of Jestyn, took his daughter, Nesta, in the Dee. Again in 1081 he invested South
marriage. Henry I, the son of the Con Wales by way of Glamorgan, with a large
queror, while prince, took another Nesta, irmv, and proceeded west as tar as St.
the daughter of Rhys ab Tudor, in a pre Davids, \\ ith about the same success. On
tended marriage at least; and from it came, these two routes William and his succes
as their son, that very distinguished man sors erected numerous vast castles of un
anJ statesman, the earl of Gloucester, who exampled size and strength, with a view of
was married to Sibil, the only daughter eventually holding these brave people in
of Fitzhamon and Nesta. Such alliances their subjection. William Rut us twice car
between the great Norman houses and ried on such war with no better success.
those of Cambria became frequent; and In 1114 Henry 1 became enraged at the
many of them are the origin of the most obstinancy of the people of North Wale*
distinguished houses of the English nobili and Powvs in resisting his demands, he
ty, and intimately connected with their avowed the determination to exterminate
sovereigns. But notwithstanding the them, and for that purpose raised one of
merits of her people, Cambria was bound the largest armies of the times, said to
to yield eventually to this continual invas contain 120,000 men. This vast army, after
ion of the men of the continent, as Saxons, marching into Wales, gradually melted
Danes, and Normans, as the continual away belbre their opponents, and the people
dropping of water will wear an adamant. of Snowdon were still left to enjoy their
The story of Cambrian independence, independence.
from the time of William the Conqueror In the long reign of Henry III three dif
to that of Edward I, when it was exthu ferent attempts were made to produce the
ed under Llewellyn ab Gruftydd, is conquest of Wales; and it is said that
plicated and difficult, and not to be eighteen of such invasions transpired be
told within the space allowed this work. tween A. D. 1070 and 1420, in which were
That period covered more than two hun lost over a million of men and incalculable
dred years, during which every effort was amount of property and human suffering.
made by the powerful Anglo-Norman mon But there is a factitious interest in the last
archy to subject Wales and her people to conflict of Henry III with the Welsh, in
their unconditional control. During that consequence of its connection with the
time the Cymry were harrassed and an earl of Leicester, and both prince Edward
noyed by every conceivable difficulties. and prince Llewellyn being engaged in it;
For six hundred years they had been in as well as it being the last before the final
vaded, harrassed and reduced by the con conquest of Edward I.
tinual wars of the Saxons, and now they Alter the battle of Lewes, when king
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
Henry and his son, prince Edward, tell in thirteenth and fourteenth centuriea, as fullr
to the hands and custody of the earl of sustained by their numerous scholars; and
Leicester, both parties drew to the borders especially proved and vindicated by Mr.
of Walos, probably to gather partisan sup Thomas Stephens and Prof. M. Arnold.
port from the people of that country. This, however, is more properly the subject
While there in 1265 prince Edward made of another chapter,the condition of the
his escape, and rallied the strength of the pei-ple.
royal party in the valley of the Severn and
Avon, where soon occurred the battle of CHAPTER II.
Evesham, in which that talented and able
mun, Simon de Montfort, earl ot Leicester, I'ROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. T
lost his life, and his party all hopes of TIIK END OK THE I'KRtOD. A. D. I2f2
further resistance to arbitrary power, and H85.
of popular reform. In that battle a large
a-nount of Welsh troops, engaged on the l 1'lir Rrigu oj Ed-vard I. and Conqurst
side of Leicester, lost their lives; and 'of Wales.
prince Llewellyn, their commander, not The reign of Edward forms a striking
withstanding its unfortunate issue, became period, and produces a new era in the his-
for life attached to the memory of Leices torv of England. Of the many things that
ter, and the fortune of his house. That are so admirable and desirable in the Eng
battle for some years settled the power of lish constitution and government, there is
the government in roval hands; and bv scarcely anv whose origin is earlier than
subserviency to it, peace was restored tor a that period. In the words of Macaulay,
few years both to England and Wales. "Here commence); the history of the Eng
During that time prince Edward embraced lish nation." It was after that the com
the opportunity for a crusade to the Holy mons first made their appearance as a pow
Land. In the meantime, two or three er in the government; and the house of
years before the prince's return, bis father, commons became a separate branch and
Henry III, died, A. D. u/2, in the midst an institution of the government itself.
ot that calm from war and political strife ; Under the Saxons, the people were noth
but as it respects Wales it was only that ingso far as the government was con
calm which precedes a greater and more cerned, all was in the hands of the king
deadly storm. and his hereditary nobility. Under the
The most interesting subject connected Conqueror and his earliest successors it was
with the history of the Cymry is their at no better. It was by a suggestion of Si
tachment and devotion to literature, and mon de Monfort, earl of Leicester, a foreign
the manner in which they supported and er a Frenchman by birth and education,
defended it against the revulsion produced towards the close of the reign of Henry III,
bv the dark ages of Europe, when litera and just before the commencement of our
ture and learning were almost extinguished : present period, that anv member of the
when the Ancient Britonsthe Cymry, oc borough or common people were first
cupying a mere border of Western Britain, summoned to parliament a measure
resolutely defended and protected it while strange to Anglo-Saxons and even then
the Saxons and Danes were making their it was uncertain what their function in
greatest exertion by war, conquest and parliament was, whether merely to repre
plunder to exterminate them. But that sent the condition of the country to parlia
they did sustain it is proved by their pro ment, but no constituent part of it. But
ductions in literature in the sixth, seventh what was so important, then commenced
and eighth centuries, and fully sustained | that admirable system of courts and admin-
bv the noble vindication ol Sharon Turner, i istration of law, which has since become
But this is specially supported by that won- j the admiration of the whole world,
derful revival of literature in the twelfth, And in connection with this idea, we
Chap ii.] FROM THE ACCESSION OK EDWARD I. 3^3
may recall to our memory th'at it was Ed of jealousy and distrust. He was therefore
ward who first by treaty severed England's desirous of maintaining his association with
connection with Normandy; a measure so the English nobility; and his kind and
wise and advantageous to the interest of friendly intercourse and coalition with the
Englishmen. Nor should it be forgotten great, but unfortunate, Leicester induced
that it was after Edward's time that Eng him, in grateful remembrance, to solicit the
lish literature first made its appearance hand of his daughter, Eleanor de Monttbrt,
with Gower and Chaucer. It was then then residing with her widowed mother,
that the English people had passed the the sister ol king Henry III and the aunt
night of the dark agfs, produced bv the of Edward, at a convent in France. The
barbarian conquest of civilized Europe by , king of France, Philip III, was her feudal
the north; and introduced to the morning guardian; to him and to the countess'
of a more auspicious dav. mother was Llewellvn's emissarv sent,
Alx>ut two years had transpired alter the with a request that the agreement between
death of his father before Edward 1 re him and Eleanor should be no longer de
turned to England from the crusade and layed. The arrangement was consummated
took possession of the government. He with an understanding that the marriage
immediately applied himself, with great should take place, first by proxv in France,
vigor, to a thorough administration of the and then personally in Wales. This was
government; and especially thai of justice. all so arranged.
He was a man of extraordinary abilities by In the meantime Edward had repeatedly
nature and acquirements: and conferred demanded that Llewellyn should come to
upon his country a rule excelled bv none England and personally do homage to him
of the monarchs of the Norman or Plan- as his feudal vassal. From time to time
tagenel line. After his administration was the prince excused himself for not com
duly settled, the first object that attracted plying with the summons, on the score
his attention was his relation with Wales. that it would be personally unsafe to him,
Llewellyn ab Gruffvdd was then prince of without some guaranty from Edward for
Wales, who was about the same age as his personal safety. This the latter de-
Edward well acquainted with each other; | clilK'd '" Kivc'- This altercation produced
and had been frequently engaged as oppo- j sti" KreatL'r hostilities, which seriously
nents in arms and friends in peace. Llew- threatened war. Edward had his emissar
ellyn had been elected prince in 1246: and ies in France, who disclosed to him the in
between thai time and his coalition with tended marriage, and the time when Elean
the carl of Leicester in the late rising of a or would embark for Wales. He immedi
large portion of the English nobility against ately made an arrangement to intercept
the arbitrary measures ot their kingllenrv, her, and take her as a prisoner. When the
prince Llewellyn had been successfully en prince was informed that his intended bride
gaged in repelling two powerful invasions was a prisoner in the hands of the king of
made by Henry II I upon his country, which EnSland at London, his indignation, as
were wonderfully defeated bv this able i m'8ht '"' s"Pl'sed, hardly knew any
prince and his gallant people. In some of bounds. He now demanded hostages for
these transactions Edward actively partici his personal safety in appearing before the
pated; and these, as well as those in which king; and that his consort should previous
Llewellyn had been engaged with the earl ly be set at liberty. Perhaps Hume speaks
of Leicester, Edward did not now, in 127,, the truth when he says: "The king, having
probably, either forget or forgive. now brought the slate to a full settlement,
Llew'ellyn must have been well aware 1 ";ls m>l <lisllk'slxl " ith lhis occasion of
that his country was an object always cov- j exi;rasiK '"* authority, and subduing en-
ctedby the government ot England, and ! tirel-v the l>'-icipa'ity <* Wales. He re-
that he himself, as the most powerful and j '"sed a" Llewellyn's demands."!
potent vassal of the crown, was an object | , , Hume's Ilisi. Kng.. ch. xiii, r. 76.
3*4 THE NORMAN PERIOD.
Edward, now more fierce, summoned
the prince to appear before him to take his
oath and do him homage as his vassal; and
immediately proceeded to levy an army
and resources for a contest. He resorted
to every species of annoyance, in order to
insure the success of the conflict. He pro
cured, by the authority of the Pope,2 the
excommunication of Llewellyn from the
church, for his neglect to perform his feud
al duties. In June, 1^77, the king crossed
the Dee into Wales with a powerful army,
backed and supported with all the resources
of England; and proceeded with caution
along the northern coast of the country to
the Menai straits. At every port his Ileet
was in readiness to aid his progress. He
brought to his aid, also, an old resort of
the enemies of the Cymry, which often
preyed upon them, as history shows it has
done upon other people; and that was to
encourage and foster any dissensions found
among them. At that time three of Llew
ellyn's brothers, David, Owen and Rhodri,
were complaining that Llewellyn withheld
from them their rights in the administra
tion, and their property in the country.
This dissension Edward encouraged with
the promise of redress and great reward
for their aid in his expedition; and David
was now able to render him great services
by his knowledge of the country and ex
perience in such affairs. All the powers
and machination of Edward were now
brought close around Llewellyn, and the
disparity between their relative forces left
to the prince no recourse but to retreat to
the difficulties of the mountains of Snow-
don, his native fortresses. Here the king
cautiously refrained from an immediate at
tack, but let the sterility and rudeness of
the mountains do his work. There was
soon nothing left tor the prince to do, ex
cept to come to the best terms he could
procure. He began to feel the hardships
of his surroundings, and he and his people
saw nothing but inevitable famine before
them. All this induced a settlement of the
conflict, by the treaty of Aberconway,
which, under the circumstances, was high
ly favorable to the prince, and would in-
2 Rymer's Fa?dra, T. i, p. 86.
[Book iv.
I duce one to believe that the sagacity of
Edward saw that there might yet be re
verses in cae he drove his brave adversa
ries to extremes. By the treaty the prince
was to pav Edward fifty thousand pound*
as a reparation of damages ; to do homage
to the crown of England ; to permit all the
barons of Wales, except tour near Snow-
don, to swear fealty to the same crown ;
and he was reinstated in his principality
all matters in controversy compromised,
and his brothers satisfactorily provided
for.
Edward, upon the performance of the
other parts of the treaty, remitted to the
prince the payment of the stipulated fifty
thousand pounds, which probably the coun
try was very illy able to pay. Soon after
this (December, 1.277) "lc king publicly
announced that he had taken the prince of
Wales under his protection, until the en
suing Februrry, who was committed, with
his retinue, to the guardian escort of a large
number of the nobility and high officers of
the crown. During this time Llewellyn
and Eleanor, the fair daughter of the great
earl of Leicester, were married at Worces
ter,3 in the presence of the kings of England
and Scotland, and that of a large company
of the nobility. At length this long in
tended and happy match, in which the
kings of England and France took so deep
a part and interest, was consummated; and
the parties to it retired to Aber, the prince's
residence in Wales, with the hopes, but de
lusive, that the peace, now happily attained,
would be of long duration.
Wales was now surrounded by the greedy
Anglo-Norman barons, who were called
lords of the marches, or guardians of the
lines between the two countries, who hun
gered tu overstep their line" and make new
territories their feudal manors. Encroach
ments were made am! injuries committed i
and possiblv act^ of retaliation were com
mitted. In June and July following, the
prince complained to the king, in numer
ous letters, of various wrongs done to him
3 Florence of Worcerf.. Chro. A. D. 127*. p. ^5-S.
Authors differ :is to where the nuirria^ took place,
some say at Worcester, others at London, and oihcr*
at Windsor; and they do not ;tpree as- to the precise
day when it took place.
Chap. n.J FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I.
and his people by officers ot the crown.
The king in reply wrote temperately and
kindly to the prince, appointed commis
sioners to make inquiry and report, and he
himself, in August, visited the marches,
when Llewellyn met him as a friend, and
peace remained apparently confirmed.
In July, 1^80, the amiable princess wrote
a letter to the king, begging him not to
credit any reports of disaffection either on
her part or that of her husband ; and as
sured him of their kind recollection of the
honors he had done them at Worcester.
Still later in the year the princess sent an
other letter, earnestly interceding the king
to release her brother, Aylmer, who had
been taken prisoner with her while on their
way from France, and ever since retained
in captivity. While these matters were
thus pending, the bonds of peace between
England and Wales were broken bv the i
death of this amiable woman, June 19111, '
The approaches to the coming conflict
are well stated by Mr. Hume:' "Com
plaints of iniquities soon arose on the side
of the vanquished; the English, insolent
on their easy and bloodle; victory, op-
pressed the inhabitants of the district which
was yielded to them; the lords of the
marches committed with impunity all kinds
of violence on their Welsh neighbors; new
and more severe terms were imposed on
Llewellyn himself! * * * * There
were other personal insults which raised
the indignation of the Welsh, and made
them determined rather to encounter a
force which they had already experienced
to be so much superior, than to bear op-
pression Irom the haughty victors. Prince ;
David, seized with the national spirit, made
peace with his brother, and promised to
concur in the defense of public liberty.
The Welsh flew to arms; and Edward, not
displeased with the occasion of making his
conquest final and absolute, assembled all
his military tenants, and advanced into
Wales with an army which the inhabitants
could not reasonably hope to resist."
4 Florence of \Vor. Ibid.
Wales, ch. x.\ii, p. 404.
Hist.
5 2 Hume Hist. Eng., ch. xii
3-'5
To the overwhelming force of this army
Edward again resorted to every other means
to aid it, in making sure of his conquest.
Again the excommunication of the Pope
was issued against the prince and his peo
ple. In the midst of these proceedings,
and unlike so many examples of that age
of so many war and fighting bishops, the
archbishop of Canterbury honestly exerted
himself, with great diligence, to comprom
ise matters and preserve peace. But be
tween Ed ward V determination to conquer
and the prince's resolution to preserve the
independence and freedom of his people,
and not to sacrifice either his or their dig
nity, the good archbishop was powerless.
Many oilers were made to induce the prince
to yield; such as large estates in England
with ample provisions for him and his
brother David, and their families and peo-
I''c> lll)0n consideration that the prince
should surrender and give up Snowdon,
and that David should depart on a crusade
and not return to England without tic
king's consent. The patriotic prince seem
ed to have no secret or interest of his own
independent of his people; and to the coun
cil, composed of their leading and wise
men, were these terms submitted. The-
unanimity and spirited manner in which-
these propositions were rejected, both l>v
the prince and his people, would do honor
to Grecians in their better davs. The re
sult of war now inevitable.
A number of battles were now fought in
various places upon the borders ot the con-
tested territory, fierce and bloodv, but inde-
cisive; but sufficient to >atMV Edward that
the contest he had entered upon would re
quire extraordinary exertion, and induce
him to call on England for extraordinarv
recruit of his army and provisions. While
affairs rested in this situation, Llewellvn
was called to the valley of the Wye. While
there, near Pont Orewyn, he received an
invitation from some man of note and \x>\\-
er, under pretense of friendship, but of real
treachery, to meet him at a lonely place in
the valley, as he was dissatisfied with hi.-,
connection with Edward. Having placed
a strong detachment at the bridge, of whom
he ;.aid, when it was intimated thev might
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Hook iv-
be fiercely attacked : ''There's no fear of rounclecl Llewellyn on every side now be
them: there are men there who will hold set his brother David. He was. soon be-
their position against all the armies of Eng seigcd in Dolbudiirn castle, into which he
land." Taking with him but one attend had retreated as his greatest safety. The
ant, he descended on horseback, but with fall of the castle became apparently inevita
out armor, to the appointed dell, since ble, and was surrendered to the earl of
called Cwm Llewellyn. While here the Pembroke in the following April; and in
bridge was attacked by Edmund de Morti the meantime David and his family had
mer and John (Jifford at the head of their made their escape, and were vigilantly pur
forces. These were repulsed; but a party sued from hill to hill, forest to forest, en
ot Gifford's men crossed the river at a ford during great hardship and suffering. In
below and came upon Llewellyn unaware, June David, with his family, consisting of
who was attacked bv some straggling and his wife, seven daughters and two sons,
unknown persons, who mortally wounded were betrayed into the hands of his enemies,
him. The prince tell from his horse, and and given up to Edward. And no\v Wales
the men who attacked and wounded him, ceased to exist as an independent country;
not knowing who he was, left him there to and the Cymry, after a glorious and inter
die. A friar of a neighboring irtonastery, esting resistance, for so many centuries, to
either with or without design, happened to the wrongs and injustice of Roman, Sax
be at hand, and came to the prince while on, Danish and Norman oppression, were
dying and administered to him the consola- compelled, bv the inexorable course of
tion ol religion. The detachment at the Providence, to yield up their independent
bridge being now attacked on both sides nationality.
were defeated, and a party of the enemy Now commenced that course ol pro-
returning to where the prince was slain, i ,:eedings.under Edward I, which annexed
discovered who he was, cut off hi.-, head, liml nl;u)c \va|es and her people a part of
which, with the papers found on his per- ; England. In effect it was only the return-
son, w?s sent to Edward at Comvav. This ing of a part to its own, for it is probable
was received by the king with great re- that at that very time there were more kin-
joicing and triumph. The head of this pa- j dred H(Xxl of tne Ancient Britons in Eng-
triot and hero was sent to London, and j i;lnd than in Wales.
with becoming barbarity of the times placed | in September, 1283, prince David was
on a pike and elevated to the top of a brought to trial before a parliament sum-
turret ol the Tower. Thus perished, De moned bv Edward at .Shrewsbury, where
cember Jjd. u.Sj, in the forty-eighth year he was condemned anil executed as a trai
of his age, one of the most noted and long tor. In the usual barbarous style of the
to be remembered personages of history ; i tjmeSi he was hung, drawn, beheaded and
and, as said by the learned Selden, "as quartered, his dissevered parts sent for ex-
and worthy a prince as ever the third part j ilibition to fom- different cities of England,
of this island was ruled by." j ,,n(1 nis heiui sent to London and exulting-
An assembly of the leading men of the I ly placed in the elevated position, along
Cymry, upon hearing of the death of their side of that of his brother Llewellvn.
lamented Llewellyn, received David as his U'jxin these untoward events many of
successor, who, as prince, entered upon ; the Cymric chiefs, in despair, surrendered
the administration; but was able to hold it to Edward and his government; but many
only for a few months, lie was never more stood aloofwere eventually out-
able to command the confidence and re- j lawed and dispossessed of their lands and
sped which had been accorded to Llewel- ! property, and sought refuge in France,
lyn ; nor could the people forget that he once j where they' honorably distinguished tliem-
acted the traitor, and 'entered the service ' selves in the military and other service of
of Edward against his own country and j that country,
people. The difficulties which had sur- I Edward, though like his ance.stor, Wil
Chap, ii.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 327
liain I, unscrupulous as to the justice of his ] may be controverted; hut certain it is that
conquest, was wise and judicious in his the first words pronounced in the hearing
management. Though rigorous in enlbrc- j of any WeMiman would IK: readily under-
ing his rule.he did much to reconcile the peo- | stood; hut doubtfully so if pronounced to a
pie to his supremacy, and to make the con- leuton.
quest acceptable and easy. In accomplish It is also said that the Welsh chieftains
ing this, he spent more than ayear in Wales, at Rhuddlan expected that the crown of
among his new people, in reconciling a England would go to Alfonso, then alive,
brave and freedom loving people to their and that Edward of Caernarvon \vould
new condition. Most of the laws and cus come to them with a -eparate principality
toms of the country he respected and pre and government. However all this may
served, which were not inconsistent with be, certain it is that ever since the eldest
the operation of the English government. son of the king of England conventionally
It is said that he promised the Cymry a | becomes the prince of Wales; and that the
government under a native prince; which I principality has been as fully absorbed
to them was very flattering and acceptable. within the crown and parliament of Eng
In the midst of winter his queen, Eleanor, land as any other part of her territory ; and
was sent for from London to come to C:er- that her people have become s'o different
narvon castle, there to give birth to an ex- throughout Britain, that probably at this
pected prince. His second son, Edward ot da.v thert; aix- "lore persons of true Cymric
Ciernarvon, was born April 25th, 1284, his blooddescendants of the Ancient lirit-
first son, Alfonso, was then living. Some ons in London and Liverpool
time after this the king, at an assembly of j Wales,
the principal men of Wales at Rhuddlan, The wisdom and judicious forbearance
announced to them that, in accordance which characterized the conduct of Edward
with their repeated request to be under the towards his new i-ubjects were frequently
separate government of their own prince, ', disregarded and violated by his officers,
he was now ready to comply with their re- j They were grasping and unscrupulous in
quest on condition of their acceptance and taking the property mid rights of others
obedience. The chieftains assured him j whenever they could ; and in the discharge
that if the prince was of their own nation I of their official duties they were overbear-
they would accept and obey him. The j ing and supercilious, and this was what
king said he would give them one born in i the Cymry never endured but with in-
Wales, unable to speak a word of English, dignitv. It was not long before
and whose life and conversation no man causes of complaint and injustice existed,
could impugn. And it is said that upon for which it was difficult to obtain anv re-
the chieftains receiving the promise by ac dres*. In the ten or twelve years succeed
clamation, he presented to them his recent ing the conquest these causes of complaint
ly born son as such prince. In connection became *o intolerable to the Welsh that
with this, there is a controverted legend, they were driven to retaliation and insur-
It is said that in presenting the new prince, | rection. In the south the malcontents
the king flatteringly made use of the Welsh were conducted b\ Rhvs ap Meredith, a
words, "eich dyn," your man, when Angle- prince' o I great abilities and conduct in war;
cised ; which have become a motto to the in the north they were directed by the
prince's arms. This has been controverted young Madoc ap Llewellyn. It was as
by saying the words were not Welsh, but tonishing with \\hat skill and success these
Teutonic; and that the three ostrich feath princes managed their desperate cause;
ers and fillet belonging to the prince's coat- fought great battles with success against
of-arms were taken by the B lack Prince at some of the best generals that England
the battle of Cressy, from the king of Bo could bring against them ; often in success
hemia, and the woids are "Ich dien" (I under the most adverse circumstances, a
serve). Which of these legends is true vivid sense of their wrongs and oppression,
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
buoying them and their people to desperate period ot twenty years by a revolting mur
exertions to sustain their rights and recov der, committed by his own officers and
er their freedom. But all was in vain with people. He was succeeded by his son, then
such vast power and odds against them. a minor, Edward III, in a reign of much
After a gallant and well contested struggle, vigor and success, which continued for fif
these princes were compelled to vield to ty years (A. D. 1327 1377). This Edward
Edward's vast resources and power, and was frequently engaged in war with Scot
were taken prisoners; Rhys was taken to land and France, as well as civil wars at
York, there tried and executed as a traitor, home, frequently arising from arbitrary
in the cruel and barbarous manner of the measures and excessive taxation. In con
day. Prince Madoc was taken prisoner, nection with these wars, two battles were
and confined in the tower in London, where particularly noticeable, which took place in
after a number of vears lie expired. France, where a considerable number of
Edward, while engaged in an unjust war, Welsh troops were engaged for Edward,
in the vain hope of a conquest, with Scot who had now become his subjects.
land, died A. D. 1307, and was succeeded Edward had now been on the throne
by his feeble son, Edward of Caernarvon, as nearly twenty years, when he determined
Edward 11. to invade France1 for the purpose of pro
-. From the Accession / Edward II t tecting his rights in the province of Gui-
that of Henry VI. A. D. 1307 lo 1422. enne; and which culminated in the battle
of Cressy. He started upon this expedi
We are no longer to follow the Cvmrv, tion with an army of upwards of thirty
as the Ancient Britons, as a separate and thousand, of whom ten thousand were
independent nationality. All of that peo Welsh infantry. He landed in France on
ple south of a line drawn from the Sol way the peninsula on which Cherbonowy now
Firth to the mouth of the Tweed have be stands, and from thence traversed the whole
come annexed to and a part of the govern length of Normandy from the west to the
ment of England, all on the island north of northeast; everywhere, as was the misera
that line have become a part of Scotland, ble and barbarous custom of the day, plun
and of the Scotish people. With these two dering and marauding upon the country, as
countries and nationalities have these an was then tue practice; sacking every town
cient people become united, and their iden- thai gave them any opposition, and plun
titv onlv to be traced as a part of the peo dering and taking what they chose: often
ple of England and Scotlanda process slaughtering the people and leaving the
that has been going on since the coming of town in ashes. Soon Philip VI, of France,
the Saxons. with a large army, came in opposition to
At the death of Edward I he had left to him. He moved on, crossing all the rivers,
his successor thai war which he had for the Seine, and at length the Somme below
some years been prosecuting against Scot Abbeville. Philip was now threatening
land, with a hope of conquest as he had him with a large army, at least more than
succeeded in Wales, with equal destitution three times his own number. Edward saw
ol justice, but which that brave people re that a final cri.-is must soon come, and pre
sisted with great devotion to their country's pared to meet it by selecting an advantage
rights and freedom. In that war William ous situation near the village of Cressy.
Wallace signali/ed his patriotic devotion to Here he had his army most advantageous
his country in a manner which commends ly posted and arranged. In his incautious
itself to the admiration of the world. That pursuit, the king of France came upon him
war was soon closed bv the great battle of in the latter part of the day, with a large
Bannockburn, so fatal to Edward II, and and heterogeneous mass, made up of vari
so glorious to the Scots. No great event ous materials, French, Genoese, Germans,
signali/ed the reign of this weak and inef Savoyard and others, with at least three
ficient monarch, which was closed after a crowned heads and their retainers, of whom
Chap, ii.] FROM THE ACCESSION OK EDWARD I. 3*9
the king of Bohemia was one. These at successful in taking many places, with
tacked the English in a contused and ir much plunder and pillage. The success of
regular mass. The battle was soon changed this campaign induced the prince to try
to a confused and irretrievable defeat. When another in the direction of Paris, with a
the firmnes-. of the English army had put view to join the main army in Normandy.
their enemy at a stand, a body of Welsh Finding it difficult to cross the Logee, as
infantry, seeing the situation of affairs, ad the bridges were all broken down, he made
vanced through the ranks of the men-at- his way to the vicinity of Poitiers on one
arms and archers, who made way for them,' of the southern branches of that river. His
and, with what some historians have called armv was exceedingly small, said not to ex
large knives, but in reality the Roman ceed twelve thousand, and not one-half
short sword, came upon the French when were English. The king of France, with
in this stand and disorder, and fell upon an overwhelming armv, was drawing close
the very elite of their army. In some h around the prince, who plainly saw there
parts of the hattle there was some hard was no relief for him except in the result
fighting, and the prince of Wales, the of a battle. The cardinal ol Perigord, with
king's son, Edward, who was then not over the prelates of the church, took a great in
sixteen years of age. but afterwards cele terest in endeavoring to prevent the efiu-
brated as the Black Prince, was thought to skm of blood, entered into negotiations for
be in danger, and word was sent to his peace, which were ineffective; and this de
father, the king, for aid. The king, from layed the battle at least one day, which the
an elevated position had been viewing the prince diligentlv improved in fortifying
contest, and seeing its probable success, his position. He was so flank. -d on either
sent word back that he was confident that side with hedges that there was no ap
his son would show himself worthy of the proach to him except through a narrow
honors recently conferred upon him, and lane. The hedges were ambuscaded witli
that he would be able, without his assist a party of archers. When the French ap
ance, to repel the enemy. This being re proached in hattle these archers did deadly
ported to the prince and his attendants, execution in perfect security. The French,
inspired them with fresh confidence, who much discouraged by this unequal conflict,
made a more vigorous effort upon the with diminished numbers, reached their
French, in which the count of Alcncon enemies at the head of this lane, where the
was killed, and their whole line of cavalry prince of Wales was posted at the head of
thrown into disorder. Then it was that his men, ready for the reception. Here
the Welsh infantry rushed into the throng. thcv were discomfited and overthrown, one
The defeat soon became complete, and no of their marshals was slair, and another
quarter was that day given by the victors.* taken prisoner, and the remainder of the
Such was the celebrated battle Cressv, detachment still in the lane, exposed to the
[A. D. 1346.] shots of their foe, without being able to
make any resistance, recoiled upon their
About ten years after this Edward was
again engaged in another war with France, own armv and put the whole into disorder.
and his army was under the able command At that moment another detachment of the
of his son, the Black Prince; and the bat prince's force attacked the French in flank,
which brought on greater confusion and
tle of Poitiers took place. One army had
alarm. Some of the French officers with
been sent to Calais which passed into Nor
drawing with the king's young son from
mandy, and another small army had been
danger, were taken to have fled, which gave
dispatched under the Black Prince to the
a general panic to the whole of that part of
Garonne for the protection of the province
the army, who imagined all was lost, and
of Guienne.
thought no more of fighting. Another
portion of the French army was with and
J Fruissart's Chronicles, ch. cxxix, p. 82.
2 2 Hume Hist. Engf., ch. xv, p. 22~.
under the special charge of king John him
33 THE NORMAN PERIOD.
self, which was still more numerous than
prince Edward's army, being stricken with
dismay by the unexpected flight of their
companions, were now attacked by the
whole of the prince's force. A body of
German cavalry, placed in front for the
protection of the French king, were at
tacked with great impetuosity, gave way,
and king John was left almost alone to the
fury of the battle. In the midst of great
danger he was taken alive, as the English
were anxious to do. The battle now ceased
after a great but unequal slaughter. The
royal prisoner was first taken to Bordeaux,
and thence to London ; and the humanity
and kindness shown him by the prince of
Wales did him more honor than the
glory of his victory. The prince, proceed
ing with his prisoner through London, ex
hibited his usual kindness, humanity and
meekness which always characterized him
he himself was plainly mounted on
email pony, while his royal prisoner was
splendidly mounted on a fine charger by
his side.
Edward III continued his reign about
thirty years longer, in all fifty years; with
an able and vigorous administration in all
the departments of his government. He
was frequently if not always engaged in
war, either with Scotland or France. These
wars were not always successful, though
his panegyrists speak of them as glorious;
though it is doubtful whether he left En
glish rule enlarged cither in Scotland or
France. His administration of the law was
firm and progressive. Many statutes were
adopted improving the law, and in conse
quence of which he has been sometimes
called the English Justinian. This Edward
died A. I). 1377; and his renowned son,
the Black Prince,1' departed this world
about a year previous to his father, who was
succeeded by the eldest son of the prince,
as Richard II, who reigned twenty-two
years without any distinction which com-
mended him-with frequent commotions
and rebellions; and was finally deposed and
murdered, A. D. 1399.
A remark made by Froissart as to Ed-
3 The Prince of Wales was so named from his
black armor.
[Book iv.
ward II, is equally applicable to Richard
II: "We must remark," says he, "a com
mon opinion of the English, of which there .
has been proof since the time of the gal
lant king Arthur, that between two valiant
kings of England there is always one weak
in mind and body."1 During this king's
reign there was more civil commotion and
war at home than abroad ; and finally he
was deposed by an act of parliament, im
peaching him with tyranny and usurpation
of power. The sovereignty was then
usurped by Henry the duke of Lancaster,
as Henry IV.5
This Henry, known as Henry I'lantage-
net, and sometimes surnamed Bolingbroke,
enjoyed a rule of fourteen years, without
any noticeable event, except such as went
to defending his crown. There are, how
ever, two events worthy of notice : a border
war with some Scotish chieftains, which
involved him in a quarrel with the Piercys
of Northumberland: and the rebellion un
der Owen Glendowcr, Glendowerdu, in
Wales.
After the death of Llewellyn and the
conquest of Wales by Edward III, the
leading families then became very much
divided in their interest and association;
and this was fostered and encouraged by
the English government; and it was one of
the means by which that conquest was ac
complished. Those who .supported the
English interest were caressed and fostered
by them : but many of the patriotic persons
who faithfully adhered to Llewellyn and
the fallen destiny of their country, fled for
safety to Brittany and France, where they
became distinguished. One of the latter is
particularly noticed by Froissart, as Evan
of Wales, lie had been specially noticed
and entrusted by the king of France, and
4 Froissart's Chronicles, cli. I, p. 15.
5 Richard II had no issm-, and uas riic <uly heir
j Jj-Jjhlni n ^.h^repr^cn,^ by
son was
represented by this duke of I.an.-asu.>r: I the fifth
son was represented by the duke of York. So lhat
the earl of March,, Mortimer,, had a better title than
Lanca.ster.
. But this latter usurper silenced Morti
mer's claim by imprisoning him: and no serious con
test was made to the claim until the time of Henry
VI, and Rd ward IV, in the war of York and Iin -
caster; or that of the White and Red Iloset-.
Chap. u. | FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 33'
put in command of important expeditions. I On the other hand we have an account
While in Spain in the service of the French of llnwel v Twvall, or llowell of the
king, the earl of I'embroke was brought as Ballle-axe, from the ponderous weapon hu
a prisoner to where Evan happened to be. I wielded, who on account of his good con-
He challenged the earl as to the wrongs duct at the battle of Poitiers was knighted
that had been done him in Wales, who i by the Black Prince on the field of battle,
said in reply : -Who are you that thus ad- ' It is said that this knight, by his services
dresses me?" Evan answered: "I am I in these wars, amassed immense wealth,
Evan, son and heir of prince Edmund of i and retired, living in great splendor at his
Wales, whom your king wickedly and I castle in Wales. From the death of Llew-
wrongfully put to death, and disinherited ' ellyn to the elevation of Richmond as
me. I may through the assistance of my Henry VII, many interesting episodes may
good lord, the king of France, perhaps bo be narrated of distinguished Welshmen,
able to apply a remedy to all this; and I which the compass of mv work will not
shall certainly do so, * * * * for by i admit. But the part acted bv Owen Glen-
your lather and other evil counsellors was i dower is so deeplv connected with the his-
my lord and father betrayed, which ought ' torv of both England and Wales, that it
to anger me: and of which I will be re- j cannot lie entirely overlooked.
venged it I have an opportunity." U]x>n Owen Glendower was a marked man of
this Sir Thomas St. Aubin, the earl's that age He was born alxnit the year
knight, interfered, and said: "Evan, if you 1 ^ and the jSth o|- Mav jscommemorat-
mean tfiat my lord or his father have done as thut ()t hu birthday". His father was
you any wrong, or owe you homage or | (jrunydd, the native prince of Powys. and
anything else, throw down your glove, and his mother was | icion, daughter of Eleanor
you will find one ready enough to take it | Gocn and ,,rand daughter of Catherine the
up." To this Evan replied: "You are a daughter of Llewellyn, the last Cymric
prisoner; I shall gain no honor in calling prince of Wales. He thus was a descend
you out, for you are not your own master, ant of the princes of Powys on his father's
but belong to those who have taken you; side; aiul thl, (m,,. heir on his mother\
but when you have gained your liberty, I j side fronl Llewellyn the prince of Cymru
shall speak out more boldly; for things Oll. 1 le appears to have received a finished
shall not remain as they now are.'' After education for the day at an English univer
various important services rendered by sity, studied law at the Inns of Court in
Evan to Charles V, king of France, while London, and became a barrister;" but for
engaged in the siege of Mortaign, in Nor some unknown cause he chose to retire to
mandy, Evan was assassinated by one John his est;itc in Wales, where he lived in the
Lamb in the employ of the English. midst of much wealth and splendor. In the
Froissart says of him : "Evan of Wales
was a valient knight, a good man; his re timution in which he was held bv the French; and
gard increased so fast that evil befell him, also says: "One of his relations, John Wynne, cele
brated 'for his graceful deportment, and" Slirnamed
for which it was a great pity. He was re war, h.ivintr, in ifihentnn/tr\,
I.,: pottrsgiratlt served with htm in this
like manner, under his banner a
tained by king John, under whom he bore small tnjop of Welsh exiles."
arms at the battle of Poitiers, when he 7 The estimation in which (ilemlower was hold in
fortunately escaped. On the renewal of Shakespeare'*) lime, by men in whom his memory
was trtsli, may be seen by his pluy of Henry IV,
the war, he returned to France, and con Act iii, Scene i :
ducted himself so well that he was much "Mortimer: 'In faith, he is a worthy gentleman,
praised and loved by the king of France, Kxceedir.j^ly v.cll read", and nrofnr.tl
In strange concealments, valiant as a lion,
and by all the great lords."6 And wondruu^ atTalile, ami as bountiful
As mines ol India.'1
And in Act i. Scene .$. Henry IV is madr to say:
6 See Kroisstirt's Chronicles, ell. cccvi, XT, T. jd "Thou dost belie him. Pi-rcy, thou dost helie him.
ch. vi and xvii, pp. 2op, 312, 231 and 139, where an He never did encounter with Olendower:
interesting history is gpven of this Evan of Wales. 1 tell thce,
Thierry (vol. 2<1, Hist. Norm. Con., p. 2$2)iilsn bears He durst as well have met the devil alone,
testimony of "Yoian of Wales," and the high es- As Owen Glendower for an enemy."*
 33* THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
then division of parties, he took an active in the war, that the king in person took the
part in i'avor of Richard 11; and was taken field against him. A long contest ensued,
prisoner with his sovereign at Flint Castle, in which his old enemv, lord Grev, was
by the orders of Bolingbroke, now earl of made prisoner, and paid for his ransom 10,-
Lancaster, who by the deposition and mur ooo marks, and married Jane, the fourth
der ol that unfortunate sovereign was fast daughter of the chieftain. In the next
becoming king of England as Henry IV. campaign, which was very active, he took
Not long after the ascension of this Henrv, a number of places in England, defeated
while Owen was living peaceably and hap the forces sent against him ; took Sir Ed
pily on his estate, i neighboring lord, lord mund Mortimer, a member of the royal
Grey- de Ruthvn. emboldened bv having family, prisoner, who married another
been an opponent of Richard, laid claim to a daughter of the prince, and was treated s
part of the estate which Owen insisted was kindly by him that he became Glendower's
his own. Grey took forcible possession ol partisan, and arranged for him an alliance
the disputed territory; and Glendower laid with the Percvs of Northumbi This
the case before parliament ; but among so confederacy agreed to divide the kingdom
strong partisans of Lancaster, there was no into three parts among themselves; the earl
redress for a man who had been the de of Northumberland was to have all nortK
cided friend of Richard. -Soon after this a of the Trent; Glendower all west of the
summons was issued for Owen, as a feudal Severn; and Edward Mortimer, the right
baron to attend king Henrv in his expedi ful heir to the crown, and the nephew I*
tion against Scotland ; and this writ was Sir Edmund, was to have all the rest. In
entrusted to lord Grey to be served, who the year 1403 Owen, in pursuance of this
purposely delayed it until it was too late. coalition, was pursuing a very active and
For this neglect to attend, Owen was bv bis successful campaign, when the allied army
enemies charged with treason. The matter under Henry Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas,
was debated in parliament; and notwith with only 400 of Owen's men, were be-
standing that Trevor, bishop of St. Asaph, seiging Shrewsbury, when the army of
exonerated him of any blame, and warned Henry IV made its appearance unexpect
them against the impolicy of provoking a edly. Percy, disdaining to wait lor the ar
man of 'his character and influence with rival of Glendower with his re-enforce
the people of Wales, the majority by their ments, hastily withdrew from the seige of
decision intimated lhat thev did not regard Shrewsbury and attacked the king's force*,
him or his people, nor his demand ol ju>- which brought on a severe battle/ and de
tice. Thereupon Grey was authorized to feat of the confederates, in which Henrv
seize upon Owen's whole estate, as forfeited Percy was left amongst the slain. This
to the crown for high treason. was a crisis in prince Owen's affairs. A
Thus drnen into rebellion, Glendower treaty had been formed with the king of
proclaimed himself prince of Wales; and France, and he sent a small army to aid
his countrymen, indignant at the treatment Glendower. These landed in the west and
and injustice he had received, rallied to his marched through Wales to the Severn, and
standard. The Welsh bards sung hi* with Owen attained some success but n
praises, and the righteousnos and glorv of substantial advantage. They soon return
their cause: and derided with equal con ed to France, leaving Glendower to sustain
tempt the ridicule attempted to he heaped himself as best he could. And it is aston
upon them by the English. Glendower in ishing how for so many years during Hen
vaded and seized upon the estate of lord ry's reign this prince was able to defeat
Grey ; and in turn the latter, aided bv the or thwart every effort of the king of
king, by surprise, ravaged and burned the England to defeat and finally conquer
estate of Glendower. Now rallying his him. The ability, ingenuity and tact
men, he ravaged and burnt the tow n of his
enemy, Ruthvn, and made such progress En>f. S Set- Hmm-':- description of this buttle; 2 Hume's
Hist., ch. xviii, p. 53 j.
Chap, ii.] FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 333
with which he opposed his enemies, Prince just before the battle of Poictiers'
defeated their blow, or avoided their Henry's armv had been reduced to one-
force, obtained tor him, among the English, half of its original number, and the French
the reputation of being possessed of super- armv four times that of his own. From
natural power-;. Arinv and expedition, the heights he occupied he observed the
one after another, were sent against him by French army drawn up in the plains of
Henry IV, but these were defeated in se Agincourt, so posted that it was impossible
vere battles, or foiled hv skillful maneuver, to proceed without coming to an engage
so that they always melted away before ment. He therefore prudently drew up
his abilities, while his enemies thought it his armv on a narrow ground between tw
was by magic. When it was opportune, he w<x>ds. guarding either flank, and in that
met his enemies upon the plains and open posture patiently waited the attack of the
fields; and towns and castles were taken; enemv. Had the French commander as
when overwhelming force threatened him, patiently awaited his best opportunity, the
the intricacies of his native hills, in the midst English would have soon been compelled
of Snowdon and Penlvmon, became his de to surrender, or to have fought under verr
fenses and ramparts. At length the king adverse circumstances. But the impetuous
became wearied with exertion against him, alor of the French nobility, and their vain
and sought to quiet him hv peaceable confidence in their superior numbers,
means. In fiu1 v.'ar 1413, Henry IV de brought on a fatal action, most calamitous
parted, and \\ ;is succeeded bv his renowned to them in its results. The French in their
son llenrv of Monmouth, who was horn at attack were compelled to make it in crowd
Monmouth, and brought up and educated ed ranks; and the English, having in their
among the Cvmrv, under the care and di front a palisade to break the first impres
rection of Sir David Gain. Henry V, in sion, now safely plied upon their opponents,
July, 1415, became anxious to quiet and from behind their defenses, destructive
reconcile affairs in Wales, offered pardon showers of arrows. The late rains had
to all who would condescend to apply for rendered the ground unfavorable for the
it. Glendower continued his independence, attack; their confined position, and the
and in the following September died at the wounded men and horses discomposed their
house of his youngest daughter in Here ranks, and rendered the whole army a con
fordshire, lie had seven sons, the most of fused mass. Henry perceiving his advan
whom were killed in battle, and five tage, now ordered his men to charge. They
daughters, who became united with the advanced and fell on their enemies with
leading familes of the country. their battle-axes, who were in a position
Henrv V having come to the throne, the in which they were incapable of either
government of England progressed in it-. ] fleeing or defending themselves were
usual routine, with the difficulties in Wales hewed down without resistance; the field
quieted; but their negotiations with the was covered with the killed and wounded.
French complicated with the English's old The battle became a complete victory. Ne
claim upon (iuienne. and some other battle was" ever more disastrous to the
provinces in France. In 1415 Henry in French, in the number of princes and no-
vaded France, with an army of about thirty bilitv slain and taken prisoners; and the
thousand men of various arms; landed at i have been computed at ten thousand
Harfleur. and after a short seige captured men, while it has been said that of the
that place. Circumstances soon compelled English their number did not exceed forty.
him to undertake a march to Calais, then Thus the three great battles of that age
in the possession of the English, as a place Cressy, Poitiers and Agincourt, have a
of safety. He was pursued, and annoyed striking resemblance, which belong hardly
on the way by a large French army. After to any other. In this battle Henry was ac
crossing the Somme, he found himself in companied bv his early Cymro friend and
about the same situation as the Black preceptor, Sir David Gam, who command
 334 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [ Book it .
eel the outposts of the English army; and i tention there; so the protectorship was left
when making his report on the night before, to Gloucester, and the guardianship. of the
being asked the number of the eneinv, re I infant sovereign to Keautbrd. These am
plied: "There are frenchmen enough to be bitious men soon quarreled about the con
killed, enough to be taken, and enough to duct of the government at home, so that
run away ;" which answer was fully as ap i Bedford, the wisest and most judicious man,
plicable alter the battle as before it. I called upon the interference of parliament
Henry, the most of his reign, was in war to calm and reconcile the difficulties.
with France, for which it was mostly dis At the death of Henry V, 'the English
tinguished. In A. 1). 14.10 a treaty of had obtained possession ol the greatest
peace had taken place between them, and part of France, and appearances indicated
Henry was married to Catharine of France, its conquest. But their progress had come
the mother of the unfortunate Henry VI. to its end; and Bedford with all his abili
The war in France however continued, ties was stopped, with the exception of one
more in the character of civil war than decisive battle in his favor, that of Verneuil,
that of a foreign war or conquest. Success 14.14. Charles VI, the incapable king of
attended Henry as a warrior, and while in France, died a few months alter I lenry V,
full career in the pursuit of conquest and and wa.s succeeded bv the dauphin, his son,
glory, when it seemed as though France ! as Charles VII, who was a person of more
must succumb to his success and conquest capacity; and was graduallv recovering
and he had apparently almost readied the that portion ol France acquired by the
summit, nature put a stop to his ambitious the English. In 1428 the latter had laid
projects, and to thai of bis reign A. 1). scige to Orleans, which was resisted by the
1422.
determined bravery of its defenders until
I
In the succession of his infant sou, I the next year, when it was raised under the
Henry VI, commenced that troublesome inspired leadership of the renowned Joan
time to the English people, known as the of Arc. This name presents in history one
war of the roses, which only terminated | of the most extraordinary characters that
with the accession of Henry VII to the ! ever lived. It is the most extraordinary in
English throne. stance to prove that faith and will can re
i move a mountain. With that faith and
fy. From the Accession of llenrv \"I tn will, and sufficient good common sense to
thai of Hmry VII. (A. D. 1412 14^5.) , understand the situation of affairs, she ac
complished what no other person could
At the death of his father, when the son, have done in the same manner; which was
Henry VI, acquired his right to the En ] so extraordinarv as to be called an inspira-
glish crown he was not quite nine month* [ lion or miracle.
old. The leading men of England imme Joan was a native of Arc in Loraine, and
diately took possession of the government, I h:id never been much out of her own
and with the consent and action of parlia neighborhood. Her education was nothing
ment arranged the administration. John, more than what that rural district atlbrded
duke of Bedtord, the infant king's uncle, in common to all; but it is said she did not
was appointed "Protector," as guardian of learn to read and write. She was accus
the kingdom, and Humphrey, the duke of tomed to rustic laoors, and well acquainted
Gloucester, was to exercise that office when with the management of a horse. She was
John, his older brother, was absent. The i distinguished from the other girls of her
person and education of the infant prince : neighborhood by her great simplicity, mod-
was committed to the care of Henry Beau- i estv, industry and pietv. At about the age
ford, bishop of Winchester, his grand- 1 of thirteen she believed that she had wit
uncle. These were all men of extraordina nessed an extraordinary flash of light, ac
ry capacity and talent. The English attairs companied with an unusual voice, which
in France required Bedford's personal at- | enjoined upon her to be modest, and dili-
Chap. ii. I FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. 335
gent to her religious duties. When about | 1453, under the auspices of the unfortunate
sixteen years of age she became informed ' lenry VI, expelled from France, (with the
of the progress the English were making i exception of Calais,) greatly to the true
in the conquest of the whole of France, j advantage of both countries.
Charles VI was then dead, and the English i s<)"" after the English people were re
in possession of so much of the country j ll'ived tVom thc war and conquest of
that the dauphin could not proceed to be ' E ranee, they became engaged in a most
crowned at Rhcims; and that the enemy deadly and lamentable civil war, which for
were then beseiging and probably would ''i"'rl.v thirlv vears deluged the country
capture Orleans. She was of sufficient in- I il1' bloix1 iind ck'ath- 'rhis '" known as the
telligence to understand and appreciate the ' :>r of the roses, and was carried on by two
situation of her unhappv country. In i factions, claiming the crown under duTer-
brooding over it she became highlv ex-!1-'1" "KM< thc on<-' a^ that of Lancaster,
cited, and deeply sympathized with her ' "d the other as that of York. The weak
jicoplc for their delivery. .She became pos Henry VI was now the representative head
sessed of the belief, and fnlh in the faith. of the Lancaster party, who claimed des-
that Orleans could be relieved and the wav . l'ent through Henry IV from the fourth
opened for the dauphin to be crowned at | s(m ol Edward 1 1 1 : and the head of the
Rheims, and that she was destined as the j Yorkists was Edward, the duke of York,
instrument to accomplish it She disclosed i '>" claimed a more rightful descent from
her missj,,n to some ol leading men of the ! the tllirtl son of Kdward III, upon failure
country, and was rebuffed. Full in the i <>' ''-*"' in Richard II. In 1443 Henry
faith, a"iul determined will, she went person- ' "d married Margaret of Anjou, a woman
ally to the dauphin and disclosed to him of extraordinary capacity and magnanimity.
her mission, to relieve Orleans and lead Ten year* after the marriage this qneen be-
him to be crowned at Rheims. The dan- ! <'ail1t' ""-' mother of a son, the sole heir cf
phin permitted himself, with little faith, to be 1 lenry; and the duke of York claimed the
led by her. Her enthusiasm became con crown by descent in opposition to that of
tagious, and the army entered into the the house of Lancastc Civil war was the
spirit of her pretended mission and xeal, re>ult of this contest; and both parties were
and believed it was from heaven. The represented and aided by able men. They
country girl of seventeen was seen, in the came to blows: and the battle of St. Al-
attire of an officer, heading the troops anil bans, A. D. 145.1. in which on both sides
carrying everything before them. Orleans were killed manv of the first men of Eng-
wa relieved of its seige, the enemy every- land- was the first ' thal iatal "'"' wl"ch
where repulsed, and the way opened, sO | lasteo about thirty years, and in which were
that the dauphin proceeded to Rheims and , f"g\\t twelve pitched battles, costing the
was crowned as Charles VII. The maid lives of eighty princes of the blood, and al
of Orleans, as she was now called, claimed most annihilating the ancient nobility of
that she had performed her mission, and England.1 Five years after the battle of
begged to IK' permitted to retire, lint her St. Albans was fought another great battle,
services had been too important for the ar Wakelield, which was very fatal to the
my or government to permit it. She was Yorkists, especially in the death of their
retained in the service, and at the head of head, Edward, the duke of York; and in
the troops led with extraordinary success the events of the day that great -woman,
various perilous engagements. At i Margaret, became prominent in the inter-
length she was unfortunately taken prison- ' cst oi" thc kin and her *'>-
er by the English: was by them ace used as \ On the death of his father, Edward, the
a sorceress, shamefully condemned and ex- i voting duke of York, his eldest son, as-
ecuted. lint her x.eal and spirit had enter- i sumed his father's place as the head of the
ed the French army; and success attended I party, and eventually became Edward IV.
Ihem. until the English were ultimately, in j , 2 name's History of K>,K\:\m\, 11.433.
 336 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv
The imbecility ot' Henry VI could not be | erful lordduke of riuokingham partici-
evercome by the vigor and energy of the pated. A great revolution is about to take
queen. He was captured and imprisoned, place, and the leading spirit is Henry Tu
and young Edward of York assumed the dor, the earl of Richmond.
crown as Edward IV, A. D. 1461 ; and dur Henry V was a native of Hereford, well
ing the following ten years the country and acquainted with the Cymrv, and much at
people most terribly suffered, under the tached to them. Many were with him,
most afflicting civil war and strife, in which and surrounded him while engaged in his
were fought those destructive battles which wars in France. Among these was Owen
attended that war, and effected so mam- Tudor, or Tewdwr, as well as Sir David
changes from one party to another, in the Gam and his companion-, who rendered
administration ol the government; Henr\ him siu-li devoted services at the battle of
VI makes his escape, is restored, and again Agincourt as to be commemorated by the
expelled, imprisoned, and dies; Edward IV eloquent pen of Sir Walter Raleigh. After
is expelled, and finally is restored and the deatli of Ilcnrv V his widow, Catherine
triumphs. In these partisan changes the I of France, declared her preference and at-
earl of Warwick was so active an instru- j taehment for Owen Tudor, and was mar-
ment that he received the epithet of the ried to him. Owen was a descendant from
King Maker; and the magnanimous Mar- | the ancient British princes on the part of
garet of Anjou distinguished herself by both his parents, and was known attheEng-
every effort of which a woman was capa lish court as Sir Owen Tudor; but among
ble, to preserve the rights and interest of his own people as Owen ab Meredudd, ab
of her infant son, prince Edward, who was Tewdwr. He and queen Catherine were
at last disposed of by being murdered, at the parents of three sons, Edmund, Jasper
the instance of the tyrant, Edward IV, and and Owen; the latter of whom became a
his brother, Richard, the duke of Glonces- monk, and died at a convent while voting.
ter. At length the cruel and tyrannical j After the death of the parents the moth-
Edward hiimelf expiresjn the forty-second er, the queen, having died while the chil-
year of his age, and the twenty-third of his dren were quite youngthe two elder
reign, leaving after him two sons Edward, brothers were well cared for by Henry VI,
prince of Wales, his successor, then but who was their half-brother. Edmund he
thirteen years of age, and Richard, in his created earl of Richmond, and Jasper earl
ninth year, as the duke of York. of Pembroke; and precedence was given
Then the young prince became known to them over the nobility of the kingdom.
history as Edward V But the notorious Edmund, earl of Richmond, Sir (J wen's
Richard, duke of Gloucester, became am eldest son, about tli year 145^, married
bitious of the crown for himself; but his lady Margaret, only hild of [ohn Heau-
two infant nephews were in his way. These fort, duke of Somerset; and on the 2ist of
innocent beings, in about a year after the January, 1456, their only son, Henry, was
death of their father, were, by the orders of born at Pembroke castle; and within one
the infamous Richard, murdered in the year became fatherless bv the death of his
tower of London ; and then this monster father. Being the sole issue of Richmond,
was proclaimed king, as Richard III. and of the heiress of Somerset, young Hen -
On coming to the throne, A. D. 1483, ' ry, the duke of Richmond, was looked up-
Richard III did all in his power, by ample on and supported by the Lancaster party'
rewards, to attach his partisans to him ; hut as the descendant of John of (iaunt, and
by the English people generally he was the true heir to the crown in opposition to
detested for his cruelty and tyranny. Many Richard III.
of the nobility looked down upon his usur In the spring of 1471 the forces of the
pation as flagitious, and the means by which Lancasterian party were collected at
it was acquired most wicked and criminal, Tewkesbury on the Severn, and there were
and in this opinion a near relative, a pow- queen Margaret and her son Edward, the
Chap, ii.] FROM THE ACCESSION OK EDWARD I.
young prince of Wales, a body of French
troops, the militia gathered by the duke of
Somerset, and the remains of the army of
the earl of Warwick, which had been de
feated eighteen days before at the battle of
Barnet, waiting the re-enforcement coming
under Jasper Tudor, earl of 1'etnbroke, at
the head of a large body of troops from
Wales. Edward of York, fearing the re
sult of this union, hastened to intercept it,
and attacked the Lancasterian intrench-
ments with fury, routed their troops with
great slaughter, and captured the queen,
the prince of Wales and the duke of Som
erset. Soon after this the prince was
stabbed and killed in cold blood, and the
king, Henry VI, privately murdered. Af
ter the battle of Tewkesburv the affairs of
the Lancastcrians became desperate, and
Jasper, earl of Pembroke, on receiving in
telligence of the disaster, dismissed his
troops, and engaged himself in watching
ever the safety and interest of his voung
nephew, Henry.
For a while the Tudors were safe in
Wales, but the jealous spirit of Edward of
York and his brother Richard became so
vindictive that it was unsafe for a Lan
casterian to be within their reach, so that
it became necessary to send the voung
Henry Tudor to Brittany and France for
safety and education.
At length, in the year 1485, Henry, the
earl of Richmond, becoming acquainted
and well informed of the affairs and disaf
fection in England, prevailed upon the
French government to aid him in his con
templated enterprise, to relieve the English
people of their tyrannical rule; by which
he was enabled to embark at Hartieur, with
his uncle and exiled friends and with a body
of two thousand foreign mercenaries. In due
time he landed at Milford Haven in Wales,
where he found Sir Rhys ab Thomas with
a body of two thousand horsemen ready to
aid and protect his landing. The retainers
of his uncle, the earl of Pembroke, imme
diately joined the little army, and Rich
mond unfurled the Tewdwr banner, and
set forth upon his adventurous enterprise.
From Milford Henry commenced his
march towards Shrewsbury, through Car-
337
dingshire and Central Wales; everywhere
receiving fresh accessions to the cavalry of
Sir Rhys and the two thousand Bretons
who had disembarked with him. Sir Rhys
proceeded south through South Wales
calling upon the Cymry in that quarter to
rally in support of prince Henry ; and a
generous response was madeeven Mor
gan, the chief of the Tredeger house, gave
assurance of his earnest engagement in the
cause, as well as like reports from the
neighborhood of Monmouth, Glamorgan
and Brecon, and the domain of the families
of Raglan, Trelower, and their relatives.
On his way south Sir Rhys was joined by
the Herberts, Vaughans, Gams, and other
influential adherents. At a review held at
Brecon, four thousand picked men were
selected as troops to be sent in advance.
Jasper Tudor was rallying the north, and
was everywhere met with -acclamation and
praise for his energy, and the care he had
taken of their prince. These three Ibrces
triumphantly met and joined hands in the
neighborhood of Shrewsbury, This town
with but little hesitation soon opened her
gates and received Henry Tudor. This
Cvmric army, with noble enthusiasm and
decision, at once struck out its course to
wards the center of England. In the mean
time the able and experienced tyrant, Rich
ard III, had become aware of what was
progressing against him, and had collected
eighteen thousand choice troops, the vet
erans of the twelve pitched battles of the
war of the roses. His cavalry, said to rank
a the finest and the most formidable in
Europe. He had determined speedilv to
meet his opponent, and Richard marched
with his army to Coventry. Henry came
with his army to Bosworth, near Leicester,
with not half the number of that with
which Richard was approaching him.
Many of the English kept aloof, fearing
the result, wishing first to see something
that was more decisive of the event. This
was particularly the case with lord Stan
ley, who in command of about seven thou
sand men took his position in such a man
ner as to be equally convenient to go over
to either side, when he was satisfied which
way the battle would go. This he did
338 TIIK NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
wliik1 pretending to Richard he* was loyal, commencing. Richard observing a com
and committing to no one- hi-; final inten ing crisis in the atfair, on a sudden put spurs
tion. to his horse, and shouting "Treason!" gal
The rivals \vcre ntnv approaching each loped into the midst of his enemies. lie
other towards the field oi" battle; and in ihe made toward the center, w here waved
evening before Richard passed through Richmond's standard, with the hopes of
Leicester mounted on a fine charger, clad meeting him, and at once decide the con-
in the same armor he wore at the battle of Hict. lie rapidly made his way toward the
Tewkesburv, and exciting his men with standard, and cut down Sir William Broad-
the glory of hi:- former achievements. He on. the bearer; and was driving toward his
possessed, like his brother Edward and his j rival, when he was overwhelmed and slain
race, militarv genius and personal bra\erv j by those who bravely gathered around him.
in an eminent degree; and all were assured The conflict was fierce, short and decisive.
that nothing personal would be lacking in Stanley now seeing how the battle was
him, in securing a favorable result of the going, came in at its close, and helped in
battle, lie was but thirty-three years of the closing victory. Manv distinguished
age, loved by none, detested by many, yet men were slain on both sides; on the side
he was respectfully feared, and his im of Richard were the duke of Norfolk, and
perious command* everywhere obeved; his son, the earl of Surrey ; and it has been
he was unscrupulous as to all mutters | said that three thousand men slain were left.
in the wav of his interest. Morally and upon the field. Richmond, the victor, was
physically he was capable of doing what he declared king by acclamation of Ihe vie-
said he would do, "live or die a king that ; torious soldiery, and crowned on the field,
with the crown produced bv lord Stanley
On the morning of the 22d of August takcn tVom lhe 'K"ul of the "lain R'---h!lrd-
commenced the eventful battle of Bosworth. ' Tluls terminated this important and re-
Each armv was arraxed for battle, with a nowned battle, which terminated the %var
considerable plain or moor between them; of the roses, and transferred the crown from
and each was divided into three partsthe the Plantagenet to the Tudor dynasty ; and
advance, the center, and the rear. In lien- inaugurated a new era in English history;
ry's army the advance was commanded by ! and tht> L>mr-v " Wales, who performed
tlie old earl of Oxford, who had recently { * important a part in it. became a part of
escaped from prison and joined the in the English people, in union with many of
vaders. Henry in person commanded the the English people whose blood is derived
center, supported by his uncle Jasper, the from the Ancient JSritons.
carl of Pembroke; and in the rear his cav
alry. Richmond's right was considerably U1APTER III.
protected by a morass. Richard's army THE CONDITION OF Till'- I'KOTI.E.
was also similarly di\ ided. and his advance
"|5i. yy/f Condition of tin' Cvinry from tkr
in the command of the duke of Norfolk,
Norman Conquest lit the Conquest of Wales
who was faithfully attached to his sover
by Eiiivanl f. (A.I). 10661^76.)
eign. Richard himself was in command
of his center. The king in looking over In order to well understand the condition
the field did not like the appearances of of the Cymry at and during this period, it
tilings, and suspected the laithfulncs of is necessary that the student should honest
some, and convinced of the vacillating pol- ly and impartially study the sources of
icy of others, but hoped by a lx>ld stroke to their civilization, and trace it down from
restore his power, and punish his enemies, the lime of Ca-sar. These are. unqneKtion-
Ile gave orders to Norfolk to charge the | ably, the descendants and the ivprcsentu-
enemy, and the two advanced parties were lives of the Ancient Hritons. The progress
soon in a hoi conflict, which drew on the | made by these people, in the arts, science
main army, and a general engagement was and civilization, from Ca-sar's time to that
Chap, in.) THE CONDITION OP" TIIK PEOPLE.
of Agricola, has been already referred to,
and sustained hv Tacitus. Dion Cassius and
other classics, deriving their information
from rotemporarv sources; from whom we
obtain satisfactory information of thatperi-
od, as well as from that time to the coming
of the Saxons. When the latter came,
their conquest was not like the Norman a
rapid subjection of the whole, but the slow
conquest of one small province after anoth
er, in the course of two hundred years.
During that time it was the progress of
barbarity and heathenism over civilization
and Christianity ; of war, with fire and the
sword, over the labor and industry of cen
turies. War, and what sustained it, was
the only study of the conquerors, and
Woden their only religion.
Here two nationalities came in conriirl.
and continued it until the one hail swallow
ed the other, and became an union and
amalgamation of the two. One of the
most striking differences between the two
was the manner in which each held the
title to their land and occupied it. The
Cymry, in common with the Romans, and
all civilized Europe, held their land as the
individual property of the holder and culti
vator, in the same right and manner as he
held any personal property ; and made no
distinction in its acquisition and transfer.
On the other hand the ancient German
made land the property of the state or gov
ernment, and no one had any individual
right or property in it. The people or ten
ants cultivated it, and divided the products
between themselves and the officers ol the
government. In this the officers made the
best terms they could. This made the cul
tivator a dependent on the government,
and the government the means of exercis
ing an absolute control over him. This is
the origin of the feudal system,1 and all its
attendant consequences. Wherever the
northern barbarian went as conqueror, he
carried this system, claimed the land as his
own, and the people as his tenants or serfs.
With the Romans this was otherwise; and
i Sec Mr. Hargrove's note to Col. Littleton } Vol., dier, when he came into Britain, would ht desirous
191:1.; particularly sec V, (3), (4) and (5). In Ger to retain tin; people, who did not chose to flee, tor
many the land is let by the state. Tacitus' Gcrma., the purpose of procuring for themselves grain, wear
xxvi.
339
the laws of the Cymry were the same. The
land was individual property, except when
it became confiscated; and it was transmis
sible like all other property to his- children
or heirs, or to whomever he chose lo dis
pose of it. This was the case with the
Cymry. throughout Uritain, until the Sax
ons had driven this system out of it: but
in many places its relics remain, under the
name of ^VfW/-/H</,2 as in Kent. In ac
cordance with this, the Cymry claimed a
greater degree of individual freedom and
independence, and submitted to less degree
of domineering and lordlv rule which ac
companied the Saxon's feudal system. It
was this that created in the Welsh that op-
jxtsition and hatred to the Saxon laws, and
so deep attachment to that of their own.
Gradually the features of the feudal system
have so disappeared, or been modified, be
tween the time of Edwqrd I and the last of
the Tudors, that but little difference remain*
between the individual rights of an En
glishman to his landed property,-' and that
of the Ancient Briton, except that of primo
geniture. The law, and the rules of person
al property, and personal rights are con
stantly assimilating to that of the Ancient
Briton.
In Germany, says Tacitus,4 "Each slave
has his separate habitation, and his own
establishment to manage. The master
considers him as an agrarian dependent,
who is obliged to furnish a certain quantity
of grain, of cattle, or of wearing apparel.8
The slave obeys, and the state of servitude
extends no further." This was the system
brought with them to Britain, out of which
2 4 Stephen's Blackstonc, ch. xxvii, p. 475. The
word <'<77v/-i;W is derived from the Welsh, as re
ferred to their custom m reference to division of
land in the family. The English word /ra///v means
holdi the word hold in Welsh \s, jfavuel or gafufl ;
and kind has reference to family or kindred. 'Hie
wordjfarv/ is now used as English, both in England
and the United States, as applied to the luild or bun
dle of grain in reaping.
3 XII Vol. Encyclppaidia Americana, titled Ten
ure, p. 106, where it is said: "At length the military
tenures, with all their heavy appendages, were de
stroyed at one blow by Stat. li, Charles II, which
enacts that all sorts of tenures, held of the kinir or
others, be turmd into five and common Socage.
4 Tacitus' (icrmania, ch. xxv, p. 554.
5 This is it reason and evidence why the Saxon sol
ing apparel, and other necevKirkh.
34 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
grew the feudal system there and else- i well as of the German, and that Caractacu*
where. Every one of the leading men ol and IJoadicea were their ancesters, as the
Saxon immigrants who came and settled in British queen actually does.
Britain claimed he was a descendant ot In this manner the Lloegrian Cymry
Woden, and by that hail a right to rule and were swallowed up by the .Saxon invaders,
control the land they conquered. They just as we have positive history that it was
brought' with them scarcely anything more afterwards done with the Ancient British
than their battle ax. Whatever else they population in the counties of Somerset,
wanted they claimed by that right to take; Devon and west of them, and was done in
and claimed they had the light to the in the counties of Salop, Hereford and Mon-
dustry and property of others whenever mouth, west ot the Severn. To these is to
they had power to assume it. All theirskill be added at a later date, in the north and
and experience was directed to one object eastern part of England, the Danish im
war; and wherever they went their first migration. Such was the origin of the
object was to plunder and pillage. This mixed population of which England was
they practiced not only upon the Welsh, composed, when the Normans came to
but upon each other, in tiie wars which the capture and rule from the Saxons, just as
various provinces or parties waged against i the>' had formerly done from the Britons;
one another. Their ultimate success was j and the operation in each case was very
inevitable for two reasons: death had no n.uch the same, except the Normans were
terror to them ; and wherever one fell, his i th-' mort: civilixed people, and the Britons
place would be sure to be recruited bv an- I had lx-'en lilr Inorc stubborn material to
other soldier from Germany. When .a I conquer. At the Norman conquest the
province was acquired it was distributed I Saxons had been in possession of that por-
among the relatives who were descendants I tion f England around London six hun-
from Woden, as lords of the manors; and dred years ; it was the garden of England ;
others were made their tenants and serfs. but their progress in that length of time
Of the original Inhabitants, they as young was slow. That can only be accounted lor
soldiers of fortune took their choice of the by the Saxon form of government;by the
women for their wives ;and of the rest, with supercilious claim of the Saxon nobility,
the men who were unable to flee, they add that they were descendants of Woden, and
ed to their other serfs. This was the case ruled by divine right; and placed the low
in all the country places and rural districts. and subordinate position of the great mass
Many of the smaller towns were utterly of the people as serfs; which arrangement
destroyed ; but we have sufficient authority was a deaci weight upon their progress.
for saying, that the larger cities, as London, But the origin and progress of the Welsh
York, Winchester, Exeter and others, were had been entirely different. The Romans
not destroyed, and probably not captured, in the time of Claudius found the Ancient
but saved upon terms of paying to the Britons a people who had made great pro
Saxons certain amount of manufactured gress in the arts and civilization ; and that
articles which they stood in need of; and their country in its production was giving
they were thereupon permitted to regulate great impetus to commerce; and the peo
their own internal affairs in their usual ple capable ol rendering and paying large
manner, subject to the Saxon supremacy, amount of tribute and taxes, which was
as the Romans had done. This will ac the sole object of the Roman conquest.
count why in cities we now find so many After the time of Agricola, they had been
institutions partaking of Roman origin so for three hundred years accustomed to
different from those of Germany, and will peace under Roman rule ; to whom alone
account for the large admixture of the An belonged the subject of war, and all its in
cient Britons in the present English; who cidents, leaving to the Britons the culture
may well claim that they are descendants of the arts of peace. Under that state of
of the Ancient Britons and Romans, as things, and at the same time the rapid pro
Chap. in. j THE CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE.
gress of Christianity among them, the An
cient Britons became a highly cultivated
people for that dav; it was their industry
and capability that produced in Britain al
most all that which since has passed as Ro
man towns, works and improvements. The
civil affairs of Hie country were left in the
hands of the people, as was usually done
by the Romans, where the people regular
ly paid their tribute and taxes; while the
military, fiscal and foreign affairs were at
tended to by the Romans themselves.
Many of the subordinary pro\ inces and
cities were left as stipendaries, to govern
themselves and regulate their own aftairs.
They therefore were a people accustomed
to civil affairs and the administration of
justice. They were a Christian people,
with a regular ecclesiastical polity regularly
established, with archbishops, bishops and
priests; with regular territorial divisions,
and churches; so that when Augustine
came, a hundred and fifty years alter all
communication with Rome and the mother
church had been cut off, he found the Brit
ish church sound in doctrine and discip
line, except that he insisted that the people
did not keep the right day for caster, and
he priests did not trim their hair right.
Such were the people of Wales at the ar
rival of the Normans and the battle of
Hastings. They had, amidst all their diffi
culties with the Saxons, preserved their de
votion to the Christian religion, their at
tachment to literature, and their love of
personal liberty and freedom. In the midst
of the war they maintained against the
Saxons, to preserve their country and per
sonal rights, they produced during the
sixth, seventh and eighth centuries that
amount of literature as to surprise the can
did examiner of it, when compared with
the dark ages of Europe when it was pro
duced. As poets it produced Taleisin,
Aneurin, Marlin and many others;
among the prose writers, Gildas, Nennius,
Asser and others But that age was en
tirely eclipsed by their great literary pro
ductions in the twelfth, thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, under still greater dif
ficulties arising from the wars, brought up
on them by their enemies, in which were
34
destroyed many 01 their churches, school*)
monasteries and places of learning. It is
surprising that they were able to produce
such productions, in the midst of such wars
to conquer them. Yet it has been the
fashion with some to call these people illit
erate and savage barbarians; and do this
off-hand, without ever having examined the
subject. But the matter lias been vindicat
ed by Turner, Matthew Arnold, .Stephens
and others.6
"Yet at this period," says M. Augustin
Thierry,' ''the Welsh nation was, perhaps,
of all Europe, that which least merited the
epithet of barbarian ; despite the evil which
the Anglo- Norman inflicted upon them
every day, those who visited them unarmed,
as simple travelers, were received with cor
dial hospitality; they were at once admitted
into the bosom of the best families, and
hared the highest pleasures of the coun
try, music and song." Thierry, upon ex
amination of various ancient authors,
assures us that the Cymry were thu.- quali
fied at every village to entertain and inter
est their company. He thus continues:
"The vivacity natural to the Celtic race
was further manifested in the Cambrians
by excessive taste lor conversation, and
their prompt repartee. All the Welsh of
every rank have been gifted by nature with
a great volubility of tongue, and extreme
confidence in answering before princes and
nobles; the Italians and French seem to
possess the same iacuity ; but it is not
found among the English race, nor among
the Saxons of Germany, nor among the
Allemans."8 In addition to this, it may be
remarked that history is full of instances
of the high estimation in which certain
persons of Wales, both men and women,
have been held at both the English and
French courts as Asser, the friend and
biographer of Alfred; those mentioned by
6 S:t: Sharon Turner's vindication in the appendix
of his History of the Anjjlo-S.i.vnns; Stephens I/il-
er.ituie of the Cyinrv: Prof. M. Arnold's CVllic Lit
erature in the Cornhih Muijuxine of r:r/>, and copii-J
in the New York Eclectic.
7 3 Thierry's Norman Conquest. B. viii, p. 20.
S Thierry ut supra. These expressions had refer
ence to the time of Giraldus Cainbn nsis, A. D. i iSS.
It prob:ib!y would not apply to the English of the
present day, when the blo^d of the Ancient Briton
is inort developed in them.
342 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
Froissarl- -Owen Tudor and David Gam, insisted upon the maintenance of their own
the special friends of Henrv V; and this is laws, and opposition to the feudal laws and
no less the case in modern times. oppressive aristocracy of the Saxons and
The habits, customs and condition of the Normans. But as the English laws from
Welsh people in the time of Henry II. are the time of Edward I to the present time
more fullv disci. ><ed and developed in the gradually improved, humanized, and assim
journal of Giraldus Cambrensis, in his ilated to their own, their opposition ceased.
journey through Wales, than any account "The Briton," said Palgrave, "despised
of anv other people of that day. He was their implacable enemies, the Anglo-
the son of a Norman nobleman and a Saxons, as a race of rude barbarians. This
WcKh princess; born and reared in Wales; will not he considered as any decisive test
educated in Paris, and became a clergy of superior civilization; but the triads, and
man. By his education and experience in the laws of Hoel Ddn excel the Anglo-
the world, he was well qualified for his Saxon and other Teutonic customs
task. From him we draw principally these in the same manner thaj the elegies of
few remarks. In consequence of Hie con I.lvwarch Hen, and the od.es of Taliesin,
tinual war of the Saxons and others upon soar above the ballads of Edda. Law had
them, the\ were trained to war, and studi become a science amongst the Britons; and
ously watched the defense of their country its volumes exhibit the jurisprudence of a
and their freedom; and inured themselves rude nation sharpened and modelled by
to the hardships and privations of a rugged thinking men, and which had derived both
country, necessary to sustain themselves stability and equity from the labors of its
st their numerous foes. Thev were expounders."*
agile and quick in their movements; and The land in Wales was private property,
this \\as observed by the Romans, as they and generally the owner resided on his es
had the advantage with light arms, and on tate. There were no serfs; the laborers
ly defeated where heavy armor and discip were freemen, who were permitted to go or
line prevented. They used light equip to be employed where their own best inter
ments breast plates, helmets, and shields; est called them. Generally every man of
and some were the most expert archers, family and of any standing was the owner
who with a stout bow would send an ar of a piece of land, or homesteada yeo
row with almost irresistible force; while man. Estates were larger or smaller, ac
others were distinguished for their skill in cording to one's ability to purchase and
the use of the lance; and others as cavalry, hold them. The princes were owners of
and the skill and care with which they large estates, and their revenue was gen
managed their horses. In agriculture they erally derived from their management of
took great pains in plowing their ground; them, as gentlemen of large estates, residing
but depended more for their subsistence on them, would in the present day. In his
upon their flocks than upon their grain. tory we hear of no complaint of taxes, ex
The agriculturalist, artist and scholar were cept when compelled to pay tribute toother
all cherished and protected as the three powers; which is generally resisted to the
pillars of the state. But it was in litera utmost of their abilities. This is a very
ture that the Welsh excelled their neigh different state of things from those found in
bors in Western Europe, in that dark age; England, under either the Saxons or Nor
and this thcv fondlv cherished, as their mans, until after the time of Edward I ;
inheritance from the druids, bards and and in these respects the state of things in
priests of the ancient Cymry and Britons. the two countries were not assimilated un
Ijfiw was even then studied a"s a special til Henry VIII.
science, and espcciallv as it applied to the The Cymry were kept back from enjoy
rights and freedom of every individual as a ing the advantages that their civilization,
man, and to the protection of his property.
Q Pnl^r:ivc's llisc j.i.i Process of Kn^lish C-oin-
Il \v;ison this account thcv so strunuoush mnmvL-alth,
ChJip. in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. J43
hundred years the Cymry had been pressed
Christianity and laws would ordinarily give
by war and conquest by the rude people of
them by the circumstances by which they
Northern Europe, in succession of swarms
were surrounded. About the time that the
Roman army were compelled to leave one after another, as though there was no
end to their resources for amors, or their
Britain, in consequence of the invasion ol'
coming, until they the Cymry had been
civilized Europe by the northern barbarian,
driven back, step by step, from the fields of
Britain began to be sorely afflicted by the
Kent to the mountains of Wales; while all
pirates and robbers from the sea. Then
that pressure and brave resistance was on
came the Saxons expelling Christianity and
ly to determine whether the tree land of the
learning, and destroying improvements.
Cymry should be converted into the man
Commerce was destroyed and all communi
ors and serfdoms of Saxon or Norman
cation with the civilized world cut off, at
lords; yet in no instance does history dem
least for a hundred and fitly or two hundred
onstrate that they were a warlike peo
years. Then were the dark ages resting
ple with a view to a foreign conquest.
upon all Europe, and the Cymry driven
Their wars and hostilities were for the pre
back to the western shores of Britain. It
servation of their rights and freedom.
was under these adverse circumstances that
What they contended for was to be let
the Britons maintained their Christianity,
alone in the enjoyment of their property,
literature and arts, while cut oil" from com
their religion and their just laws. Hut
munication with the Christian world; until
their fair fields were coveted by the invad
after Augustine's time, who was astonished
ers, to be converted from the individual
to find Christianity on the western shores
property of freemen to the occupancy of
of Britain, which was l.o him like finding
an unknown land. .Still the Cambrian*the feudal lord and his serfs. Even while
surrounded by these oppositions, they pre
were surrounded hy their enemies, bent up
served their institution-, though their pro
on robbery and conquest, destroying every
gress was retarded or deteriorated by the
thing that was not yielded up to them with
fire and the sword. These matters prerudeness of the dark age that surrounded
them. If they had been let alone to pro
vented commerce in Cambria, and peace
gress from the time that the Romans left
and commerce were necessary to her suc
them, we might hope that their free insti
cess. In a great measure these were given
tutions, as to laud, law and Christianity,
to London; but if they were bestowed on
would have produced a new civilization,
Cardail", Mil ford, or Liverpoolthere would
have been London. Hut London had herof which that ot England is now only a
part.
superior surroundings, which commanded
peace, and attracted commerce to her. Like
But when their difficulties and surround
all other great cities that preceded her, she
ings are taken into consideration, the ex
attracted to herself from every place the
tent to which they preserved their condi
talent and enterprise of the world; and all
tion is surprising. When Giraldu* visited
that came she claimed as her own. Sur
these people in the reign of Henry II,
rounded with war and hostility, Cambria
though he was well acquainted with Paris
could not do this. It is London that has
and other cities of Europe, he was aston
made England what she is. In th;it the
ished when he came to visit C;erleon on
Lloegrian Cymry in London, at the coming
the Usk, to see the architecture and degree
of the Saxons, whom the Saxons were of refinement and improvement he found
never able to lake, assisted; sodid thcsame
there, lie highly complimented the refine
people, throughout England, who submitted
ment he found in the houses of the gentry
to Saxon rule, assist; and so have the Cym
he visited. Not only were the matters of
ry of Wales and Scotland assisted. And
the church in religion and theology pro
these claims the citizens of London would
tected and fostered, but, in accordance with
not now be willing to surrender. the practices and institutions of the ancient
Notwithstanding that for more than four
Druids continued to later times, the/
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
344
equally protected and fostered secular in ting Stephen, who, stating that he knew
terest, by a public institution, which was not where the blame lay, declined to in
denominated the Kisteddvod, which was a terfere."
public assembly ot' the learned and wise About forty years alter the last mention
men of the land, where public essays were ed feast, Lord Rhys, Henry II's justiciary
produced on all subjects of interestin for South Wales, made another great feast
poetry and prose, in arts and science, in at the castle of Cardigan, where similar
view to public- interest and improvement. competitions were held; and it is said that
These meetings were common and fre 'it appeared in the contest the bards ot
quent both before and after the Norman North Wales got the prize for poetry,
conquest. Some yc;irs after that event, on while a young man belonging to Rhys'
the return of Rhvs ah Tewdwr, prince of own household was adjudged to have ex
South Wales, from Brittany to Wales, says celled in the powers of harmony."
the historian, "he brought with him the These exercises and institutions are very
system of the Round Table, which, at honorable to the Cymry, and excel any
home, had been quite forgotten, and he re thing of the kind among any other people
stored it as it is with regard to minstrels of that day; and we are informed that the
and bards, as it had been at CaerL-on on the Eisteddvod is occasionally continued to the
Usk, under the emperor Arthur, in the present day; but it is possible that the in
time of the sovereignty of the Cymry over stitution may be superseded by the modern
the island of Britain.""1 This institution form of delivering lectures.
became an adjunct to th.it of the Kistedd But it is the literature of the Cymry,
vod. The latter was frequently held, but during those dark ages, which surprises
it required a public notice of a. year and a the historian and reader more than any
day to call the assembly of one. thing elsethat of the sixth, seventh and
Besides the Eistcddvtxl, public meetings eighth centuries have been already referred
similar to them were also held by the to; but the age we are now considering,
princes on their own account, of one o the twelfth and succeeding centuries, which
which we have- the following narrative has brought forth an astonishing develop
"Gruftydd ah Rhys fin 1135) had a large. ment of their literature. Some of it, which
feast prepared in Ystad Tywi, whither he has sometimes been attributed to this peri
invited all to come in peace from North od, undoubtedly belonged to a far more re
Wales, How vs. South Wales, Glamorgan, mote age, as the triads and the laws; but
and the Marches And he prepared every after making all due allowance for the pro
thing that was food in meat and drink, duction of previous ages, this period has of
wise conversations, songs and music; and itself a wonderful development of its own,
welcomed all poets and musicians, and in iind almost entirely a native and original
stituted various plays, illusions ami appear production. Besides the great volume of
ances, and manly exercises." And to this poetry produced in that age, for which I
feast came persons from all parts of the is must refer to Mr. T. Stephens' very learned
land. And it is further stated: "After the and able work on the "Literature of the
feast Gruffvdd ab Rhvs invited the wise Cymrv," there is a great variety of prose
men and scholars, and upon consulting writing but little known to the readers of
them instituted rules and law on every the present day, amongst which we must
person within bis dominions, and fixed a be permitted to particularly mention two
court in every Cantrev, and an inferior Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History,
court in every Commot. GrufTydd ab Ry- and the Mabinogion.
nan did the same in North Wales; and the The British history of Geoffrey assumes
Normans and the Saxons, sorry to see this, to give the history of the island and its peo
made complaint against these princes to ple from the earliest period down to Athel-
stan. and without regard to whether the
10 Sec Stephens' Literature of the Cymrv, p. J3t, work is true or false, or how much of it i g
an*! who riu-s- lolo MS., p. 630.
Chap. in. I THE CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE.
true; still it must be admitted to have been
the most important literary work of that
age. It has been more copied, translated
and read than any other book of that peri
od. It was a work thai inspired, and fur
nished materials for all the poets and ro
mance of the following centuries"Mate
rials for some of their noblest works of
fiction and characters of romance." It in
spired and infused a literary taste for that
age, incomparable with any other book.
"Its. popularity is proved by the successive
adaptation of Ware. Lavamon, Robert of
Gloucester, Mannyng, and others; and its
influence on the literature of Europe is too
notorious to be dwelt upon."'1 Nor should
its influence upon the work of Shakespeare.
Bacon, Milton and Tennyson be forgot
ten.'*
The history of Geoffrey has sometimes
been severely criticised, condemned and
traduced; yet other competent judges have
strongly sustained its literary merits, and
the obligation it has conferred upon the
world. Of these is Prof. Buckle in his
History of'Civilization in England, in which
among other favorable things he says:
"The work is, therefore, the joint composi
tion of two arch deacons, and is entitled to
respect, not only on this account, but also
because it was one of the most popular of
all the production-, of the middle ages;"1''!
and he vindicates Geoffrey's history of Ar
thur, and gives a very interesting account
of the work and its merits.
The Mabinogion was a class of literary
work produced by the Welsh, contempo
raneously with their poetry, but in prose.
It was a collection of tales written to while
away the time of the young chieftains, to
he repeated at their fireside; but which
very powerfully reacted upon the national
11 Stephens' ut -.upra, p. 320, who cites Quarterly
Hevk-w for March. iJvfS, p. 230.
12 Geoffrey's work \v:is written in Latin; and a
good translation ot it is fount] in Bohn's Antiquarian
Library, "Six Old Eiyjlish Chronicles." Geoffrey
lived in the early part of the twelfth century; and in
the year 1152, in" the time of king Stephen, was made
bishop of St. Asaph. He, in his British history, was
aided by Walter, archdeacon of Oxford. Both of
these men were native Welshmen, and well acquaint
ed with their native language, and often wrote in it.
<iraldus was of the same age.
13 Ruckle's History of Civilization in England,
Vol. i, p.a.ia.
345
literature and character, as did their poetry.
These tales were almost on every subject
which would give interest to fiction and
narratives, as novels do at the present day.
Recently these tales have been collected,
arranged and translated by Lady Charlotte
Guest, and published in a very acceptable
style, so that we now have them in the
English language. "So greatly do these
Mabinogions differ in character that the/
may be considered as forming two distinct
classes, one of which generally celebrates
heroes of the Arthurian Cyclus, while the
other refers to personages and events of an
earlier period."'*
These literary productions, together with
their laws, will greatly dispose the condi
tion of the people; but for the want of
space in our work, we must only refer to
the works themselves; and to the able
work of Mr. Stephens on the Literature of
the Cvmry, which will very satisfactorily
disclose the condition and habits ol the
people during the period. Any fair mind
must be satisfied that a people who are able
to produce fiurh an amount of literature,
and codes and systems of laws, as has been
referred to from time to time, must be, in
their moral condition, far in advance of the
ignorance and barbarity which then had
benighted Western Europe. Surrounded
as the Cvmrv had been by the conquering
barbarian, and that pall of darkness and ig
norance which in the previous age rested
over Western Europe, without the advan
tage of any city and commerce, it is impos
sible to conceive how this people could
have produced and preserved this literature
and science, except having preserved them
from the advanced condition thev were in,
as the Ancient Britons between the time
of Cii'^ar and the coming of the Saxons.
14 Stephens' ul sup_ra, p. 413. Here it majr be re
marked that some of the Saxon writers insist th '
the Ancient Britons and Druids did not commit to
writing, hut depended upon memory and oral deliv
ery. This is claimed from what Cx-sar says, that the
Druids delivered their instructions to their student*
orallv, who were required to commit thi-rn to mem
ory, for the purple of exercising thattacultv. When
this is insisted upon to prove that general laws and
Cither matters were not committed to writing, it iu
false; for elsewhere Ca'sar does say that they did
| commit to writing both public and private matters.
 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
2 Condition of the English from the Nor submit. But when the throne became va
man Conquest to the Conquest f Wales by cant, or was in the hands of an infant or a
Ed-ward f. (A. />. 10661276). weak prince, then the council, the Witen-
As it has been already claimed, it is agemot, would interfere and take the gov
deemed that there can be no doubt that the ernment in their own hands, until an able
government of England, up to the end of prince was capable to rule for himself.
the reign of Edward the Confessor, when Still the council consisted exclusively of
Harold and William the Conqueror began the aristocracy, and they were of one fami
to claim the right of succession, was entire ly the descendants of Woden. There was
ly in the hands of an hereditary aristocracy, no arrangement or principle in operation
who claimed their right as descendants of by which the people had any controlling
Woden; and that the title to the land of the influence over the government; the great
country w;ts in the hands of that aristocra body of the people were serfs.- Such had
cy, who might be more properly termed a been the government of England for near
caste rather than a class. Almost the only ly four hundred years previous to the com
exception to this arrangement was the ing of the Normans, except so far as it was
break t(iut Godwin's famih made in it. All interfered with by the Danes. Those were
the Saxon kings of England, and the nobil J Sec ante, B.--. Jn determining the Saxon gov
ity, "Aldermen," constituted, says Pal- ernment in Knijland. we have nothing to do with
grave, "a kind of ruling caste or tribe, all was i: inand
Tacitus the Germans. The question is, what
linglaud? Saxons :tnd Woden arose after
sons of Woden ;"i and by that right and the auspices olThe
Tacitus' time. S.ixons cmninir to Britain under
Wndun, his children and religion
title they claimed to rule. They held the gave to Kngland a new fnnn of government, in which
landed property of the country, and the liberty und freedom for the in-eat mass of the peop'r
had no place. J Turner's I list Anglo-Sax., p. 291.
great mass of the people were tenants and stract In Turner's history, second vol., p. jsS, is an ab
Irom the doomsday book, showing the enu
serfs under them. The people were diy ided meration of families in Kngland by counties in the
time of William the Conqueror. "This greatly as
into three classes, the nobility or lords, the sists in seeing the condition of the people at that
time, which
freemen, and the bondsmen, and these lat the people from did not much change the condition of
the Saxon times, except to transfer
ter were generally designated as villains or the landed property from the Saxon nobility to the
\orm.ins. \\ e here copv Oxfordshire : a fair
serfs, were considered as appurtenant to sample of die whole :
the land and transferred with it. The land "OXHOKDSHIKK
and the serfs were the property of the lord. Chief proprietors ... 7--
Villanl ....................... '..'.'..'.".".'.?. I
-Some bondsmen were domestic slaves. Bordarii ............... Y XT? \
?,ervi .............................'.'.... S
The great body of the people were serfs ; r.scatores .............. 7.,
the freemen were in the minority, and were ,70
only free to choose what lord he would I'astura ................ ,..
Salina
serve and become his tenant. As freemen Houses in Oxford were
they had the right to hold certain offices in Other persons
the police government of the hundred or Total ..........................
shire; but they had no control over the multiplied These 7461 are heads of families, which should be
by at least .-.ix, which would -rive about
state government, for that was wholly in forty-five thouvmd lor Ih.-c.m.r.v in population. Of
these the villani. bordarii and servi. 6,^01, are the
the hand-, of the hereditary nobility. The families oi liondsmcn ..r shucs arid would be a pop
king had his council, called the Witenage- above ulation of ,?7,So . Perhaps s.pmc of the other classes
enumerated are al.-,o -.lavcv; hut this makes at
mot, which consisted of such of the landed least (bur-fifths of the population scrvil.-." Turner
on page 337, further says: "Even holding a freehold
nobility as the king thought proper to sum d,x;s not give Iil,ert> to a > Ulan. is, a remark not ob
mon. But when the government was in served by those who have deemed villani free peas
ants, because they were found to have lands. The
the hands of such kings as Pcnda, or Offii. bordarii, scrvi, rotarii. A'c.. were 'similarly circum
stanced. In the doomsday hook, burghcrs'aie men
or Ethelfrith, or Edgar, such council was of tioned as having hordarii under them. There c-in Itr
little importance; then everything went on on doubt
no that nearly three-fourths of the Anglo Sax-
population were in a sute of slavery; and nothing
could
as the king willed itpeace or war, ex force by which have broken the powerful chains of law and
the landed aristocracy held their peo
travagance or economy, the people had to ple in bondage, but such events as the Norman con
quest, and the civil wars which it excited and fos
i Pal^ravc's An^lo-Sax., ch. iv, p. 60. tered, and in which such numbers of the nobiiil*
perished."
Chap, in. | THE CONDITION
pagans, as the Saxons had been, claimed to
be the children, and believed in the princi
ples, of Woden ; vet they were not so much
a hide-bound aristocracy as their Saxon
brethren in England. Although the Danes
brought upon the Saxons of England the
tame desolating war of plunder, slaughter
and devastation of pagan animosity against
Christianity, as the Saxons themselves had
formerly waged for two hundred years
against the Ancient Britons, and gave the
appearance that Providence was paying the
Saxons in their own coin for the wrongs
they had done the Britons; still the Danes
did improve, and under Canute the Great
for a while gave to England a better gov
ernment, and have the credit of being the
means of giving to England the first great
man of plebeian Saxon origin, in the per-
on of the great earl, Godwin.-'' Sometimes
out ol wrongs and evil good does arise,
even in political events; but that good
might be attained by better means, hut for
the selfishness and cupidity of man.
When the Normans came to England
the Anglo-Saxons had a government, which,
though gradually improving, was as had
as any that wat> ever imposed upon an in
telligent people.4 Mr. Turner thinks that
nothing less than the revolution of the con
quest would have broken the chains with
which the aristocracy had bound their peo
ple. I think otherwise. It is believed
that when the wars had ceased by which
the aristocracy purposely kept the people
in, for their own objects, and not that of
the people, British soil and British human
ity, in due time, would have produced a
race of men, who of their own intelligence
3 See ante, B. iii, ch.-,
4 The authors of Pirlorial History of Enjjl mil
( Vol. i, p. 31) sav: "Thu feature of the Antflo-Sax-
oti system of society th.it appears the most singular
to oiir modern notion is the existence of so larijc a
body of UK- |jenp]c in the condition as that of the
villaiu, or chief cultivators of the soil that is to say,
not subject to the control of any master who had the
rigfht to regard and use them as their absolute prop
erty, yet so completely destitute ot what we under-
Ntand by freedom, tint they had not the power of re
moving from the estate on which they were born.
and were transferred with it on every change of pro
prietors, they and their services together, exactly in
the same in.mner as any other portion of the stock,
live or dead, human or brutal, which happened to
be accumulated on the surface. They were bound
to the soil, and could no more uproot themselves and
withdraw elsewhere than could the trees that were
planted in it."
OK THE PEOPLE. 34T
and native form would produce a rcvolu
tion which would put Britain upon a prop
er basis as to its laws and government.
At any rate, such were the laws and condi
tion of the Anglo-Saxons when the Nor
man conquest came upon them. No seri
ous effort was made against it after the fall
of Harold. The aristocracy did not until
it was too late, for they thought it was only
going to change the head of government
and put in William instead of Harold, and
the latter they considered too much of a
parmnu for them to aid him. The people
did not care, for they thought it was only
a change of masters, which would not
make a great deal of difference with them.
But they found it was in reality a change
of masters; a master who held a rod of iron
in hi-, hand.
The change which then took place ha*
already been stilted; and terrible as it was,
it would seem that every class of people
suffered in the revolution; hut it would ap
pear that the lower class, who were the vil
lains and serfs, and constituting the great
mass of the people, suffered the least.
Their condition was the same before the
event as aftei it. When the Conqueror de
creed the transfer of the land from the old
Saxon aristocracy to the new Norman
lords, the people were transferred with the
land; and it was only a change of owners,
and they still remained as villains and serfs,
upon it.
The Anglo-Saxons who came to Britain
and established their government there,
came from the low and then swampy coun
try at the mouths of the Elbe and Eider,
possessed none of the advancement of up
per or Southern Germany, in literature or
arts. Thev were warriors by profession
and pirates bv practice. Tho looked upon
literature and the arts as beneath their at
tention, and inconsistent with their charac
ter and profession. They came as soldier*
to conquer and acquire fortune, not as emi
grants or colonist*, hut to capture and plun
der. They then-fore brought with them
but little more than their battle-axe, ex
pecting to take, in the rich and improved
country to which they were going, what
ever they wanted, even their wives; and to
348 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv
make the people their serfs, to produce for bions enough to transfer all the property of
them their sustenance anil clothing. When the Saxon nobility, with their serfs, to the
established in Britain, the time of their aris Norman lords. This brought upon the
tocracy was taken up with the wars with Saxons so severe a rule and oppression
the natives and each other, and in the that some of the Saxon nobility gave up
management of their estates and serfs. their position* and voluntarily became
Thus literature, arts and science were neg serfs.
lected as beneath their attention. During The condition of the Saxons, by the con
(he four hundred years from their advent quest, became most deplorable. Not on!/
to the Norman revolution, their progress was the position of the nobility entirely
in all kinds of improvement was slow. lost, and that of the common people in no
They neglected architecture as well as lit wise improved, for all the landed property
erature, and what little they had was con and the serfs were transferred from the
fined to the clergy, stimulated by the Ro Saxon nobility to the Normans, but the op
man church. The nobility generally knew pression and wrongs of a conquered people
not how to read or write. During the rested upon every class of the Saxons in
same time the Welsh, Irish and the Scotch, proportion to the capacity of each to suffer.
under great disadvantages of foreign war Whenever anv disturbance or rebellion
imposed upon them, made great progress | took place in any district, the Normans
in literature and learning, and sent out in rode over and traversed the country as
to the world as teachers and missionaries a conquering armyplundering and pil
such men as Pclagius, St. Patrick, Coium- laging, burning and slaughtering, as whim,
banus, Asser, Erigenus, Dun Scotius, and caprice or interest might dictate, olten
others. The Normans, after their settle quartering themselves upon the people,
ment in Normandy, by their assimilation and taking what pioperty and forage they
with the original Celtic inhabitants, made pleased at will. Upon such occasions they
very rapid improvements in literature, ar respected no law, human or divine, and all
chitecture, and all the arts then known, kinds of oppressions and wrongs^were per
and manilested a decided taste for them. petrated. Krcqnentlv death itself was a re
When the Normans came to England, the lief toother wrongs, and the epithet of in
difference apparent between them and the justice is too mild a term for them. Many
Saxons in respect to matters just mention years ol the Conqueror's reign passed off
od induced the Normans to look upon the before the country was relieved of this op
acquirements of the latter with contempt. pression, and the affairs settled down into
This feeling, and the assumption ol con a regular and usual government.
quest on the part of the Normans, soon in A contemporary writer, lamenting over
duced a strong opposition on the part of the unhappy condition of his country, ex
the Saxons to William and his followers, claimed: "From that day every evil and
which did not exist at first; and gradually every tribulation has fallen upon our home.
produced rebellion and resistance to them, May God have mercy on it." It is said
but when it was too late to be successfully tnat l"t men na<' to undergo indigence and
organized, and when the Normans had ac servitude; the women insult and outrage
quired such a hold upon the country that more cruel than death. Those who were
they with ease put down all resistance not taken in marriage were taken fara-
against them. inours, as the conquerors termed it; and
From the commencement of the con sometimes the least and lowest of them
quest the Normans had been in the habit was lord and master in the house of the
of confiscating the property of all those conquered.* They took all kinds of liber
who were found in opposition to them; and ties and license, and were astonished at
perhaps the subsequent rebellions were more their own insolence and success. Tke
courted than feared. At any rate, the Nor
5 i Thierry's Nornrtn Conquest, B. iv, pp. 19$,
mans found, during William's reign, occa- ia6. i Hume's History of England, pp. 190190.
Chap in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 349
Conqueror and his immediate cabinet offi ignorance of the Saxon clergy, removed a
cers governed the country as he chose, large portion of them and tilled their places
without the aid or restraint of any parlia with foreign or Norman clergy. They al
ment or any constitutional body, shaving so introduced a greater amount of archi
with him the powers of the state. He re tecture and a spirit for its improvement.
quired such payment of taxes as he chose The oldest style of architecture after the
to levy. The Saxon lords were extin Romans in Britain is that of the Normans.
guished, and the Norman lords who were They immediately commenced to build
to supercede them were not sufficiently large castles in various parts of England on
seated to exercise much restraint over him. their estates; and numerous abbeys, mon
During the reigns ot" William the Conquer asteries and churches. Thus the Normans
or and William Rufus, a period of thirty- were the means of introducing into Eng
four vears, from 1066 to i loo, the form of land great improvement in the arts, which
government did not much improve, except produced great reformation in the habit*
as it settled down in a peaceful and ordi and condition of the people. This differ
nary administration. But after the reign ence between these two people enabled the
of Henry I the Norman lords began to Normans to hold the Saxons in contempt,
feel their own strength and importance; and impose upon tne latter, until about the
many of them becoming natives of the soil, time of Edward III, their own language,
and move :i!Ue!ifd to it than to Normandy ; the Norman-French, in all public proceed
less inclined to support the king's interest ings, and that of the courts and govern
in his old home in Normandy, and more ment. For all the prominent places in the
divided in parties a~ to the wishes and ir- government, courts and church, learned
terest of the king. Gradually the Norman foreigners were sought, and the Saxon na
lords and their descendant!- became recog- I tives excluded. This state of things was
nized as part of the government; i'nd by terribly oppressive to the Saxons, though
the time of king |ohn thev tvcame power the country, in point of learning, society
ful enough to remonstrate against the and arts, was constantly improving.
wrongs and oppressions of the government, By the time ot king John a hundred and
and to bring the king to a stand, and com fifty years had elapsed, and the nobility of
pelled him to assent to a charter embody the country the descendants of the Percys,
ing the terms of what they considered to Fitz Osbern, Warren, and other followers
be a just administration of the government of the Conqueror, were now in the fourth
and protection to the rights of individuals. or tilth generation, and their hopes and af
The Normans, notwithstanding their ty fections attached to British soil: while the
rannical and oppressive government at first, i king and his immediate attendants were
were the means of ultimately producing j still from Normandy. These Norman
great reformation in the condition of Un- kings still held possessions and interests in
English people. One was the breaking up Normandy and other provinces in France,
of the old Woden aristocracy, and another and their expenses attending all the admin
was a reformation as to the ignorance of istration, and satisfying their attendants,
the Saxons, and their imlitYerencc to litera became very great; and that expense wan
ture and science. To accomplish this re raised by taxes and contribution levied up
form Alfred had labored with very exem on the land proprietors and holders of prop
plary vigor, with but little effect as to the erty in England. In the payment and the
mass, even among the nobility. The Nor enforcement of the collection of the requi
mans, on the contrary, were active in in- ] sitions of the government, and the arbitrary
troducing and encouraging literature and | manner in which they were enforced, the
the arts. They were in the habit of writing Anglo-Norman nobility of the country be
and putting matters to record of the pro gan to feel the oppression and complain of
ceedings of the courts and government. the arbitrary and unlimited administration
William, under the pretense of the great of the government. They now realized as
350 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv.
oppressive what was indifferent to them are concerned, towards these dependents."
when inflicted upon others. After much So that the great body ot the people the
complaint of grievances unredressed, the great body of humanitywere still left to
barons of England combined against the the tender mercies of their masters. The
king and his ministers, for the purpose of Charter speaks, as all conventions of the
securing a more just and liberal govern kind do, of the wrongs and injustice which
ment. AtXer a very decided military move they themselves have felt; but the bonds
ment against the king, a revolution threat man the serfis left unnoticed. ft i
ened, a conference was held (A. I), ui^) sometimes said that the Charter was the
between the king and these barons at Run- reproduction of Anglo-Saxon liberty. This
nemede; and the Great Charter of king is a mistake. It is not probable that a sin-
John was there procured. The king after- ' gle Anglo-Saxon had anything to do with
wards complained that he was compelled j it. It is almost certain that there was not
to grant it; but the English claimed it was ' a single Anglo-Saxon in the convention
no more than an acknowledgment of their which produced There is a great deal
just rights; and have since referred to it as of excellent matter in the Charter, but it
the foundation and commencement of their refers to the nobility, clergy and freemen,
liberties and constitutional rights. and leaves the bondsmen and slaves out ol
The Great Charter was one of the most its protection. Still the Charter was drawn
extraordinary political paper* ever produced up in a most excellent spirit of freedom;
in any country previous to modern times, it was probably the work of some of the
for the purpose of securing personal rights clergv the bishops who were members of
and the <lue administration of the govern- the convention. The nobility of that age
ment. The dignitaries of the church united ] h:ui no sympathy for the humble, the serf,
with the barons to secure their rights and ' "r ""*' *lav'': illld tlK' clergy would not
liberties from the royal aggres-.ions ot which | dare t(> sa.v nulch in lhvor Ol tho freedom
they complained. It secures the rights and i ot tho slavc or serf- English liberty and
freedom of the church; it protects the rights ' freedom, like the race itself, is the growth
and privileges of the nobility from the tin- j of various elements combined and brought
just encroachments of the crown, and de- j torth simx' lhat da-v < hllt the <'^>:t Char-
clares that "no FRKKMAN shall be taken, or ! ter mil>' be a' corner-stone in the tbunda-
imprisoned, or be deprived of his freehold tion of the great temple of British laws and
or liberties, but by the lawful judgment of freedom. Ir, general terms it uses apt word*
his peers, or bv the law of the land." i '" t:>v01' ol"justice and freedom; and in this
These matters are so declared and secured ' respect it may have been drawn up by some
in sixty sections of the Charter; and its oh- one wll i:ute it more so than the barons
ject seems to be.besides restraining the undue . wcrc aware ot.
powers of the crown, to protect the rights ' The Gre.it Charter is a most extraordi-
and privileges of the clergy, the nobiiitv, ' nary instrument of civil liberty and consti-
and the freemen; but there is hardly a word i tutional freedom for the age that produced
in it that gives protection or comfort to | it. It interfered but little or none with the
that large class of English people, those I form of the government, but its great ob-
constituting more than one-half, and per ject seems to be to reform the administra
haps three-fourths, of them the villains, tion bv prohibiting some things and requir
serfs and slaves. Only in two places does ing others to be observed, for the purpose
it refer to them, to-wit: In section twenty of suppressing arbitrary and oppressive
"A freeman shall be amerced only accord measures, and of securing justice and due
ing to his faults; and a villain shall only administration of the law. In these respects
be amerced in the same manner.". And it is entitled to its great appellation, and
then in section sixty: "AH the aforesaid was cherished by the people in subsequent
customs and liberties, * as well times as the palladium of their rights. For
clergy as laity shall observe, as far as they a long time every new king was required
Chup. in.] THK CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 35
to renew or confirm the Great Charter of sentations to king John of Llewellyn's op
king John. But one of the most extraor position. War followed with much diffi
dinary and unaccountable matters in it is culty and hard fighting. Llewellyn being
that which is found in three of some of its desirous of peace, sent his wife to king
last sections : ami thev are these : "Section John, her father, to mediate for peace, in
fifty-six If we have deprived or dispos which she was successtul. Afterwards oc
sessed the Welsh of any land, liberties, or curred the difficulty between the king and
other things, without the legal judgment of his barons, which culminated in the adop
their peers, either in England or in Wales, tion of the Charter. Now, in their difficul
they shall be immediately restored to them : ty with the king, the barons were very
for tenements in England according to the friendly with Llewellyn, and solicited his
law of England, for tenements in Wales co-operation. The barons were successful
according to the law of Wales, for tene in not only enlisting Llewellyn, but also
ments of the Marche according to the law the Pope in their favor, against the king;
of the Marche; the same shall the Welsh ] !lnd thc PP<-- sent a special communication
do to us and our subjects." "Section fifty- I to th^ prince releasing him and his people
seven As for all those thing.'- of which a of their tributary oaths, and urging them,
Welshman hath, without the legal judg under the penalty of hit- curse, to annoy
ment of his peers, been disseized or de- and trouble king John to the uttermost of
prived of by king Henry our father, or our ; their Pwer. Llewellyn was in a difficult
brother king Richard, and which we either I situation, lor John had his son and other
have in our hands, or others are possessed I hostages in his hands. The barons were
of, and we are obliged to warrant it. * thus able to bring king John to terms. But
* * we will immediately do them, full then who represented and cared for the in-
justice, according to the laws of the Welsh terest of the Welsh people in the conven
and of the parts before mentioned.1' '-Sec tion at Runnemedef It seems from the in
tion fifty-eight We will without delay dis strument itself that they were amply cared
miss the son of Llewellyn,'1 and all the for, though there is nothing to show that
Welsh hostages, and release them from the Saxons were.
the engagements they have entered into Of the barons who attended that conven
with us for the preservation of the peace." tion, we have the names of two, there may
What is extraordinary in this matter is be others, who were intimate and well ac
the care that is taken to do ample right quainted with Welsh affairs, and intimately
and justice to the Welsh people, whom connected with them. These were: First,
they had been accustomed to rob and plun the earl of Pembroke, marshal of Eng
der of their property upon every feasible land. This man was William de Clare,
opportunity- At whose instance was this whc., with two of his ancestors, was sur-
done? It seems that about ten years before named Strongbow; Gilbert de Clare being
this, peace existed between Llewellyn and the first, Richard de Clare being the second,
king John, and the king gave to the prince and William the third Strongbow. They
his daughter Joan in marriage. Soon, all had been among the most distinguished
however, the earl of Chester and other of the great men who came from Norman
lords of the Marches were making encroach dy to Britain. They all had been earls of
ments upon the prince by taking possession Striguil in Normandy, and earls of Pem
of more Welsh lands; and Llewellyn mak broke in Wales. But William, who was a
ing resistance and reprisals. These lords member of the Runne.me.de convention,
were very anxious to capture more land, was the greatest of them, and a very excel
found Llewellyn not so easy a man to deal lent man. At the death of John, he was
with, and made complaints and misrepre- at the head of the government; and, ay
Hume, "it happened, fortunately for the
6 This was Ue well yn ;ih Jnrwcjrth, prince of Wales young monarch and for the nation, that the
A. D. li$ty i-i-jo, and not LIcwL-llyn ah Gruffydd,
the last prmre. power could not have been intrusted into
 35* THK NORMAN PERIOD. |Book iv.
more able and more faithful hands;"' and j This idea \vas carried into their trials by
he elsewhere calls him a wise and virtuous j combat, and into contention tor the posses-
nobleman. Second, John Mareschal," who] sion of property. Violence, blood and car-
seems to have been one of the barons from j nage had no repulsion or terror for them.
some of the king's fiefs in Wales. ! This, undoubtedly, was a part of the bar-
It is probable that it was these two dis | bnrity and supers! ition introduced into
tinguished men, at least, and probably oth- I Western Kurope bv the children and de-
ers, who took that great care of- the interest j voices of Woilen, which Christianity and
of the people of Wales at Runnemede. If civilization bad not as yet been able to up
the spirit of that care had always been root and abolish. During the reign of
manifested towards the Cyniry, the peace Henry III1" and Edward I, and from thence
ful times, which distinguished that people, down, the English people began to feel
during the Roman limes after Agricola, these evils, and the better sort of people to
during the reigns of Alfred, Edgar and labor for a reform. Various statutes were
Athelatan, and since the accession of Hen passed by parliament, reciting the evils,"
ry VIII, would have been perpetuated; for and enacting the proposed reform. From
they never engaged in any aggressive or thai time gradual improvements were made
foreign war, or any, except Ihat which was both in the laws, customs, and manners,
in defense of the right. The Great Char until they have developed inlo those of
ter unquestionably inured to the benefit modern times. Yet the progress was blow
of the Welsh people, in securing common in overcoming what had been so deeply
rights and justice, although there was prob- rooted by custom and habit: the privileges
ably nothing in it which could not be found and lawlessness of the upper class, and the
in Welsh laws and triads. absence of general education among the
A part of the barbarous customs intro lower class of the people.
duced by the conquerors of the Roman In regard to the general character of the
empire throughout Western Europe, and Anglo-Saxons, it is chosen to follow those
especially from Germany through France who have shown themselves to have been
and Britain, which neither Christianity nor quite favorable to them. "They were,"
the Great Charter were able at once to re says llume,1^ "in general a rude, uncultur
move, and discontinue as law until very ed people, ignorant of letters, unskilled in
modern times, was the trial of judicial mat the mechanical arts, untamed to submission
ters by ordeals and personal combats.!' under laws and government, addicted to in
These objectionable features in the law con temperance, riot, and disorder. Their best
tinued long after the period at which we quality was their military courage, which
now are, but the progress of civilization yet was supported by discipline or conduct.
gradually abolished their use in practice, Their want of fidelity to the prince, or to
until they became obsolete, as barbarous any trust reposed in them, appears strong
and unchristian. ly in the history of their latter period; and
During the Saxon and the fore part of their want of humanity in all their history.
the Norman period war and conflict, and Even the Norman historians, notwithstand
even private battles, were looked upon as ing the low state ofthe urts in their own coun
the normal condition of man, and believed try, speak of them as barbarians, when they
the result to be the interference of Provi
dencethat God would decide the ri"ht. Pictorial 10 S'jc a very ood chapter on the subject in the
History of England, Vol. i, B. iii, i-h. Hi
and vii; B. iv, ch. iii and vii.
7 J Hume's Hist. Eng., p. -28. 11 See i Pu-torial Hist. Knj{., p. 85^ Sututes ol
S John Marshall, lat.j Chief Justice of the United IJ7S. i Rich., nl II, stilt, i, c. 6.: "Do sometimes
States, has wiitti'n a statement, an autoirr:Iph which bi'ut and m lim, murder and slay the people for to
1 have seen in :i lithograph, th it his ancestors came have Ihcir wives and tfoods anj the same women
from Wales to Virginia. The first of the name in :tnj pfoods to retain to Uieir own use; sometimes
Wales took his surname from being a Mareschal take the kind's liege people in their houses and
under the Kn^lish government. brin and hold them as prisoners, and at last put
9 See Powell's tre (ties on the Law of Appellate them to rire and ransom, as it were in a land of war."
Proceedings, introduction. u History ->f Kngland, Vol. i, p. 177.
Chap. m.J THE CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE. 3S3
mention the invasion made upon them by strife of eight hundred years, from the
the duke of Normandy." The authors of time of Hcngist to that of Llewellyn; and
the Pictorial History of England," extract that end was attained by the continual ar
ing troni Ordericus Vitalis and Malmbury rival of soldiers from the continent, who
as contemporary English historians, say: took one piece or province after another,
"They assure us that, when the Normans making the land their own poperty , and the
first came over, the greater number of the people their subjects. It has been suggest
English clergy could hardly read the ed by a few, that at an early period, where
church service, and that as for any thing we possess no historical account of the op
like learning, they were nearly to a man eration, that the Saxons slaughtered all the
destitute of it; it any one of them under inhabitants, who did not flee the country
stood grammar, he was admired and won men, women and children, so that they
dered at by the rest as u prodigy. The up had an entire vacant country to begin upon.
per classes in general were sunken in sloth This theory is not only contrary to the op
and self-indulgence, and addicted to the eration in subsequent history, and that of
coarsest vices. * * * * Besides other other countries on the continent, but in it
gross practices, they were universally given self is so horrid, barbarous and inhuman,
to gluttonous feeding and drunkenness; that both history and humanity impugn it.-
continuing over their cups for whole days The union and assimilation of both the
and nights, and spending all their income conquerors and the conquered is the only
at riotous feasts, when they ate and drank theory consistent with truth and history.
to excess without any display either of re Prof. Creasy, in his learned essay on the
finement or of magnificence. The dress, English Constitution, reluctantly comes to
the houses, and the domestic accommoda our conclusion, and says: "The same evi
tions of the people of all ranks were mean dence, both the historical and the philo
and wretched in the extreme." This char logical, when carefully scrutinized, leads
acter of gluttonous and excessive drinking also to the belief that it was only the male
is given by all the Saxon historians of the part of UK- British population which was
times; but some excuse it as having been thus swept away, and that, bv reason of
introduced by the Danes. But this asser the union of the British females with the
tion is very questionable, as it is more prob Saxon warriors, the British elements were
able that this vicious habit was common to largely preserved in our nation."' It seems
both people. In these respects they were therefore to agree with Mr. Creasy's sense
put in contrast with the Celtic people, who of humanity, reason and history, to save
generally were more temperate, and of all the females and make them a part of
whom the Normans mostly partook. the English nation, but that all the males,
boys under the age of a soldier, and old
3. Tin- Condition of the People from thr men above it, as well as all those not killed
Annexation of H-rtilcs to thr. Accession of
in battle, were gathered together by the
t/ic Tudors. (A.D. 1283 1485.) Saxons and murdered or massacred in
The next year after the death of Llewel cold blood. This accords with neither hu
lyn, the last prince of Wales, Edward I
proceeded earnestly to do whatever he stitution, l Creasy' Rise anil Progress of the Knglish Con
p. But the idea Ihat the Ancient Unions
thought necessary to annex Wales, polit were Generally slaughtered bv the Saxons is now so
generally impugned thai it becomes unnecessary to
ically and judicially, to the government ot cite them. The other idea, that they were expelled
England. Since that time Wales has been the lo Wales is equally unfounded. At the coming of
Saxons Southern Rrit-iin had about two millions
a part of England as much as Yorkshire, of people; Wales at (hat date never hadone-lenlh of
that number, and could not have received them. No
and without any great rebellion or commo theory is, therefore, consistent or admtssabte, except
tion, except that under Owen Glendowcr. cient that which consolidates the great body of the An
Britons with the Saxons who came; and who
This was accomplished after a struggle and generally were soldiers and simple men; and took
wives, as suggested by Prof. Creasy; and the male
portion of the population brcame their subjects, and
13 B. iii, th. vii, p. 637. perhaps serfs.
354 THE NORMAN PERIOD. [Book iv-
inanity nor history, and will not be credited ! portion of the English people in blood and
by any fair and candid mind. race.
The annexation by Edward I completed The feudal tenures were undoubtedly in
this operation, and brought the last of the troduced into England by the Saxons, as
Cvinrv within the pale of the English gov they were carried, by the northern people
ernment and nationality: and just as the wherever thev subdued the Roman empire.
Britons along the Severn, on the peninsula The Normans found it in England, only
of Cornwall west of the Avon, in Mercia that they by a written code reduced it to
and in every part of England, have become more certain and specific terms as thev had
Anglo-Briton, so will the people of the done in Normandy. liut from the times of
principality; and that time is fast approach Richard II down, and especially during
ing, depending upon the kindness and hos civil wars and commotion, that tyrannical
pitality of the English people. system gradually ameliorated, especially
During the years 1.283 and '84, Edward during the reigns of John and Henry III.
*pent much of his time in Wales, endeav In Edward's time it was greatly improved,
oring to reconcile its people to their new and its most objectionable features taken
state of things. He visited the cathedral off; and by Cromwell's time but little of it
of St. David and paid great respect to that was left, and then it was declared that all
holy place. The archbishop of Canterbury tenures by knight and military services
at the same time made a visitorial journey should be reduced to tenure by free and
throughout the principality, observing very common socage. So that when the Welsh
conciliatory action towards the people. became a part of the people of England,
In March, 1283. king Edward enacted the feudal system did not exist in its great
the statute of Rhuddlan, which recited that est enormity. But the Welsh always pro
the king had caused the laws and regula tested against that system ; and in various
tions, then in force in those parts, to be treaties with the English, they annually
read before himself and nobles, and their provided that no feudal tenure should ap
bearing being fully understood, he had, by ply to any of their concessions. It is be
the advice of his counsel, annulled some, lieved that no feudal tenures ever existed
permitted some to stand, and added some in Wales, though they probably did in some
new ones, all to be perpetually observed certain English lordships which were taken
throughout Wales, which Divine Provi as conquered territory. Soon after the an
dence had now delivered entirely into nexation the English tenures ceased to be
hands. Several counties were formed, so objectionable, and became as kind as
which Sheriff's and other county olHcers those in Wales. But it was not only the
were appointed according to English or land tenures that had thus ameliorated in
ganization; but old division lines were ob England, but the whole system of human
served, and leaving the cantrefs (hundreds) rights and freedom had improved.
and cwmwds (townships) as thev were After the reign of Henry II the condition
marked out by their ancient lines. It also of the English people began to improve in
prescribes the duties of several officers and every respect. Slavery, serfdom, and arbi
magistrates, and prescribes certain forms of trary government began to yield towards a
judicial proceedings; and thus announcing j humane and rational liberty; a government
the general subjugation of the country. of exclusive aristocracy, to the lust claims
From the time ot Edward's annexation of the great body of the commonality ; and
the destiny of Wales and England became the arbitrary powers of the monarch to im
identified : the Welsh being the last of the pose taxes as he might deem best, to yield
Cymry or Ancient Britons who became a to the just claims of the people.
part of the English people; thus becoming In the reign of John the Great Charter
united, in interest and destiny, with their did much towards restraining arbitrary
brethren who had so preceeded them, and power, and to secure personal freedom.
forming a very large, if not the larger, Toward- the close of the lon<' reign of
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 355
contended for by the earl of Leicester, be
Henry III, of fifty-six years, next after that
gan to produce fruit, and open the eyes and
of John and the Great Charter, there was
understanding of the people. Hume is,
great progress made in political freedom
therefore, undoubtedly right in saying:
and personal rights, principally by the ad
vocacy of Simon de Montfort, the great "This period, which is the twenty-third of
his reign, (Edward I,) seems to be the real
earl of Leicester, who attempted a great
reform and innovation in the governmentand true epoch of the house of commons,
of England. In the struggle which this and the faint dawn of popular government
attempt brought upon him with the king in England. For the representatives of the
counties were only deputies from the small
and the aristocracv, his greatest confederate
and aid was Llewellyn, prince of Wales,er barons and lesser nobility; and the
before his own troubles came on. It wasformer precedent of representatives from
Leicester who made the first attempt tothe lx>roughs, who were summoned by the
earl of Leicester, was regarded as the act
wards the reform of parliament and place
of a violent usurpation, had been discon
it within the reach of the people. Under
his influence it was ordered that four tinued in all the subsequent parliaments."*
This period, and this reformation in the
knights for each count}- should be chosen to
government and the condition of the peo
represent to parliament the grievances of
ple, was ten years after the annexation of
the people.2 But it was afterwards that he
Wales ; and it aided in assimilating the laws
attempted the great reform : "He ordered
returns to be made of two knights from and condition of the two people; and pre
serve for the Welsh people the personal
each shire, and, what is more remarkable,
rights and freedom to which they had been
of deputies from the boroughs, an order of
men which, in former ages, had always accustomed. The opposition that the kings
of England encountered with some portion
been regarded as too mean to enjoy a place
of the nobility themselves, induced the
in the national councils."' But this was too
sovereign sometimes to side with the peo
great an innovation upon the close aristoc
ple in opposition to the wishes of the
racv of the English government up to that
barons. The kings frequently found the
time, to he countenanced or repeated; and
people the best supporters of the just
at that time there was no indication of a
claims of the throne; and adopted the pol
house of commons, or that the people were
to share any part in the government. icy of encouraging and protecting the
more industrious orders of the state, who
But it was not until after thirty years
were found well disposed, when well treat
from Leicester's time that we find that the
ed, to obey the laws, and maintain civil in
people had obtained any real hold on the
stitutions, and whose industry and integrity
government. Previous to that time all the
best promoted the progress and welfare of
attempted reformation we find in the En
the state. Their progressive improvement
glish history came from partisans of the
in the government and condition of the
nobility themselves, but after that we find
people proceeded onward to meet the great
the peoplethe plebeians acting and con
improvement that came with the Tudor
tending for human right. Until then, in
dynasty. In the meantime this progres
the reign of Edward I, the people were
sion was sometimes interrupted or retarded
kept down, in too abject condition to un
by civil or foreign war, which invariably
derstand or think of a liberal form of gov
was the result of the work of the nobility
ernment. By a combination of the aris
rather than that of the commonalty. The
tocracy, the people were kept too far from
war of the Lancaster and Yor.k factions
political power to dream that they could
of the red and white roses, was a matter
participate in it. B ut now the principles
wholly of the nobility, in which there was
secured by the Great Charter, and those
not a single principle of good government
or freedom at stake. Still the nobility sus
2 Sec i Hume's HUtorv of England, p. 33.
3 Hume, ut supra, p. 53. 4 J Flume's History of England, p. 101.
3S THE NORMAN PERIOD.
tained losses, and were so reduced in num
bers in the course of the wars and contro
versy, that the position of the commonalty
was greatly promoted in the result. The
lords were constantly diminishing and dis
appearing, while new great men were as
often rising and appearing from among the
plebeians.
In this manner the commons of England,
so very different from former times, have
arisen, upon whom so much of the power
and glory of their country depends. The
apparent difference in the character of the
Englishcountry, government and people
before and after the reign of Edward I,
it is no wonder that Macaulay says: "Here
commences the history of the English na
tion. The history of the previous events is
the history of wrongs inflicted and sus
tained," not only by various tribes upon one
another, but by one class of the same peo
ple and race upon another, while inhabit
ing the same soil and neighborhood; and
this, too, by Saxons upon one another, as
well as by Normans upon their subjects.
The distinction that the Saxons, from an
early period in their history, made between
one class of their people, by which one was
the ruler and the holder of land and the
other the mere serf, was so deeply rooted
that it took a great while to uproot it. It
was this Saxon aristocracy, founded upon a
descent from Woden, which enabled the
Normans so easily to overcome them, and
establish their government; and transfer
the land, and the people living thereon, at
once from Saxon lords to Norman lords,
by the mere transfer of great lordships and
manors. Had the land of the country been
divided up into the hands of independent
land-holders the yeomanry of the country
such as existed in Cromwell's time and now
exists in the United States, such transfer
could never have taken place. But be
tween John's time and that of Cromwell's
this change did transpire, deep rooted and as
slow as it was. It seems from history that
as firmly fixed as these evils w:ere, the peo
ple in their slow progress as often profiled
by weaknesses, vices, and errors of their
rulers, as by any other means. John and
Henry III, and the war of the roses, were
[Book iv.
good examples of this.
In the course of the progress of this
reformation, we come upon instances of
the new principles and customs coming in
conflict with the old in a singular manner,
[t would seem that sometimes old habits
and errors were too deeply fixed for them
to get out of the way for the new to have
its full operation. The love of war, and
bloodshed and carnage, which the Saxons,
in common with all the northern barbarians,
brought into Britain, which was the legiti
mate fruit of Wodenism, and which carried
with it the habit of personal and judicial
combats; and that of redressing personal
wrongs by force, and sometimes carrying
on a private war to gain a wrong, or redress
a private injury. This was frequently the
case in those warlike times, tolerated or suf
fered, to the manifest injury of good gov
ernment and laws, and to the great detri
ment of the interest of the people.
We have an account of a transaction in
the reign of Edward IV, about 1460, which
singularly discloses the character of the
times and illustrates what has been said.
The case was a contest for the possession
of an estate known as Caister.1 The Pas-
tons were in possession claiming the estate
under the late will of "the celebrated war
rior Sir John Fastolf"; and the possession
contested by the duke of Norfolk, who pro
ceeded to lay regular seige to the manor-
house, to recover the possession. ^_On being
informed of this, one of the Pastons (Sir
John) writes to hi* brother, to comfort him
in the seige and encourage the defense,
that he had procured "four well assured
and true men, to do all manner of things
that they oe desired to do in safeguard or
strengthening of the said place; and they
be proved men, and cunning in the war and
n feats of arms; and they can well shoot
both guns and cross-bows, and mend and
string them, and devise bulwarks, and keep
watch and ward" * * * * for fear of
the assault being made, '! send you these
men. Ye shall find them gentlemanly,
comfortable fellows, and that they will and
dare abide by their taking." It appears that
5 Sec 2 Vol. Pictorial History of England, B. v,
ch. vii, p. 265.
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 357
the siege went on lor some time ; that the Alired produced a long peace and har
duke called in his tenants to his aid and mony, as the oppression and cruelty of Of-
sent for guns, powder and other ammuni fa produced relentless war. In the same
tion. The besieged were sore pressed ; two manner may be compared the justice and
of the men "be dead," and others sorely kindness of the Great Charter towards the
hurt. The mother writes to Sir John Pas- Welsh, or that of Montfort, the earl of Lei
ton urging him to get either the duke of cester, towards them, with that determined
Clarance or the archbishop of York to ap hostility and injustice manifested by Ed
ply to the duke of Norfolk for terms- of ac ward I. But these acts of injustice and
commodations. After some time, we are cruelty are past and gone, and cannot
informed, Caister was given up to the duke ; now be remedied; they belong to another
and that the want of money, and the con age. Whether it be true or false that Ed
sequent failure of victuals and gunpowder, ward, in order to complete his conquest,
had compelled the brave garrison to sur collected the Welsh bards together and
render. The historian remarks upon this massacred them, in order to silence their
case : "These are exactly the circumstances praises in favor of their independence and
we might expect between two parties not freedom, and against the oppression and
living under the dominion of any common tyranny of their enemies; it must be true
law or government at all. Yet, if the law that the bards met him with the greatest
did not expressly sanction the present pro hostility,'1 and thousands of them met their
ceedings, it appears to have looked on death on account of their patriotism, as
without ever attempting to interrupt them." they did of old with the Romans.
They were the relics of a ruder age, when This difference of action on the part of
war, fighting and bloodshed were looked the Welsh, dependent on the spirit with
upon with, at least, composure. which they were met at various times, has
The Welsh now ceased to exist as an in sometimes been misrepresented, and
dependent people. After so long and glo charged against the Welsh as characteris
rious a struggle for their freedom, they tic of their capricious and unstable disposi-
were compelled to yield to destiny, as did tion, and faithlessness. But impartial his
the greatest and best of nations before them. torians have attributed this change of dis
They have submitted to the inevitable laws position to their true and just causes to
of Providence and force of nature, and are the just or the oppressive treatment which
now united to their brethren in that union, they received from those by whom they
which for so many ages had been swallow were surrounded, and with whom they had
ing up so many of their race, and which to deal. When acts of robbery, injustice and
constitutes, if not a majority of their blood, oppression were imposed upon them, they
at least a very large portion of the English would resent it and rebel. For instance,
people. In the course of this conquest, their last great rebellion was that of Owen
from the Roman times down, we find evi Glendower; and that was brought about
dence of the character given them by Taci by the injustice and wrongs of Henry IV
tus, a people easily led by kindness and towards him; and that was because Owen
justice, but hard to be driven by oppression did not support his usurpation to the crown
and wrong. This has become a part of the in opposition to the right heir. Glendower
character of the British people as though was therefore contending for the right in
it were the development of its soil. Ac opposition to usurpation and wrong. By
cordingly we find, in the dealings of this injustice he was driven to declare the
the Saxons and Normans with the An independence and freedom of his country.
cient Britons and their descendants, the Impartial historians have repeatedly taken
greatest extreme and opposition of these this view of the Welsh character, and in
principles, of kindness and justice on the answer to these charges made against them.
one hand, and oppression and cruelty on
the other; the justice and kindness of 6 a Thierry's Norman Conquest, p. 281.
358 THE NORMAN PERIOD.
Thierry says -J "The reproach of fickleness
and perfidy so lout; lavished on the free
population of Southern Gaul by their na
tional enemies, the French and Anglo-
Normans, constantly applied to the natives
of Cambria. And, indeed, if it were per
fidy not to recognize any right of conquest,
and to make incessant efforts t* shake off
the foreign yoke, the Welsh were certainly
the most faithless of all nations; for their
resistance to the Normans, by force and by
stratagem, was as pertinacious as had been
that of their ancestors against the Anglo-
Saxons," This vindication of the Welsh
character has been made bv other fair and
impartial historians. They have consid
ered how these people have been encroach
ed upon for ages, as though the surround
ing world was combined to rob them, until
their last stronghold was taken. The .Sax
ons and Normans were constantly making
new approaches upon them, and every
new acquisition defended with immense
castles; and their new approaches gained
by constantly recruited forces from Eng
land, Germany and France, until the oper
ation of ages had worn them out. "These
tyrannical lords and greedy retainers could
not follow tne example of the king's mod
erationtheir cruel excesses and their in
sulting demeanor towards the Welsh con
tinually provoked hostilities, and kept alive
feelings which frequently vented them
selves in deeds scarcely more lawless than
those out of which they arose."8 Still the
brave people were firm to the last in their
resolution to resist the wrong, with strong
faith in their destiny and hopes in the jus-
lice of Providence. Said a Welsh moun
taineer to Henry II : "Thou seest this poor
people, but such as they are thou shall
never subdue themthat is reserved alone
for God in his wrath." Though it may not
have been the wrath of God, and the coun
try may have been reduced bv Henry's
great grandson, yet "seldom has ever a
race made a longer or more gallant stand
for liberty." "When better times and bet
ter feeling come, though the Welsh, being
7 2 Norman Conquest, Conclusion, n, p. 379.
8 i Pictorial History of England, p. 676.
[Book iv.
less numerous and far more exposed, were
less fortunate than the Scots, their valor
entitles them to the same admiration and
sympathy; and the high national character
of the united kingdom of Great Britain
may, perhaps, be in part owing to the fact
that no one portion of it fell an easy or de
graded conquest to the other."9
Although Wales was annexed by Ed
ward I to England, yet no great violence
was done to her laws and institutions. A
Welsh historian, writing in A. D. 1740,
says: "It is true that a great many techni
cal terms, peculiar to the law, have become
obsolete since king Ilowel's code was dis-
contintred. The majority of his laws re
mained in force until the time of Henry
VIII, who was-the great grandson of Owen
Tudor, of Anglesea."10 Forages have the
English and the Welsh been in the habit of
coming in contact with each other, either
as opponents or allies, or as associates. In
war they have been enemies, yet in peace
often friends. Since the time of Cadwalla
and Penda they have been often allies and
associates upon extensive fields and in large
operations. They are more alike than any
two different races, and differ more in lan
guage than in anything else ; and now, as
better and more generous times have come
on, the English, as a new language, is be
coming common to both. In the United
States the Germans sav that the Welsh and
the English are more alike than any other
two people; their hopes and desire was to
Germanize them both. In the mountain
ous districts of Wales the rustic appear
ance of the country is retained, as it is in
all countries away from city influence and
its cultivation ; but in the low lands and
cities the traveler finds all that modern im
provement has given to England.
But during the whole Norman period
during that daybreak from the preceding
night of the dark ages in which barbarity
had swallowed up Europe, it may be well
claimed that in point of civilization the
Welsh were, of themselves, in advance, in
their condition, of the rest of Western Eu-
9 Ibid, p. 672.
10 Thco. Evans* Primitive Ages, p. 132.
Chap, in.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
rope. They were the relics of the Roman
better davs. The Cambrians were the only
people of Western Europe that the barbar
ians had not conquered and reduced at
once under the dark period of their reign.
They were surrounded by it, but not over
come with it. That was reserved for the
returning light and civilization of the time
of Edward I. In the meantime the Cymry
had preserved their holy religion against
the conquest of Wodenism, their literature
from being swallowed up in the dark ages,
and their civilization from the davs of the
Romans down, as it was found by Augus-
tin when he came to Christianize the Sax
on pagans; and as described by Giraldus
Cambrensis, in the time of Henry II. In
the subsequent times of the Edwards, we
meet with frequent accounts of their happy
condition when not afflicted by war, brought
on them for conquest by Saxon, Dane or
Norman invaders. It was not that of great
cities and commerce, for of that they were
cut off, by the enemies and barbarity which
surrounded them, but it was that of Ar
cadian simplicity, refined bv love of litera
ture, of freedom, and of Christian religion,
as preserved by them, from those Roman
days, when their ancestors were in the pos
session of all Southern Britain.
They cultivated the Christian religion in
ts simplicity and purity, and always against
the mere dogmas and corruption of the
Roman church. They cultivated literature
in a degree superior to any in Western
Europe, and personal civil liberty unat-
tained in any other country. It was that
love of personal liberty, in opposition to
the feudalism and serfdom of the Saxons
and Normans, that caused their greatest
opposition to them. It was customary
among them to hold frequent eisteddvod,
or assemblies, for the cultivation of litera
ture, poetry, music and general intelligence
and science. We frequently find accounts
of such assemblies held by private gentle
men on their own estates at their own ex
pense, when, for that day, great refinement
and taste were exhibited.
The condition in which many of the
Welsh gentry lived, even in the stormy
days of the annexation, can be gathered
359
from many accounts given in prose and
poetry. A bard of that day describes the
principal abode of Owen Glendower, in
the parish of Llansilin, and called Sycarth.
It is said that this residence of the chief
tain, before it was destroved bv his enemies,
would compare in splendor with the palace
at Westminster. In the midst of one of
the finest of the numerous scenes to be
lound in Wales, the stranger entered the
premises, by a gate-house, surrounded by a
moat and rampart, so common in those
days, inclosing nine halls with their neces
sary conveniences. To these were added
the church with its chapels. Near by, on
the green bank, stood a wooden edifice,
covered with tile, conlaining four apart
ments, with two chambers each, prepared
for the reception of the guests who might
visit this stately residence. Around these
in their proper places were the park, a fish
pond stocked with line fish, the warren, the
dovecote, the orchard] vineyard and the
mill, with every other appendage suitable
to the owner's condition and rank.
Such establishments were then common
in that country, as they are now with such
gentlemen as Sir \V. W. Wynn, Sir C.
Morgan and others. But it was not in
these physical and ornate matters that the
Cymry excelled; for it is their culture, in
that day, of literature, taste and intellect, in
prose and verse, in song and story, which
has produced the vindication and admira
tion of the candid of modern times.
Among these Thierry may be ranked, who
says : "But the books of this petty, nation
were so full of poetry, they had so power
ful an impress of enthusiasm and convic
tion, that once translated into other lan
guages, they became most attractive reading
for foreigners, and the theme upon which
the romance writers of the middle ages
most frequently constrncted their fictions.
It was thus that Arthur, the old war chief
of the Cambrians, appeared in the fabulous
histories of the Normans and French
Iron veres, the ideal of a perfect knight, and
the greatest king that ever wore a crown."11
M 2 Thierrjr's Norman Conquest, B. xi, p. 198.
And Thierry is fully confirmed by what Prof. M.
Arnold says in his essays on Celtic Literature.
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS,
AND THEIR DESCENDANTS,
BOOK V.THE MODERN PERIOD.
From the Accession of Henry VII, to that of Queen Victoria.
(A. D. 14851837-)

CHAPTER I. ed back for a period of at least a thousand

years.
CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES OF THE
The government of England by the
PERIOD.
jaxons was a fair outgrowth of the state oi
s- 1 . The Tudor Dynasty. (A. D. 1485 hings existing in that dark age. It was B
1603.)' nonaichy in some measure controlled by
hereditary nobility, all claiming to be
The accession of Henry Tvidor, earl of escendants of one family, in whom was
Richmond, to the English throne as Henry ested the real property and all the political
VII, forms a striking epoch not only in the .ower.i As to the landed property and
history of Britain but that in the history of >olitical freedom, the great mass of the
the world. A thousand years transpired people of England were in a very abject
from the fall of the Roman empire to the and hopeless condition. The Normans so
reformationfrom the time when the bar ound them, and transferred the landed
barism of the north, throughout Western roperty and political power from Saxon
Europe, triumphed over civilization, pagan ords to" Norman lords, leaving the great
ism over Christianity, and violence and nass of the people in the condition they
bloodshed over humanity and justice. This bund them. The Norman king assumed
era, so terrible in the history of mankind, the sovereignty with almost despotic rule;
has been denominated the dark ages, or and still he claimed only to take and exer
middle ages. It is difficult to fix the pre cise the powers and authority of Edward
cise time when this era commenced or the Confessor. Edward had a council of
terminated ; but it has been sometimes put advisers of such of the Saxon nobility as
as commencing with the fall of the West he chose to summon, called the Witena-
ern Roman empire, A. D. 476, and termin gemot, in which the people had no part.
ating with the commencement of the The king and this council governed the
retbrmation, A.D. 1520. As to the precise country as they pleased ; raised taxes, de
time, it may be justly varied in one way or clared war and peace as they thought best.
another, for the commencement or termin The Norman king, for a long time, assumed
ation of the period ; but so far as Britain is the like rights and powers, with the aid of
concerned, no permanent land-mark can a new council, composed of such of his
be placed, so just, for the beginning and
end of that fatal era, as that of Hengist and i See ante B. Though this position is contrary to
Henry VII: as its beginning and ending received opinion, yet U is fully sustained by historica
facts. The Saxon aristocracy was so close and ex
from A. D. 450 to 1485. That truly was clusive, and opposed to the interest and freedom o
dark period, when the progress of mankim the people. Godwin and his family were the only
plebeians ever admitted to the Saxon nobility, and
in civilization and improvements was turn that was only accomplished by Danish influence.
 363 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
Norman nobility as he chose to summon Ill, Mountfort, the earl of Leicester, in his
and in this the people and their influenci opposition to the king, procured to be sum
were entirely excluded. This council, in moned to parliament two knights from each
stead of being called the Witenagemot shire, and deputies from the boroughs; but
was denominated the parliament ; but which it is apprehended that these were only to
contained no more of the admirable ele represent the interest of their constituents
ments of the present English parliamen to parliament, and were not members of it
than of a Turkish divan, or congress being themselves. But at any rate this measure
the representative of the old native Indian of Leicester was looked upon by the no
council. The reformation and improve bility as being so obnoxious to them, in
ment in these respects between the time o making the people themselves a part of the
John and the termination of that of Richarc government and state, and as an usurpa
III., was the natural growth of the new tion, that the measure was dropped, and not
state of things and the native desire of the again heard of, until towards the close of
people for the exercise of their just right* the reign of Edward I ;2 when probably the
and liberties. house of commons was first formed, a
The reform in the English governmen period of about eighty years after the time
from the time of the conquest to the acces of procuring the Great Charter. After the
sion of Henry VII, was very slow anc admission of the commons in parliament,
gradual. There did not appear to be an\ constitutional principles of freedom, and
until the adoption of the great charter at the advancement of the people in the rank
Runnemede; and that was exclusively the of manhood, gradually progressed towards
work of the Norman barons, to secure their what we find it at this day. But it is vain
rights against the arbitrary measures ot to attempt to find the origin of the political
their king; which did not apply to the great and civil liberties of the British people, in
body of the people, as villains, serfs and any of the institutions of the Saxon or
slaves, except as they afterwards became Norman period, prior to Edward I; or to
freemen. The government was exclusive find the origin of the house of commons
ly in the hands of the king and his nobility before that time. It was then that the
and they were, in a great measure, the British people began to be emancipated
creatures of his own creation. The com from that thralldom which Saxon and Nor
monalty, which afterwards acquired a voice man aristocracy had bound upon them; and
in the government, then had no part in it. the first step towards it was the admission
But until alter Edward I, the Norman ol the people to a participation in the gov
kings of England were also dukes of Nor ernment, by the formation of the houe of
mandy, and were interested in supporting commons, the glory 'of the British govern
their interest there, which caused them to ment, and the model for every government
divide their attention and expenditures be that deserves a name.
tween England and Normandy. To meet But the progress of the English people
these expenditures, the king resorted to op in the principles and institutions of a free
pressive measures to raise the necessary and just government, from Edward I to
revenue, which fell upon his nobility in Henry VII, was slow, and only progres-
England. These oppressive measures they ive. It required much time for the people
resisted, which produced a civil war, and to be emancipated from those institutions
which resulted in a compromise between fixed upon them by the institutions of the
the king and his nobility by the adoption lark ages. It was necessary for them to
of the great charter as their security. After be relieved of that exclusive and oppressive
that the number of freemen between the iristocracy instituted by the Saxons as
nobility and the great mass of bondmen bunded upon their claim ol descent from
began to increase, to become independent Woden, which in a modified and more lib
freeholders and of some importance in the
2 a Hume's History of England, pp. 96106:
state. At the close of the reign of Henry Creasy's English Constitution, p, 177; see ante B.
Chap, i.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES.
eral form fell into the hands of the Nor
mans; and to be enfranchised into those
free and liberal institutions which consti
tute and support the house of commons.
Gradually, between the time of Edward I
and that of Tudor, these great operations
in the course of human freedom were pro
gressing, but not finally accomplished.
This progress was more the result of
time and circumstances, and the action
of the barons, than any great move
ment of the people themselves, as in
Cromwell's time. The aristocracy became
numerous, and a portion of them frequent
ly found themselves oppressed by the un
just and oppressive measures of the gov
ernment. A portion of them then became
the advocates of a more just and liberal
government, as was the case in the time of
Leicester under Henry III. At such time
the people would profit by their advocacy
and movement, more than in any of their
own. Then came on those difficult times,
Irom the accession of Henry VI to the
end of the reign of Richard III, a period
of about sixty years, in which transpired
the latal war of the roses, when a large
portion of the nobles lost their lives in a
partisan war, in which there was no prin
ciple at stake; but by which the people
gained by the mere loss and reduction of
the nobility. The battle of Bosworth
brought those distracted times to a close;
and the new administration gave a fair op
portunity to the sound principles and
reformation of the government that had
been for years progressing, to be perfected
and consolidated. Of this opportunity
Henry VII availed himself with that sagaci
ty and wisdom for which he was distin
guished. Tudor's legal title to the crown
was much questioned, and he himself
placed his right upon various grounds. He
endeavored to satisfy all partiesthe Lan-
casterians of the red rose, by his descent
from Catharine, his grandmother, the
widow of Henry V; the Yorkist, or the
white rose, by his marriage with Elizabeth,
the daughter of Edward IV; and did not
neglect to claim some right to rule by his
descent from Arthur and the princes of the
Ancient Britons through Owen Tudor ; nor
363
did lie deem his right to sovereignty was
any less than William the Conqueror, by
his victory of Bos worth- field. Still his
right was frequently contested by uneasy
partisans, who, when unable to find a legiti
mate claimant to the throne, set up, at least,
two different spurious pretenders, which
Henry was able to defeat with his usual
sagacity and success.
In the accession of Henry VII, England
was particularly happy in receiving a mon
arch, just such a one, as the people and the
times then stood in need. He favored the
rise and advancement of the people, rather
than the restoration of the unbounded
power and influence of the nobility. He
delighted more in witnessing the progress
and prosperity of the people and country,
than in the glory of war and conquest. He
was devoted to his country, and sought its
interest, in opposition to conquest and ex
tension of territory. In this he showed the
wisdom and realized the success of Ca-
rausius of old. He promoted the interest
and prosperity ot the people by authorizing
the nobility to sell and alienate their lands,
and by various means to avoid and abolish
the trammels of the feudal system. Though
he possessed the reputation of a brave, ex
perienced and able warrior, yet he greatly
loved peace and its prosperity to any other
honorable consideration. Throughout Eu
rope he was extolled as a shrewd and saga
cious monarch, and his great wisdom every-
where acknowledged. He was economical
and saving, and by that means greatly in
creased his treasury; and his success in
this rc.spect, in the latter part of his life,
brought upon him the reputation of being
avaricious and sordid, and resorting to un
just means to increase his wealth. His
reign was a great success, and has received
the great commendation of such historians
as lord Bacon. To the Cymry it was a
great triumph, for they considered it as the
restoration of one of their own country
men to the throne of Britain. All the
Tudors, to queen Elizabeth, the last of
them, always treated the Welsh with great
kindness, and were always forward in ac
knowledging their kindred. Whatever
they did to the contrary was thought to be
364 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
to the interest of the nation. gree of enterprise and spirit. The history
After a reign of twenty-lour years, Hen of such events informs us that the enter
ry VII died, and was succeeded by his son, prising ruler went with an army into the
Henry VIII, A. D. 1509. The latter as territory of his enemy and there took towns
cended the throne at the early age of eigh and laid them in ashes, ravaged the coun
teen, under the most flattering circumstan try, and returned with immense spoils.
ces, with all the hearty congratulation of This was looked upon as a glorious affair,
his people, and the advantage that the though the people in the despoiled district
prosperous reign of his father could add to were left in a miserable and suffering con
them. Like all of the Tudor dynasty, he dition. But they received but little or no
was distinguished for his pre-eminent abili sympathy; all was for the glory and ad
ty for executive and administrative talent vantage of the ruler or lord, and nothing
and capacity; but less marked with that for the misery and suffering of the people.
superior wisdom and sound judgment which This was war anl the state of things that
distinguished his father. There is a strik the northern barbarian brought upon West
ing uniformity in vigor and success of the ern Europe, and especially upon Britain
reign of all the Tudors and, during their during those past ages. This fondness ol
time, in the prosperity and welfare of the war was now giving way for the peace,
country. The father had raised the position happiness and prosperity of the people; and
of England in the scale of nations, socially the Tudors were distinguished for taking
and commercially, to an altitude which it the advance in the movement It is some
never before attained ; but it is the reign of what surprising that Christianity was una
Henry VIII and that of his daughter, Eliza ble to accomplish its legitimate ends in this
beth, which specially exalts the English respect sooner. But the priesthood of that
govern ment and people, and gives to their day were frequently warriors as well as
history an interest which no other period priests; and be sure they would be slow in
has attained. It was then that England presenting the benevolent doctrines of
was coming out in the early daylight from peace and good will of their holy master,
the darkness of the middle ages.' The feud in opposition to the taste and interest of
al system was then fast giving way before the aristocracy of the country. They were
the action of the government and people to sure not to urge the true doctrines of their
a more just, equitable and rational system religion to the advantage of the people,
of real property ; the old Saxon close aris against the interest and wishes of their
tocracy, which might be truly denominated lords.
a caste, was broken down by that of the Soon after the accession of Henry VIII,
Normans, and the latter was now placed the Pope of Rome, Julius II, was an ambi
on a more liberal basis; parliament was tious and ruling spirit, and a disturber of
now fully organized with its house of com the peace of Europe. He united Maximil-
mons, so that the people felt that they had lian, of Austria, Louis XII, of France, and
a share and an interest in the government Ferdinand, of Spain, in a league at Cam-
and state; her commerce and manufacturing bray, for the purpose, by the means of their
interest began to develop themselves; and united arms, to overwhelm, if not to crush,
above all, peace and its blessings began to the prosperous commonwealth of Venice.
be more luved than war. Henry incautiously permitted his name to
The general character of the reign of be added to the confederacy, which event
Henry VIII was like that of his father, ually involved the most of Europe in war.
that of peace, and its accompanying inci This excited the ambition of the youthful
dents. During the preceding ages nothing king; and the intrigues of the continental
was more common than a king, or perhaps monarchs induced him to embark, with
the lord or baron of a district, to make war many of his nobility and an army, in a war
upon his neighbor, with very little or no with France, brought on by the intrigues
cause or pretense, except to show a due de- and misrepresentation of his father-in-law,
 CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES. 365
Chap, i.]
Ferdinand, of Spain. While Henry was and valor. But making great efforts, the
thus engaged in France, with no great dis English succeeded in driving them back,
with great slaughter. "The two chief
tinction or advantage to the country, James commanders of the Scots, the earls of Len
IV, of Scotland, though the husband of nox and Argyle, both perished on the field.
Henry's oldest sister, was so concerned for Stanley now charged king James' center
the safety of France, his ancient ally, who on the'right flank and rear, while at the
was then in great danger from the combi same time he was compelled to meet the
nation of enemies against her, was induced shock of Surrey's attack in front. James
to make a diversion in favor of France by was now surrounded by a circle of foes, ex
prosecuting a war against England. For cited to desperation, and seemed to have
that purpose he collected a large Scotish adopted the savage resolution of giving no
army and crossed the Tweed into England. quarter.'^ Then the king of the Scots
Henry's lieutenant in England, Howard, bravely met his last, in the midst of heaps
the earl of Surrey, advanced north with a of his devoted countrymen. Night came
considerable army to meet the king of on and separated the surviving combatants.
Scotland. These maneuvers resulted in a Surrey, the English commander, was at a
battle a little south of the Tweed, on Eng loss to know whether he had gained a vic
lish ground, and known as the battle of tory or sustained a defeat; but the morning
Flodden, the most noted battle of the times. disclosed to him, by the retreat of the Scots,
The two armies were about equal, being that it was a victory, but a dear one. But
about thirtv thousand each; but the Eng it was a still dearer one to the Scots, for
lish had the mo~t experience and discipline, they had sustained a very great loss in men,
for they had just received five thousand but a grievous one in the loss of their king
veterans returned with their experience in and so many of their leading men.
the war in France. The most of the Scots The battle of "rlodden was the last great
were of recent levies, and needed the ex and interesting battle fought by Britons on
perience and discipline of their opponents British soil during the reign of the Tudors.
but fought with their usual gallantry and This race, though abundantly distinguished
bravery. After considerable maneuvering for their resolution and courage, are also
the battle commenced about the middle o greatly distinguished for their love of peace,
the afternoon, September 9th, 1513, when and the prosperity of the country. But
the left wing of the Scots, under Huntley what was still as observable, was the nu
and Home, fighting on foot, with their long merous great men who appear in English
pikes, "fell on the right wing of the Eng historv during that period of time.
lish, under Sir Edmund Howard, with a But what particularly distinguishes Hen-
fury that was irresistible." That wing of rv VIII in history, not only in that of Eng-
the English was beaten, and "part of the land, but that of the world, is the decided
men fled in great disorder." "It is said stand he eventually took in favor of Pro
that most of the fugitives were men of testantism. When that matter was first
Cheshire, whose wonted valor was impaired moved by Luther, the conservative princi
by their being Separated from the rest of ples of Henry, in matters of religion and
their countrymen, and placed under the government, induced him to oppose it, and
command of a Howard, instead of a Stan- he wrote a book in defense of the Catholic
lev." Howard and the remainder of his church. This so pleased the Pope that he
wing were saved by the opportune aid of entitled him the Defender of 'the Faith.
he rest of the army. The battle then But afterwards, when Henry found that the
raged long and fierce. The Scotish Highl Catholic church was so decidedly interfer-
anders, charged with that determined bra in" with the government and state and
very as though each man thought that with bringing the whole in subjection to the
his own broad sword or battle-axe he was
to decide that great battle. The English 3 * Pictorial Eng. History, p. 3143'9- 3 Hume's
were at first astonished at their temerity English History, p. 101.
366 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
paramount authority of the church, he en there any people who suffered or faugh1
tered zealously into the principles of the more, or were more decided in fayor of a
Protestants in opposition to the Pope; and free and independent religion? TheCymry,
by act of parliament established an inde from the very earliest time in the history
pendent English church. This was carried of Christianity in Britain, now about eigh
so far as to abolish and suppress all mon teen hundred years, always maintained an
asteries and exclusively Romish institu independent Christian church, unless it
tions; and place the Christian church of might be a comparatively short time dur
England free and independent of the con ing the Norman period. The Welsh have
trol of the Pope of Rome. This was a always been Protestants. A Welsh Cath
great measure in favor of freedom and true olic would be a rara avis. They have al
Christianity, not only for England, but as ways been too much in favor of personal
an example to mankind. freedom and independent liberty of con
It is sometimes said that the English science to be governed by Catholicism.
people are not upon the whole, decided The same may be said of the Scots, who
Protestants; that they are Protestant or are substantially the same people. The
Catholic as circumstances may favor; that same may be said, in a great measure, of
they readily became Catholic under Mary the people of the north of Ireland. In the
as they became Protestant under Henry; south of Ireland the people are principally
and many of them are now turning in fa Catholics, but they are so more from cir
vor of Catholicism or high church meas cumstances than from race. They have
ures. There is some truth in all this; but systematically been kept under an oppres
no fair man can read English history for sive government, which gives the Catholic
almost the whole of the last four hundred priests of the country the opportunity of
years, and doubt that an overwhelming enforcing upon the people the idea that
majority of the English people are in favor they were -the special friends of the Irish
of Protestantism, and a free and independ people, and the English their natural ene
ent church. mies and oppressors. At the same time
It is also said that, according to the indi the people are kept in great ignorance with
cation of race, the Germans arc the Pro out the priesthood taking that interest and
testant and the Celts the Catholic elements practical exertion in their enlightenment
of this religious controversy. This asser and temporal welfare that they should, and
tion is not true. It is a question not de that good policy and character require.
pending upon race; and the races are While Henry, during a long reign, was
strongly divided upon the question. In prosperous in the promotion of the interest
Germany, in the north the majority are of his country at home and abroad, in the
Protestants, as in the south the majority latter part of his life he became unfortu
are Catholics; though of the whole the nate in his domestic relation. His first
majority are Protestants. In Italy and wife was Catherine of Aragon, the daugh
Spain the people are too much mixed, of ter of Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain.
all races, to be a test of the Celts. In Gaul She was the widow of his brother Arthur,
and in Great Britain and Ireland they are who died a very young man. After living
a fair test. Where has there been found a with her twenty years, and she becoming
more decided Protestantism than among bv him the mother of Mary, he became
the Huguenots* of France? Where are convinced that his marriage with the widow
of his brother was unlawful. Upon that
4 With the Huguenots should be remembered the subject the church and people were divided.
Albijjcnses and the Waldenses and the Camisards
Though she was a woman of warm affec
of the south of France, all of whom for their Protest
antism fought and suffered more than any other peo
tions and great attachments to Henry, yet
ple. The question of Protestantism or "Catholicism
does not so much depend upon race as upon the cir he procured a divorce upon the ground of
cumstances hy which the ijeople are surrounded.
North Germany was protected from Roman power
hy its distance from Rome, while France was crash and Spain. For the Camisards, see Chambers' and
ed in consequence of its accessibility to Rome, Italy American Encyclopaedia.
Chap. I.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES.
the unlawfulness of the marriage, with
great difficulty, and after a long litigation.
This was principally on account of the dif
ficulty thrown in the way by the Pope; and
possibly that aided the king in his deter
mination to support the Protestants.
After that he married Anne Bolcyn, who
became the mother of Elizabeth. Soon af
ter, the king's jealousy was excited against
her, and she was charged with improprie
ties and crimes, and was tried and executed.
Henry next married Jane Seymour, by
whom he had a son, Edward, who became
his successor, and his mother only survived
his birth two days.
The king then married Anne of Cleves,
whom he soon disliked, and was divorced.
He next married Catherine Howard, whose
dissolute life was soon discovered; she was
condemned by parliament by a bill of at
tainder, and beheaded. Three or four years
before his death he lastly married his sixth
wife, Catherine Par, a widow, a woman of
great virtue, discretion and prudence, and
duly imbued with the Protestant religion;
with whom the king spent his last days,
greatly enjoying her kindness, devotion and
affection for him.
After a prosperous reign of thirty-eight
years, (A. D. 1547) Henry departed to his
fathers, and was succeeded in the govern
ment by his young son, Edward VI, who
was then only ten years of age, and who
only exercised sovereignty about six years
under the protectorship of his uncle, the
duke of Somerset, a Seymour. With very
little variation the administration followed
the routine of business and course of events
which characterized the previous reign
The Protestant religion was fully main
tained. The event that most marked the
reign was that arising from the protector's
ambition to unite the whole island under
one and the same government. For that
purpose he marched an army into Scotland
which resulted in a decisive battle near
Edinburgh, known as the battle of Pinkey
The Scotish army was a hasty gathering
badly managed and sorely defeated body
of patriotic men. But eventually the Eng
lish were compelled to withdraw withou
accomplishing the object for which the war
367
was commenced.
Upon the death of Edward VI, the crown
was assumed by his sister Mary, who reign
ed about five years. She was a bigoted
atholic, and partook more. of the charac
teristics of her mother, Catherine of Ara-
jon, than of the Tudors; and what added
to its intensity was her unfortunate mar
riage with Philip II, king of Spain, the on-
y son of the emperor, Charles V. He was
narrow minded and bigoted, and tended to
make her more so. Mary, by her sover
eign Influence, was able to bring over the
majority of her nobility and parliament to
her views in religion, though the majority
of the English people firmly adhered
to their Protestant faith. She procured
parliament to abolish aH the laws which
had lx;en passed in the two previous reigns
in support of Protestantism, and those were
passed which put Catholicism in its full
force. Her reign became that of a bloody
and vindictive persecution. Bishop Gard
ner, a devoted Catholic, became her prime
minister; and Cranmer, Latimer and Rid
ley were persecuted for their faith and made
martyrs. In her time all kinds of cruel
persecution for conscience sake were en
dured; all sorts of violence, death and
bloodshed, to enforce an obnoxious religious
tenet, were resorted to, until the queen be
came known as the Bloody Mary. But
she, in the course of nature, soon passed
off; and her sister, Elizabeth, was called to
the throne. The people greatly rejoiced at
this accession ; she now, at the age of twen
ty-five, had acquired great popularity and
a very good reputation for her religious
principles and capacity ; and in this the peo
ple were not disappointed. During a reign
of forty-five years (A. D. 1558 1603) she
sustained the English government in a po
sition of prosperity and renown, unequalled
by any other monarch of her country. Her
rule was generally characterized as that of
a Protestant and peaceful reign. The most
noted event of her reign was in the thirtieth
year, when Philip, with the" great "invinci
ble armada'' of Spain, determined to con
quer Britain. That armada, consisting of
innumerable ships, covered the British seas,
filled with an army and all requisites for
368 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
the conquest. Britain was threatened with land. This house of Stuart, so celebrated
a terrific preparation for that purpose. in English and Scotish history, has a ro
Elizabeth, with an admirable courage, reso mantic beginning. Just before the Norman
lution and management, met the occasion, conquest, when Macbeth, the tyrant of
and by her example roused the British peo Scotland, murdered Banquo, Fleance, a son
ple to an unexampled enthusiasm and reso of the latter, lied for protection to Wales, to
lution to meet and defeat their enemies. the court of Gruftydd ab Llewellyn, where
The British fleet met the armada and as he became enamored of Nesta, the grand
with a whirlwind scattered it. Afterwards daughter of that prince. Of this connec
the storms and the difficulties of navigation tion a son was born, named Walter, who
destroyed much of what escaped ; a just re was treated with kindness, and educated in
sult of an unjustifiable attempt at conquest the learning and national exercises of the
and interference with the rights of others. day. When he arrived at manhood he un
The execution of Mary, the beautiful but fortunately slew his antagonist, and rted to
unfortunate queen of the Scots, under the Scotland. There he engaged himself in
jurisdiction of Elizabeth and by her assent, public service, became lord Steward of the
is an act upon which historians and jurists kingdom, and the lineal ancestor of the
have been divided, and probably will so re royal house of Stuart, from whom James
main. At last Elizabeth died a virgin claimed his descent. Thus making Gruf-
queen, expressing a wish that her nearest fydd, Banquo, Henry VII and Guise his
kinsman and cousin, James VI, of Scot ancestors; and Wales, England, Scotland
land, should succeed her. So the last of and France their nativity.
the Tudor family passed away from earth, James was well educated, spoke and wrote
as all terrestrial things must. well, and was proud of his learning; vet
awkward and ungainly in his person. With
152 The Stuart Dynasty. A. D. 1603 much learning and great experience in pub
1714. lic affairs, he lacked the wisdom, shrewd
James VI, of Scotland, came to the throne ness, and executive talent of the Tudors.
as James I, of England, by his hereditary He was jealous of his prerogatives and su
right as the next of kin, and the dying de percilious as to his divine right to govern;
claration of Elizabeth in his favor. His and yet frequently yielded his point when
accession to the throne was without any shown ^his views were inconsistent with
opposition, and in the midst of much re law.i With many good qualities and abili
joicing of the people of both countries; yet ties, he yet, upon the whole, passed as a
some expressed a theoretic doubt as to the weak and inefficient man.2 Being a strong
future interest of either country, in thus Protestant, he quarreled with the Catholics;
uniting both countries under one sover a decided churchman, he disagreed with
eign. James was then thirty-six years of the puritants; and a stickler for his roval
age, and had been king of Scotland since prerogatives, he disputed with the liberals.
he was one year of age. He was the son He therefore was not a popular man, vet
of the celebrated but unfortunate Mary- few princes were so kind and void of tyran
Stuart, queen of the Scots, by her second ny or oppression. In a reign of twenty-two
husband, Henry Lord Darnley, who was years, terminating A. D. 1625, generallv in
also a Stuart. peace, without any serious war, his whole
Ethnically, James, like most of the Brit kingdom prospered, and made considerable
ish nobility, was of a very mixed race and progress in the improvement of the coun
blood. His mother, Mary, was the daugh try and the condition of the people.
ter of Mary of Loraine, the daughter of the I 4 Hume.
duke of Guise, and James V, the seventh l The French minister, Sully, said of James, that
he was "the wisest fool in Christendom." And Ma-
king of Scotland of the Stuart line, who was caulay says: "He was, indeed, made up of two men
the son of Margaret, the queen of Scot a witty, well read scholar, who wrote, disputed
and harangued, and a nervous, drivelling idiot who
land and daughter of Henry VII, of Eng acted ."
Chap, i.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES. 369
James was succeeded by his son Charles ment had assembled, it manifested a deter
I, whose mother was Anne of Denmark. mination to reform the government and se
He was then twenty-five years of age; and cure personal rights and liberty in a man
for the preceding thirteen years was prince ner never before exhibited by the commons
of Wales, as heir apparent to the crown. of England; and in this the commons took
Charles was filled with an exalted notion of the lead. Up to the coming of the Stuarts,
his royal rights and prerogatives; and utter both in Saxon and Norman times, it seems
ly opposed to every attempt of the people evident that the commons of England
to improve their government. When forced thought they had nothing to do with the
to do so, he would consent, and promise government, except to obey whatever it
fair and just reform in the government; but chose to command. That was a matter
all such promises in him were false and in which belonged to the king and his nobles;
sincere. He had adopted the high notions and whatever reform was had, it was the
of his father as to his rights and duty in work of the nobles, on account of the un-
preserving the prerogatives of the crown ; ust pressure of the government upon them
and it was his great misfortune that his no selves. The people seemed to think, under
tions had then become more obnoxious at Wodenism, as well as under Christianity,
that time to the people than ever. Previous that their government was of a divine ap
to the Stuarts, the English sovereigns con pointment, with which the common people
trolled the action of parliament, so that no had nothing to do. In the midst of the war
attempt was ever made to pass a measure and slavery which was then practiced, the
contrary to the wishes of the sovereign. common people never dreamed of the
Even in Elizabeth's time, she would com rights and liberty which naturally belong
municate to parliament her hostility to a to man and humanity. But after the com
measure before them and they would obey ing of the Tudors, notwithstanding the
her. But in James' time the people had vigor and energy of the government, the
become largely freeholders and freed from people themselves began to think and act
the tenures of the nobility, and greatly im for themselves, and feel their own import
bued with a notion of their own rights and ance in the scale of humanity. This change
importance. The people had now, for the was brought about by the increasing love
first time, become indoctrinated into the of peace to that of war; by the decrease of
idea that they had some rights in the gov slavery and the odium in which it began to
ernment and entitled to enforce an honest be held; by the abolition of the tyrannical
and just administration. This was a view feudal tenures; by the freedom obtained
of the matter that Charles, when lookin for the alienation and transfer of real prop
back into the history of the prerogatives of erty by which the commons became free
English kings, could not understand; and holders and yeomen; and, finally, by the
looked upon every attempt to limit and re people beginning to understand and exer
strain him as a personal wrong, and gave cise those notions of right and freedom
him a just right to evade it, or to abolish it, which belonged in common to all men.
whenever he had the power. This led All this became more and more intensified
into a conflict and distrust with his parlia under Charles I. This was the misfortune
ment; and after his fourth year he attempt of Charles, as he did not understand it; but
ed to maintain his government without it was the glory of the English people.
their aid; and actually for eleven years re Charles once more found it expedient, in
frained from calling any parliament; 1640, to summon parliament, which proved
attempted, under the old laws and customs to be less obsequious than any before it;
of the government, to raise the necessary and more determined to maintain the rights
revenue without their consent. At last he of the people and to sustain its own dignity.
thought it advisable to call a parliament to Before it gave any aid or subsidy to the
enable him to raise a large revenue to meet king, they insisted that the king should
the contingency of a war. When parlia confirm their petition and bill of rights, se
 37 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
curing their rights and liberties from abuse court, upon the trial, found him guilty and
by the officers of the crown. They im ordered him to be executed, which was
peached the king's prime minister for high done on the 3oth of January, 1649.
crimes and misdemeanors in advising him The government for the next four years
in his objectionable course of administra was conducted by parliament, under the
tion. Upon this impeachment, lord Straf- name of the commonwealth. In the mean
ford was tried before the house of lords, time the civil war continued, in which
condemned, and ordered to be executed Cromwell rendered parliament most effi
This could not be done without the war cient service in England, Ireland and Scot
rant of the king, which Charles hesitated to land. By the royal party, Charles II, the
issue. Stratford wrote to the king, begging eldest son of the late king, was proclaimed
him to issue his warrant as means of recon his successor, but his partisans had becume
ciliation between him and his people ; and so feeble that it become dangerous for him
that there could be no injury to a willing to remain in England, and he fled through
mind. Thereupon Stratford was beheaded. Wales to the sea and thence to France.
Still matters between the king and his peo Parliament, after a while, found its govern
ple proceeded from bad to worse; the king ment without a proper head, and dissen
constantly evading these reforms, and the sions took place between parliament and
people losing all confidence and faith in the army. Cromwell took upon himself
him. At length open rupture came, and to dissolve parliament, which had been so
appeal was made to arms. In August, 16.42, long in session as to become odious and its
the king erected his standard at Notting former services overlooked. Another self-
ham, and the patriots took arms under the created parliament assumed its place, and
Earl of Essex. In the meantime the house by this assembly Cromwell was declared
of commons usurped the government with protector and supreme magistrate of the
out the aid of the house of lords. The first commonwealth. This office he exercised
conflict was at Edgehill, where the great for five years, until his death, with that
patriot, John Hampden, met his death, and administrative vigor and ability which
where the loss on both sides was severe and characterized that of the Tudors. He ele
nearly equal. In the midst ofnumerous skir vated his country and government in the
mishes and inferior battles, in which the estimation of all Europe, and rendered
parliamentary forces were constantly gain them glorious in history. Upon his death
ing ground, and in which Oliver Cromwell liis oflice was assumed by his oldest son,
was making his way as the foremost man Richard, who exercised it for about two
of his day, the parties came to the decisive years, when it was put to an end by the res
battle of Marston Moor, where a triumph toration of Charles II, in 1660.
ant victory was gained for parliament, and The restoration of the monarchy and
Cromwell established his fame as a warrior. 'harles II was propably in accordance
After a continued civil war of lour years, with the assent of the majority of the na
during which there were many battles and tion; but it was principally effected by
much fighting and bloodshed, the parties eneral Monk at the head of the army.
came to the decisive battle of Nareby, in As the king entered London, the people
June, 1645, where the royal forces were exulted with delight at his return. He,
completely overthrown, and the king fled i few years previous, fled from them
to the Scots for safety. He soon found :o save his life. Everything was soon re
himself unsafe there, and was soon thereaf stored to its former condition ; his reign
ter surrendered into the hands of the rebels. was dated to commence upon the death of
Parliament now proceeded to more decisive harles I, eleven years previous to his res-
measures. They ordered the king to be de oration; so that the reign ot the Stuarts
throned, and to be tried upon articles of im was supposed to be continuous, and the
peachment presented against him before a commonwealth a mere episode in the
high court appointed for the purpose. This dram.i.
Oiap. I.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES. 371
Afk-r his restoration. Charity reigned who was now about thirty-five years o,f
over the whole kingdom, England, Scot age. lie possessed a very fine personal ap
land and Ireland, for twenty-five vears, pearance, was affable and popular in his
during which tile country made considera manners. He had been engaged in some
ble progress in improvement-, without the public service, in which he had been suc
king being entitled to ranch credit for it. cessful, and his conduct had rendered him
He was an easv, amiable ami kind com- extremely popular. Soon after his acces-
panion, with wit. talent and accomplish- [ sioni jameii jj hiul rei,dered himself so
ments sufficient to make a very respectable odious by his tyranny, and extreme meas
private gentleman, without possessing the ures to re-establish the Catholic church,
vigor and energy necessary fora prosperous | ;|m, Monmouth had become- so popular as
monarch. He enjoyed his ease and picas- , thl. (m)v h<)pe ,- tla. i>rotestants, that the
ures, with but little inclination to engage revolt was hurried on before they were
in the labors and attention necessary for a ready. Monmouth raised his standard in
prosperous administration. This reign, up- Devonshire; and he was so popular, and
on tin- whole, was a peaceful one, though j the hopes o|- the peopie , strongly set un
accompanied with some war on the conti on him, that there was no lack of man or
nent and unimportant ones with some money coming to his cause. But they
rebels in Scotland; but what most distin were unprovided with the necessary arms;
guished it in this respect was the great and they were defeated by the royal troops
naval battles with the Dutch of Holland, before they could be well organixed and
in which Monk, now erf ated duke ot AI- armed. The defeated rebels were pun-
bemarl for his services in the restoration, j ished with m(.rciless crneltv. Monmouth
on the part of the English, and l)e Ruyter j WilK brought to the block "by his bigoted
and Van Tromp, on the part of the Dutch, j ,.)<.. ilm| ,la. notorious Judge Jeffrey,
gained great renovyn for celebrated naval j thcn ,h(. d)ict j,ls,j,;e ,- England, in the
battles, without a decided victory for either ! crue| ;lml ,-cinorseless prosecution of the
nation. In the meantime the people con principal rebels, in accordance with the
tinned to make progress in civil liberty and wishes of the court, consigned his own
laws, of which the habeas corpus la\v was name to eternal infamy. Thousands of
-one of the most important and justlv cele the minor convicts were, with the assent
brated in favor of human liberty and re of the king and court, sold as slavet
straint upon oppression; while at the same to the West Indies. The other noted trans
time the nation was greatly divided and action was the prosecution of six bishops
distracted by all kind of divisions upon of tne church, who had become obnoxious
questions in relation to religion and civil ' to the king on account of their determined
government. t protection, and their heroic maintenance
Upon the death of Charles without any of their religion against the dictation of
legitimate offspring, he was succeeded bv their monarch. They were indie-ted and
his brother, James [I. known as the duke ' tried in the civil courts for sedition. It was
of York,a bigoted Catholic, whose intol- ' the most celebrated trial of that day, and
erance in religion, as well as his arbitrary ' all the jxiwer and influence of the adininis-
aiui unpopular measures in the ci\ il ad tration were against them. But the jury
ministration, brought on, after a short reign had become imbued with the progressive
of only three years, the revolution of A. liberal doctrines of the day. which sustained
1). i6SS, by which he was compelled to the rights and liberties of the people even
flee his kingdom and abandon his crown. when opposed by the crown and govern
During his short reign onK two events are ment. The jury acquitted the bishops,
worthy of special notice. The first is Mon- j which was sustained by the court, and by
month's rebellion. This affair was gotten I the people with unwonted applause and
up by James, the duke of Monmouth, a commendation. This independence of the
natural son of Charles II bv Lucy Walters, jurv, in opposition to the Influence and
37- THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
wishes ol the crown, until then was un the two houses, precisely as that of parlia
heard of, and unknown to English history. ment. These were peacefully and without
Previous to James' flight and abdication, any obstruction assembled, and proceeded
the disaffected of the English people, out to settle the government. The common*
raged by the unwarranted conduct of their like sensible men came readily to a resolu
king, had invited William, the prince of tion on the subject: that king James II
Orange, to come to their relief. He was had endeavored to subvert the constitution
the son of William II, prince of Orange, of the kingdom the original contract be
by his wife Mary, the eldest daughter of tween the king and people; had violated
Charles I of England: so that this William the fundamental laws, and withdrawn him
was a distant collateral heir to the crown. self out ot the kingdom, and abdicated the
His wife was Mary, the eldest daughter of government, and that the throne was there
James II; so she was a nearer heir to the by vacant. The people were divided into
crown. During Charles I and Cromwell's two great partie.sthe Whig and the Tory.
time, a lawyer lived in London, of respect The former was the liberal and progressive
able parentage and good practice; but to party: the latter was imbued with ultra
increase his worldly position, and not fear- notions ot' conservatismthe divine rights
ing a democratic degradation, he married a j of kings, of which James could not be de-
rich brewer's widow. He had been a mem- I prived; they contended, that "by the uni-
ber of parliament, and at first on the popu- i form tenor of the English laws the tittle to
lar side, but afterwards became loyal and ! the crown was ever regarded as sacred, and
devoted to the king. This was Edward Hyde, ' could on no account, and by no maladmin-
who with his family joined Charles II while istration, he forfeited by the sovereign;"
in exile on the continent. He soon became ami various other notions of the kind.3 In
Charles' principal counsellor and his right the house of lords, where the Tories were
hand man. He was an able man, exper greatly in the majority, the resolutions of
ienced in state affairs and a historian very the commons were greatly opposed upon
useful to the then English royal family. these unreasonable and untenable grounds,
While abroad in exile, James II, then re and much debated. At length, however,
siding with his royal brother, did not fear the resolutions of the commons substan
a plebeian connection, and so married tially prevailed. This shows how far the
Mary, Hyde's oldest daughter, and adaugh- ruling portion of the English |ieople were
ter of the brewer's widow. Of this marriage from any just notion of government and
came two sovereign queens of the English free institutions ; and how recent these must
throneMary, the wife ot William, the have been with the people. The lords did
prince of Orange ; and her sister, Anne, not yield their opposition to all radical
queen of England. On the restoration change in the rights of the monarch, until
Hyde became the earl of Clarendon and after the prince of Orange, who as an hon
chancellor of England, and for a while est and just man, refrained from all decided
Charles' able prime minister. interference in the settlement of the ques
William of Orange, upon the invitation tions, intimated to his particular friends that
of a portion of the English people, came it belonged to parliament to settle the vari
with a small Heel and army and landed in ous schemes proposed for the settlement of
the south of England. He was received the government, with which he did not in
with acclamation, and an overwhelming tend to interpose; he learned that some
majority of the people declared for him proposed to put public affairs in the hands
James had now become so odious that the of a regent, others proposed to confer the
army also turned against him, as well as crown upon princess Mary, his wife. It
his children, Mary and Anne. was, he said, their concern alone to choose
By the advice and consent of the leading the kind of administration that suited them
men of England the prince of Orange call best; but intimated that something should
ed a convention, to consist of members of 3 6 Hume's History ot" EnjjUnul, pp. 35^j'6.
 Chap, i.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES.
be done soon ; he was averse to assuming But Irish gallantry and bravery have been
the crown as conqueror, or undertaking the too often tested and vindicated in both En
regency until a rightful heir might appear; glish and continental service, to be tested or
and lie had no time to spare from his affairs questioned by their service under James.
on the continent to serve under Mary as The abilities and merits of Sarstield, their
the sovereign. Mary herself was decided general, has thrown a flash of glory over
ly opposed to the last proposition, and in their misfortune in that unfortunate cam
disposed to putting William in an inferior paign. When Sarstield was rallied upon
position to herself. the defeat of his countrymen, he gallantly
The Tories were astonished at this mod replied: "Just swap kings with us, and we
eration and liberality on the part of the will try it again."
prince, and surprised that he thought they The battle of the Boyne firmly fixed
had a right, with such unlimited discretion, William and M;iry upon the throne, and
to settle the government as they pleased. sent James upon a second flight to France;
But it brought the lords to a decided ac so soon was the revolution of 1688 a suc
tion ; they now agreed to the action of the cess. The reign was distinguished for its
house with very slight modification. The efforts in favor of a general religious tolera
convention then, by a bill, settled the crown tion, more liberal than any preceding ad
on the prince and princess of Orange, for ministration in England.
their joint and several lives, the sole ad William III was an excellent man and
ministration to remain in the prince: the an able prince. His administration for the
princess Anne, the sister of Mary, and then country upon the whole was prosperous,
the princess of Denmark, to succeed after for he was a statesman as well as a gener
the death of both William and Mary, in al. What was in him that was specially
Scotland the parliament settled tiie conflict unfortunate to the British people was that
ing questions with more expedition and he was a foreigner, deeply committed in
liberality; and before it was done in Eng wars and affairs on the continent, in which
land in the same manner. In Ireland the the English people had little or no interest.
Tories and Catholics united in support of It was the same subject matter that has
James II, who returned there from France ever been the curse of Britain, that is, to
with some military and naval aid. Con be ruled by foreigners instead of by her
siderable war ensued in Ireland; but at the own native people. The Romans, Saxons,
celebrated battle of the Boyne (July ist, Danes, Normans, and now the Dutch, all
1690) William III gained a complete vic the same, except the latter were less avari
tory over fames II and his French and cious and cruel, but all taking what thev
Irish supporters, and placed Protestantism | could Rct ,-,. the benefit of foreigners and
triumphant over Tory and Catholic oppres- foreign collntrv. William was liberal in
sion and illiberality.* distributing lands to his foreign favorites;
This unfortunate war, brought upon the and was indignant when parliament re-
Irish by the worthless James II, was a fused any longer to retain in the service of
matter, which in its consequences, has fa- the country his Dutch army, in which he
tally affected and hung upon the Irish as a took so ,m'lch pl.klc. To th|s (lav thcre are
national affair. It is unfortunate for that aniong the English nobility those who~e
brave and generous people that thev look position and wealth is the result of Wil
upon it as such, and that it is not forgotten. liam's attachment to his foreign friends.
William's men were generally veteran Some of these matters rendered William
troops, had seen much service and were dis unjxipular with a majority of the English
ciplined: those under James were hastily re- people, who looked upon him as a cold,
cruited and undisciplined; and the result was j taciturn and phlegmatic Dutchman. The
just what such differences always produce, revolution, which was of so much import
4 See MucauJay's History of England, Vol. iii, p. ,
ance and benefit to the country, was brought
about by the people themselves, and proba.
374 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
-ably could have been sustained without ! A. D. 1707, and the settlement in 1701, was
William's aid by her native people, as it j declared to be the heir to the throne after
was in Cromwell's time, had it not been Anne'sdeath, for the British people were op-
for the high and illiberal notions of the Tory posed to theclaims ofthe infant James, on ac-
party, : count of the tendencvof the family toCatholi-
William 11 1 was ruler of Britain tour- i cism, and his education in France. Inconse-
teen years, having survived Mnrv eight quence of these matters, the Whigs imnie-
years, expired in i/oj, in consequence of a ' diately proclaimed George of Brunswick
fall from a horse, and left the kingdom to ! king of Great Britain and Ireland. Bvthis
Anne, in accordance with the terms of the ' transaction the rule of the Stuart dvnasly
settlement, who succeeded him. She ruled i was brought to an end, and that of the
the country for twelve years in which it Guelphs commenced. This name has long
made threat progress in every department j been the family name in Germany, but the
of the government as well as in every de- ! dynasty is frequently called the Brunswick,
partment of literature, science and industry. | and it includes George I, George 1 1, George
The war of the Spanish succession was on ' HI, George IV", William IV, and her prcs-
her hands, (170(1 1713) in which the peo- ent majesty, queen Victoria,
pic of Britain had little or uo interest, but, The expulsion of James II is wholly at-
to subserve the interest, whim or follv of i tributable to his bigotry and superstition in
the nobililv or crowned heads, in which the i matters of Catholic religion and the well
duke of Msirllvirough and the British arm\ founded opposition of the British people to
acquired renown in the great battles and that denomination, founded upon their well
victories ol Oiidenardc, Blenheim, and known intolerance and oppression wher
Romilie-. About the middle of Anne's ever they had the power to exert them. If
reign (A. IX 1707) took place an important it had not been tor this folly and wicked-
event in the history of Britain, and the wel ness of James II, perhaps James III, the
fare of her people -the long wished for pretender, might have been king, as a Stu
union of England and Scotland in one king art, instead of George I, as a Giielph; and
dom and mulcr one parliament. perhaps, also, i he same might have taken
Just before the close of her life. Anne place in case thai lord Bolingbroke had
announced to parliament the execution of lieen more forward and expeditious on the
the treaty of I'trecht, which brought peace | Pilrt of the Tories, than the duke of Argyle
and relieved the people of England from | on tne Parl of 'lie Whigs, at the death of
the espcnsc and pressure of a long war on | queen Anne. However that may be. it is
the continent. At length Anne departed | sl'H very questionable if the British people
this life, (1714) and it became a serious gained anything by the exchange of the
question as to who would be the heir to the Stuarts, with all their faults, for the gross
throne, for she died childless, though she ! aml brutal habits and foreign manners and
was the mother of seventeen children by I predelectioijs of the Georges/' But that
her husband, the prince of Denmark; and | there was any choice between them is
her nearest heir was her half-brother, James. ' equally doubtful, tor neither were worthy
rhe -on of lame- II. then in e\ile. 'ro. I of the position. The attachment of George
wards the clo-e of her life she favored the i to Protestantism was the only thing which
Tories, contrary to her gratitude due to the ' prepondered in his favor.
Whigs, her earlv friends and supporters:
and also favored the restoration of her Dynasty. (A. D. 17
half-brother. James, whose legitimacy she lo 1837.)
formerly had always doubted. But the fieorge I. king of Great Britain and Ire-
Whigs, by their activity, stole a march on | land, was the son of Ernest Augustus
the Tories, and obtained from Anne a doubt- .
ful declaration in favor of the dukeof Bruns- SIT Tharkcrily's Kour Georges. Also Pit torul
uick. who h\ an act of pa rhament in , Hist. HIM, Knpl.iml.
r.m'jiiiiu. p.
f^inpJdf,. Art.I jjj. IVol. viii New America*
nd <!vorf>r II.
Chap, i.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES. 375
Elector of Brunswick, and of Sophia, a gross indulgence, and frequently engaged
grand-daughter of James I, of England, in shameful family quarrel*. To him ten-
His right to the crown was founded upon ! gland was alwav ;i foreign country, and
several acts of parliament, fixing the suc he could not overcome hi* superior attach
cession, after Anne, upon the descendants ment for his native Hanover and it* people.
of Sophia, upon the theory that James 1 1 He could never reconcile himself to the
had abdicated, and that his blood in his son language, manners, habits or customs of
James, the Pretender, had been tainted by the English people; and therefore Bought
attainder. The English people were much frequent visits to his beloved Hanover,
divided at the lime as to whether George i whose interest was more at heart than that
or the Pretender should be called to the ! of England. Again Britain wa> cursed,
throne. A majority of the nobility were as she always had been, with a foreign in-
Tories and favored James, and they were fluence. This frequently induced the En-
led by men of decided talents and slates- glish people to call him a foreign tyrant,
manship; such as Bolingbroke, Oxford and ' and induced many to engage in an illy con-
others, who had no lours of religious con certed rebellion to call to their aid the Prc-
sequcnces. But the majority of tile people . tender; who came, landed in Scotland, and
were Whigs, were highly attached to their ! was proclaimed James III. But this re-
Protestant religion, and greatly feared the hellion was soon put down, and the l'iv-
doin inution of the Catholic-* and their known tender glad to flee; but at the cost of much
reputation for intolerance, tyranny and op- j blood and many valuable lives. It was the
pression ; and were most decided against . influence of the Whigs, and the love of the
James and in favor of George. With them ' people for the safety of their Protestant re-
were many of the nobility led by the able ligioti, which induced the people to Mi;1-
duke of Argyle. Anne had been almost port so unpopular and hateful a monarch,
the whole of her life opposed to the pre- , In this tliev were supported by the talent-
tensions of James, her half-brother, and in- ed minister, Walpolc, and other native
sisted that he was illegitimate and super- Britons who surrounded the throne and
stitioiis. But at the close ot her life her > upheld it. After a reign of thirteen years
heart changed for her relative, and, had she George I departed this iiie in 17.17. without
the will, energy and talent of Elizabeth, he j am very distinguishing event to mark it;
might, with the aid and ability of the To and was succeeded by son, whom he
ries, have been recalled. At that time the most cordially hated.
duke of Marlborough, the most renowned | George 1 1. like his father, was a German bv
and able man, both as a warrior and states- | birth and education, and not a Briton. He
man, of his time, but at the same time the had spent some years in Britain before he
most selfish, heartless and treacherous, was j was called to the throne, still his love tor
playing between the two parties, waiting to his Hanover prevailed over that for his
tee which part} would be the most likely adopted country, whose English language,
to succeed ; but when Argyle and the Whigs manners and customs were not much more
had succeeded, he threw his powerful in cordial to him than they had been to the
fluence in their favor. father. I le too was a rough .soldier, could
At the time that George was called to indulge in cordial hatred of kindred, and
England he was Elector of Hanover, and unrelenting family quarrels. He hated his
therefore his family are as frequently called father, hi* wife and his son Frederick, who
the house of Hanover as that ot Brunswick. was the lather of George 1 1 1, and quarreled
He was then fifty-four years of' age, had with all of then For many years he en
een a good deal of public service, both joyed the title of prince of Wales, with its
civil and military; but was moreof a rough great income, with but little gratitude or
soldier than a statesman; a man of some return to the English people, from whom
action, but of moderate abilitiesat the it was extracted.
tame time was heartless, cruel, subject to The hateful character of these riders
376 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
produced another rebellion, and prince as in the arts and science, and human
Charles Stuart, a new Pretender, and a son thought. In the time of John, the Great
of James the old Pretender, was induced Charter was the work of the nobility against
to land in Scotland with a lew men and of the sovereign, in which the people had no
ficers, and with a very limited amount of lot or part; it was now the peoplethe
arms for such an undertaking. For a time commons, in advance of the nobles and
extraordinary success attended his enter their unworthy sovereigns, in the noble ef
prise. It is said that a large number of fort of securing to every man his rightful
men in Kent were readv to unite with him, liberties, and to hiimanitv its just freedom.
but were never able to join him. Several In this groat task the house of commons
battles were fought, in which Charles was of the British parliament, since its origin
successful ; but reverses came, and he was in the times of Edward I, has progressed
compelled to retreat to the north, where at and led the way for the establishment of all
Culloden a severe battle was fought, April the free and liberal institutions in the civ
I6th, 1746, where Charles was completely ilized world.
defeated bv the roval forces under the duke George II continued his connection with
of Cumberland, George II's second son, Hanover and his attachment for that coun-
whose barbarities at the battle and in the I try, which compelled the British people to
suppression of the rebellion conferred upon lavish much of their treasures and blood in
him the title of the "Bloody Butcher." his wars on the continent, in which the
Charles made a romantic escape under the ] people had no real interest, which demon-
guidance of Flora MacdonaKl, and though strated the folly and injurious effect of the
thirty thousand pounds was offered for foreign connection. He died October Jjth,
him, and his escape was known to hun 1760, in his seventy-seventh year, after a
dreds of the poor Scotch people, no betrav- reign of thirty-four vears, and was suc
al was attempted. ceeded upon the throne by his grandson,
Under this reign the English government | George III.
gained their renowned dominion and em- j George III was the grandson of George
pi re in India, under dive; and the capture II and son of Frederick, who was son of
of Quebec by Gen. Wolfe, and the estab- I the latter and nominally the prince of
lishment of their dominion in Canada. This j Wales. He came to the throne at the age
reign was also di-tinguKhed tor its fertilitv | of twenty-two, reigned over the country
in great men ; among them was William sixty years, and died at Windsor at the age
Pitt the elder, the earl of Chatham, the of eighty-two, A. D. 1820. He differed
celebrated orator and statesman ; lord Bo- ! from his two predecessors, his relatives, in
lingbroki', the statesman and hi-torian; sustaining a good moral character, exem-
Edmund Burke, the statesman and phil- ! plary in his family and domestic relations,
osopher; to these may be added many dig- and in private life would have sustained
tinguished men in literature, philosophy the position and reputation of a worthy and
and arts, as Pope, Johnson, Hume, Smol reputable citizen. He was endowed with
lett, Newton, Reynolds, Hogarth, and but very moderate abilities, but conserva
mam others, who have added to the re tive and dignified. He was bigoted even
nown of their countrymore as the evi in his Protestant religion, tenacious of his
dence of the progress of the people than royal rights, and supercilious in his no
the merits of their sovereign, llallamhas tions of their divine origin, and thought it
said that it was "the most prosperous peri- j wrong that the people should interfere with
od that England had ever known." If so, | what he considered to be his prerogatives;
it was comparatively when put in contrast j and withal he was obstinate and tenacious
with former times, when it then presented I in his opinions. His dynasty was brought
in hold relief the progress that the people | to the throne by the activity and influence
had recently made for themselves in per- j of the Whigs, yet during his whole life he
Bonul freedom and human liberty as well [ courted and favored the Tories, the opposite
 Chap, i.] CIVIL AND POLITICAL CHANGES. 377
party. In the course of his reign he was | and commerce, which was greatly reduced
afflicted with several turns of mental de- by its termination; and by 1819 had pro-
rangement; and during the last ten years duced a great revulsion and distress in the
of his life he was a confirmed lunatic; and country. This called forth a great public
the administration passed into the hands meeting of the people at Manchester, to
of his oldest son George as prince regent. consider the evils of the times and devise
The most striking events of this reign relief. The government took the alarm
were: The American Revolution of A. D. and claimed the right to disperse it. For
1776, which was brought about by the king ! that purpose a body of cavalry was ordered
and his ministry, principally under the | to charge upon the meeting, by which a
guidance of lord North, claiming the right i lar=c number of people, men, women and
to tax the colonies at their pleasure, with-. , children were rode over and shamefully
out the voice or consent of the colonies! ! massacred. This produced a great excite-
This is just what the Romans, the Saxons, ! ent in the people and denunciation of the
the Danes ami the Normans did; but the j government. Since then the people of En-
Americans, who had become better advised Sland have so improved in their rights and
.as to what was due to man and humanity, liberties that the government would not
s>aid no. there was no right to tax them dare thus again to interfere with such pub
without their consent or their being repre lic meetings. Recently they have been re
sented by a delegate in the legislative body peatedly held, without the government
who assumed the right thus to tax them. thus daring to interfere.
This brought on the noted war of the Rev- i Another important event of the reign
olution, from A. D. 1775 to 1783; produced j transpired in 1801, by which Ireland was
the establishment of a new government of united with England and Scotland in one
the United States, who were aided in the j union, with hut one national legislative par-
establishment of their independence by the ! liament and government, designated the
alliance with France. The obstinacy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire-
Rritish king compelled the questions in land. Since then Ireland has had no sep
di-pute to be settled by the sword, and the arate legislative both or parliament, but is
English people to submit to the loss of their duly represented by delegates in the nation
colonies. al parliament of the kingdom.
The next great event is the war of the Upon the death of his father, George IV
Ficnch revolution, commencing in 1793 came to the throne and reigned over the
and terminatingin 1815, which produced as country ten years, and died childless in
a distinguishing feature of it the great naval 1830, and was succeeded by his brother,
actions, under, lord Nelson, of the Nile and William IV. lie had been prince of Wale*
Trafalgar; and the great battles in Spain, from his infancy, which, however, gave him
under Wellington, in 1808 1810; and that but little control of public affairs, for it was
of Waterloo in 1815, in all of which Sir more a titulary and conventional matter
Thomas Picton served, and was always de than an administrative affair; but during
nominated Wellington's right arm; and in the last ten years of his royal lather's life
the last named battle sacrificed his life in a and his insanity, he was the head of the
gallant charge for liritish glory and renown. government as prince regent. It therefore
The principal result of this great war is the produced no great change in the adminis
tremendous national debt of Great Britain tration when he became the sovereign. He
with which it closed, amountin to SSs, was long a public ligure, a notable person
millions pounds sterling, or ^i^.^j^ age, at home and abroad ; noted for his posi
Another event happened towards the tion in society, the subject of observation,
close of this reign, characteristic of the j remark and gossip, more than for his abili-
age, which should not be overlooked j ty and action in public affairs. He was the
here. During the war, Great Britain en- subject of the most contradictory opinions
joyed a great monopoly in manufactures | as to his merits and failings. By his par
3?8 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
tial friends he was said to be "the first gen- I had been so odious to George III), are-
tleman of Europe ;" and his merely respect- j among the most noted acts of his reign,
able intellect, a good personal figure, his He died June, 1850, in the sixty-seventh
education and personal advantages enable , year of his age; and it has l>een said, "that
them to make the remark, without his pos- he should have lived so long is not the least
sessing one quality or action which should notable circumstance connected with a life
distinguish a Uritish monarch. But the ! that has furnished as much material for
progress of the |>eople in their control over i scandal as any in English history."
political affairs and disregard for sovereign William IV succeeded his brother George
power and official station, unless accom- ; ;,, [8?O) his nearest heir. He had been
panied by some merit and worth, as well educated with a view to service in the
as their improved moral virtues and their navy, and at the age of lourteen commenced
social position in relation to their govern his professional career as midshipman, and
ment, enable his countrymen to estimate rose to that of admiral, lie reated
George IV in his true character, though duke of Clarence, and was generally known
enrobed in sovereignty. To bis wife he , hv th:lt liUe 1]e posscssed considerable
was treacherous and cruel, if inn to all he ,- t)lc bi,,m alu| honest character of a
pretended to love. His frailties and Keen- sajior: a,,d W!ls nuivt. respected and popular
tiousjiess aie still the subject of gossip, wjth liK. people than his predecessor,
scandals and stories, and enabled Thackeray | though, with the common licentiousness of
to portray his history, with his other royal royalt\, he was connected with a mistress,
namesakes, under the title of bis -Four I >i"rs. Jordan, who bore him rive sons and
Georges," of whom George III, with I rive daughters, illegitimate childrei.. who
mediocrity, obstinacy and insanity, was were known hv the name of Kit/ Clarence,
most worthy and respectable. and took a high position in the English
Soon alter bis coming to the throne, aristocracy.
great commotion was raised among the Soon after William came to the throne,
British people by George IV attempting to the revolution in France, of 1830, took
procure, by an act of parliament, a divorce | place, and excited all Europe for a reform
from his wife, Caroline. They were then j and greater freedom and liberality in their
childless, their only child, princess Char- j government. The British people were also
lotte, being then dead, and the king having I excited, and demanded some parliamentary
been for many years separated from her, reform, which was obtained by a more jiit-t
and she having been forcibly excluded from representation of the people; which once
her rights at the coronation : these matters I more brought the Whigs into power, alter
produced a strong sympathy for Caroline an exclusion of fifty year, under the min-
on the par.t of the people, and a firm belief j istry of earl Gray, who carried through the
that the indiscretions charged against her ' Reform Bill: which was followed by other
were more attributable to his vices and reforms of minor importance,
wrongs than to her guilt. The trial of the After a short reign of seven years Wil-
divorce case IK- fore the house of lords, with Mam died, in 1837, and was succeeded by
the splendid defense made by i Victoria, the present queen. As the king
Brougham, one of her counsel, and the ex- j died without legitimate issue, his nearest
citement of the people, produced one of I heir was Victoria, a daughter and onlv
the most exciting features ot his reign ; and I child of his deceased brother, Edward duke
caused the prosecution of the case to be of Kent, who was called to the throne at
abandoned in the house of commons. i the age of eighteen. By this incident art
The part that Britain took in the naval I important event took place in the relation
battle of \avarino in favor of the inde of Great Britain with the continent. Since
pendence of Greece in A. D. 1827, and two the accession of George I, the British gov
years afterwards the passage by parliament ernment had been connected with I lanover,
of the Roman Catholic relief bill (which and in a great measure subject to the in-
Chp. i.] CIVIL AND 1'OLI T1CAL CHANGES.
terest of the latter country. But now a I
happy separation was bound to take place. ]
Up to the accession of Victoria, the king of'
Great Britain and elector of Hanover were
confided in the same person. But the Ger
man Salic law would not permit the sover
eignty to pass to a tumult*, as the British ;
constitution has always permitted. Con- j
Bequeutly when the British throne passed \
to Victoria, she could not claim the sover- (
eignty of Hanover, as she could had she
been a male ; that had to pass to the male j
heir of William IV, who was his brother, !
the duke of Cumberland, who consequent- j
Iv became king of Hanover. I were no longer compelled to fight for per
The events that have transpired during '
the reign of Victoria are striking and im
portant, especially the great control that .
the British people have acquired over their j
government by means of the house ot '
commons, which in parliament has become '
the most important and influential political ,
body that ever existed, not excepting the*
Roman senate in its palmy days, liut these
events and matters, existing within the
memoi'v ol living men, do not require a
reference to them ; the history of the rulers j
of the Ancient Britons and their descend- I
ants has been brought down to the present
dav, and a- the English people arc non-
more of the blood of the Ancient Briti.ns
than of any other race, even they may well
claim, as Victoria herself does, that Carac-
tacus, Boadicca, Arthur, I^iewelh n and '
Tudor are truly among their renowned an
cestors. And now, instead of a further re
view of their rulers, we shall proceed to
complete the review of the histon ot the
people themselves; and show that the pres
ent people ol' Britain are not so much the
descendants ot Saxons, Danes, or Nor
mans, as of those Britons who have occu
pied Britain from the time of dvsar down
to our own dav. And in so doing, it is
well to remember that the government is
now not that of England alone, but that of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland.
&<>
CHAPTER II.
THE CONDITION OK THE I'Korl.K KKOM TUB
ACCESSION OF HEXRY VII TO THAT OH
VICTORIA. 048;; 1837.)
5-1. Thf CiiiK/itiini of the (.'vilify.
By the accession of Henry Tudor to the-
throne of Kngland the destiny of theCym-
rv became lived. In the progress of civili
zation, and a belter conception of Christian
duty, and of justice, their neighlx>rs had
ceased to make war upon them, and to rol
and plunder them ol' their property. They
sonal rights and liberty, or for existence
and freedom. They have now become as
peaceable, industrious and productive a
people as any portion ot the island ; and
this is so for reasons stated In Tacitu-:
that the Britons were a peaceable people,
when thev had no cause to complain of
wrongs and injustice. Their brethren, the
Uoegrian Cvmry, in the east and south of
the island, had submitted to become the
subjects of the Saxons, just as the Saxons
themselves had afterwards submitted to be
come the subjects and serfs of the Nor
mans. The descendants of the Ancient
Britons torm the substratum and material
part not only of the population of the
whole island, but of that of Kngland it.selt.
Thus we were compelled. Ml pursuing the
history of these descendant-, to keep in
view the government of Kngland as well
as that of Wales. But now the whole peo
ple are under the union ol One government.
The union of Kngland and Wales by Edward
I was that of conquest and not cordial-- it
was that of tbrce, reluctance and distrac
tion; but under the Tudor- ii was that of
choice, friendship and confidence.
The Welsh people looked upon Henry
Tudor ;is the descendant and representative
of Arthur; us the return of their ancient
rule to the sovereignty of Britain. Rich
mond could never ha\ e come to the throne
of England without the aid of his country
men; and this the Tudors always gratefully
acknowledge, and treated the Cymry as
their kindred and with special regard. The
Cymry regarded this event as a realization
 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
of the poetic prediction of the return of ple remained there, and submitted to their
Arthur. conquerors just as the Saxons afterwards
Wales is a small, but romantic country ; did to the Normans, and became tributaries
with its hills and dales, its mountains and and stipendaries to the Saxons as they had
valleys; celebrated for the beautv of its been to the Romans. This rfas specially
valleys and rivers, and its charming land the case with London, which was never
scapes. But in consequence of its moun taken by the Saxons, York and other large
tains and hills, it will not support the same cities. Though we have no accurate his
proportion of inhabitants as that of Eng torical account of this matter as it trans
land, with her extensive and fertile plains pired at the time, yet we know that the
Wales therefore has never had over one- .Saxons came principally as soldiers, not
fifteenth, or one-twentieth of the population emigrants with families, and took their
of England. In 1574, Eli/abeth's time, the wives from the women of the country, just
population of England was estimated to be as the Normans did in their conquest of
about 5,500,000, while that of Wales was Xormandv, and afterwards in England.
about 200,000. At the commencement of Their progress was slow ; for a long time
Victoria's reign the population of England their conquest was confined to the neigh-
was 13.000,000, while that of Wales was torhood of the sea, until they were firmly
8oo,oop, and that of Great Britain and Ire- fixed there; then they in the course of
)and was 24,300,000. In 1861 the enumer about two hundred years surrounded the
ation was for England. 18.949,000; for interior of England, and swallowed it up
Wales, 1,100,000; and for the whole king under the name of Mercia. Thus the in
dom, 29,334,000. The representation as ap habitants of South-eastern Britain, called
portioned in the house of commons was: the Lloegrian Cymrv, were swallowed up,
tor England. members; for Scotland, and assimilated, and became Saxons, as the
53; for Ireland, 105; for Wales, 29; in all, Ancient British historians say was the
654; which gives to Wales a proportion as case. That thev became Saxon in language
i to 22 1^. How Wales was able to sustain was because the Teutons never change
herself, politically and morally, with such their language when they can help it, as
disparity of influence and power in compe we find to be the case in their settlements
tition against her, is a curious question, in Pennsvlvania and New York.
which we will hereafter endeavor to an The descendants of the Ancient Britons
swer. thus becoming English as well as Welsh,
The theory adopted by some historians, we were bound to take into our history
that the Saxons, as thev settled in England, both people; for the English may well
slaughtered all the Ancient British inhab- claim their descent from the Ancient
Hants who did not flee to Walc~. we take to | Britons, as Queen Victoria actually does
be untrue, not onlv on account of its cold ! claim hers from Caractacus, Boadicea and
inhumanity and its inconsistency in the Arthur, through Llewellyn and the Tudors.
analogy of history in all similar transac Although the union of the English and
tions, but that Wales was utterly incapable Cvmry was approached by hostilities and
of receiving them. When the Romans opposition, vet upon the coming in of
left Britain, Wales had her full proportion Henry Tudor as sovereign of both coun
of inhabitants, and was utterly incapable of tries, the Welsh considered the act as the
receiving the very large population which placing of one of their own people upon
then existed within the bounds of what is the throne of Britain, and therefore the
now England. It is very probable that be government was to them acceptable. Since
fore the Saxon conquest the ruling and then thev have been as harmonious and ac
foremost portion of the British peopleas tive a part of the government as any part
the officials, priests and learned men, rled of England.
in Wales and Brittany, but these were com While we have contended from historical
paratively few: the great mass of the peo- facts that the English in their origin were
Chap, ii.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
greatly mixed with the Ancient Britons, the literature and the Christian religion
and with Cymric and Celtic blood, we shall which they cultivated during the Roman
not rest upon that argument alone, but times, and diffused the advantages of them
shall hereafter adduce other arguments among the English, as in the case of Gildas,
from the language, the law, the physical Nennius, and Asser, the friend and bio
constitution, and the antiquities of the peo grapher of Alfred the Great ; but all this
ple, to prove more conclusively the same was more especially the case after the Nor
matter. We shall now show from direct man conquest, as is evidenced by the
historical facts that the process of the mix writings and labors of Geoffrey of Mon-
ture and combination of the two races has moutli, Walter archdeacon of Oxford, Gi-
been constantly going on, not only by the raldus Cambrensis, and many other such
Cymry mixing with the English, but the instances before the Tudor times, who were
latter, in a less degree, with those of Wales. natives of Wales, and added to the litera
We now refer to historical facts already ture and learning of England. But es-
stated of marriages constantly going on 1 pecially is this the case after that event, when
between the English and the Cvmrv, from i Welshmen were introduced into- every
the earliest Anglo-Saxon times to the pres branch of literature, science and profession
ent. We may refer first to those which al position in England.
took place between the families of Cadwal- What has just been said was so evident
lo and Pcnda, :md marriages which were at an early day that Ben. Johnson, in the
constantly taking place between the kings honesty of his heart, says: "Remember the
and earls of Mercia. and the princes of country has always been fruitful of loyal
Wales. The marriage of Williams, a gen- hearts, minds and men. What lights of
tlemaii of Wales, to the daughter of Lord learning hath Wales sent forth for your
Cromwell, of 1 lenry VIU's time, made him schools ! What industrious students of your
the progenitor of a sovereign of England \ laws! What ;ible ministers of your justice!
in the person of Oliver Cromwell; as well Whence hath the crown in all times better
as that of Owen Tudor made him the an servitors, more liberal of their lives and
cestor of the Tudor sovereigns. Such mar [ fortunes?" From the earliest times natives
riages were numerous in every rank of i of Wales have been distinguished in every
life, as well with those who stood near the | branch of English literature, science and
throne, or in elevated positions in society; I arts; in every profession law, theology
as the marriage of Roliert Owen to Miss and medicine. Upon examination we find
Dale, who declared that the question with their numbers to be very large unexpect
her was between Owen and celilwicv. But edly so; many of whom in history and bi
Mi*s Dale was not the only tair English ography are stated to be Englishmen, but
lady who declared that the question with ' ii]x>n examination are found to be either na
her was between Owen and celibacy; but tives of Wales or their immediate descend
they were in every rank of life, of which ants, w ho were real Cymry in blood. The bar,
history gives no account, but supported by the bench, the pulpit, and every depart
the emigration of thousands to every part ment of government, as well as every call
of England. This operation was constant ing, art and business, have had their full
ly going on between the two people, es share of them. Our limits will not begin
pecially after the accession of Owen Tudor, to permit us to point them out or enumer-
whose family were active in producing an I ate their merits and distinctions. But every
uniformity, and an union of interest and where we find the following Cymric names
feeling between the two people. scattered through every department of
The Cymry have not only thus become British interest, viz: Allen, Adams, Bebb,
an important part of the British people and Bowen, Bevan, Breese, Catsbv, Clive, Cad-
nation, hut have been constantly adding bv wallauer, Davies, Edwards, Evans, Griffith,
their learning, talents and labors to the na Howell, Harris, Hughs, Humphrey, James,
tional renown. Thev carried with them Jones, Johncs, Jenkins, Kenyon, Llewellyn,
 32 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Hoot v.
Lloyd, Latimer, Lewis, Lee, Leigh, Morse, | in reference to his Uigh otficc in Wale:
Morgan, Morris, Merydith, Meryck, Mar- j "It is a happy place of government, tor a
shall, Nicholas, Owen, Parry, Perry, Pic- , better people to govern or better subjects
ton, Peters, Pugh, Pricliarcl. Phillips, Pow- ! Ero]>e holiloth not." To this effect abun-
ell, Putnam, Price, Reese, Richard, Rice, ; dance of authorities mav lie had, as well as
Stephens, Stanley, Thomas, Tudor, Wayne, I it being proved by the course of history.
Wynn, Wynne, Williams, Vale, and many They are generally loval and conservative,
more. These names not only prevail in honest and religious; and for these quali
the principality, hut are equally scattered ties entrusted by other-,, as much so as any
throughout England and America wher people.
ever the English language prevails, but Since the union of Wales with England
they are among the most eminent in Eng- the military service of the Welsh to the
lish history; and wherever found claim by , kingdom has been highly important and
their geneological table, or by tradition, i distinguished. From the' battle of Cress y
that they were from Wales or the descend- j to that of Alma, no battle has been fouglit
ants of those who were. This j8 a very where Hritish valor was important and put
strong evidence ol the great mixture of (ha , to the tet but where that of the Ancient
Cymry, in large numbers, among the Eng- Britons has bad its part and been distin-
lish, of a more reccni date than thai whirl, ! ^uished. A striking evidence of this i> the
took place with the anc.ic.it Saxons. j hislorv o)- thc ,UL.nn .,hir(1 resi,llcm. known
Some have represented the Welsh as ; as the Royal Welsh Fusileers. This regi-
contentious and disposed to war and fight, I ment was" first raised for William I II in
but upon fair examination it will appear, 1689, by its colonel, lord Herbert, in Wale.-,
that was the case only when thev were im and has since been kept up bv recruits
posed upon by the Saxons and Normans Irom thence. Other regiments of Cvmrv
when attempting to conquer them and take have gained their well merited distinction
away their rights and property. At other as the descendants of those \\ ho fouglit
times they have been as peaceable as any under Caraclacns and Arthur for the rights
peoplenever having been engaged in for .and Ireedoni ot their country: lint the
eign conquest, or in attempt to injure or twenty-third, the 1'usileers, take the lead.
rob other people. What they contended It has served in all the jrcat conflicts
for was to be let alone Thierry and Mal- through which Britain ha* Cilice passed
lam have thus expressed their opinion. | at home, on the continent, in America, in
The latter says: "As to the Welsh frontier, j Egypt and in the Crimea: in m.t all the
it was almost constantly in a state of war, .jreat battles under the duke of Marlbor-
which a very little good sense and benevo ough and the duke of Wellington. I'pon
lenceinany one of our shepherds would j a comparatively recent occasion the regi-
have easily prevented, by admitting the | ,,ient was presented with new colors by
conquered people to partake in equal prince Albert, who took the opportunity to
privileges with their fellow subjects. In say he "felt most proud to be the person to
stead of this, thev satisfied themselves with transmit these colors to .so renowned a
aggravating the mischief by granting legal j regiment." The old colors were lodged in
reprisals upon Welshmen."' But under , the church of St. Peter's Carmarthen, and
the Tudors their rights and privileges were the new colors, bearing more names than
respected, and they became as peaceable and anv other regiment in the service, are in
loyal people as any in the kingdom. In scribed with the memorable and important
confirmation of this is the report of Sir battles of Minden. Sphinx, Egypt, Cornua,
Henry Sydney to his government, who had Martinique, Albuera. Kadajos, Salaman
served under queen Elizabeth twenty-six der, Vittorea, Pyrenees, Nivelle, Orthes
years as lord president of Wales, and said Toulouse, Waterloo. Alma, Jukerman, Se-
See bastopol.
i II. ill mi''. Middle Ages, Vol. iii, p. 163. It is remarkable that the last
ante, B., ch. . named were those attached to the laud ol"
 Chap, ii.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 383
the cradle of their ancestors. To this regi- i confidently confided; while those who fol-
ment are attached numerous names of ofti- j lowed their native love of freedom and a
cers and men whose memory is historic i just government were among the most ef
and deal' to tin- Cvmrv, and whose bl.xl , ficient of Cromwell's followers, and decided
lias freely stained the field- of llriti-h re- | puritan-,
nowii in every country and climate, to ' The dition ot the people of Wales
sustain what is dear to cverv Briton their during this period may be very well surmised
honor and I heir freedom. from these lact- stated. It must be very
With the Tudors eame Protestantism, j much likc an.V Prl' ' rral England
The Cymry. though among the very earli- | awa.v tVom tht' larKc l'ities- :ls London,
est of the people who adopted Christianity, j Y<>rk ailtl Winchester. They had labored
were always the most decided opponents :ls '"'"' :lx possible to preserve their schools
of Popery "and Catholicism, and in favor of ' !llld ehurche-, which they had cherished
a. free and national church, in opposition to i and hro"Kht dow" with them from the Ro-
foreign influence and control over their re- j "iun times; bllt lhcse were often burned
ligion and consciences. After the time of j down (>r <-'*'royed by their Saxon. Danish
Augustine, it was a long peri.nl of lime he . illul Nl>r"l invader.- and enemies. Not-
fore they submitted to anv control of the withstanding these calamities, the people
church of Rome over their Christian re with great exertion labored to preserve
ligion and worship. They told Augustine their literature, learning and arts, and in
that, while they were willing servants of ] the*e respects were ahead of England xm-
the church of God and cverv true Chris- : '"' VL'r.v niodern times, when the progress
' tian, all other obedience they dUckimett, | of civi"2ution and the reat ^vantages f
being governed, under their Jloaven|v | England in population and all the elements
Lord, by the bishop of Ca-rleon. Thi- was i l' wealth and prosperity have enabled her
what the Cymrv always fondU adhered to; > Pl'Pkl '"T to s"rpasK them; yel not behind
and when Henry Vlll and Edward VI and : iln-v *imilar rural districts of England. But
Elizabeth declared in favor of and gave ; thc ver-v ra'lid PrKr<>s ' improvement
their support to an independent national I I1OW l>eillS lm"'L' '" Wales, in th.- develop-
church. they had warn, -uppnrters in lncm of" hcr Srt'at 'il>'-'ral resources, and
Wale Lord Bacon sav-ol it: "Thc Urit- the great increase in her towns and manu
ons told Augustine they would not be sub factures, put her on par with other like dis
ject to him nor let him pervert the ancient tricts of England outside of London.
laws of their church. Thi- was their reso Since the conquest of Wales bv Kdward
lution; and they were as good as their I there has never been a time when her
word, for they maintained the liberties ol' people have been treated with the hardness
their church six hundred years after his customarily put upon conquered people, as
time, and were the last of all the churches that of William the Conqueror upon tht
of Europe that gave up their power to the Engli-h; indeed they have been treated as
Roman lica-t : and in the person of Henry a favored people. But especially was this
VIII that was of their blood In Owen Tu the case since the accession of Henry VII.
dor, the first that took that power awav During the whole time the English gov
again."- In the revolution which brought ernment has favored them in enforcing no
Cromwell to the sovereignty of England very objectionable laws upon them, and
the people of Wales were very much di preserving for them the most of the favored
vided upon the questions in dispute, but laws of their own; and never enforcing up
both partie- were warm and decided in the on them the feudal laws, which were al
cause they espoused. Those who permit ways so very objectionable lo them, until
ted their natire conservatism to prevail the laws of England were so reformed, and
were loyal, and in whom the royal familv ceased to be objectionable of themselves in
I these respects. Gradualh the laws, habits.
n's Klcimmts of Law und GoM-rntm-nts. i and customs of the two countries have be.
34 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book
come assimilated, so that now there is hut principality, aided by a council and other
little or no difference between them, except officers, whose seat of office was at Ludlow
that in the more rural districts the C'ym- Castle. The judiciary consisted of a cir
reig is the common language of the peo- cuit court in each of four circuits into
pie. which the principality was divided; each
After the accession of Henry VII, Welsh court had a justice appointed for it, who-
men and their descendants became still held his court in each county, and had ju
more intimately connected with the gov risdiction of all cases in law and equitv,
ernment and the nobility, than during the with an appellate jurisdiction in error in
Norman times, when so many of the Nor the higher courts at Westminster. Eliza
man barons were connecting themselves in beth added another justice to each court in
marriage with the leading families of Wales, the several circuits, and the practice of the
and forming some of the great lordships of law was almost precisely like that of Eng
the kingdom. It is said that Jasper Tudor, land.
the duke of Bedford, was continued to be Of these matters Mr. Justice Blackstone5
entrusted by the king, his nephew, with says: "Courtsbarons, hundred and coun
the chief command of his military forces, ty courts are there established, a* in Eng
as an acknowledgment of his services at land. A session is also to be held twice in
Bosworth field; and Sir Rhys ap Thomas every year in each county/' by judges ap
was no less so, when troops were called for pointed by the king, to lie called the great
and mustered in an expected rupture with sessions of the several counties in Wales;
France; and "was much noted," savs Lord in which all pleas of real and personal ac
Bacon, "for the brave troops that he tions should be held, with the same form
brought out of Wales." And Henry dur- of process, and in as ample a manner as in
ing his whole reign manifested special con- j the court ot common pleas at Westminster;
fidence in the military forces of his native and writs of error shall lie from the judg
land."3 ment therein, as a court ol record, to the
In the year 1536, Henry VIII was in court of king's bench at Westminster."
duced, by common consent, to have a Since then all distinction, in the judiciary
statute passed, enacting that the principali system of Wales, between it and that of
ty should be united and incorporated with England, has been abolished; for by stat
the kingdom of England;' and that all utes" it was enacted that the jurisdiction
Welshmen should enjoy equal liberty, of the court of great session, in law and
rights, and privileges with the king's En equitv should cease; and that the jurisdic
glish subjects. From that time forward tion of the courts of common law should
the people of the two countries have be be exercised in the counties in Wales, in
come more and more identified and assim the like manner as in the counties in Eng
ilated. Afterwards, in 1543, this monarch land. Since then subsequent' statutes'
had procured further statutory enactments have rendered the judiciary and practice of
for the improvement of the government of the law in Wales uniform and similar in
Wales, intended to establish equality of every respect with that of England.
legal rights, and legal action in relation to Thus has the condition ot the Cymry,
the two people. The government then es with respect to their laws and government,
tablished was under a lord president of the been put upon a perfect equality with the
English subjects, and their rights and lib
3 Miss Williams' History of Wales, p. .(So. erties the same as that of any other citizens
4 i Stephens' Coin.. English Law, p. 82; <tat. of the kingdom.
Henry VIU. Notwithstanding
Notwithstandi the conquest l>y Ed
ward I, and tile statute of Wallue, we are assured 1'v This delay in accomplishing this deira
Harrington that the feudal laws were unknown in
Wales; and that the property there was entirely
frff and aJlodrat. Hlackstonc fn his Coin. (Vol. i, p. 5 Commentaries, Vol. 3, p. 77.
94^ says: "They still retained very much of their 6 Suit. IS, Kliz. c. S.
original polity; particularly their rule ot inherit
ance," vr/.., the i*avcl-kind. See, also, Jud^c Sher 7 Stat. ii, George IV and i William IV, c. 70, 14
wood's Notes toBlackMonc. S Stat. 5 Victoria s. 2, c. 33 ; and S Victoria, c. II.
Chap, it.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 385
kle object was caused by the Welsh people close of this period, after the commence
themselves, in every treaty, insisting that ment of the reign of Edward I, the hou-e
the English feudal tenures should not be of commons was formed, but it neither
enforced upon them, and that they should knew nor exercised any of the powers
still retain certain favored laws of their which now distinguish it; and the people
wn, until the English should be so im only l>egan to feel and know that they had
proved as to be equal and as acceptable as some right:- in the government. But it
their own. When the very objectionable was after the commencement of the last
features of the English feudal laws had period that the house of commons began to
been abolished or become obsolete, and the exercise those rights and powers that it
English laws themselves had been so now maintains the representative and
ameliorated and improved, the Welsh then guardian of the rights of the people, hold
had no objection to this happy union and ing in its hands the government itself, and
assimilation with the other people of the the sovereignty of the kingdom.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire Of the various people and races, who en
land. ter into the composition of the English, to
?. Condi/ion of the English. (A. D. 1485 which of them is to be attributed these re
cent improvements.? The answer should
-1837.)
be, to neither exclusively; it is the growth
The progress made by the English peo of British soil ; the recent progress of hu
ple, in the amelioration of their condition manity, aided by favorable circumstances.
within this period, is unexampled in the Certainly to the Saxons, the usual claim
history of the world. This progress of ant, the least of all. The Normans were
improvement has been progressive in all probably the most proximate cause. It
the relations and affairs of human lifein were they who produced the Great Charter
their political relations; in the emancipa of John, and afterwards suggested the
tion of man from unjust bondage and re house of commons; but which never ex
straints, and placing him upon a just and isted in its majesty and power in their period.
humane equality in the attainment of hap We can not trace any thing, of the many
piness and justice; and in the advancement that is admirable in the British government,
of arts, science and business. From the to a Saxon origin, or a Saxon ingenuity.
coming of the .Saxons to the Norman con They came from a remote and barbarous
quest, there were six hundred years; from corner of the European world, and, as com
the conquest to the accession of Tudor, placently suggested by Ca?sar, the farthest
there were over four hundred years, and from Rome and civilization. They came
from that time to the accession of Victoria as warriors, with few or no wives, to tight
there were three hundred and fifty years. and conquer. They brought but little with
During the first period there were only the them but their battle-ax, and their knowl
king and ruling aristocracy who were per edge and experience were confined to aits
mitted to govern ; when the government of a savage warfare. They came to live
was in the hands of a strong king, he did upon the country ; took their wives from
as he pleased; when in the hands of a weak the people; expelled the former rulers and
one, the nobility ruled a.- they pleased ; but Christian priesthood; made the mass of
in either case the people were nothing in the people left in the rural districts their
the government, but were subject to be tenants or serfs, and the cities their tribu
ruled with equal tyranny and injustice by taries or stipendaries as they were under
either. In the second period the Normans the Romans. Their government the most
took possession of all political power, and unrestricted monarchytheir great coun
transferred the landed property, with the cil, the Witenagemot, consisting of the
nobility, from the Saxon lords to the Nor most exclusive aristocracy or oligarchy,
man; leaving the people where they were made up of the descendants of Woden,
beforethe tenant and serf. Towards the who were of no account in the government
 386 THE MODERN 1'EKIOD. [Book y-
when a Penda or an Olfa or Ethelfrith I landed aristocracy, to the exclusion of the
ruled; and thev themselves ruled with mass of the people who tilled them, had
equal tyrannv, when such weak men as j the inevitable etlect of holding the mass of
Edwv or Ethelred II, or even Edward the j the people as serfs; and excluding them
Confessor, were on the throne, or when it from a participation in the government,
\*as vacant. The Witenagemot was no more produce a low, degraded and criminal pop
the model of parliament than the great ulation just as Hume has described. On
council of the red man of America was the other hand, when a large body of ag
the model for the formation ol congress riculturists become themselves landowners
parliament, however, was. The .Saxons the yeomanry of the country, exercising
rame without literature or science, except important part and function in the govern-
sui:h as was connected with their operations i men!, they are elevated as men to moral
in plunder and war; the avowed enemies | responsibility and character,
of Christianity and civilixation, and as j Under both the .Saxon and Norman jov-
pagans of the Woden stamp, destroying j eminent it was impossible that the great
every evidence of either. ' body of the people should be otherwise
The Norman conquest was so complete | than as represented. For a people to be
that almost nothing of a Saxon institution ! elevated and of a high moral tone, they
remained, except what they could turn to | must be free, and enjoy a just share in the
their advantage; the rude Saxon feudal | blessings of the land and their government,
tenures, unwritten and depending upon j To the mass of the English people these
custom, were In the Normans reduced to rights came to them very slowly; the king
form in writing and a code, which for about I and the nobility, by whom all the powers of
two hundred years held the people of Eng- j the government were exercised, generally
land in its iron feudal grasp. The first re- | looked upon every movement to ameliorate
lief from it came from the .Vorman barons ; the condition of the people with a suspi-
in a revolt against the tyrannv of their cious ami hostile eye. When Monfort, the
kings. They wrenched from them their ; earl of Leicester, late in the reign of Henry
charters, and eventually established some- i I"- proposed to call into parliament repre-
thing like the house of commons, which I sentatives from the commons.from the
was the first thing necessary and essential j shires and burgesses, the nobility looked
1o the present government of England and upon it as a fearful innovation;1 and the
the United Kingdom. It was then that proposition was not renewed for a long
English government and British institu time.. But after the. accession of the Tudor
tions of lilx'rtv and freedom h.ul their ori dynasty, a new policy was inaugurated in
gin and grew. reference to the advancement of the posi
The frequent wars in England kept the tion and interest of the people. This was
people from improving, and in subjugation donc b-v thc "bolition of the most offensive
and poveru. Its tendency was to produce i I*""1 "f the feudal ten"-s bj statutes to
an indifference to civil orders, with idleness i enilblt> the nohility to alienate their lands,
ami crime. This was particularly the case ; h-v uhich a mi(itllc cll's hwame holders of
in those time, that preceded the" death of | I"d ; and thi* was specially promoted by
H ichard III. The character of the Anglo the great sale of lands, by I Icnry VIII, con
Saxon during those times as represented b\ fiscated from the monasteries and c.lergv.
Hume and other historians, is vert low in Tho "UTt'aSl' '" '"<' yeomanry of the coun-
roint of civilization and good government. tr-v h:ld ht'e" &rcatl.v Ptl '' the great
But all that may have been the natural con- ! 8la"hl*r <"" ihv nohility in the war which
sequence of the low position at which the j ended in the death of R'''ard III. and by
people were put, and the habits of continual i the <:ons*i't enfranchisement of the peo-
war. The manner in which both the Sax- i 'lle' and the illcrease of power and influence
ons ;! the Normans pla.-ed the ownership ! ot" the ho" To these meas
of the landed property in control of a ] i Sci- ante, B. , ch.
Chap.it.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 387
nres should be added the policy of peace troi untoward events than to resist; easier
instead of war, pursued by the Tudors; to save the tree that was sufficiently pliable
which greatly promoted manufactures and to yield before the storm than one that was
commerce of the country. These measures so stubborn as to break. I'pon the whole,
soon raised the people to a position of pow the progress made by the British people-
er, influence, and wealth, never before at in their government and their condition
tained. By these means, and from this j leaves but little doubt that it will soon at
time, the people of England made a pro- i tain all that reformation that reason and
gress in their own elevation and condition, justice require.
morally, politically and phvsicallv, unsur
passed by anv other. 3Etlmnluifr of the Hrilish 1'nrflr.
It may be well to notice in the course of' It is easier to establish satisfactorily the
ihis advancement that the improvements : ethnic relation of any of the people consti
made in the condition of the people were ' tuting the British kingdom than that of the
never made formerly as they have some- 1 English. As to them many fanciful and
times been made of late by a voluntary favorite theories have been adopted, with
movement on the part of the government out consideration or evidence to establish
or nobility, for they were too hostile, and their pure Saxon or Teutonic lineage. One
lacked all si mpathy and feeling for the in- , of these has been, that when the Saxons
terest of the people to do anything of that i came to Britain they cooly slaughtered
kind; there was an awful distance between i off the two or three millions of civilized
the nobility and the mass of the people as and Christian people found there, who
serfs and bondsmen, which utterly prohib- ' were unable to Hee to the mountains of
ited it. The action of Simon de Montfort, ; \Vales; ^o that the Saxons had a clear ter
earl of Leicester, in favor of the people, was ; ritory to begin their nation antw. We be
received with hostility by his fellow nobles ' lieve that there has already been enough
and not MKMI adopted. It was in the course said to satisfy an unprejudiced mind that
of the revolution and troubles among the this theory cannot be true; and that after
government anil nobiliti themselves when that conquest was complete a majority of
the greatest progress was made, and was the i the people of the Anglo-Saxon territory
means of procuring it. It was the Danes; were of the bl<x>d and the descendants ot
and Normans who broke down the old the Ancient Britons. But tor fear that
Saxon aristocracy of Woden origin, the some may adhere to this unfounded fancy,
closest and the most odious that was e< er we are disposed to bring forth other collat
formed. It was the hostilities between the | eral evidence to the same point, arising
Norman nobility and their monarchs, John , from the investigation of language, physi
and Henry III, that broke in upon the ological characteristics, law, and the exam
overpowering authority and tyranny of the ination of antiquities: all these, as well as
Norman kings: and it was the war which history, go to prove that the English are
terminated at the death of Richard III ' more the descendants of the Ancient Brit
which almost annihilated the power.- ol i ons than of I he Saxons who invaded Brit
that nobility, and gave a fair opportunity ain; more the product of the union and
for the improvement under Henry VII ;j amalgamation of the various races who in
it was the revolution under Cromwell that vaclecl Britain at various times than of the
brought out the yeomanry of England ; and j Saxons alone; more of the Celtic blood
it was the movements of the restoration oi than of the Teutonic.
William III and George I which did the Before entering upon these collateral
most to enable the people firmly to secure evidences, let us recall to our memory the
their liberties. But ol late the nobility and prominent facts of our history hearing up
government have of their own accord sym- ( on the question. Krom the earliest times
pathized and done much to promote such ', the inhabitants of Western Europe consist
movements, finding it was easier to con- j ed of the Celts and Teutons. The Celts
 THE MODERN PERIOD.
were the more southerly in Gaul and Brit
ain, and were the more cultivated and civ
ili/.ed; the Teutons more north, in Ger
many and Scandinavia, and the more un
cultivated and barbarous. The Romans
in various ways had come in contact and
in some measure mixedprincipally as
conquerors and rulerswith the Celts;
more in Gaul than in Britain, but not at all
with the Teutons.
When the Saxons came the Romans had
withdrawn, except such as had been mixed
with and had become a part of the Cymric
population. The Celts were distinguished
into two familiesthe Gael and the Cym-
rv, or the Gaelic and the Cymric Celts;
these are sometimes denominated, the first
as the old or low Celt, the latter as the
new or high Celt; but the Gaelic or old
Celt or the Cymric or new Celt is the bet
ter designation. The old Cells or Gaels
were the first settlers, as far as our history
gives, of Gaul and Britain. The Cymry
came last from the Cimbric Chersonesus
or north of the Elbe, and took possession
of the northwest part of Gaul, north of the
Loire. Those north of the Seine and south
>of the Rhine, who were more in the habit
of war in keeping back the Germans, and
some little mixed with the Teuton, were
denominated Belga- or Belgic Cymry. A
part of the Cymry passed over from Ar
morica to Britain and became possessed of
the south part of it; and the Gael princi
pally withdrew to the north part of the
island,1 and over to Ireland. Subsequently
j See ante, B. , ch. . It will be remembered
that it was concluded that the Gaels of Gaul and
those of the British Islands in ancient times were the
same people; they settled Britain before the Cymry
came. They then withdrew to the nurlh, and finally
became identified witii the northwest of Scotland
and south and west of Ireland. I h;ive recently ex
amined Latham's Kthnolog-y of the British Islands,
in which he represents the Gaels as isolated and un
connected with any language in Kurope. But he
approves of what he calls the Lhuyd theory, of which
he snvs: "The doctrine of Humphrey I.huvd, one of
the best of our earlier archaxlogists, suggested it
* And it is highly probable. It makes the
original population of all the British IslandsEng
land as well as Scotland and Irelandto have been
Gaelic, Gaelic to the exclusion of any Hritons what
ever. It makes a considet able part of the continent
Gaelic as well. In consequence of this, the Uritons
are a later and intrusive population, a population
which effected a trrcat anu complete displarcment
of the earlier Gaels over the whole of South Britain
and the southern part of Scotland. Kxcent that they
were a branch of the same stalk as the Gaels, their
relation to the aborigines was that of the Anglo-
[Book v.
other Cymry came over from Gaulfrom
Armorica and Belgium, and occupied the
southeast of Britain, and were known as
the Lloegrian Cymry. As the Romans
came manv oi the Cymry, for the love of
independence and freedom, withdrew to
the valley of the Clyde and the low lands
north and east of the Forth, and the latter
became known as the Picts. Others with
drew from the Romans over to Ireland,
and occupied the northeast of it, and be
came known as the Scots, who subsequent
ly passed over to Scotland, gave to it it*
name, and eventually became completely
united and absorbed with the Picts.
When the northern barbarian began to
overrun Europe, and the Saxons to invade
Britain, the older inhabitants were thus
divided : The old Celts or Gael occupied
as the permanent inhabitants of the coun
try the south part of Gaul, the highland*
of Scotland, the south and west of Ireland
and the Isle of Man ; the new Celts or Cym
ry the northeast of Ireland, the south and
east of Scotland, all of England and Wales,
and the northwest of Gaul, south of the
Rhine.
Of the people who invaded Britain alter
the Romans were: i. The Saxons. -.The
Danes. 3. The Normans.
The Saxons were known and designated
amongst themselves as three separate fam
ilies, viz: The Jutes from Holstein and
Schleiswick; the Angles to the ea^t of the
Jutes, from the southwest angle of the Bal
tic; and the Saxons, so specially called,
from all the country south of the Jutes and
north of the Rhine, including the Friesians.
They were all denominated by the Britons
under the name of Saxons, without any
distinction; and were all more or less Teu
tonic, but probably differed much from the
Germans of the interior and south of Ger
many.
That the Cymry were once settled in
the very country from which the Saxon*
came, and known in early times as the
Cimbri, is a fact admitted by all historians.
After the Cvmrv of Armorica and Britain
Saxons to themselves at a later period. * * * *
The general distribution of thtse two branches ot
the Celtic stock leads to Lhuyd's hypothesis, in other
words, the presumption is in its favor."
Chap, ii.] THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
left the Cimbri Chersonesus a large body
of them still remained there, until the time
a body of them in alliance with a body of
Teutons passed south and invaded the Ro
mans, under the name of Cimori and Teu
tons, in the time of Marius. From that
time Citnbri of the Chersonesus disappear
in history. But it is contended by histo
rians that they emigrated both north and
south, and were mingled and swallowed up
by the people with whom they came in
contact; on the north with the Danes, Nor
wegians and Swedes ? on the south with
the Saxons, Friesians, Hollanders and Bel
gians. This will account for the ethnic
difference in language and people of those
to the south or low German on the shores
of the German ocean from the high Ger
man to the east of them; and also those to
the north, as the Danes, Norwegians or
Scandinavians, from the Gothic and Teu
tonic people to the east and south of them.
How much Cymric blood entered into
the composition of these several people it
is impossible to determine, but it is proba
ble, on a number of accounts, that there
was more in the Danes and Norwegians
than in those who passed under the name
of Saxons, for they differed the most from
the real Teutons; and it is said that the
Northmen's literature bore evidence "of
their connection with the Celts, as well as
some portion t>f their antiquities. All these
people, when they came to either Britain
or Gaul, came as soldiers, to rob and plun
der or to conquer, being mostly men and
but few women. They were few in num
ber compared with the people among
whom they settled, conquered and ruled.
4 This would make the Northmen who settled in
Normandy part Celt to bei^in with, and account tor
his differing so much from the real Teuton. Authors
have frequently alluded to this, and Prof. M. Ar-
mold says: "Since the war in Schleswii^-Holslein,
all one's German friends are exceedingly anxious to
insist on the difference of nature between themselves
and the Scandinavians." (Arnold's Celtic Literature,
partiv.) This difference is in no way so well ac
counted for as bv supposing that they \vere a mix
ture of the Cimbri of Denmark witii the Teutons.
And Arnold quotes Zeuss to prove that in very early
times the Celts, with their bards, poetry and learn-
ing, were found with Ihe Norwegians and Iceland
ers. This shows that Koilo and his men mav have
been considerably Celtic when they came to Kouen;
and then they were not one in fifty, if one in a hun
dred, in the population of Normandy. So that the
Normans who came to Knglanu were far more Cel
tic than Teutonic.
This was specially the case with the people
of Normandy. The largest portion of
their blood must have been of the original
Cymric Celt of the country. The Nor
mans of Normandy were formed by the
settlement of a few thousand Northmen,
warriors, expelled from Norway, their
home, settling among tlie great body ol Un
people of Normandy or Neustria, and
forming a new race by the union of the
two; when there was a probability that
there were more people in the city of Rou
en alone than all the Northmen warriors.
They amalgamated and made one people,
but the great proportion of their blood
must be still Celtic, especially" so as their
principal intercourse was with the Briton*
of Armorica in marriage and political al
liances.
Such were the people and race who in
vaded and subdued Britain, imposed upon
it their rule and in some measure their
language; and bv that union formed a new
people and language, different and unlike
either of their progenitors, but still par
taking materially of the original inhabitants
of the countrythe Ancient Britons, with
a large infusion and probably the major
portion of Celtic or Cymric blood. It was
the Normans who impressed upon Kngland
and its people the greatest portion of their
new characteristics; and they and those
who came with them were greatly predom
inant with Celtic blood, which made the
English more Celtic than they were be
fore.
Leaving the historical question thus at this
point, it is now proposed to proceed to our
collateral evidence; and, I. Language. It
is apprehended (Siat upon examination the
English language will show its intimate
connection with the Cymric Celt, and show
that the English people are greatly indebt
ed, if not principally so. to their Celtic an
cestors for their origin. It is freely admit
ted that Saxon warriors who came and
subdued South-eastern Britain imposed up-
! on the British people their rule and lan-
| guage; for the Germans of all people in
| the world are the most tenacious of their
I language, and will only change it by slow
| and imperceptible degrees.
39" THK MODERN I'KRIOI). [Bookv.
The English language i ntirelv a new ' make it harmonize with the genius of the
language, unlike anv other. Upon inspec- i language; or to agree in case or number,
tion a German would hardlv dream that it | or in tense, with its position in the sentence,
had a German origin; and the older Anglo- All this is almost entirely discarded in the
.Saxon \ve examine the less resemblance to English, and in this respect it is helped by
the modern English wo find. The English a very simple expediency of adopting a tew
is a new composit language, made up hv prepositions and auxiliary verbs; the}- gen
Grangers who were unacquainted with each erally ;ulopt a word in one rude form, with-
other's language; picking up Irom each ! out regard to sound or harmony ; and this
other what was the most convenient to j has been done bj borrowing words from al 1
each, with the condition that the Saxon j people and languages that they have come
must be its substratum. They would en- r in contact with. This has been carried so
quire ot each other the names of several far that the original .Saxon lias almost lost
things and words to express ideas. They i all resemblance to its original,
would adopt them in a rude form, like the i It is customary to consider all the words
Chinese pigeon-English. Thc\ would and phrasi-s found in the English, from the
adopt them' in one form, dropping off all ! time the Saxons came to Edward III, as
changes in nouns and verbs for grammati- | Anglo-Saxon. For the purpose of show-
cal delineation or conjugation, and all mod- ' ing what the Saxon language was before it
ification for mere harmony ot sound; and was improved in England, this is all wrong,
instead thereof adopt a few prepositions j The question is not what the Saxon was
and auxiliary verbs. Thus discarding all I made to he in England, but what it was
changes in words on account ot these when it came there. Upon such examina
changes of cases and tenses; and especially tion the Saxon language is found to have
M the numerous changes that the Ancient been so improved, and combined with other
JJriton had in his words, by changes of the i sources, and so much composed of materials
initial letters in words to make it Harmon- | foreign to itself, that It has become a compos
ite with other words in the sentence, and ite language, wholly unlike the original Sar-
adiectives to agree with their nouns in gen on. The oldest specimen of the Saxon lan
der and case. If the Saxon was told hv a guage now at m v hand, is a specimen greatlj
Latin scholar that the instrument he wrote 1 lauded as a fair specimen of Saxon language
with was called pena, he would use it in ] and literature the poem of Oedmon, "The
its rudest form and call it pen; and would 'Creation," composed about A. 1). 680,
never trouble himself with the a, tr, is, or about two hundred vears alter the Saxons
nn\ but would help that idea by some prepo first settled in England. This specimen
sition or auxiliary. In the original Saxon will aid us some to judge of this matter.
the changes in words were few, principally The following is a quotation from Csed-
to change nouns to verbs and adjectives; mon's poem of the Creation, taken from
and this was done principally by adding an \ Chambers' Cyclopaedia of English I^itera-
for a verb, and iff or ic ftfr adjectives:' thus ' ture. It is put into English letters; if il
T.'il was mind, sense, knowledge; tvilan was j was put into Saxoti letters it would appear
to know, to think: tvilig, wise, sagacious: ' still further from its parentage of the En-
or hv combining other words. I!ul their i glish language:
prepositions and auxiliaries were few, and I IIKHJINAI. SAXON. KXGIJSH TRANSLATION.
those afterwards adopted in the English ' Nu wi-sccoUn herian Now. wii shiill praise
heofon-riccs weard, the guardian afnearen,
were principally borrowed from the m*, ^.L.->.
Celts, ; mi-lodes mihtu, the mijfht of the Creator,
This is all proved by the most casual ex- i and his counsel,
the frlory-falher of mea!
animation ot the Knghsh language. Al- swa he wundra jje-hwas, how he of all wonders.
ost a\\ other languages present some evi-.
fee dryhten, the eternal lord,
(X)rd onstcald?. formed the betinriin^,
donee of rulturc hv additions or prefix to He first created,
for the childn-n of tnt-u
heotorn tnhrofu, heaven ;is n rooi,
3 Sec Turner's Anjrlo-S;txon, \'o\. ii, Appendix, halij; scyppende! thtr holy iTciitnr!
pp. #2<}2. { tlui nuJdtiu >fe;ird I hen the \vorld
Chap. n.J THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 391
H>n-cynne.s wcanU*, the guardian of mankind way, as y or ye, as v field, the y being
ece dryhteii, the eternal lord,
after teode, produced afterwards, sounded as an e, with an aspiration. The
firutn fbldam, ihe earth for men, Saxons had no preposition of. This again
! rnihl i'_> . the almighty master!
In this part of the poem there are about was borrowed in the English from the
forty-five Saxon words; about fifteen of Cvmry, who would *ay, o y dyn, for of the
them may be connected with and converted man. So in is from yn; and many of the
into English, the other thirty have no con most simple words in the English, are bor
nection with it. In determining how rowed in the same mantu'r.
much of the English is Saxon, and how There are a few English writers who
much of the .Saxon language enters into contend that the English have borrowed
the English, we must ascertain what the few or no words from the Cymry. Hut
Saxons and their language were when they j there are many fair and honest men who
came, not what they and their language af- i strongly maintain the contrary. Mr. Whit-
terwards became after several hundred j taker, the very able historian of Manches
years of culture on British soil, ter, contends and gives a list of more than
I-anguage is evidence of the origin of a three thousand words in English borrowed
people, hut not conclusive evidence; for from the Cymry.
many people and races have adopted a lan Pro!'. Creasy, in his essay on the English
guage entirely foreign to themselves. The Constitution^ with reluctance admits the
Saxons did tenaciously adhere to their fact that the Cvmreag, or the language of
language, and slowly improved it by adopt- i the C'vmrv, forms anv important part of the
ing now and then, here and there a word English language, vet gives us a list of
from the language of the Celtic population thirtv words borrowed from the Celtic
with whom they mixed. .So much was this Britons, collected by it Mr. (iarnetl, as evi
the ease, that the English language has be dence that the Saxons did not slay all the
come one entirely unlike the original Sax- Ancient Britons, but took their wives at
n ; as the English people themselves least from them; and consider the fact that
have become unlike their Saxon ancestors, his list of words relate to domestic feminine .
by the same processintermixture and occupation, as evidence that the Saxons
amalgamation with the original subjects of generally did thus laki- their wives from
the island. the Britons, lie gives the following list of
In examining the above specimen from such words: Basket, barrow, button, bran,
Csedmon or any other of the Saxon lan clout, crock, crook, gusset, kiln, cock (in
guage in England until the time of Alfred, cock-boat), daintv, darn, tenter (tenter hook),
at least, we shall find the Saxon language fleam, tiaw. funnel, gyve, griddel, gruel,
entirely different from the English in its welt, wicket, gown, wire, mesh, mattock,
formation, construction and grammar. mop, rail, rasher, rug, solder, si/e (glue),
That language was almost entirely unlike tackle. This is a very important list of
in its original from the English which words, and strong evidence that the Saxon*
superseded it. It had no articles, nor tew took wives from the British women. This
r none of prepositions, or auxiliary words; would make the next generation of them
and without these the English would be half Britons, without taking into considera
nothing, or lose its native force. There tion the rest of the Britons who became
was no article the in the Saxon,--so very their subjects, tenants and serfs; and the
important in the English. The above inhabitants of cities nol taken. But this
words of Ca;dmon"metodes mihte," Mr. list of words would only begin to enumer
Chambers translates, "the might of the ate Celtic words thus adopted in the En
Creator." The English adopted this arti glish language. Take for instance the word
cle from the Cymry; they always use this hcrian in the tir.s^ line given above from
article, thus they say, y dyn, and we say in Ca-dmon, and in the translation it is ren
English, the man ; and the English for a dered praise. This is from the Celtic; in
long time wrote the article in the same 4 Creasy on the Knglish Constitution, [i. -<*.
392 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
Welsh it would be fi'is, price; and prisia-j.';1 SAXON, OR WELSH, OR
ANG-SAX. ENGLISH. (-VMRA.EG.
to praise; in Latin it would have heen laus,
Canan. Churn. Corddi.
laudo, laudabimus. Ccnnan. Beget. Cencdlu.
For the purpose of testing this matter Cat. Ort. Calh.
further let the following list be examined, Carr. Stone. Careg-.
and it will be found that the borrowing of Car. Care. Care.
words from the C.ymry was not confined to Pycan pick).
(to 1 Pick.
)" 1'yar.
mere domestic concerns, hut to all the re Peck. Put-, pipo ttn perk).
lations of life. And let it be remembered, Finn Peg, Pijj, nin. pinio (to peg).
| Pen.
IVn.
that the Saxons had no communication (1. pcnna). (
Pin (^topin
with the Latin until after the coming of is pinan). f Pin. 1
Pin. pints w (to pin).
Augustine, when the Saxons had been in Gefcra. Pair. Pur, a par oadarn (pair
England upwards of one hundred and fifty of birds).
Paper. Papyr.
years, or five generations, when the inter Parruc. F'ark. Pairc. This word is of
mixture of races would have heen com undoubted Celtic ori
gin.
pleted, especially in Kent, rather than in Part. Parth.
Northumbria, whcie Ovdmon comjxised Place. Pius, plus tiewydd (new
his poetry. In this list we first give the place.)
Anglo-Saxon word, when known, then the These Anglo-Saxon words are those used
P^nglish translation, and then the Cymric or "n(i adopted after their settlement in Eng-
\Velsh word from which it was adopted, land.
thus: These examples are only taken at ran
SAXON, OK WEIJill, OR dom and might l>c extended to at least Mr.
ANO-.SAX. KNr.I.lStl. CYMKAEO. Whittaker's three thousand words or a yol-
HajfR. Farm. Ffcrm,6 ftiirmwr (a fur- ume. The following table of numbers shows
mt-T\ In Armorica and
France it -was term the Cvihric's intimate relation to Aryan,
and ferine. There is and to the English full as much as to the
no Kuch word in the
Teutonic liinf^T.iaB'e. Anglo-Saxon.
Ford
forth) or ffbr C;t rond or
way). When the Sax !f llsslllMsipi |
on would inquiri- the
\v;iv to cross tin; river,
the Briu.n would point
it out. and call it y
ffbrdd; ;md the Saxon
w on Id nrjH'al it, the
ford. Thus any Kn-
^iish words arc form-
if
=Z
rd from the original
British.
Miln. or ( M;)| Mclln.
Mylen. { ""'
Al. All. Oil. or holl. ^
Bica. B;ifon. Bacwn.
Basin. Basn.
Barrel. Baril.
Fana. Bannei . Banar.
Dali, or \ Button. D;il (to catch or hold),
C'na-p. \ bnttnn or boi wm.
* These words arc com *
mon to Ih" Celts, but
not to the Teutons.
C'nap, button or knob.
Corp. Feller. Corpi, fetfcr or chastise.
Copp. Top. Cop. the top.
Cos. Kiss. CHS.
t'id. Bahlcor sir Ut. Cad.

5 WebsU:r'? Dictionary.
o Thv Knjflish scholar should notice that the j? is f.
jindyis sr'nmcU'd like v. t like a, and /like e, in ihi-
English. And it is to he frequentlv sounded like e,
a* in du, Kliodtrruk Pu. This table shows that all these language*
.Chap. .] THE CONDITION OF THE
OK THK PEOPLE.
r-iujri.r,. 393
must come from the same source-the I insist upon the common rights of humanity
Aryan- and that the Welsh is closely con- Lord Mansfield is reported to have del.v-
nected with the Greek; and that the An- ered noble sentiments in favor of personal
glo-Saxon and English are a greater de liberty in the celebrated case of the negro
Somerset, and said: "As soon as a man
parture from the latter than the Welsh.
touches British soil he is free; in England
The space assigned to this work com
one may be a villain, but not a slave; there
pels the abandonment of the argument
is no such thing as a slave in England, and
arising from language, and to resort to that
I a human being never was considered a
arising from law.
chattel to be sold for a price." If this noble
That the laws of the Ancient Britons
sentiment was asserted u|X>n the force of
have been largely adopted in the formation
Saxon laws, it was a sublime falsehood;
of the English lawthat it now breathes in
but if it was founded upon the spirit of
and imbues it. is a matter generally admit
the laws of the Ancient Britons, it was an
ted bv the best English lawyers and schol
ars; and denied only by those who love exalted truth.
Saxonism more than it deserves. The laws I The Ancient Britons always maintained
of slavery, as thev existed among the Sax- | a free soil and tenancy; villainage and serf
ons and Britons, were a striking character- \ K' never existed with them, except where
istic in the difference between them, i -as carried bv Saxon or Norman con-
The Saxons tolerated and protected slavery i quest; and gavel-kind was a favored hwU
i ... tution in the distribution of their lands to
in everv shape. In their piracies thev '
were in\he habit of kidnapping people on | their heirs. This institution was tenacious
the British shores in Roman' times and ' >.' retain*! by the people of Kent, agamst
selling them in the slave market on the | the Norman feudal laws, in common w,th
,,,, . i-ii I other laws adopted of the Ancient Britons.
continent. Ihis was particularly com- '
. , There can be" no doubt, notwithstanding
plained ol in the time ol the Roman gen- I
era],IT,,,.
Ihcodosius, as having i ' in I the
been done ' Saxon conquest, that main. . or . the
larger cities retained their municipal or
the vicinity of Loncloi The instance of
ganization and custom- as they were un
their selling children in Roman market,
der the Romans." They had their own
taken from Dcira in Northumbria, which
magistrates, corporation and guilds ; and
attracted the attention of Gregory, wheth
the best English lawyers trace evidence of
er those childn their own or those
this to the present day. The early and
of captured Britons, is a noted one. His
constant intercourse between a portion of
tory tells us that they made Bristol an
the Welsh and Saxons, as that of Cadwal-
offensive slave market. On the other
lon and IVnda. that of Cadwalla and his
hand, all we know of the Britons, in their
brother Ina of Wessex with the Cymry,
triads, laws, and history, they manifested
that of Alfred and Asser, the notoriety of
a decided spirit against slavery. The song
the laws of Howe! Ucla. and the known in-
of the Ancient Briton was full of the no
tluence of the writings of Geoffrey of Mon-
ble theme of liberty and freedom. The Cel
mouth and Walter the archdeacon of Ox
tic familv everywhere acknowledge and
ford had in their day can leave no doubt
contend for human rights. They contend
but that the Welsh laws were well known
tor the brotherhood ol the human race
from the earliest limes to the English peo
without regard to condition, or power, or
ple; and that they had their influence up-
authority. The Frenchman contends for 1

,. ,, . , 1 on them in the formation of their own.

their "equality? The Cymro insists that
' t'ou shall naf unman the man;" the Scotch- | _ , ^cni's com., p. 59^. Here Outncellor Kenf
man with equal enthusiam asserts, .*/
. w.
i'< mull for a'li- that;" and the Irish administered them by such n illjstnoiis pra-inrmn
, ,. . , . .. pcrfe t risPapininn; "anil Selden thinks he was also
that "avn'one tlwilld CllJUY and parttnpate \ssisu.j f,y l>.,ulus .md Ulpiun. This unqucstiona-
/ ,kc fruit of ** tobor and of tlic ^'\%~^
Thus ahove all other nationalities the\ | u.
394 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Hook v
Nor should it be forgotten that from early!01" darker. It would be in vain for the
time distinguished Welshmen, as lawyers, ' English people to suppose that they are
were practicing at the English bar; among I true representatives of the Saxons alter a
these should not be forgotten Jenkins, who 1 'apse of fourteen hundred years, even ad-
in the time of Charles I produceda valuable ! milting that there were no other people
law work, "Eight Centuries of Reports;" in the country from whom they could have
nor his namesake and cotemporary, Sir descended. The author has had no oppor
Leoline Jenkins, who became the lather of tunity of making observations upon the
the English admiralty law, so highly coin- subject, except as he has seen them in
mended hy Judge Story and Chancellor America. From these observations the
Kent." The ancient boundaries of dis conclusion adopted was that the Celtic-
tricts remain, and are adopted in a great were of a fairer and lighter complexion
measure as the present lines of English than the Teutonic people; that among the
districts and division of territories. All [risli, Welsh, Scotch and French people
these considerations leave but litlle doubt i there were more persons with a fair or
that the ancient British laws entered large- I blonde skin and red or sandy hair than
ly into the formation of the English com- | among those who claimed a Teutonic de
mon law; and this is the growing opinion i scent. And this would l>e what we might
of the ablest English jurists. expect from historical account. Ancient
The physiological characteristics of the ; authors represent the Celts of Gaul as "tall.
English people, as evidence of their ethnic- fair-skinned and golden- haired ;'' the women
origin, forms one of the most puzzling sub as "blue-eyed, with large snowy arms," and
jects of investigation, as found in the books. as being a "fair, milk-white people." Mr.
One reason of this is thai observers are lia Arnold asserts that the modern L'clts
ble to be deceived when going from one Irish and Welshare both "light-haired
place to another by imagining a small dif- j an(l tail." This corresponds with our ob-
ference they observe to be much greater nervations of them here in America.11 Here
than it really is. When actual count we may rind among the Irish laborers a*
made this matter frequently turns out dif- often as anywhere the fair skin and sandy
ferent from what was anticipated. The | hair; and among their women the large
English generally claim that they are a white arm of antiquity, who >ustain the
people of great muscular strength and a highest reputation for their virtue.
fair and ruddy complexion; and this is It seems to appear that the English hold
claimed to be evidence of their Saxon de- j lnc '"sh too low in those qualities, which
scent. Writings and opinions on this suh- j they with earnestness claim for themselves,
ject are, as has been remarked, very con- j Of the specimens exhibited here from
flicting, and it is hard to draw a conclusion j abroad the Irish were among the foremost
from them. Among all the various people j 'n 'heir stalwart, comely form, with extra-
of Teutonic or Celtic origin there is a great ! ordinary muscle, without undesirable de-
diversity, even in the same families, ol a velopment of viscera. Such were O'Kouke,
darker or lighter complexion, or more in- | Morissey and Heenan. Among ihc labor-
clined to a black or red hair. It seems to | ers " r public works the Irish and (Jer-
be the order of nature that all its produc- I mans have been fully tried, and for muscu-
tions of animal and vegetable should vary '!lr powers and hardy endurance none ex-
and change from its parent in being lighter ; ce' I'11' Irish. Now if it were possible for
i the English to prove their descent from
the Saxon, instead of the great Tark'tv of
thors, 963. Jenkins (David) and Jenkins (Sir !.<:<- races who have at various limes taken pos
line), J. Joseph Story's lite and correspondence, Vol.
i, 2^78, z6S. And in thus connection it is well to session of England, it is not probable they
remember that the English bench and bar h:we bivn would gain much, rather than from the
Jrcquently filled by distinguished natives of Wales,
as the u,i;ii' of Duvies, Jones, Kenyon, Powell,
Wvtrn, Wat kirn., Williams, Viiug-hun, and these in o See Godwin's History ot France, ch. ii, p.
various positions frequently repeated. ;md pp. r and 2. See ante", B. , ch, .
Chap, it.] THK CONDITION OK THE PEOPLE. 39S
Celt, of whose blood they must largely more oblong one. The former cranium
partake. they denominate hrtirkyccphalotts, or the
The Germans have been frequently heard round head or skull, which belongs to and.
to assert that the English were physically distinguishes the German and Saxon; while
a different people from them ; and that the j the latter is denominated the dolifkocepha-
Cymry were more like the English than ! Ions skull, or the oblong or oval cranium,
the Germans, and more alike in taste and | which belongs to and distinguishes the
genius. With the great variety of races j Celtic and Cymr\. Authors upon this
who have possessed and occupied Britain, subject prove that almost universally the
it is impossible, historically and physically. | lormer or round skull accompanies the
that the English should predominate in German ; while the other or ova! skull ac
Teutonic blocxl. It is more consistent with j companies the Celt. This has been ob
history and nature that they should par- I served also by London hatters, that ther
take of the average blocxl of the country. I sell to Germans a rounder hat than to th<
The foremost people and families of all ; English.
countries are constantly disappearing, and I am happy to , > able to use on this sub
their places taken by the children of those \ ject a quotation from an American author,
who were oppressed and put below them. the very interesting and able essay of Prnf.
Where now are the descendants of the an Kiske, entitled, "Are we Celts or Teutons,"11
cient Saxon nobilitv who boasted of being , which has recently fell into my hands,
the descendants of Woden, and who had j which is so pertinent to my subject. Prof.
the right >t> govern by divine appointment? Kiske says: "Now if the English are main
Where now are the descendants of great ; ly a Teutonic race, the topical English skull
earl Godwin, or those of the first Norman of the present day should certainly lie short
nobilitv, or of the Mortons, or of the Mont- and broad, like the skulls ot German*,
forts, or the Percys? Where were the pa- , Danes, and Dutchmen. And if among the
rents of those who now occupy their posi- ! skulls of recent British grave-yards either
tions, as the Palmertons,"* the Disraelis, tvpe exists in relativclv greater number*
the Gladstones? There is as great a chance I than among the skulls of ancient harrows,
that these ore the representatives of some j
that tvpe should Iv, according to the popu
Celtic father who was robbed of his prop- j lar theory, the hrachycephalic. What, then,
erty and made a serf as that they are the are the facts? Thev are, first, that the or-
representatives of a .Saxon father who came dinarv English skull is long and narrow,
with his battle-axe to slaughter the inno like the skulls ol the Welsh and other
cent people, tike their property, and op Cyinrv; and that usually, whenever the
press their women and children. If this J English skull varies from this ordinary
were not so, there would lie a lack of jus shape, it becomes, not shorter and broader,
tice in the ways of Providence; but every- ] but still longer and narrowernot more.
where in the course of history the i Teutonic, but more decidedly Cymric.
children of the oppressed, in the course of Even a hasty glance at a crowd of people
time, rise up to avenge the injustice done of these various races would suffice to im
to their lathers. press upon the observer the fact that, in the
Hut in addition to physiological matters shape of the head and face, the English are
referred to, physiologists have adduced almost precisely like the Welsh, that they:
facts from physical examinations to prove ; are not very widely different from the
that the English population of Britain are Gaelic Highlanders and Irish, that even
more Celtic than Teutonic. They show
that the skull of the Teuton is a round one, ii Sec this interrstimr essay in Applctnn'h Journal,
and that of the Celt to be longer and a j New York. October nlh. [>V<9. p. 213 and the follow
ing Nos. It cites Mr. Owen Pike's hook on "The
i'.n .'ii Ii and their Origin," which I have not seciu
10 Palmerston was a half Irish Celt. His mother See also a vcrv valuable bonk on the same subject,
WAS a Miss Mtx-lutn. 'Hie prime ministers, we are Doct. Nicholas' "The I'eilijjre of the English Peo
at a loss where to find their ancestry. ple," which has just now come to my hands.
396 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.-
between them and the Gaelic r rench there- scientific and antiquarian researches, that
is still some resemblance, but that from the thev have become possessors of skulls of
Germans and Danes they are distinguished the Celtic type by extensive amalgamation
by a sharp opposition and contrast. Sec ~vit/i thr Celtic race. The eminent writer,
ondly, instead of the short headed type- Dr. Daniel Wilson, long ago embodied this
having relathely increased in British grave idea in the following emphatic words: 'The
yards, it has relatively diminished. So far insular Anglo-Saxon race in the Anglian
as there has been any extirpation of one and Saxon districts, deviates trom its con-
variety by the other, it lias been the long- tir.cntal congeners, as I conceive, mainlj
heads which have extirpated the short- by reason of a large intermixture of Celtic
heads." blood traceable to the inevitable intermar-
Prof. Kiske then cites authority and in riage ot invading colonists, chicflv male,
cidents to prove his position, and shows with British But if the Celtic
that in some isolated places, where histori head had been naturally a short one' [a no
cal evidence tends to prove the presence of tion combated] 'the tendency of such ad
a larger Teutonic element, and where the mixture of races should have been to short
people are lighter-haired, shorter, and more en the hybrid Anglo-Saxon skull, whereas
thick-set than the average Englishman it is essentially longer than the continental
just there it is that the short-heads are rela Germanic type.'"12 Although this admix
tively most numerous. And the Prof, con ture may have commenced elsewhere;
cludes by saying: "Thus physiology con "but," says Dr. Nicholas, "the process must
firms the testimony of history, and tells us have m.iiiilv taken place Oil British
that, though certain portions of England
have been deeply Teulonized, the dominant The history, language, law, physiology,
physical characteristics of the people as a and antiquarian researches, all concur to
whole are unmistakably Celtic." prove that the theory that the Ancient
As to antiquities, both Prof. Kiske' and Kritons were either slaughtered or expelled
Dr. Nicholas in his Pedigree of the English ! bv the Saxons is and must be untrue; but
People, hold that the examinations made that they were intermixed and amalgamated
in both ancient and modern burying into a new race, in which the characteris-
jjrounds in Itritain anil 'on the continent ; tics of the Celtic or Cymric race predom-
tend satisfactorily to prove their theory, inates over the Teutonic. In a barbarous
that the German and Saxon skull was so community, personal appearance and char
uniformly the short and round skull, and acteristics of a race are more homogenious
that the Celtic and Cymric skull was the and striking than in that of higher civiliza
long and oval, as to leave no doubt of the tion. The tendency of civilization is t
result, and that it affords a scientific rule. draw other and all races to it. This was so
Dr. Nicholas, after an extensive examina- at Athens, at Rome, and in London. It
lion. say*: ''Now, it cannot well be ques- was the progress made in civilization and
tioned, that the prevalent form of head | improvement by the Britons, which attract-
found in Wales, in Ireland, and in the Cel- j ed the Saxons there, with the hopes of con-
to-English districts, is hiii? ,,T,I/, and that i verting it bv conquest to their own use. It
the prevalent form found throughout Eng- i is frequently remarked by all classes of
land generally i> lung- onil also. There I people, that the English are the most mixed
seems to he no visible difference. ' up people in the world, and that it is more
"How are we to explain this phenome especially developed in London than anr-
non r How have the descendant* of the where else. There undoubtedly are to be
'square'-headed, stern, pugnacious Saxons found the descendants of the Ancient Brit-
become in the real, as thc\ undoubtedly al ) on* from the time of Caractacus, of Carau-
ways have been in the figurative sense of i "
the word, 'long-headed'? We venture to! u Nicholas' Pedigree of th English, p. 77*
. Wilson's Prehistoric!.! Annuls . <f Scotland, Vl. i
answer, trom the preceding findings of i p. 2j~.
Chap, ii.] THK CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 397
sius and Constantinc. and of Arthur : the de ness, he ruled as he chose, with little or no
scendants of the Saxons, the Danes, the constitutional restraints. This nobility was
Normans, and with them pure Cells from extremely exclusive, but fond of war, its
every part of Gaul Nustrians, Armori- turmoils, and barbarian enterprises. Below
cane, the descendants of the ancient Cym- these was the great mass of the people, as
rv from the Loire, the Seine, and from Bel serfs and bondmen, who were entirely cut
gium: from every place and country, where off from holding any rank in the govern
the hopes of gain or plunder excited ambi ment, or haying a freehold; except that
tion. there were a comparative few, called free
Such are the people who now constitute men, free to choose w hich of the lords thejr
the British nation, and 'such is their highly womd serve, and to hold some small offices,
improved condition since the time of Hen of interior magistrates, and municipal regu
ry VII. And in considering that improved lations. Such was the condition of the
condition, it will not he unprofitable to Saxons when the Normans cameunder
review the progress of that improved con the hardest government in form that ever
dition ol the people, from the earliest period existed upon IJritish soil.
in Anglo-Saxon times to the termination The Normans came, and William of
of cur history. Kirst came the Saxons, af Normandy assumed to take possession of
ter having disturbed the countrv as pirates the government, countrv and people as
and plunderer- for many years, and finding conqueror, and he and a few of his succes
that the Roman arm* had abandoned the sors, seemed to exercise dominion as con
country, and the people having been kept querors pretty much as they pleased. The
unaccustomed to military affairs, they Saxon lords were removed, and their lands
adopted the resolution to conquer the coun and people were transferred from the.Saxon
try, and convert everything to their own [ lords to Norman lords, as tenants and serfs.
use and advantage. The Saxons came j It was a nard government; hut the same in
principally as soldiers, and as barbarian pa- j form as the Saxons had, except they had
gan.s expelled the British rulers, the Christ- ( exchanged masters. There was no im
ian priesds, and all signs of Christianity;] provement in the government, but. the peo
took for their \vi\es the women they chose, ple made considerable progress in civiliza
took possession of the property as their own, | tionthe Normans introduced many
and of the residue of the men, women and j improvements. They were found of litera
children made them their tenants and serfs, ture, courts, records and an orderly manner
in the several portions of the countrv they of doing business. They found the Saxon
successively conquered in the course of a clergy very ignorant and gross, and re
hundred and fifty years. Thus they acquired moved them, and assumed to put more
seven or eight separate and distinct pro learned and enlightened men in their places.
vinces, in each of which a barbarian king The people became improved in the midst
ruled, under the assumed right that he was of their hard government. For a number
the immediate descendant of their god of generations the kings of England con
\Voden, and by divine right had authority tinued to he dukes of Normandy. This
to govern. Surrounded bv a clique of his caused them frequently to cherish Norman
relations and descendants of Woden as his dy, their native home, and to neglect and
council, and nobility,13 who, as often as he oppress England. The English barons
chose met him in their assemblythe Wit- (Normans) were taxed otten for the benefit
enagemot who were controled by him or of Normandy, and often they had to feel
not, dependent on his character and fierce- oppression under the rule of Norman offi
cers who surrounded the throne. This
13 P:ilirr:tve's Anglo-Saxons, eh. iv, u. (jo. whu produced a movement, not of the people,
says: "To return to our Anjjflo-Saxoii urn! Juiish
alderman- -they constituted :i kind of ruling custe or but of the barons against king John, which
tribe, :ill sons of Wotlen, perhaps anciently invested resulted in their wrenching from him the
with sacerdotal functionsthe priests as well as the
lawgivers and leaders of the nation." Great Charter, which was the first move-
398 THE MODERN PERIOD. |Bookv.
ment in favor of English liberty and a fair .; the utmost verge of human wisdom, and
government. In the latter part of the j to the whole extent of the kingdom. The
next reign, Henry III. Simon de Mont- ' progress made in modern times by the En-
fort, who had become earl of Leicester, a glish people, in the amelioration of their
Frenchman and a foreigner by birth, but condition, in every respect in relation to
stood high among the English nobility for civilizationin relation to personal rights
his talents and capacity, took up the and government; to religion and morals;
cause of the common people, and was the to enterprise, industry and business, is won
first to do so. He procured by rebellion to derful, especially when compared with that
be summoned to parliament representatives made in the slow movements of the pre
of the counties and burgesses. This was vious thousand years, under Saxon and
afterwards looked upon by the English Norman rule; but this progress has been
barons with jealousy as an usurpation of made, and is making, and is due more to
their rights. It was therefore a long time the influence of the house of commons and
neglected, and parliament continued to be i an independent judiciary, than to any other
constituted of the barons alone. But some- i ot their institutions,
time between the accession of Edward I
and the reign of Henry IV, the great move- CHAPTER III.
>nent in the condition of the English people TIIK PKOIM.K CONSTITUTING T1IK I X[TE
was accomplished, the establishment of the KINGDOM.
house of commons as a separate body.
This was the great event in the history of 5i The English Pi-oflr.
the English people, and in the establish The history of the people ot" .South Ilrit-
ment of their |>ersonal rights and liberties. ain and their government has been traced
It became the great ;i-gis of British right, down from the earliest accessible period in
enterprise and freedom, and the admiralion history to the accession of queen Victoria;
of the world. From that time the obnox- i i(11d jt |,.ls :,. shown that the people are
ious feudal tenures began to give way, and j ejti,e]. Celts or Teutons, or a mixture of the
freehold tenures in the commons began to j two races. The English the people of
exist. But the great advancement in England are the leading people of the
these rcspocN, and the great progress in the kingdom. Circumstances have made them
establishment of laws for the protection and so. They are the descendants of those who
securing personal rights and liberties were have for centuries enjoyed the fertile and
made after the accession of Henry VII. beautiful plains and valleys of the fairest
From that time the British people have i island of the world ; they have not been
made a progress in all that constitute the i compelled to contend with the rugged and
welfare and happy condition of man, which i rural hills, and their sterility, of Wales or
have become the admiration of the other , Scotland, although those rugged qualities
governments of Europe, and in many in- ' are the moans which have conferred
stances the origin and model of many of those people their hardy, persevering and
the admired institutions of America. productive- qualities. London and her ad-
That house of commons has ceased to be ' vantages and surroundings arc what have
the house of commons of England alone, made the English people what they are.
but has become the house of commons of It has frequently been made a question as
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and ' to which of those two great races do the
Ireland; and whatever there may be yet j English people belong. We have endeav-
lacking, after the great progress that has i ored to show that they were at least as
been made, in the condition of the English much Celtic as Teutonicas much of the
people, and those of the United Kingdom, blood of the Ancient Britons as of the
it is to be hoped that the house of commons Saxons; and greatly mixed of other foreign
will yet be the means of promoting the races, so that the English are very much a.
progress- of human rights and welfare, to composite race, in which the Celtic blood
Ohap. MI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 399
is as prominent, at least, as the Teutonic ' his terrible religion and warlike principles
that the modern Englishman and the pure ! had affected the "people of Sleswick."
descendant of the Ancient Britons are. Whatever may have been the condition
more alike and nearer approach each other j ol t|u. Saxons in their original home, his-
than the Englishman and German. j tor% develops what they were soon after
Upon that question the English them- , their settlement in Britain. They came
nelves are much divided one partv, with i under leaders \\ho claimed to be immedi-
the liberality that characterizes the seeker ate descendants of Woden, and probably, as
after truth, look upon it as a matter of sci warrior* and priests, claimed they hail a.
ence, justice and truth, ami come to a con- right by divinr authority to command and
elusion accordingly, without reference to a. .control. These became king* in the sev-
precoiiceiy ed sentiment of idle notions or : eral districts thev conquered, and their rela-
feclings. The other partv. among whom lives, became the nobles to whom the land
the most strenuous and decided will be j was distributed ; and the mass ol follower*
those who know nothing-of their origin, I became their tenants. None were nobles
their familv and ancestry, who are but of J except the descendants of Woden, and every
yesterday, will contend that thev are ofpure I day the distance between them and the
Saxon blood that their anceKtors were i great ma.ss of the people liecame greater,
freemen from that neck of land lying be- i and more oppressive and tyrannical. "A
tween the Baltic and the ocean; thev sav j large portion ol the population," says Pal-
that "for the fatherland of the English race grave,-' "consisted either of slaves, or of
we must look far away from England itself, churls, or villains, who were compelled to
to the one country which bore the name I till the ground for the benefit of their nuis-
of England, now called Sleswick." Thai i ters. Mercia never became compact.
ancestor was "the free-necked man, whose The population was greatly mixed; the
long hair floated over a neck that never Uritons approached nearly to the numbers
bent to a lord."1 For the proof ol this thev of the English." There can be no doubt
refer to Tacitus' Germania, and to the most that the great mass of the Anglo-Saxon
distant and unconnected matters to support people were serfs and slaves, as well as
an unfounded hypothesis. Tacitus' Ger those who were Saxons by descent and
mania was a romantic history, written those Britons who were made such hv the
more with a view to recommend a hardy [ conquest. This lower class was constantly
and rustic life to the Romans than an ac- increasing In birth from the condition of
curate history of the Germans. l_ike Xen- \ their parents, by being prisoners of war, bv
ophon's Institutes of Cvrus, it was intend- j conviction of crime, by lx.'ing unable to pav
t<\ more to effect a reformation and a ruder ; their debts or fines, and many other causes
age at home than a truthful hislorv of its I by which men, by Saxon laws, were made
subject. However accurate Tacitus was as j slaves and serfs."-'1 Slavery and serfage
to the real Germans in South Germany, he j continued to.be the condition of the great
can be no authority for the. character of the ; body of the Anglo-Saxon people at the
Saxons who came to Britain. Tacitus time the Normans came, and the landed
wrote four hundred years before the latter property and the condition of the people
time. In the meantime German v was ut
terly convulsed and overrun bv yvars and Arnylo-S.ix., ch. iii, jj. 56.
the emigration of various people through i ' Kemhic, in his Saxor* in England, \-,,i. *], p.
' s ! 13, says: "The km#s of Wcssex ;ind Mcrcia, both of
it; the Huns, the Gofhs, Vandal b, Sclaves, j whom were in continual hostility with the Welsh,
u
sorts ot,- people, convulsing, .
and, up- , nevertheless
erou? Welsh exercised
|K.,uihuinsovereign
dispersed rights over mini-
ami all iTirotiKhout ilu-ir
rooting the very existence and formation i dominions.-' As imihuritv to show th;it the ^rrut
body ot tlu- lAoegrian Britons were taken in And
ot socien ; and that was before Woden and swallowed up amidst ih^ S.-ixons. P;iiirra\e (p, 40)
j t says: "The Romanized HriUms ol' I-liyc^-riji ^ppunr
! to h:i\e iniitcj more n-.ulily to their invutiors." Au-
i (irecn'a History of the En^Hsh People, p. 40. It , thorities to show tluil thi- Anciirnt Briton^ iniwt have
is singular tht this history, otherwist; sog(X)d, should ! united in some condition with the im\uUiijr Saxons
br *<o trei^umlh filled with this unfounded conceit. | are ahutuUmL
400 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
were at once transferred from the Saxon William the Conqueror assumed to take
aristocracy to the Normans, so that the the sovereignty of England in accordance
people did not change condition, but only with the will and devise of Edward the
the lords or masters they served. Confessor, and as a near relative and heir
This state of things continued to be the to the crown. He pretended to govern ac
condition of the Anglo-Saxon people, with cording to the constitution and customs
out hardly a change, until after the reign which governed Edward, his predecessor.
of Edward III. The prerogative of the The nobility and their estates, and tenants
king was undefined and unlimited, and and serfs, remained the same, until trans
when in the hands of an able and vigorous ferred to the Norman lords on account of
sovereign, the exercise of his powers was forfeiture tor rebellion against him. In this
absolute. He was accounted the source of we see no essential change in the form of
all law and justice; the person in whom the government or constitutiononly a
was vested the title of all land, and those severe application of its rules and discip
in possession held as tenants to him; he line by the Conqueror. His own nobles
was the source of all offices and honors; and officers took the place of the Saxons :
could pardon what offenses he chose, and the great noble* of the crown, when called
take svhat property he found necessary for to advise and counsel with the sovereign,
the support of the crown. The nobility their meeting instead of being called the
were the hereditary officers of the crown, witenagemot, was called the council or par
and his council and advisers, when he liament.
pleased to desire any; and only when the Thus the English government continued
government was in the hands of a weak until after the reign of Edward III, except
king, or when the crown was vacant, did that a movement of the Norman nobility
they dare to interfere with the majesty of j in the reign of John wrenched from the
the king. Bnt they were the great tenants j crown the (treat Charter, which was after-
of the landed property under the king, and | wards very imperfectly observed, and often
as earls held certain districts as lords over re-enacted by force; and (he ineffectual at
the under tenants and serfs. This nobility. tempt of Montfort, in the reign of Henry
in comparison with the whole body of the III, to establish a representation of the
population, were few, with whose rank and i commons in parliament, was then an utter
class the people were entirely excluded, failure.
and had no control over the laws and ac The reign of Edward III was a true rep
tion ot the government, which was entirely resentation of the character of the govern
in the hands of the king and nobility. ment and constitution as it existed under
There was a smaller class of the people, be the administration of strong men who were
tween the nobility and serfs, called free kings, in both Saxon and Norman times.
men, who were generally a landless people The people felt the hand of a strong man
and generally free to choose what lord thev and government, but were conscious of no
would serve. These, under the control of i violation of the constitution, only there was
the nobility, discharged the duties of the | an effort manifested to reform and improve
police and offices of the county, and held a it.
county council called the falk-gemot; and This clearly appears from 1 lume and oth
even from these humble positions the great er historians of the times of Edward III.
/mass of the people were excluded. The "He took no steps of moment," says
freemen held or assi-ted in holding the in- I Hume, "without consulting his parliament
ferior county courts. Such was the hum- j and obtaining their approbation, which he
ble condition of the Anglo-Saxon people ! afterwards pleaded as a reason for their sup-
before the time of William the Conqueror, porting his measures. The parliament,
and such it continued until alter the time therefore, rose into greater consideration
of Edward III, and perhaps that of Henry during his reign, and acquired more regular
VII, as we shall hereafter see. authority, than in any former times; and
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4ot
even the house of commons, depressed by by the king's progenitors should be ob
the greater power of the crown and barons, served.a precaution which, if we did not
began to appear of some weight in the con consider the circumstances of the times,
stitution."* might appeal- absurd and ridiculous. The
In that progressive improvement ot the frequent confirmations in general terms
constitution and law, was now the enact of the privileges of the church proceeded
ment of a statute, defining and limiting the from the same cause."
causes of high treason, which before was "It is a clause in one of Edward's stat
left to vague and uncertain construction utes, 'that no man, of what estate or condi
almost anything thut the king and his offi tion soever, shall be put out of land or tene
cers might be pleased to call treason against ment, nor taken, nor imprisoned, nor
the crown. This statute6 reduced treason disinherited, nor put to death, without beim;
to three heads: conspiring the death of the brought in answer by due process of the
king, levying war against him, and adher law.' This privilege was sufficiently se
ing to his enemies; and the judges were cured by a clause in the Great Charter,
prohibited, if any other cases should occur, which had received a general confirmation
from inflicting the penalty of treason with in the first chapter of the same statute.
out application to parliament; and this con Why then is the clause so anxiously, and,
tinues to be the law of England to this as we may think, so superfluously repeated?
day. Plainly, because there had been some late
infringement of it, which gave umbrage to
It is singular to find in all the old his the commons."
tories of England the enactment of good
It was a common thing at that time, and
laws for the purpose of restraining the
their constitution permitted it, for the offi
crown and its officers from violating per
cers of the king to exercise what, was then
sonal rights and liberties, which were by
called the right of pervpyana; that is, to
ubsequent administrations entirely disre
take such goods and provisions as the king
garded, for the king by the constitution
needed, from anyone, and giving such tal-
could at any time pardon, and grant indul
i lies therefor as they pleased. And in the
gence upon the faith of it. "Edward,"
like manner the king, in building or re
says Hume, "granted above twenty parlia
pairing his castle, instead of engaging
mentary confirmations of the Great Charter ;
workmen by contract and wages assessed
and these concessions are commonly ap
every county in England to send him a
pealed to as proofs of his great indulgence
certain number of masons, tilers, and car
to the people, and his tender regard for
penters, "as if he had been levying an ar
their liberties. But the contrary presump
my." Parliament in Edward Ill's time
tion is more natural. If the maxims of
greatly remonstrated and protested against
Edward's reign had not been in general
such measures as arbitrary and unjust,
somewhat arbitrary, and if the Great Char
though according to usages and preroga
ter had not been frequently violated, the
tives of the crown. But in that day but
parliament would never have applied for little was substantially done beyond mere
these frequent confirmations, which could remonstrance, to restrain such arbitrary and
add no force to a deed regularly observed, tyrannical proceedings and privileges of
and which could serve no other purpose the crown.
than to prevent the contrary precedents In reviewing these matters, 1 dime says :*
from turning into a rule and acquire author
"They mistake, indeed, very much the
ity. It was indeed the effect of the irregu
genius of this reign, who imagine that it
lar government during those ages,hence
was not extremely arbitrary. All the high
that general clause, so frequently in old
prerogatives of the crown were to the full
acts of parliament, that the statutes enacted
extent exerted in it; but what gave some
4 Hume's Hist. En^., Vol. 2, p. X*].
consolation, and promised in time some re-
5 25 Edward III, cli. ii. Hume's Hist. Kni*., p. 267. 6 English History, Vol. ii, p.
 THE MODERN 1'ERIOD. | Book v.
lief to the people, they were always com- ] tahlislied in modern times bv the exertions
plained of bv the commons: such as the j and merits of the house of commons,
dispensing power ; the extension of the tor- Again we cite J I nine, who has studied
e6ts; erecting monopolies ; exacting loans; this subject well: "There is not a reign
stopping justice In particular warrants ; I among those of the ancient English mon-
pressing men and ships into the public ser- \ archs which deserves more to be studied
vice; lowing arbitrary and exhorbitant ; than that of Edward III, nor one where
fines; extending the authority ol the privy : the domestic transactions will better dis-
council or star-chamber to the decision of ; cover the true genius of the kind of
private causes; enlarging the jjowers of | mixed government which was then cstak-
the mareschal's and other arbitrary courts; lished in England. The struggles with re
imprisoning members for freedom of gard to the validity and authority of the
speech in parliament; obliging people with Great Charter were over; the kin*
out any rule to send recruits of men and was acknowledged to lie under some limi
arms, archers, and hoblers to the army."" tation: Edward himself was a prince of
* * * * "The king openly avowed and great capacity. * * * * sensible that
maintained this power of levying taxes at j nothing could be more essential to his in-
pleasure. He replied to the remonstrance | terest than to keep on good terms with his
made by the commons against it. that the people; yet, on the whole, it appears that
imposition had been exacted from great ne- the government at least was only a bar
ressitv. and had been assented to bv the pre barous monarchy, not regulated bv any
lates, earl-., barons, and some of the com fixed maxims, or bounded by any certain
mons. When the parliament desired that undisputed rights, which in practice were
a law mi<|ht be enacted for the punishment ; regularly observed. The king conducted
of such as levied these arbitrary imposi- j himself by one set of principles, the barons
tions, he refused compliance." ' by another, the commons by a third, the
This shows that there was then no fixed j clergy by a lourth. All these systems of
or established constitutional rule or princi government were opposite and incompati
ple, securing and protecting personal free ble; each of them prevailed in its turn, as
dom and liberty from the arbitrary meas incidents wore favorable to it ; a great prince
ures of the crown or state, but that the rendered the monarchial power predomi-
commons were then laboring to establish j nant; tlu' weakness of a king gave reins
them; and it is perfectly apparent to every j to tht aristocracy; a superstitious age saw
candid mind thai all those great and funda the clergy triumphant; the people, for
mental principles of law and constitution. whom chiefly government was instituted,
which every Briton now appeals to for the and who chierty deserve consideration, were
protection of his freedom and liberties, are the weakest of the whole. But the com
Ihose which, by the exertions of the house mons, little obnoxious to any other order,
of commons and the English people, have ' "'ougli they sunk under the violence of
been, since thai time, wrenched from the ; tempests, silently reared their head in more
old constitution and prerogatives of the '< Peaceable times; and while the storm was
crown. It is not the old constitution or | "rowing were courted by all sides and thus
laws ol Saxon or Norman times that the I received still some accession to their priv-
modern Briton may boast of as his estab- | ileSes- or- '' worst- solm' confirmation of
lished personal freedom and liberties; but | tnem' *"
it is what he 'now finds them to be, as es- | This powerful monarch was followed by
a feeble one, his grandson, Richard II,
7 Hume citts his unquestionable authorities for whose reign was greatly disturbed bv the
everyone of these instances; and thev were un rising of the people to throw off their bond-
doubtedly ancient preroijatives nf the Kn^Iish gov
ernment. Where, then, were the ancient constilu- ago, and of the nobles in various party
Itona] freedom and liberty ot Ihe subject or man '
A'l this has been acquired by the English in modern schemes of ambition. From the death of
times, and did not exist in their ancient laws and
government under either the Saxon or Norman rule. S 2 lli-nie Hist. Knjf., p. .177-*.
Chap in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Edward III to that ot' Richard 1 1 1, a period
of one hundred and ten years, during
which transpired the terrible war of the
conflict between the houses of Lancaster
and York, or the white and red roses, there
was a continual conflict and turmoil of
either the nobles in a civil war of mad
strife and ambition, or of the vain efforts of
the people in endeavoring to acquire a rea
sonable degree of freedom and legitimate
liberty. The period was characteristic of
the English nobility during the time of the
Saxon and Norman rule. The exception
to this was during the reign of Henry V,
distinguished by his long wars, in his vain
endeavors to conquer France, which began
with the renowned battle of Azincourt, and
terminated with the revulsion produced by
the Maid of Orleans. During the period
there transpired two notable risings of the
people in a vain endeavor to improve their
condition and relieve themselves of their
feudal bondage.
Whenever the government was in weak
hands, or the barons in civil war with the
king, it was then that the people took reso
lution to establish their rights and liberties.
Richard II, at his accession, was only
twelve years of age, and during his minori
ty the lords in power acting as regents, at
the head of whom was the young king's
uncL-, the duke of Lancaster, proceeded
with very arbitrary measures in levying
and collecting taxes. The house of com
mons had been but recently formed into a
separate house, and but very imperfectly
understood their rights and powers or their
proper mode of proceedings ; and the pow
er and influence of the sovereign and the
barons carried everything as they chose,
and according to their interest, and against
the interest and welfare of the people
The house was so unaccustomed to their
duties and ignorant of them that they never
appointed a speaker to preside over their
deliberations until a few years had passec:
of the reign, when for the first time the}
elected Peter de la Mare their speaker
The commons then began to acquire cour
age, and demand various measures for the
Interest and protection of the people.
Among other things they presented a. peti-
26
ion to the king, praying him to check the
prevailing custom among the barons of
brining illegal confederacies and support
ing each other, as well as men of interior
rank, in the violation of law and justice.*
To this the king returned a gracious reply,
3ut it was probably attended w ith doubtful
compliance. But to another petition of
the commons, that they be permitted to
inrticipiite with l.irds in the appointment of
ninistersol 'the crown during the king's mi
nority, he refused compliance, for the
real barons clai'iied this prh ilege for
themselves.
At this time the people were much
aroused to a sense ot their hardship and in
justice. They found the laws so arranged
as to protect and cor tinue the favored few
in their fortunate condition, and to keep
the mass in their lowly and unjust [yisition.
If taxes were to be raised they were rela
tively levied more severely on the poor
than on the wealthy; poll tax was evident
ly so, and frequently the tax on property
w as levied pro rata on the nobility lighter
than on the commons. Although all this
was just as it had been for ages, under the
Saxon government as well as that of the
Normans, yet the enlightenment of the age
gave the people a better conception and
understanding of the inequality and injus
tice of their condition. This induced the
commons, or common people, as Hume
says,1" "to wish for a better condition, and
to murmur against those chains which the
laws enacted by the haughty nobility and
gentry had so long imposed upon them."
This induced a man called John Ball to
lecture the people upon the injustice and
hardship of their condition and the evils of
their government. This brought down up
on him the ire and hatred of the nobility,
who represented him as a low and seditious
fellow, and incarcerated him, for the reason
that he demonstrated to the people "their
equal right to liberty and to all the good ot"
nature, the tyranny of artificial distinctions,
and the abuses which had arisen from the
degradation of the more considerable part
of the species, and the aggrandizement of a
9 a Hume's History of England, p. 380.
10 2 Hume's Eng. History, p. 383.
 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
few insolent rulers"1' If John Ball had the nobles I'ell upon the mass of the peo
lived in a more enlightened time he might, ple with an iron grasp under the feudal
perhaps, have passed for a John Bright laws, which were felt with more severity
and as a patriot and statesman. than thai of the crown, became they were
The two remarkable risings of the peo- I more general.
pie durin1..' that period were that of Wat The people of all classes now began to
Tyler in Ihr reign of Riehard II, and that feel the exactions and oppression* of the
known as- that of Jack Cade in the reign of government and nobles, hut felt themselves
Henry VI. These are characteristic and powerless in remedying them. They be
disclose the form of government under gan to feel and understand their feudal
which the English lived. The former condition more sensitively than their an
transpired while Richard II was only cestors, and more anxious to place them
about sixteen years of age. and while he I on a just basis. They broke out in songs
manifested some spirit and capacity, which j and pamphlets, in the rude English of the
gave the people some hopes of his admin period, against the exactions of the govern
istration, which utterly failed them in the ment, the oppressions of the princes and
future course of his turbulent and unfor nobles, and these were the predecessors of
tunate reign. From the history of that Milton, Burke and Junius. They com
time we can very conclusively draw the plained not only of the government, but
inference that the great mass of the Eng also of the church and clergv, who, instead
lish people were in a most hopeless and ol Hie love of the gospel, "for wealth worked
degraded condition ; and that the nobility, them ivor. God tin bate, for mm- is tyme."
who were almost entirely of a Norman "Ar<w reiirncth pride, and covftisf is counted
tlescent, were proud, haughty and oppres- I n'i.ir, and lechery without shame, and glttt-
sive towards the unfilled and laboring peo- j tony iviihmtt Mamr." But government and
pie. The great body of the inhabitants be- nobles looked upon these invectives of the
gan to feel most keenly the unhappy and people as the mere complaints of the com-
opprepsive'manncr thai the feudal laws had j mons and peasantry with contempt, and
placed and still held them; while the no- with a determination to hold on to what
hility, with a cold and selfish indifference they considered to be their birth right and
to the rights or sufferings of others who interest. They represented the claims of
were not of their class, were still tenacious the people as the ignorant demands of the
of holding them in their unhappy condi peasantry, and looked upon their feudal
tion. It was a time when the people felt condition, hard as it might be, to be the
the oppression and tyranny of the Roman rightful position between the peasant and
church and its bigoted theology, as well as the property holder; the leaders of the re-
the evils of their political condition, and I vnult against the oppression and for a re-
hrought the efforts of Wycliff in favor of a I form received from their privileged class
reformation in religion, as well as that of the contemptuous appellations of Jack
Wat Tyler for the just liberties of the peo- I Straw- Wat T.Vll'r an(1 Jnhn Ba!1- who
pie. The crown always claimed and ex- ! probably by nature were men entitled to
ercised the prerogative of levying and our veneration and remembrance as patriots
raising the necessary taxes for the support and heroes. The nobles, however, repre
of the government, and taking such proper sented these as the allies of Wycliff and
ty as the king stood in need of for his main the church reformers, and the natural ene
tenance. Frequently a poll tax was raised mies of religion, and thus injured that re
which fell as heavy on the poor man as on formation.
the wealthy. The rent and exactions of In the summer of A. D. 1381 the people
of the southeastern counties of Essex and
II Kroissart, who this time visited England, (see Kent felt these political wrongs so sensibly
his history, B. ii, ch, 74.) represents Ihe personal that they arose in mass to demand their
slavery as more general in England uiuii in anv oth
er eoiintry in Huropc. liberation from their serfdom and to be re.
Chap. in. 1 PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 45
stored to their natural freedom. the interview they asked for, or to delay
The people of Essex in immense num it. At length the king came to a confer
bers passed over the Thames to their breth- ence with his people outside of the city.
ren in Kent, who were also rising under He was a boy of only sixteen, but he with
the just excitement of their cause, and unexpected courage rode up to them and
uniting, they entered the city of Canter gallantly said: "I am your king and lord,
bury, where they were joyfully admitted good people, what will ye?" They replied:
hy their oppressed brethren there, and lib "We will that vou free us forever, us and
erated John Ball from his unjust imprison our lands ; and that we never be named or
ment for his position in their cause. The held for serfs." The king readily and
Essex men were led by Jack Straw, "while trankly replied: "I grant it;" and he bade
a hundred thousand Kentishmen gathered them to return to their homes, and pledg
round Wat Tyler, a soldier who had served ing himself at once to issue charters of free
in the French wars, and who was at once I dom and amnesty to all. This unexcep
recognized as the head of the insurrection." tionable demand and generous reply, called
These marched upon London, and in the forth from the people a hearty shout of joy,
meantime the counties north and west of with the hopes and assurance that their
the metropolis, even as far west as Somer bondage and troubles were all over. A
set, in like manner rose to demand their large number of clerks were employed all
rights and free'loni. Tyler and his asso dav in writing letters of freedom and par
ciates arrived at London in an immense don, to those who desired them, as fast as
body of able-bodied men, who had they they could be written ; and with these the
been armed and accustomed to handle masses great! v dispersed to their homes.
them, the government and the nobility With such a charter from his king in his
would have been but as the chaff before hands, one of these brave men returned to
wind. But :is it was thev excited great St. Albans and demanded of the abbot
consternation among their enemies; and that the town and its people, which the ab
the duke of Lancaster, the ostensible head bey held as tenants, should now be libera
of the government and aristocracy, fled ted from their serfage.
before the popular hatred over the border This liberation of the people was, very
and took refuge in Scotland.12 As thev objectionable and distasteful to the nobility,
proceeded, the whole population joined who at once proceeded to obstruct and
them; and the nobles were paralvzed with overthrow what the king had promised.
consternation and fear. The people con "What," said they, ''is life to us if we are to
ducted themselves in an astonishingly or lose our inheritance.'" They thought that if
derly manner, committing no depredation, the people were to be made free, so that
and declaring that their only object was to they could no longer wrench from them
abolish their oppression and establish their whatever they chose to demand, that life
liberty. They declared proudly that thev itself was of no account to them. Such
"were only seekers of truth, justice, and no tyrannical ascendency had the aristocracy
thieves and robbers." Thev manifested of England acquired over its people, and
their spite only against the stewards of to such a degraded condition had the com
their lords, and the records and evidences mons been placed, and so had they been
of their thraldom. They declared that for centuries. Even some of the Saxon
their whole object was to have a confer nobility had consented to become serfs to
ence with the king, and have him set them the Norman lords rather than contend for
free and discharge them from their serf their position. These lords were every
dom. day disappearing, and their places occu
Before the insurgents entered London pied by the children of serfs of a former
the barons did all they could to prevent day. Even some of the lords of the pres
ent day are the immediate descendants of
u Green's Ilibtory of the English People, p. 166. a barber, or a brewer, or some man of hum
4 oil THE MODERN PERIOD.
ble occupation.'* Such are the dispensa
tions of Providence in bringing about a
just retribution in the affairs of man. But
the lords who were attendants upon Rich
ard II were determined that his promise to
his people should not be fulfilled. How
ever, thirty thousand or more of the people
remained in London with Tyler at their
head to watch the movements and see
that the king's solemn promises were ful
filled Casually the next morning the king
in riding out came upon this body of men
still at Smithfields in London. Violent
words passed between the king's retinue
and the patriotic people, and some blows
ensued, in which Walworth, the Mayor of
London, with an unexpected blow of his
B\vord, slew Tyler, who fell to the ground.
"Kill, kill," shouted the crowd, "they have
killed our captain." But the young king,
by an artful expedient, diverted the people:
"What need you, my masters," said he, as
he boldly rode up to the front, "I am your
captain and king; follow me." And they
immediately did so: for he now had be
come popular with them, and their hopes
were centered in him. They followed him
to the Tower, and declared their object to
be to relieve their youthful king from the
abuse and imposition of the great lords
who surrounded him. He was received
with joy by his family at the Tower, and
said to them : "Rejoice and praise God, for
I have this day recovered my heritage
which was lost, and the realm of England."
The lords had now recovered from their
fright, and were preparing to undo what
the king had been doing, and to recall and
annul the charters of freedom he had
granted. They contended that the king's
grant and letters of freedom were illegal,
13 "There is the house," said Lord Tenterdcn
.J. Abbott) to his son, "in which vour
(C.J v eranjfather
made his fortune us a b.irber." And "there is th
house," might Lord Clarendon have said to his two
queenly rand -daughters, (queens Mary and Anne,)
"in which your tjr-mdmolhcr made her fortune as a
brewer's wife." Such, under Providence, is the con
stant mutation :tnd change in the fortunes of men;
the lordly houses of the Saxon -And Norman nobility
have pissed away and disappeared, :uul other par-
vrmt nouses liave arisen in their place, whose ances
tors were amonij ihc serfs of \Vut Tyler's day; and
those serfs had ancestors, some of wnom were Brit
ons and others Saxons; but all were denomin ited
Anylo-Saxo is, but should have been Anglo-Britons.
It is out of this combination that the great English
people and the modern British nation nave ri&en.
[Book v.
nul and void; their serfs were their goods,
and the king could not take their goods
from them but by their own consent; and
this consent, they added, we have never
given, and never will give, were we all to
lie in one day. Notwithstanding this reso
lution on the part of the lords and their
treachery and tyranny, the king himself
acted in perfect good faith.
The barons immediately proceeded, with
armed force, to undo what the king had
done, to annul his promise's and recall the
charters of freedom and pardon he had is
sued, which were recaptured and forcibly
taken from the people wherever found.
The young king was compelled to comply
with the wishes of the nobles; and the
people were forcibly driven bark to their
former condition, and this formidable and
universal rising of the people in favor of a
reform in the government, and of the'r just
liberties and freedom, was thus effectually
crushed. During this rising of the people
for the recovery of their natural rights and
to rid themselves of their unjust feudal
bondage, they frequently broke out in
songs in favor of the natural rights of man
and humanity; their reference was never
Saxon justice, or the humanity of Hengist,
/ttlla, Ethelfrith, or other robbers of the
Ancient Britons, but the burthen of their
song was the just equality of man and a
fair opportunity to everyone to make the
best of what God had given them: "When
Adam delved and Eve span, who was then
the gentleman?" This very effort of the
English people to gain their jttst liberties
was again repeated in the reign of Henry
VI, under the patriotic efforts of Jack Cade;
and which did not subside until the death
of Richard I II.
Of this great body of English people who
were thus vainly contending for their na
tural rights, the question again occurs, who
were they? For the nobles and great fami
lies from day to day and one after another
have departed and gone the way of the
world, and these people so cruelly put
down were the ancestors of the present
English people. If these were all Ancient
Britons made serfs, where were the Sax
ons? If they were all Saxons, then the Sax
Chap, ni.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4<>7
ons were the serfs. Hut whether Saxons Her Indian empire was acquired under the
or Britons, they were the great body ol'the management of a Welshman; a Scotch
English people from whom those of the man'- restored it from a fatal rebellion;
present day derive their lineage; there is a while in parliament and out of it Irishmen
greater probability that some of the present have added to her celebrity and glory.
nobility of England derive their origin The great change that took place in the
trom Wat Tyler or some of his men, rath condition and character of the English peo
er than from Warwick or Percy. But un ple, about the close of the fifteenth century,
doubtedly, as we have attempted to show, is obvious to every candid student of his
the great body of English people were the tory ; and no epoch can be placed in that
common descendants of both the Saxons change so well and palpable as the acces
and the Ancient Britons alike, for we know, sion of Henry VII. And lie, in a great
at least, that many of the Anglo-Saxon measure, may be assigned as the cause of
nobility voluntarily became serfs to the it. Let the student examine well the char
Norman lords; and perhaps some of them acter and characteristics of the Saxons as
again may have, in the ways of Providence, developed in history, from their first ap
risen again from their serfage to the sur pearance in Britain to the epoch stated,
face of the English nobility. The truth is and an obvious change appears afterwards.
that the English are a composite people to These characteristics are thus summed up
the greatest extent of the word; they owe by Hume, a historian very favorable to
their origin, their liberties, laws, language Saxon pretensions: "With regard to the
and present greatness, not so much to manneis of the Anglo-Saxons, we can say
Scheswicku or to the Saxons, but to what little, but thut they were in general a rude,
came in common from the Saxon pirate, uncultivated people, ignorant of letters, un
the Romanized Briton, the barbarian Dane skilled in mechanical arts, untamed to sub
and Norwegian, the civilized and improved mission under laws and government, ad
Normans, and immigration by them in dicted to intemperance, riot and disorder.
vited from all parts of Southwestern France, Their best quality was their military cour
and since then some Dutchmen who came age, which yet was not supported by
with William III. and a few Germans with discipline or conduct. Their want of tidcli-
George I ; and we are informed that recent tv to the prince, or to anv trust reposed in
ly one member of parliament was a native them, appears strongly in the history of
of Armenia. The descendants of all these their later period; and their want of hu
since the death of Richard III, have com manity in all their history. Even the Nor
bined as one people to make England what man historians, notwithstanding the low
she is, and to produce whatever there is state of the arts in their own country, speak
that is great and glorious, in her constitu- of them .is barbarians when they mention
tution, laws and freedom, in her enterprise, the invasion made upon them by the duke
commerce and manufactures, and in what of Normandy. The conquest, put the peo
ever has clrvated Britain to the head of the ple in a situation of receiving slow'ly, from
civilized world. abroad, the rudiments of science and culti
In producing this result England has vation, and of correcting their rough and
gathered her jewels from every part of licentious manners.""* Private robbery
Great Britain and Ireland; from Celtic ori 15 Clivc and Campbell.
gin more than from the Teutonic. Men 16 Hume's Historvof Kn<il:in<l, 177,^42. lnreildin<
from Wales, Scotland and Ireland have bring:";this assertion of the wan! of i'u!"!it\ :tn<l humanity,
to our memory their frt qu--nl treachery to the
occupied and distinguished every place and Britons, th'i mass.it rt- of the Dane*, the treacherous
assassination of Kthclbert, kin^ ot" Kast Angles, by
position in the English government and Otf.i ami itis queen, when their ^uesl anil soliciting;
institutions, and have contributed their full thi-ir daughter, and like instances.
Whrn the Norman historians represent the n,uanti-
*hnre to her prosperity, wealth and renown. tv of plate and valuable articles taken in Knijhmd, it
should be remembered that it was the property of
the nobility, \vrcnched from the l.lhorers ot" commons
14 Green's History of the English People, p. 41 3. and serfs.
48 THE MODE RN PERIOD. [Book v.
nd violence against person and property I castle, until he was fourteen years of age,
was a common complaint against the surrounded by his native Cymry, their
Anglo-Saxons in all ages; and that would manners and sentiments, \tnd tinder the
necessarily be expected of them, as tliu tuition of an excellent widowed mother.
natural result of their habits of war and He was then sent to Eaton school where
violence it was the moral spirit that he finished his education At London he
Woden ism had instilled into them, which met his mother's relative, Henry VI, who
Christianity was unable to eradicate.17 was so pleaded with the youth, and his
In tracing the diun-je wrought in the sprightly and comely appearance, that he
English people, from the time of Edward predicted his destiny.1* Alter being edu-
HI to that of Elizabeth, we see that it cul : catcd some years in England, he incurred
minated with the death ot Richard III the jealousy of Edward IV, who attempts
The change was from the rule of the Plan to imprison him. He escaped to Brittany,
tagenet to that of the Tudor. The former and after various trials and romantic es
had acquired the true characteristics of the capes, he was brought to the throne of
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns: war, violence, England, chastened by adversity, but a true
neUUhnesfe, were the predominant features Rriton in heart and lineage. Though a
of their times, especially from the death of brave man and a true soldier, he introduced
Edward III to that of Richard, a period into England a new regime, the true inter
considerable over a hundred years. Ed est and welfare of the country, the cultiva
ward IV and Richard were especially war tion of peace and its arts. He cultivated
like, cruel and heartless. Richard on the the interest and prosperity of the people,
last morning of his life, in going the rounds rather than the peculiar welfare of the no-
of his encampment, found a man asleep on jbility; like his country : M n generally, he
his post, and immediately, without a word, 1 loved the interest of humanitv rather than
gave him a mortal stab with his dagger; in ' that of the selected few; therefore feudal-
I
afterwards speaking of it, he said, with a ism greatly declined during his reign, and
cold, sarcastic indifference: >*I found the individual freehold and property greatly in
man asleep, and left him so." The charac creased. This is thus sustained by the his
ter of the sovereign uith singular and un torians. Hume sayri:'y "The reign of
accountable facility insinuates itself into Henry VII was, in the main, fortunate for
that of the people; and though the people his people at home and honorable abroad.
may labor against it, yet that of the sover lie put an end to the civil wars with which
eign will predominate with the govern i the nation had long been harassed, he
ment. maintained peace and order in the state;
In Henry Tudor this spirit was material he depressed the former exorbitant powers
ly changed the candid historians of that of the nobility. * * * * He loved
time, and since, have assured us so. He peace nithout fearing war; he discovered
was born and brought up at Pembroke 18 Bacon, in his history of Henry VII, alludes lo
this as wt- II ;is Shakspeare in Henry VI, Act IV,
17 Hume, 47.*3. Ibid, p. ij. "Hie leaders and Scene VI, where we find.
their military companions were maintained by the "Kinif Hen. My Lord of Somerset, what youth i*
labors ot" their sl.ivc.w, or by the weaker and les.s war thul,
like pirl of their community. * * All the Of whom you seem lo haxe so tender care?
refiiKtl arts of life were unknown." Ibid, 1745: Soni.My lie^e, it is young Henry, carl of Richmond.
"Thu burons were tliu chief abettors of robhers, mur i K.. Him. Come hither, Kns'laml's hope, [Lays his
derers and ruffians of all kinds, and no law could be hand on his head | If secret powers
executed auint ihese criminals. TliL- nobility were Suggest but truth to my divining thoughts.
brought to give their promise in parliament that This prcttv lad will prove our country's bliss.,
they would not avow, retain or support anv felon or His looks art: full of peaceful majesty,
breaker of the law; yet this engagement, which we His head hy nature formed to wear a! crown.
mav wonder to see exacted from men of their r.iuk, His hand to wield it sceptre, .md himself
was never regarded by them. The commons make Likely in time In bless a reg:il throne.
continual complaints of the multitude of robberies, Make much of him, my lords, tor thi:* is he
murders, rapes, and other disorders, which, they say, Must help \ ou more fh.m you arc hurt bv me."
were becoming numberless in every part ol the '9 J Kniylish History, p. 07. See aNo Bacon's
kingdom, and which they always ascribe to the pro Henry VII. II Pictorial English History, B. vi, ch.
tection that Uic criminals received from the ^reat." vii, p. 868. "The trading classes were growing rich
(a Hume. p. 2727, and la*) nod this was in the . finder the strong1 rule of the Tudors," says frroude
imeof Kdward ML ) in his History of Kn^land, Vol. i, p. 40.
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 409
no timidity, either in the conduct of his af- ] Another class of historians,* larger and
fairs or in the day of battle ; and though I more truthful and candid, place the ques
tion of the ethnic character and origin of
often severe in his punishments, he was
the English people where we have placed
commonly less actuated by revenge than it. Prof. Creasy21 says: "Our English na
by maxims of policy." But the great ser- , tion is the combined product ot several
vice rendered by Henry to his country was I populations. The Saxon element is the
his perseverence in his peace policy, which most important, and may be treated as the
enabled the people, under his encourage chief one; but, besides this, there is the
ment, to organize trade, commerce and British, there is the Danish, and there is
manufactories; as well as by the destruc- ' the Norman element. Each of these four
lion of the feudal system, which transferred elements of our national character has
a large portion of the landed property largelv modified the rest, and our national
from the aristocracy to the common-, and institution*. It is not until we reach the
yeomen; which in reality is the foundation, period when these elements were thorough
at this day, of the greatness and prosperity ly fused and blended together, that the his
of the English and the British nation, tory of the English can be properly said to
which could not have occurred under the begin. This period is the thirteenth cen
state of things which existed previous to tury. It wv.s then, and not until then, that
the Tudors. our nationality was complete. By nation
The historians who have taught that "we ality is meant the joint result of unity as to
must look to .Sleswick for fatherland and j race, language, and institutions." And
old England, from whence came the En ' equally strong upon this subject is Lord
glish people, and everything they now I Macaulay, who says>'2 "Here commences
possess or that is worthy," arc leading the ; the history of the English nation. The
student of history astray, with myth and ! history of the previous events is the history
fable, and ignore the evident truth of his of wrongs inflicted and sustained by various
tory. He who teaches that England is in tribes, which included all who dwelt on
debted to the Teutonic rare for what exalts j English ground, and which regarded each
her and elevates her position, and that the I other with aversion such as has scarcely
Celtic race are but her menials and serfs, to | everexisted between communities separated
whom she owes nothing for her position, , by physical barriers, [''or even the mutual
is not only teaching what is false without j animosiU o! countries at war with each
fairlv examining the subject, but doing , other is languid when compared with the
himself injustice; but still greater injustice animosity of nations which, morally separ
to the larger portion of the people who ated, are vet locally intermingled. In no
constitute the inhabitants of the United country has the enmity of race been car
Kingdom, who are equally its citizens and ried farther than in England. In no coun
its pride, and upon whom she depends, in try has that enmity been more completely
common, for her safety from contlict and effaced. * * * * Then it was that the
peril. great English people was formed, the na
The truth is we are not to look back to tional character began to exhibit those pe
the people or the barbarous times, which culiarities which it has ever since retained,
brought upon all Europe the barbarity and and that our fathers became emphatically
revulsion in civilization, which character islanders, islanders not merely in geograph
ized the dark ages, for what now so dis ical position but in their politics, their feel
tinguishes Great Britain ; for that is the ings, and their manners. Then first appear
work of the composite people we have ed with distinctness that constitution which
demonstratedthe production of British
io Among: these we would name Prof. Creasy,
soil in modern timesa new development Lord M;icaulay and Pruf. Arnold.
of human affairs, unconnected with its pre 41 English Constitution, ch. ii, p. It.
tended source in Sleswick. 12 l Macaulay's English History, ch. i. p. u.
 THE MODERN PERIOD.
has ever since, through all changes, pre
served its identity that constitution of
which all other iree constitutions in the
world are copies, and which, in spite of
Koine defects, deserves to be regarded as the
best under which any great society has ever
yet existed during many ages. Then it
was that the house of commons, the arche
type of ail the representative assemblies
which now meet, either in the old or in the
new world, held its first sittings. Then it
was that the common law rose to the dig
nity of science, and rapidly became a not
unworthy rival of the imperial jurispru
dence. * * * * Early in the four
teenth century the amalgamation of the
races was all but complete; and it was
soon made manifest, by signs not to be
mistaken, that a people inferior to none
existing in the world had been formed by the
mixture of three branches of the great
Teutonic family with each other, anil with
the aboriginal Britons."
This beginning of the modern English
nation may be more properly placed at the
death of Richard III, at Bosworth, than at
any former period; for then it was that the
old Normi'n and Plantagenet dynasty ex
pired, with their love of war, commotion
and tyranny; and then arose in their place,
under the Tudors, the cultivation of peace
and home affairs. Then arose civil enter
prises, manufactures and commerce; the
more decided cultivation of literature,
(science and arts; and then was a period dis.
tingtiished in English history for a galaxy
of such eminent men as Moore, Cromwell,
Woolsev, Coke, Bacon, Ben. Johnson and
Shak^poare. It was with the Tudors that
the transition took place from the old to the
new of tlie national affairs; and then com
menced that career in English history
which marks a course of new events as
characteristic of the English and the com
mon property of the whole nation This
is apparent as the great epoch, when we
compare what England was before with
what Groat Britain and Ireland, as a com
mon coutitn , have become since. That
was the obvious turning point between the
rule of the Saxons with the Woden aris-
lotrary; the iron rule of the Norman with
[Book
feudal lordships on the one hand, and the
ameliorated condition of modern English
men, with a just and more liberal rule to
all classes of men, founded upon benevo
lence and good will to common humanity.
This is apparent when we look at the great
change in the condition of the great mass
of English people in the time of Richard
II and that of Elizabeth.
It has been shown that the English peo
ple so far as they derived their origin Irom
the Saxons were ot the Teutonic race, and
so far as derived from other sources were
Celtic; lor the Ancient Britons the Cym-
ry of both Britain and Armorica, which in
cluded a large portion of France and
Normandv, the Irish and the Scots were
almost exclusively Celts, and the Normans
principally so, with decided antipathies
against the Teutons or Saxons. The En
glish must be descendants of one or the
other of the>e two great races the Teuton
or the Celtor they are composed of a
mixture and amalgamation of the two. It
is thought that it has been fully shown that
they were of this composite race in which
the Celtic characteristics prevailed over the
Teutonic.* When the characteristics of
these races are severally contrasted, as
analyzed and inducted from the best author
ities, it is seen that they more readily agree
with the Celtic than the Teutonic; that the
Welshman, the Scotchman, the Irishman,
or the Armoricau Frenchman, with the
like educational advantage, approaches
nearer the English gentleman than the
Teuton. And first, let us see
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEUTON.
i. Physiological character. With regard
to the complexion, color of the hair and
eyes, as compared with the Celt, they are
doubtful, and the best of authors disagree.34
The head round, or square, or angular;
the body inclined to be corpulent and rlab-
b/. Though we find many smal
they arc generally tall and heavy bodied;
bones large, "feet often large, even clumsy
when compared with the Celtic variety."
23 See ante, B. , ch. .
24 Sec ante, B. , ch. . Set- the Hi-marks o
Bishop Percy's introduction to Mulld'* Norther u
Antiquity, Bonn's Lib., p. 33.
 Chap. m.| PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4"
With both variety the legs are generally lo anger; but when his anger is raised, it
straight ; the exceptions arr, in the Teutons becomes terrific and ungovernable; it be
they how out, in the Celts the exceptions comes a frenzy, and strikes wherever it
are the lock-kneed. These exceptions are iiuiy happenfriend or foe. His cold, de
not more frequent with one people than liberate action renders him less sympathet
the other. ic and charitable, and will appl.) his govern
j. Psychological character. The Teutons ing principleshis self-interestto even
are slower, and sometimes called stolid, and the demands of near relatives, friends, or
tiiat slowness may sometimes produce the patriotic objects of public interest. All
greater accuricy; but not as brilliant for Teutonic people, and opeciallv the Saxons,
witticism as the Celtic variety , nor maintained slavery as a cherished institu
for taiste-^ in literature or the arts The tion, either as serfs or slaves, and the latter
Teuton will expend a great deal his in its most hideous forms; and in this con
barn in architecture and ornament*, while dition was held the great body of the
lie neglects hi-, house; the Celt will apply English people, until it became extinct un
his mean- with beticr taste as to propriety der the Tudors. The slave system of the
in re crewe tn the objecthe would be apt Southern States was only a continuance of
to think that orii.i mental architecture would the Anglo-Saxon laws upon that subject,
appear with more propriety on his house only it was confined to persons of African
than'on hi* ham.-" descent.
The Teutonic people, it is said, art- more THK CELTIC CHARACTERISTICS.
self-indulgent- -more jjiven to their appe
i. Pliysiologifal character. As remarked
tites- -eat, drink and smoke lo excess We
in relation to the Teuton, it is almost im
find this to be asserted by most of the En
possible to reconcile the books, between the
glish historian*, from the Norman conquest
two races, as to complexion, hair, color, and
down to recent timeV:** We read ol the
suiture. But according to my observation
.Saxons "unbuckling at their meals," which,
in America, where only I have seen and
I believe, i* not '.rue to the same degree
judge of them, there is but little difference
with the Cell. The Saxons were slower in
in stature; there are tall, or short, or small
literature, and with superstition devoted to
pt-r-on- found in both races the Teuton
the object* oY \var. The Teuton is slower
is the nttcnest found with a bulky body.
Arnold'* Collie Literature. As to a well formed person, you will tind
JO Jn passing through Pennsylvania the traveler it union*; the Irish as often as in any peo
will see in the Teutonic districts thi.s mis:ipp!ic uion pie. As to complexion and color of hair,
of archiuritur.il la^te. An Kitf listi ladj, \vrilinj;
froni^Germany to Kra/.ur's Majfa/.ine, (and copied in although the dark and the light cornplcx-
N. V*. ifcliviio, O.'toivr. 1^75,,) with i/re.il ierv<r in
favor of what -hi: found in ( i-jnn;niv, still questionsinn anil hair prevail differently in different
the German capai ity lor til-jn^.-, \ L...te. She sav.s;
tannlie- in both races, and the dark is often-
"Gcrniiin drj^> has no originality and no chit. *' *
* * Ol' thi- h.innony ^ol colors) ot wellclu. i-n low er met with than the fair, yet among the
toned tinls. i.l" unity of ertcrt in the correi-!rindin^'
shadcb of Cloves, parasols and bonnelst or the ju<ii- Celts from the British Islands we oftuner
t KHIH juxtapo.slion of dark and light, t;t .1 dark, co.or
meet with red, auburn or light hair, and
>n a sober background, the ordinary German know^
nothing1. * # * Perhaps in no country is dress the lair or white complexionthe blonde
M) inucn talked of as in Germany, wilh so i:'. lie re
sult. TarUtns ol the most ecceiiiiic colors :nid ar- than in the Teutonic race. In the Irish
rungemunt are always IJcrijaj)i the
tem;il. we often see the fair complexion, a*
Kn^Jish lady is doing the Germans injustice in mat-
1 ere uf taMe and harmony of colors; Imt in America described by the Romans in her Gallic an
we often hear rtashv and incongruous olors spoken
>f its Dutch t^st. . ' cestors.**
2f Sec K.I ruble's Saxons in Kiiglancl. Vol. i. ch. In the formation of the skull the Celt*
iii. ''The uiilree, the serfs." Keinblc, wilh all his
leaning lo ihe S.ixon.s, buflkicntly shows the hard are distinguished by an oval head, while the
Condition of the body of the Anglo-Saxons. "The Teuton is either round or square; in their
hlave is Ihe absolute property of his lord, a chattel
lo he Hs- posed of at his lords pleasure. * * * * general conformation they are less angular
If he be i^uiliy 'f wrong, he cannot make compensa
tion, for he can liave no property of his own, save
his skin; that hi.s skin must pay For him and the lash :*> Sue IV New Antcrirun Cyclopedia, Tit. Oltje,
)te his bitter jmrtioii. Keinhle, Ibid, p. ^09 10. p. fiSj. Ante, B. , rh. .
 412 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Bonk v
than the Teuton. It has been often claim tinguishcd for sentiment, ardor and sympa
ed that the Celt is less strong and muscular thy ; "quick to feel impressions, and feeling
than the Teutonic race, but it is believed them very strongly; his .sensibility give*
that this has been contradicted by scientific him a peculiarly near and intimate feeling
tests.*1 In America the two great imini- of nature and the life of nature. The same
grating classes are the German and the j sensibility made him full of reverence and
Irish; the fiist as the representative of the enthusiasm for genius, learning, and the
Teuton, and the latter as that of the. Celt. [ things of the mind; to he a bard, freed a
These have competed on our canals and man that is a characteristic stroke of this
railroads for hardiness and endurance, and generous and ennobling ardor of theirs,
universally the palm is conceded lo the which no race has ever shown more strong-
Irish. They endure hard labor as well, ly-11
and accomplish as much, as any people. But what most distinguishes these two
2. Psychologicalctiaracter. "Quickiu-s, of great races from each other, is the care
perception, great powers of combination, ap with which the Teuton attends to his own
plication, love of equality, [human rights intert-t, with a cold indifference to the de-
independent of self.) of society, of am'n.se- j milluls ot" sympathy or affection. His per-
nient, of glory; want of caution,"*1 and j sonal interest is always first, and sympathy
subject to sympathy in the demands of' for others seldom leads him from it. What
relative*, or friends, or patriotism, which he llas marfe UP n's mind to do, his heart i
the Teuton's love of self would avoid. I sellll>'n '" Hie way of his accomplishing it.
"Distinguished for gallantry, tine hlandish- He will, therefore, oflener succeed as
ing manners and external politeness; irasci- banker, for sympathy does not lead him
We"soon offended and easily reconciled. I lroln his intcrest; and when he is led into
Usually they are good mechanics, and I crime' his hearl will not likely shrink from
distinguished for taste in architecture, j lts 'K)m>r
poetry and music. And as Tacitus ile- I have never seen tlie.se two great races
cribed the Uritons,easily governed when ; '" jlll%c f them, except as I have seen,
well treated,indignant at injuries and in- : them in America; beyond that I have de-
toterartt of oppression ; ready in adopting I pendcd upon books for my evidence. With
the improvement and progress of civilixa- ' 1)otn nationalities, as found here, I have
tion, even from the conquering Romans. : been well acquainted, and have had warm
They are distinguished for stvle and taste I friends in both. What has been said as the
in literature,31 and distinguished as median- j peculiarity of each, is the result as drawn
ics and artists in every profession in which j troni the extremes of each, as found mure
the arts are applicable. fu\ly developed in the one race than in the
Mr. Arnold sums up the difference of "ther: '"" '* is rathl->r tlle exception than
characteristics of the two races thus: "The the rule, when found equally developed in
Germanic genius ha.s steadiness as its main the other race. The good qualities of each
basis, with commonness and humdrum for are predominant, and place them ahead of
its defect, fidelity to nature for its excel every other race. In the comparison be
lence. The Celtic genius, sentiment, as its tween these two, the greatest and best races
main basis, with love of beauty, charm, of the human family, both have their
and spirituality for its excellence, inetfect- striking good qualities, with their concomi
ualness and self-will for its defect." The tant and counteracting evil ones. Enetnie*
Saxon is said to be dull and slow, but true are too apt wilfully to exaggerate and ex
to nature and to fact. The Celt is dis- pose the evil qualities of (heir adversaries
without noticing the concurring good quali
9 S! mile, B. , ch. . Also Prof. Kiske's ty in mitigation. Both are distinguished
Kssay. foi great industry and perseverance; have
30 Sec the introduction to Maflet's Anliquities,
Bonn's Lib., p. 44 accomplished great thingsin the arts, law.
,ji Sec 1'rof. Arnold's Kssay on Celtic Literature. religion, literature, science and civilization.
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4'3
but the Celt has led in the way. Slower daries and tributaries to them; the citizens
and later the German Teuton has brought of the towns became useful people and
up the rear with a mighty force. The serviceable to the Saxons, and their exist
father of Frederick the Great remained ence suffered as free town*, but subject U>
characterized in his courts and institutions, | Saxon rule as stipetularies, preservmg
by the rude civilization of the passed ages, many of their customs and to this
until Frederick himself adopted an im day they and their children becoming
proved civilization from Celtic France; and, Saxons in the very humble condition in
reformed Prussian literature by the aid of which they were found in Wat Tyler's
the genius and learning of Voltaire. time, and of those citizens of Canterbury
No injustice or disrespect is intended to and London who jov fully admitted Wat
the English people, by claiming them to be and his people within their town. They
thus a composite variety of the human fam- were all subject to the rule ot Saxon nobili-
il.vderiving their origin as well from tyearls, all of a caste as descendants of
the Romanized Briton as from the ] Woden. The only city we have any ac-
piratical and barbarous Saxon from the count of their having destroyed was An-
Celtic as well as the Teutonic family; that derida;:-"' and the reason given for destroy ing
the true characteristics of the English have it and its people was because the citizen*
been formed in recent times by this union; made such determined resistance, and gave
and that they are rather Anglo- Britons them so much trouble in taking it.
than Anglo-Saxons. The Saxons pro- | In the course of this progress of the
gressed slowly, making a foot-hold in one | formation of the characteristics of the
district after another, until in the course of i modern English, the candid student of his-
a hundred years they obtained possession of j tory will perceive numerous instances
South-eastern England. First, subjugated where the Saxons came in contact with
the Lloegrian Cymry, who received the Ancient Briton* , to receive a portion of
Saxons with less fierce resistance than the their character and nature, as well in
Cambrian Cymry, and who, the ancient modern times as in those when they took
writers say, all became Saxons.^ In this their wives from among the Britons. There
(low process the Saxons took possession of) was the league between Cadwallaand Pen-
the rural districts, converted the property da;*> the accession of another Cadwalla
to their own use; being an armv of soldiers. and his brother, Ina, to the throne of Wes-
they had few or no women, and took such sex; the intercourse octwe.cn Asser and
women of the BritUh population as they Alfred the Great; the influence that Geof
chose for wives, the rest they converted in frey of Monmouth and his countryman,
to serfs to cultivate the land. Thev were Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had upon
unacquainted with city life, and only sought English literature; the intercourse which
possession of the rural districts.''" The large made Henry Tudor and Oliver Cromwell
cities, as London, York, Winchester, Hath the descendants of Welshmen and Cymry.
and Exeter, they despised, and wliich they This intercourse became more intimate af-
neither destroyed nor took, but made them ter the corninu of the Normans, for they
free towns, and subjected them to terms of j considered the Cymry their relatives in
furnishing for them clothing and other ' race and affinity,
manufactured articles as were indispensable But between two people, thus constantly
for them. Thus the cities became stipen- coining in contact with each other, there
must be a constant admission and accretion
3 See nnte, B. , ch. . of laws and customs which eludes the
33 See Kemble's Saxons in England, B. ii. ch. vii,
p. a6340. N. B. The student should well inquire casual observer. For instance, the Saxons
f Kemhle does not, in die midst of v:llu:ihle materi
als by him collected, grossly misrepresent the con
dition of the Britons at the time of the Saxon con 34 Kcuible, Ibid, p. 309.
quest, and the importance of their towns. It is ap 35 See ante, B. , ch. .
parent Unit he writes with great prejudice and un-
airncss against them. 36 See ante, B. , ch. .
4M THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book r.
by their Salic law and custom excluded the the north of Ireland; leaving the Gaels to
female from the inheritance in land, and occupy the south of France, the northwest
consequently from a participation in the ern highlands of Scotland, the south of
government. On llie death of Cenwnlch, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. Even after
king of Wessex, Saxburga, his widow, the Saxons had obtained possession of the
claimed the sovereignty, "but the proud southeastern part of Britain, in the time of
barbarians of Wessex disdained even the Ethelred, A. D. 866, the Cymry, under va
government of wisdom in the form of a rious names, included and were in posses
woman."'" The rule was, therefore, as sion of the promontory of Cornwall,
sumed bv the nobilit> during the interreg Wales, Cumbria, Strath-Clydethe most of
num. This Salic law was introduced into Scotland except the northwestand the
France by the Franks, and lias always pre north of Ireland. Then what has become
vailed there, as it had also prevailed in of them? They have been absorbed and
England until the time of the Tudors. Hut amalgamated with people of other names,
with tne Britons this rule did not prevail. so that their descendants are found some
In the absence of male heirs, the neare'st among the English, some with the Scotch,
female relative claimed, and was allowed, and some in Ireland; and perhaps occupy
as in the case of IKiadecia and others. B nt ing a large, if not the largest, portion of all
in Tudor's time Celtic law and principles those nationalities. The Gaels were, prob
had so far insinuated themselves into the ably, in possession of Britain before the
English as to overcome the Salic law, so Cymrv. The Ibrmer retired to the north,
far as to enable Mary and Elizabeth to be and were probalily the Caledonians. When
come queens and sovereigns. Many other the Romans came many of the Cymry, as
British laws and customs have become, Britons, ton hostile to the Romans to be
silently, the laws and customs of England come their subject, and loo fond of person
unobserved. It is now impossible to tell al liberty, retired to Scotland and became
how much of Rriti.-h, Cymric or Celtic known as Picts. Other Cymric liritons in
laws and customs have thus become the the like manner retired before the Roman
common law of England; or how much of and Saxons to Ireland, and there in the
the blood of the Ancient I'ritons flows in northeast of Ireland became known as the
English veins; but we know it predomiri Scots; who in after times passed over to
ates>> A large number of the very able Scotland, conferring upon it their name,
English jurists claim much of the and uniting with the I'icts and Cymry of
common law i* derived from ancient Urit- Strath-Clyde formed the kingdom of Scot
ish source*-3* land. The Scots, therefore, are, by history
and the remains of their ancient language,
(J2. The Cymry or Wrlsli. essentially the descendants of the C^ mry
and Ancient Britons.' There are so many
It has already been shown how important things in history and antiquities which
a part of Western Europe the Cymry once produce evidence to prove that the inhab
occupied. Il was all tin northwestern and itants of all these countries originated in
central part of (jaul Annorica and Bel the same race and people, that there can be
gium: all Britain, except the (ar north, and
no rational doubt on the subject.
37 i Turnt r's An^-Sax., B. Hi, ch. viii, p. 25^ (A. As to the Cymry who remained in
I>. t>7-j). Henry of Huntingdon, p. 01. Florence of France, Michelet, the author of the history
Wore., p. .13.
38 The student who wishes to see more fully how of France, has much reduced my labors, by
much the CV-ltic or Cymric characterises prevail in what he has said upon the subject. When
the Kn^lish, Icl him examine I'rof. M. Arnold's
'The Study of Celtic JLilurature." Mr. Arnold re the Cymry came to France the elder Celt*
peals with approbation these words of Monsieur
Edward.-,: "And so it turns out that an Knijlislnnan
who now thinks himsrlf sprung from the Saxons or i Sec ante, B. , ch. . See also 3 HemMe's
the Norm ins i*> ot'ten in reality the desc.fnijarit ol Saxons in England, p. .), as to the occurrence of the
the Brians.1' name Aber annexed to places in Wales and Scot
39 See Spencc's Kquity, land.
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONTTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4' 5
yielded to them the possession of all the saved us more than once. Often when our
north-west of Gaul, and Chartres became country has been held at bay and been at
their centre, ami Auvergne that of the the point of despair, Breton heads and
former. In Civsar's time, the Cymric tribe oreasts have been found harder than the
known as the Venetians were fast building stranger's sword. When the Normans
up a new civilization, and possessed a com were ravaging with impunity our coasts
merce and a navv which astonished Cajsar and rivers, the Breton Nomenoe was the
the archetype of modern British navy first to resist. The English were repulsed
and for a while held the Romans in check; in the fourteenth century by Dugnesclin;
but that heartless and ruthless warrior al in the fifteenth, by Richemont; and in the
most exterminated so promising an opposi seventeenth, were chased through every
tion to Roman ambition. Alter that time sea by Duguav-Trouin. The wars of re
this extensive possession became contract ligions and those of political liberty pre
ed and absorbed in other varieties of mod sent no more purely and innocently glori
ern France, so that they had become, when ous names than Lanone's, and that of
Micbelet wrote, confined to Armorica or Lalour d' Auvergne, the first grenadier of
Brittany. This historian imagines to view the republic. The story runs, that it was a
them, when he wrote, from the high lands native of Nantes who uttered the last ex
at the head of the Loire and the Seine, and clamation heard at Waterloo'The guard
says: "Two countries slope towards each dies, but does not surrender!' "
other, and form but one valley, you may "The Breton character is that of untame-
say, of which the straits of Dover arc the able resistance, and of blind, obstinate, in
bottom. On this side are the Seine and trepid opposition,for instance, Moreau,
Paris; on that, London and the Thames. the opponent of Bonaparte. In history of
But England presents to France that por philosophy and literature, this character is
tion of her which is German, keeping be still more plainly evidenced. The Briton
hind her the Celts of Wales, Scotland and Pelagius, who infused stoicism into Chris
Ireland. France, on the contrary, backed tianity, and was the first churchman who
by her Germanic provinces, opposes her uplifted his voice in behalf of human liber
Celtic front to England. Each country ty, was succeeded by the Breton Abelard,
views the other on its most hostile side."2 and the Breton Descartes. Each of these
"It is here, however, that we wish to be three gave the impetus to the philosophy
gin our study of France;the Celtic of his own age. * * * * This spirit of
province, the eldest born of the monarchy, opposition, which is natural to Britlany,
claims our first glance. * * * * Brit manifested itself in the last century and in
tany, poor and hard, extends from her ours, by two apparently contradictory facts.
fields of quartz and of schist from the slate The same part of Brittany, (St. Malo,
quarries near Brest, to those of Angers. * Dinan, and St. Urienc,) which, in Louis
* * * The Breton tongue does not be- the fifteenth's day, produced the unbeliev
gin at Renncs even, but about Elven, ers Duclos, Maupertuis, and Lametrie, has
Pontivy, Lomleae, and Chatelandren. given birth in our own time to the poet
Thence, as far as Cape Finisterre, it is true and to the orator of Catholicism, to Cha
Brittanythe more unlike the French than teaubriand and to La Mennais."
it is like the Gaul, and would have slipped Abelard led the way in literature, and
us moie than once, had we not held it Descartes in philosophy, just as Geoffrey
grasped, as if in a vice, between four of Monmouth had preceded them in his
French cities of rough and decisive charac tory and romantic literature in Britain and
ter Nantes and St. Malo, Rennes and modern Europe. And just as Pclagius had
Brest" led for individual responsibility and inde
"And yet this poor old province has pendence in religion in the east, so did
Roger Williams lead the way for freedom
x i Miclielet's Hist France, B. iii, p. 149. and liberty of conscience in the west
4if> THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
What Michelet has said of the general I that of their own, in becoming a Christian
character oi' the Bretons is equally true uf people and in taking Roman civilization.
the Cymrv ol" Wales and the Ancient The Romans encouraged them to do so,
Britons. They are distinguished I'or their and kept them engrossed in the arts of
industry, indomitable perseverance, and in peace as a means of securing them from a
dividual ireedorn. Never was a conquest rebellion, and to enable them to pay their
t,o slow in its accomplishments, as either i tribute, taxes and stipends. They were
that of the Romans or Saxons; and neither ! strictly prohibited from engaging in war
would have succeeded had thev not been j or any military exercises, which was ex-
continuallv recruited from the continent, clusively reserved for the Roman army.
Armorica Brittany was first nettled by Thcy thus were rendered incapable of
the Cymry, before their emigration to that military defense against the Saxons
Britain; but during the Roman times there which had been so conspicuous in their
were frequent emigrations back again from ancestors against the Romans. In the
Britain to Brittany, and after that a contin meantime, for about four hundred years,
ual interchange and emigration of people the Romans studiously cultivated their lo
from one to the other. Originally the two cal and tribal division and distinction,
people were identical; but after a separa- until union and national concentration had
tion of so many centuries, there is but an been eradicated as far as Roman discipline
astonishingly slight difference in character I could make it. When the Saxons came to
or their native language3 both people are | conquer, not like the Romans to cultivate,
distinguished for their early cultivation of to tax and draw tribute, but with barbarian
Christianity and literature. instincts, to rob, plunder and destroy, they
The Cymry of Britain, at the time of the found the Britons unaccustomed to mili
departure of the Roman armv and the tary affairs, and without union and care
coming of the Saxons, were a numerous for each other, as was eminently the case
people, occupying the whole of Britain with their ancestors in the time of Caracta-
from the southern channel to the highlands I Clls and Oalgacus.
of Scotland, having a population of at least j The conquest of the Britons by the Sax-
three millions of people, with numerous ons, at the time, was inevitable. War was
cities and a highly cultivated country. their profession and religion; and as pagan
When conquered by the Romans, during barlxarians they applied it with heartless
the reigns of Claudius and Nero, they were cruelty to take from others whatever thev
a civilized people, possessing a learned j chos-e to apply to their own use, while, un-
bodyofmen,4 their instructors in religion, I like the Romans, they were incapable of
morals and science; having a considerable i conferring any benefit to civilization or hu-
commerce with Gaul and other portions ol i inanity. Thev practiced upon the Britons
the Roman empire coined money, and those very barbaric cruelties of which
cultivated many of the arts. Until con- I the Saxons so bitterly complained as being
quered, and resistance to the power and j practiced upon themselves three hundred
experience of the Romans had become des years later by the Danes. So slow, but
perate and hopeless, they made a noble de inevitable, is natural justice in her retribu
fense for their independence and freedom. tion. But the Britons were then the peo
After submission, they made rapid progress ple of peace, having exclusively cultivated
in adopting Roman arts and science to it for four centuries. In the meantime dif
ferent sections of the island had become
3 Set ante, B. , ch. . strangers to each other; the Lloegrians
4 Sec Mr. Arnold's "The Slmlv of Celtic Litera had become in some measure strangers to
ture, No. II, where he says: "XVe have the most
weighty
;_!..__ and
.._ , explicit
,:.:. ._.. nyStrabos, Caesar's, the Cambrians; the Cumbrians had for
testimony
Lucan'sthat this race once possessed
po* a special,
profound, spiritual discipline, thaithat They were wiser gotten their relation to the people of Kent ;
than their neighbors."
ra Lucan's's w
words are singular and national unity and sympathy was lost
ly clear and strong, and serve well to stand as a
landmark in this controversy. in Roman policy and injustice. Cumbria
Ohap. in.] PEOPLE CONSTI rUHNG THK UNITED KINGDOM.
or Strath Clyde knew but little of Kent, kiii!>s-'' These ruled with hateful despot
and cared as little when informed that ism over the free Britons when conquered,
Hengist and his soldiers had taken posses as their serfs, and over the landless towns
men, burgesses or citizens, as their stipen-
sion of an island in Kent, or a margin of
daricx. But the Welsh, with the true
its sea shore, they thought it of no conse. characteristics of the Briton and Cymry,
quence to them. But after the lapse of a \ iclded slowly, with fierce opposition to the
hundred years, when various positions up invaders and their Injustice; it required
on the sea shore had been taken and new over two hundred vears before they con-
native population had grown up, it had querid west of the ceniral ridge, and eight
then become too late to remedy the evil. centuries before its final completion under
When the Saxons then began to extend Kdward I. During all that time the pro
their possessions, Arthur rallied the Britons cess of absorbing the Ancient Britons in
and alter a terrible battle gave them a mem the Saxon race was going on and forming
orable del'eat at Baden hill. That was so a new English race by the composition of
severe that no further conquest was at the two. The Ancient Britons, thus ab
tempted for thirty or perhaps fifty years. sorbed, first became Saxons and subse
Then the Saxons had become permanently quent! v English, but the change of name
fixed in their sea shore margin, and a large or language did not change the natural
portion of their population natives of the characteristics or blood of the race, but
soil. It was thought that it was safe and conferred them upon the Saxons, who
less cruel to let them remain there. In thereb\ became Englishmen instead of
the meantime Arthur was called, bv a sense Saxons.
of duty, to aid his relatives in* Armorica. During all that time the Cyjnry of Wales,
He was detained there five years. When as far as it was possible under the circum
he returned he found his sovereignty be stances, kept up their literature and arts;
trayed and usurped by a relative, and a their towns and improvements." This is
civil war ensued, in which the great Arthur evidenced by Asser's life of Alfred, by the
lost his life. The Saxons took advantage writings of Giraldus, Nennius, Geoffrey,
of this unfortunate event, and bv their dis- i and other ,,, ,
Welshmen otc ...the age, as well, as
position to war and conquest, their increase I| their
, .
own national poets or bards and prose
of native population upon the fertile lands writers, which in these respects put them
in England, and constant accession of sol ahead of any nation ot Western Europe.
diers from the continent, the conquest be This is also proved by the writings of
came inevitable. Giraldus Cambrensis, who, after being edu
The barbaric invasion of the Roman em cated a; Paris, visited Wales in the reign of
pire by the people of the north overturned Henry 11, and was surprised to fin
the civilization of the age, and everything
which supported it: commerce was anni 5 See Kemble's Saxons in England, Vol. ii, p. 13:1.
hilated; all civil and intelligent intercourse In Kent, he says: "If there were aldermen at all
they were comprised in the preat caste of earls or
between nations was stopped, and Western nobles by birth." He was inseparable from the
shire, and was really ''at the head of the justice of
Kurope was relapsing into its native bar the county." flbid, p. 137. Kemble says' "Posses
barism Christianity expelled from that sion of land in the district was the indispensable
condition of enjoying the privileges and exercising;
part of Britain now known as England, and the rights of a freeman." Ibid, vol. i, p. 83, also
123. It is singular with what complacency Kemble
revolting paganism and rude barbarity es speaks of the Saxon institutions ot slavery and the
tablished in its stead. Wherever the Sax wrong and violence by which men are made slaves
and kept so by birth, "and yield to a yoke which
ons went a new and rude system of landed thev could not shake oflj and commend themselves
to the protection of a lord," as though these were in
property was established a feudalism the order of Providence and not that of selfish man.
which placed the land in the possession of Ibid, 184. See also the article To\vns, Vol. ii, p. 362.
the nobilitya caste, the exclusive descend thi16 condition
Sec Giraldus' Cambrensis, as to his account ot"
in which he found the Welsh, in the
ants of Wodenthe alderman, who ruled twelfth century, in possession of Cxrleon on the Usk
and other towns, and their extraordinary architec
and controlled everything under the Saxon
48 THE MODKRN PERIOD. [Book v.
Icon on the Usk still preserved the Roman them at length destroyed their cities, de
style of architecture, buildings of great teriorated their civilization and reduced the
merit, "literature, music, and a surprising country to poverty, of whirh they have
degree of Christian civilization; while in since recovered.
the same time in England the buildings Nations, as well as individuals, are social
and roads of the Roman age were permit persons, and liable to take from each other
ted to go to ruin and decay. Still by tluj their good or bad customs or examples. Of
continual war wrought upon them by Sax course while the Cyniry were surrounded
ons and Normans frequent raids in which by the evils of the dark ages, and deterioat-
their towns were burned, their propc-i ing their condition, some of the evil customs
taken or destroyed, and their people alaugh I of the barbarians insinuated themselves up-
tered. It is strange that they were able lo I on the Cymrv, of which thev had beeu
hold out so long against such wrongs ami previously exempt. In the laws o! Howel
barbarous warfare. But that determination Da we Iind *onie traces of "///*' n
and perseverance was characteristic of the the price of compensation fix-.-d to be paid
race, as it is now of the British people; and for a crime or injury, by the Saxons and all
this characteristic has increased in Un- the northern barbarians. But that was con
English people since the Norman conquest trary to their former laws. Another bar
in consequence of greater admixture of barous custom \\as common among them,
Ancient British blood, as we see it e\ ideru cii perhaps more so among those upon the
by the instances of the Tudors, Oliver continent than with the Saxons in England.
Cromwell, Clive, Sir Thomas Picton, and And this v\as when a political .t^piraiil had
others, so well established cases in English obtained the possession of an opponent or
history. adversary, he would destroy his capacity
With all the hostilities and adversities for further opposition, by blinding him, bv
with which the Ancient Britons were sur burning his eyes with hot metals. This
rounded it is marvelous that. during those barbarous and cruel custom was commonly
dark ages- -those barbarian times- -the practiced by both the Saxons and the Nor
Cymry were able to retain and keep up mans, of which history gives us numerous
their Christianity, literature and civiliza instances. When some Cambrian prince
tion to the extent they did. It is a wonder attempted to follow so bad an example, the
that those wars and savagery did not over act was so reprobated by his countrymen,
whelm and subvert those qualities in those as cruel and disgraceful, that he was driven
ancient people, as it did in the rest of into exile. But what the Cymry most op
Europe. But they did not have that etiect : posed and resisted was the whole system of
in a lull of those Saxon wars the Cymry, the feudal land laws; so very different from
in the seventh century, broke out anew in their own and the Roman land laws, and
a revival of their literature and concomit so very oppressive upon the tenants and
ant improvement; and again in the twelfth lower class of people.
century, placing them in these respects After the conquest of Wales, and es
ahead of all the nations of Western pecially after the accession of the Tudors,
Europe.? But that continual war upon the people of the principality were probably
7 See Prof. Arnold's Kssay on Celtic Literature. treated by the English government as
Also Thierry's Norm:in Conquest. Tills hist nuthor kindly8 as ever fell to the lot of any con-
says: "The Ancient Britons lived and breathed in
poetrytheir ports were placed beside the agricul
turist ;ind the artist us the three pUI:irs of social ex Merry's Hist. Norman Conquest, p. 393,
S See a Thierr
istence" (Vol. i, n. 51). ''Henri? the extraordinary vhich says: , : "Henry VIII, while he iillowed the
renown of kin- Arthur, the !KTO of a petty tuition, Welsh, whom Henry VII, his father, had ennobled
whose books were so full of poetry they hail so pow - for services rendered to his person, to retain the Nor*
erfnl ;in impress of enthusiasm and conviction tint, nii tii titles of earls, barons and baronets, treated, like.
once translated into other lani^uag-f-r,, they became hts predecessors, the muss of the people as a con
most attractive reading for foreigners, and the theme quered nation, at once feared and disliked, and un
upon which the romance writers of the middle apes dertook to tie -troy the ancient customs of the Cam
most frequently constructed their fictions," Ibid, brians, the remnant of their social slate, mid even their
Vol. ii, p. i"1'. And this was also the case with lanjfunpe." This, I think, must be a mistake, that
Geoffrey's History of the Britons. any of the Tudors treated the Welsn people harshly.
Ch*p. in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
quered people : and they are now fast be
coming English in language, custom, and
habits. They have, from early times,
furnished for England numerous distin
guished men, who were either natives of
the principality or tfleir immediate descen
dants. Some of these have already been
named : but there are numerous others who
are deserving of it, who in their biographies,
are credited as Englishmen: as for instance,
" Price Richard, English clergyman, mora
list and philosopher, born in Glanmorgan-
shire." Many such Welshmen, are only
known as Englishmen, but who were either
born in Wales, or the descendants of those
who were. Thobewho were the direct descen
dants of the ancient Britons, who at the
Conquest of England, became Saxons, we
of course know nothing about. Of numer
ous Welshmen who have thus become dis
tinguished, we can only instance a few :
as Howell, who early in the Tudor times
distinguished himself as an English.prose-
writer and traveller ; Edward Lohuyd,
author of British Archiology ; Sir William
Jones; Inigo Jones, the renouned Ar
chitect; Pritchard, the distinguished eth
nologist; Thomas Johnes, M. P., and the
publisher of Froissart's history ; Sir G. C.
Lewis, eminently distinguished as a states
man, an author, and as a very learned man.
It is vain to attempt to mention the
names of all Welshmen who deserve to be
noticed here; but from early times there
has been a constant stream of emigration
from Wales to England, until Welsh names
prevail all over England, and known as the
descendants of the Ancient Britons.
A portion of the English historians in
their opposition to the race, have asserted
a number of matters of which the Welsh,
as the descendants of the Ancient Britons,
and Cymry, were incapable of performing.
Among these were their incapacity for
naval affairs and seafareing life: another
was their incapacity to organize a central
as did some of their predecessors; but the idea arose to build a navy to meet them on that ele
from Henry VIII's great desire that the Welsh should
adopt the English language, at least for the common ment. Southey'o informs us that Alfred in
transaction of business, and thereby assimilate the
whole country as oneNeo-Briton. This, undoubt
edly, would be the common interest of all. But my
information is that the nation was kindly treated by
all the Tudors.
27
4'9
and consolidated government, on the ac
count of discensious arid divisions among
themselves. Mr. F. Palgrave in his in
teresting history of the Anglo-Saxons,
says:"The Cymric Britons, though they
lived in an Island, had no boats or vessels,
except coracles, framed of slight ribs of
wood, covered with hides. These frail
barks are still used by the Welsh fishermen
on the Wye; and it may be remarked that
the Celtic tribes in general have never taken
to the sea, whilst the Teutonic seem always
to have enjoyed the dangers of the ocean.
But the valor of the Britons was displayed
on land : they were brave and sturdy war
riors, and when they went forth to combat,
they rode in chariots."9 And again:"If
the Britons had made common cause, the
Romans might not have prevailed against
them: but the insular tribes or nations
were divided and disunited ; envious of
each other, and when one tribe was con
quered, the others delighted in the mis
fortunes of their contrymen, and then the
same fate befel them in their turn."
Now is this a fair representation of the
characteristics of the Cymry, when com
pared with other nationalities? Is the
Welshman incapable of any other naval
affair than a coracle ? Because they have
ingenuity to build a coricle, is that an ev
idence that they could not build a seventy-
four ? I apprehend that the whole history
of the Britons and Cymry is a refutation
of these imputations. The ancient Vene
tians of Armorica, were the same people as
the Britons, and both people united in the
great naval battle against Caesar; and the
Ancient Briton as well as the modern
Welshman always made as apt a seaman and
mechanic as any other people. We are
informed that the Saxons after their settle
ment in England soon lost their acquain
tance with a sea-faring life, and naval
affairs ; so that when they were attacked by
the Danes, they were wholly unable to
meet them at sea. Alfred was determined
9 History of the Anglo-Saxons, ch. i, p. 4.
10 In his History of the British Navy.
420 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
the pursuit of this object sent to Wales to consolidation and concentration. The An-
procure mechanics skilled in building sea- cient Britons appear to have favored the
vessels. And we are also informed that preservation of their several ancient states,
when the emperor Constantius was engag for the security and protection of each in
ed in rebuilding a city in Gaul, he sent for dividual rights and freedom, and securing a
the Britons as mechanics to accomplish his greater degree of freedom from central op
object. The Ancient Britons and their pression and exactions. Like ancient
descendants have ever been distinguished Greece, and modern Switzerland, and the
as apt and skillful mechanics, and sailors; Jnited States, they preferred a federal
and as such none more distinguished than mion, rather than a consolidated govern
the people of Brittany and Wales.11 ment: if they had been permitted to pros
As to the other imputation against the ier under their own government, unmoles-
Cymry, that they were subject to dissen ;ed by Roman or Saxon invaders, they
sions and divisions; we may say that it would have perfected a general govern
was no more than the common frailty of ment for the union under the pendragonate,
human nature, common to the Saxons as which would have regulated and controlled
well as the Welsh. It is observable in the all general, national, and foreign 'matters;
history of all nations, that their enemies take- ,vhilc it left to the management of iach in
advantages of any division or dissension in dividual state the conduct of its own do
order to promote their own interest. This mestic affairs. That they were capable of
was always practised, as their most success perfecting all this, if they had not been in
ful policy, by the Romans and Saxons. To terfered with, from abroad, we arc assured
promote, and take advantage of a division; by their history, and the great men they
" to divide and conquer,"has ever been have in all ages produced, from Caractecus
with all people a diplomatic policy; and if to Glendower ; and by the executive talents
this operated unfavorably with the Welsh, manifested by their descendants, in the
we find abundant instances of civil war and Tudors, and Oliver Cromwell.
divisions among the Saxons, as well as But it is not at home alone that the Cym
with the Cymry; which assisted the con ry have been able to exhibit some of their
quest of the Danes and the Normans over excellent qualities. In America they and
the Saxons, as those foibles aided the Ro their descendants have occupied a distin
mans and Saxons in their conquest over guished position in every department of
the Britons: but nowhere do we find so human affairs. They were with the first
deplorable an instance ofthe kind as the Sax settlers of Virginia and New England.
on Tostig against Harold in favor of the There were a number among the emigrants
Norman. But the secret of the success of in the Mayflower. Either as natives of
the Romans and Saxons, was the ability ol Wales or their immediate descendants, we
both of these invaders to constantly recruit find the names of distinguished individuals
their armies from the continent, as they in every state of the Union-from Maine
were decimated by the Britons, while the to Louisiana, and from the Atlantic to the
latter had no such resource to fill up their far west. Among the numerous persons
slaughtered ranks, nor do we, at all, admit who claim such descent from the Ancient
that the Cymry were less capable of politi Britons we may mention the names of
cal organization than the Teutons; but they Roger Williams, the founder of Providence,
were more disposed to confederation while Rhode Island, and the first to insist upon
the latter were, perhaps, more disposed to the doctrine in America, so common to his
race, the right of every one to exercise the
ii In one of the recent numbers of H.irper's Mag freedom of conscience in matters of religion;
azine we have an illustrated account ot the ijreat
steamships from New York to Liverpool, in wlml Jonathan Edwards, the distinguished di
:tn interesting account is given of one steam passen vine and logician. Daniel Webster, the
ger vessel, commanded by Capt. Price, a native
Swansea, whose skill and' responsibility in the great constitutional lawyer and orator.
mand of his steamship required the mind and
executive talent of an emperor. William Floyde, of New York, one of the
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONTTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
ation of independence; twenty or more
signers of the declaration ol independence,
were among the mnxt distinguished mili
and who occupied various positions of re
tary officers of the revolution; congress
sponsibility, military and civil. Among
has always had a large share of them; they
the people ol" New York the distinguished
have been eminent in every profession, and
men of this race are numerous, from which
in every vocation of life and especially dis
may be selected the names of Frances
tinguished as ingenious and skillful me
Lewis, Morgan Lewis, Edwin D. Morgan,
chanics and artists. They are too numer
and the late Chief Justice Jones oi New
ous to be enumerated here.
York city, as well as that of William H.
Seward, the late distinguished Secretary of
s-3 The Scots.
State of the United States, all of whom
have been eminently distinguished and No people present a more interesting
been honored in important places, as gov history lo the world than that of Scotland.
ernor of the state, or senators in congress, In the midst of the cold of a northern cli
or as judges and jurists. mate, and the adverse soil ot her rugged
In the like manner may the descendants hills and mountains, her people have ever
of the Cymry in Pennsylvania be enumer labored to improve and progress, ai>d they
ated: William Penn, the founder of the present to us the most striking instances ot"
state, either from his claiming to be a de noble efforts of patriotism, religion and
scendant of the Ancient Britons of Devon literature of a country never entirely con
and Cornwall, or some other reason, al quered by her powerful enemies, the Ro
ways favored the Welsh immigrants with mans, Saxons or Normans, and under
partiality, and a number of settlements of every adversity, with energy and resolu
them in his colony, especially those in tion, maintained its independence and free
Chester and Delaware counties. Of the dom. In the midst ot such adversities and
distinguished men of Pennsylvania who hostilities have these people industriously
were Cymry, cither by birth or descent, labored their progress and improvements,
may be specially mentioned Robert Morris, from their rude and rugged beginning, un
the distinguished treasurer and financier of til now they present a country and people
the revolution ; General Anthony Wayne, as highly cultivated and interesting as any
Ellis Lewis, an eminent jurist and Chief of the more favored parts of Europe. Every
Justice of the Supreme Court; Enoch age has produced its interesting incidents.
Lewis, a celebrated mathematician, and Who does not sympathize with Galgacus
numerous others. Cut in Virginia and and his people? with Wallace and Robert
the South they are equally numerous and Bruce and their patriots? or the honest
distinguished, as Thomas Jefferson, the late faithfulness which enabled Flora Macdon-
President of the United States ; John Mar ald to depend upon the honor of her peo
shall, the very eminent Chief Justice; Ben ple in the protection of Charles the Pre
jamin Watkins Leigh, who was so eminent tender, in the midst of thousands to whom
as a jurist that he was looked upon by the the secret was known? And so has every
court and bar as an oracle; nor should we age manifested its ability and genius in
omit to name Benjamin Harrison, one of literature and poetry in common with their
the signers of the declaration of independ Celtic origin. It commences with Ossian1
ence, and father of William H. Harrison, in the third century, whose poetry, in its
late President of the United States; nor odern garb, "carried in the last century
to name General Thomas, so dis this vein like a flood of lava through Eu
tinguished in the late war. rope;" and after making all allowance for
But throughout the United States we objections, "there will still be left a residue
find numerous people of great eminence with the very soul of the Celtic genius in
and distinction, who with pride claim their
descent from Cymric ancestors. Of such Giles, in his History of the Ancient Britons, puts
Ossi.m iu the time of Caraocius, and refers to him as
here were fourteen who signed the declar- Caron.
433 THE MODERN PERIOD.
it, which has brought it into contact with
the genius of the nations of modern Eu
rope, and enriched its poetry."! Since
then the Scots have shed a glory over every
department of literature; while in Robert
Burns and Hugh Miller we have instances
of genius surprising the world with pro
ductions so far above their opportunities.
It is not with the rulers and government
that I now intend to deal, but with the peo
ple and their character. In ancient times
the Britons called the north part of the is
land, now Scotland, Albion; and the Ro
mans afterwards called it Calledonia, and
the people Calledonians. We have already
intimated the opinion that Britain was first
settled by the Gaulsthe Gaels; and that
after the Cymry came they withdrew to
the north, and eventually became fixed in
the highlands of Northwestern Scotland
and in the south and west of Ireland. When
the Romans, under the auspices of the em
peror Claudius, came, the Cymric Britons,
who resisted a submission to the Roman
conquerors, withdrew into Scotland, and.
afterwards became known as the Picts.
The remains of their language, and other
evidence of antiquity, prove to us that they
were Cymrv, fleeing from Roman domin
ion apd oppression. North of the Roman
wall, in the valley of the Tyne, the Romans
never acquired but a temporary and limited
dominion, and the continual warfare waged
by the Romans against the people kept
them in a rude and but partially civilized
condition, retaining their druids and bards,
and their love for literature and poetry,
which was specially developed in'Ossian.
At a later period another emigration of the
Cymry obtained possession of the south
part of Scotland, and established their do
minion of Strath-Clyde and Bernecia, the
former on the west and the latter on the
east. In the course of the Roman con
quest, other Cymric Britons, fleeing from
their enemies and oppressors, fled to the
northeast part of Ireland, and there, by
some unaccountable fortune, became known
as Scots. Subsequently, perhaps some
time in the fifth century, the Scots, or a
2 Prof. Arnold's Essay, No. iv, of Study of Celtic carried Christianity to the South Picts and converted
Literature.
[Boefcv.
principal part of them, emigrated to West
ern Scotland, principally in Argyleshire,
and eventually conferred upon the country
their own name.
These several peoplethe Gaels of the
northwest, the Picts of the east, the Scots
of the west, and the people of Strath-Clyde
and Bernecia in the south, are the found
ers and ancestors of the present people of
Scotland. They were essentially Celts,
and, with the exception of the Gaels of
the northwest, were Cymric Britons. Be
fore the Romans finally left Britain, and
while Western Europe was settling down
into that barbarian darkness which soon
overcame it, the Ancient Britons were
making extraordinary exertion to prevail
against it, and to preserve their Christian
religion, their learning and civilization.
This is amply proved by the history of the
learned Pelagius, Gildas, Nennius, St. Da
vid and Asser, as well as the extraordinary
exertion made by the people, by the aid of
bishop Germanus, to expel what they con
sidered a heresy in their religion, not by
persecution, but by argument and reason.
That effort, notwithstanding its very ad
verse times, produced many good and
learned men, among whom were St. David
and St. Patrick. This effort, like the last
gleam of the sun before the coming of a.
dark night, pervaded Western Britain, Ire
land and Scotland. Previous to the fifth
century Christianity had been propagated
in Ireland and Scotland. About A. D.
432 St. Patrick, as a missionary, gave a
new impetus to Christianity in Ireland,
whose disciples earnestly engaged in spread
ing their holy religion to every part ol Ire
land and Scotland.3 This had previously
prevailed to some extent in Scotland, but
now a new force was to be given to its
mission. With this intention St. Columba,
one of those who had been inspired by the
example and teaching of St. Patrick, earn
estly embarked from his native country to
carry to the people of Scotland the glad
tidings in a more efficacious manner. He
was kindly received by the king of the
3 Sec Bede's History, B. iii, ch. 4. Previous to
Cohimba, St. Ninias, a native of North Wales, had
them.
Chap. HI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING UNITED THE KINGDOM.
Picts; and the little island of Hi, since
known as lona, was given to him to estab
lish his holy mission.
About the year 546 Columba commenced
his operation at lona, which was now to
become the holy island of Scotland ; and a
new zeal and efficacy- was given to Chris
tianity among the Picts and Scots. Soon
all Scotland became the land of a devoted
Christian people, and lona and its monas
tery became the most holy place of their
devotion. This in a great measure will ac
count for the reason why England and the
Saxons were not troubled by raids of the
Picts and Scots, at the Britons had pre
viously been. In A. D. 617, upon the
death of Ethelfrith, the fierce king of
Northumbria, Edwin came to the throne
by the expulsion of the minor heirs, the in
fant ethlings, Osric and Eanfrid, who fled
for protection to the Scots and Picts, as ex
iles, where they were kindly cared for and
Christianized. After a reign of seventeen
years, Edwin was slain in battle, and the
joung princes returned and were restored
to the throne of their ancestors, but soon
renounced their Christianity. "Soon after
that," says Bede, '-Cadwalla, king of the
Britons, slew them both, through the right
eous vengeance of Heaven," for their apos-
tacy from the Christian doctrine they had
been taught among the Scots. Then came
to that throne Oswald, who had been edu
cated and taught Christianity among the
Picts and Scots, sent and obtained from
thence the services of a Christian priest
who had been educated at lona, whose
name was Aidan, and who was very suc
cessful in the conversion of the Saxons of
Northumbria, and became their bishop.
At that time, and to a much later period,
the Christianity which prevailed in the
westin Wales, Scotland and Irelandwas
that which was taught and prevailed in
Britain before the departure of the Romans
and the coming of the Saxons; and the
Roman priests who afterwards came to
the country greatly opposed them, though
they found no objection to their Christian
doctrines, but only complained that they
did not observe the right day for Easter, or
the proper mode of tonsure, which is very
425
?ood evidence that these Celtic priests were
very good and sound Christians. Thus
commenced Christian faith and doctrine in
Scotland, long before any missionary of
:hr Roman church was sent to them.
The next great event in the history of
Scotland and her people was the union of
:he Scots and Picts under one government,
which eventuated in the union of the whole
country as one peoplethe Scots. About
the year 836 Kenneth McAlpin came to
the sovereignty of the Scots. The Picts-
at that time had been reduced from the po
sition of the most powerful people of the
country to an inferior condition, by war
and civil contention, and with all there was
a disputed succession. Kenneth claimed
the sovereignty of the Picts by virtue of
lis descent in the female line. Right or
wrong, his claim succeeded, and the two
>eople became onethe Picts became ab
sorbed in the Scots, and the name soon be
came obsolete. The probability is that it
never was their true and favored name, but
jiven to them by their enemies, as the
name of Welsh has been given to the Cym-
ry, or that of Yankee has been applied to
the people of the northern section of the
United States. They were undoubtedly
Cvmry, as already stated. In numbers
they were the largest portion of the people.
This union made the Scots powerful, and
all other names and distinctions were sub
merged in theirs, as the general name of
the people of the whole country. In the
meantime the people made great progress
in their position as Christians, and for their
learning and intelligence. As of old their
bards furnished them poetry and learning.
Columbinus and others passed over to the
continent as missionaries from Scotland,
and were considered among the most learned
and celebrated divines of the age; among
others Erigena, or Joannes Scotus, or Dan
Scotus, may be mentioned as one of the
most learned and scholastic men of his
day. He was received in France and oth
er countries of Europe ag the most learned
and intellectual man of the age.
From the time of the union of the Scot*
and Picts to the conquest of England by
William of Normandy, all Scotland gradu
4*4 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
ally came under the dominion of the Scots. try.
For a long time the SouthStrath-Clyde It is, therefore, claimed that the people
and Berncciawere independent British of Scotland are essentially the decendants of
kingdoms or principalities, hut between the Ancient Britons and Scots; and on the
A. I). 950 and 1016 these were united to other hand, the claim, sometimes set up,
the Scots. From that time the southern that the people of the Scottish low-lands
limits of Scotland he fixed by a line are essentially Teutonic, is equally untrue.
from the Sol way Firth, by the Cheviot If that had been the case, it would have
hills to the mouth of the Tweed. North of been inevitably England, under the num
that line there is no ju>t pretension of any erous and streneous efforts made by the
conquest or rule of any other people than monarchs of England to conquer and pro-
the Ancient Britons and Scots, having a sees it; but at alt times the great bulk of
permanent dominion over the country. the people were strenuously against this;
Conquest was attempted hy the Romans, and in favor of Scotland, independence and
the Saxons, the Danes or Scandinavians, freedom. It is true that occasionally, and
and the Norman-, but in every instance perhaps frequently, single Roman, or Saxon
their subjugation was only temporary and or Scandinavian, or Norman, or French
limited. The claim of some historians man, as exiles or adventurers settled among
that the Northumbrians had extended their them, and were hospitably received by
conquest north, over Northern Bernecia, them ; but they soon merged into Scots, and
along the Forth, to include Edinburgh and left their descendants with Scottish moth
Mldlothane, is founded on no better facts ers, and no one knows how often their
of history. If it be true that Edwin of blood has been crossed by Celtic parents.
Northumbria look possession of this terri But this is frequently ignored by those who
tory north of the Tweed, and improved know not, or forget, who their ancestors
Edinburgh and gave to it his name, it was were. This the historian Lord Macaulay
an old British town, and his dominion there attempted to do, but was justly rebuked by
must hare been, like the rest, only tempor the truthful Hugh Miller, as he deserved
ary and furtive. Edwin's dominion and to be.4 This occasional admixture of for
operations were more to the south and eign blood by fathers of whom but little U
west; and the subsequent history of his known beyond their names, with a more
successor, Oswald, in his intercourse with ready introduction of new fashions, with
the Scots, and sending to them for Aidan the more genial climate and fertility of the
to come and teach them Christianity, tor soil of the lowlands, has in the course of
bids the idea that such Northumbrian con time, developed a perceptible difference
quest was anything more than temporary; between the highland and the lowland
or that the conquest of the territory was a Scot. But essentially, in their personal,
permanent and settled part of English do their high character lor genius and in
minion. It is true that in a number of in tellectual capaciry, they are uniformly
stances their enemies made conquest, ob one and the same people, partaking strong
tained tribute and acknowledgement of ly of the character of the Ancient Britons.
fealty over some portion of their territory, As the highlanders adopt the customs of
but it was temporary and soon reverted. and language of the lowlanders. their com
The country, as a permanent matter, has mon identity of moral and ethnic charac
always been under trie dominion ol the ter strongly appears : and leaves nothing to
Ancient Britons or the Scots. The claim divide them, except progress in modern
of the Scots that they and their country civilization; or to distinguish them from
have never been permanently conquered, the best of the British people.*
and their present union with England is
4 See Hugh Miller's Pamphlet addressed to Lord
the result of fair negotiation an 1 recipro Macaulay.
cal concession, is better sustained by histori
cal facts than in favor of any other coun- He5 says:
Sec Thierry's Norman Conquest, Vol. ii, p. 318.
"Civilization, which make; rapid pru^rcx
 Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4*5
What has particularly distinguished the in literature and learning from the earliest
Scots, as a people and nationality, since the time to the present day; and fully demon
Norman conquest, is their great and pat strate their capacity and genius for it, under
riotic efforts that they have eyer made to trying difficulties, and the most adverse
preserve their independence and freedom: circumstances. The Scots have, in the
which has become so striking a part of his midst of modern progress, distinguished .
tory, and .so vividly calls to memory the themselves as foremost in every branch of
names of Wallace and Bruce, and link them literature, science, and philosophy ^ and
with other venerable British names as that too, when surrounded by difficulties
Caractacuti and Galgacus, Arthur, and j and adversities. In proportion to their po-
Glemlower. Bnt these have been faintly de pulation, no people ever excelled them in
lineated in our previous history: but what the progress they have made towards a
is now intended, is to call the attention of high order of civilization. This develope-
the reader to the striking character and ment is not only in literature and science,
_ conduct of the Scots, in relation to their but in every branch of industry and manu-
patriotic efforts in favor of independence factures. Their skill and industry is
and freedom in matters of religion, within known throughout the world: of which
our modern period. During the rive hun their flourishing and prosperous cities, are
dred years that transpired from the com its finest ; which has rendered Edinburgh,
mencement of the Saxon period, to that of in its beauty, taste, and in its improvement
the Normans, that extraordinary efforts "I rl|gge'l nature, one of the most interest
made by the Britons to promote literature, ing cities of modern Europe. All this
religion, and learning., at the close of the devclopement is more attributable to the
Roman dominion in Britain, which pro genius, taste, and industry of their Ancient
duced (he efforts of St. David ana Taliesin British origin, than to any characteristic of
in Wales, St. Patrick in Ireland, and St. Saxon or Teutonic origin, as Sir Walter
Cohimba in Scotland, and subsequently \ Scott, Hugh Miller, and Robert Burns,
sent forth Aidan and Scotus to teach and I bear ample testimony.
Christianize England and Europe,6 was | The same state of things which existed
almost extinguished by the barbarity and during the Saxon period, which so retarded
ignorance of that dark age, produced by ' the progress of Scotland, the barbarian war
the invasion and wars of the Saxons, the which so effectually surrounded them in
Danes, and the Scandinavians, which al gloom and darkness, continued during the
most annihilated that rising civilization, Norman period, with but little variation.
and cut off all connection with its eastern Edward I and III made strenuous
origin.' That much efforts were made by I effort to conquer the country, and brought
these ancient people, is too true to be all the power and resources of England
controverted, and too strongly supported against them: but the united patriotism
by the evidence of the remains of literature, ami gallantry of the Scots eventually pre
to be doubted. Yet, during that dark and vailed, even against every effort of the
troubled period, the people of Scotland j English 'monarch* to divide them and con-
struggled, against insurmountable difficul- i quer. Those wars were destructive and
ties, to preserve and improve their con- ' cruel: it was a war of plunder and devas-
dition, as a continued list of men of great tation . Cities and houses were laid in
genius and learning proves; and their
anc-ient universities are witnesses of the dia, S On this see Vol. xiv, New American Cyclopae
Title Scotland, for an interesting paragraph on
interest that these people have ever taken this subject, including the names ot distinguished
Scotchmen in every branch ot learning and M'ience.
among aU the branches of the Scotish [populalion. 9 II Buckle's Hist. Civil., p. [.}_'. who says: "In
has now penetrated beyond the lowland towns into I2i>6 the English entered Herwick, thi- richest town
(he highland.--." If that were true thirtj; years ago, Scotland possessed, and not only destroyed all the
how nine h more must it be so now ? property, but slew nearly all the inhabitants. They
6 See ante, B..~ , ch. . llu'n marclu d on to Aberdeen arid Klgin, and so
completely desolated the country that the Scotch,
7 Sec ante, B. , ch. . flying to the mountains and stripped of their all. had
 THE MODERN PERIOD.
shes; and the people impoverished by the
destruction of their property:' still they
preserved their independence and freedom.
These attempts at conquest by the Norman
dynasty were constant and insiduous;
which with its rugged soil and climate
kept the country in perpetual poverty.
"The darling object of the English," says
Prof. Buckle,10 " was to subject the Scotch ;
and if any thing could increase the dis
grace of so base an enterprise, it would be
that, having undertaken it, they ignomini-
ously failed." Though in those days, these
invaders engaged in such crimes and ig
nominy as though it was with them a re
ligious duty. But with the Tudors came
the policy of peace, and a better sense of
Christian duty, and the rights of one
people. With that policy a better auspices
came to both countries; and Scotland with
her industry and enterprise pursued a
steady course of improvement, from that
day to the present. During the dark ages,
Scotland, was particularly, and more than
any other country, isolated, and surrounded
by enemies of every kind, which either pre
vented or retarded their progress in civili
zation. What they wanted was peace, in
order to enable their industry and persever
ance to work out their own civilization :
which came with the Tudors, more ap
parently than any other point in their his
tory.
Prof. Buckle unjustly as I think, attri
butes the slow progress that the Scots
made during the dark ages, to their in
tellectual characteristics; because their
metho.i of reasoning was deductive
instead of inductive. His error in Ihis
assertion, if true, was in attributing this
peculiarity he discovered, to the character
istic of the race or nation, instead of the
circumstances with which they were sur
rounded, and the isolated situation in
which they existed. Isolation, and ex
clusion from the outside world, and the
great source of general intelligence, tends
no resource left but to wage from their native fast-
esses a war similar to that which their ancient an
cestors conducted against the Romans." See also
te, 1167, Ibid.
10 See Prof. Buckle's History of CiTilixatioa in
J, Vol. ii, p. ill.
to the deductive method of reasoning'
rather than the inductive. A race that Is
a religious and conservative people, are
more apt to reason by deduction from what
surrounds themtheir venerable laws, cus
toms, and dogmas; than an erratic, light
and changeable people, who run at once
for every thing new. People who live in
cities, such as London is, or Rome, or
Athens, were, who came in contact with
strangers and the outside world, and enjojr
the advantage of the information of what
ever is passing in it, will more readily
reason by inductive, than those who are
isolated from such advantages, even
through their natural capacity, mind, and
intellect, were equally capable for either
mode of reasoning. Mr. Buckle wrote his
history ol civilization forty or fitly years
ago; and perhaps his materials were a
great deal older: if he were to write of
them in the present day, perhaps his views
of the capacity of the Scots, would have
been different.l But on the whole, Mr.
Buckle is disposed to do justice to the in
tellectual character of the Scots, as he
could not otherwise do: but to the people-
generally as, "in practical matters, not onl/
industrious and provident, but singularly
shrewed." But his prejudice against the
Scotch people is founded in his opposition
to the priestly influence that the Scotch
clergy had over their people; that neces
sarily would lead to a deductive mode of
reasoning; for whenever a dogma or any
principle or law is fixed as an established
law, all reasoning upon that subject must
necessarily be of the deductive, and not of
the indeductive mode of reasoning, for
these exclude all outside matters as heresies ;
and compelled to reason from within, and
deduce all inferences from what is already
established, and not permitted to resort to
new or untried matters, or to draw by in
duction from the outside to prove or test
the truth : but must adhere to established
principles; and when these are wrong or
established in error, error must still be in
the reason or conclusion deduced from
them. It is true, that this is in violation of
it See his i Vol., p. 177.
Cfcap. HI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
the Baconian mode of reason or logic ; but
it is more often to be attributed, when com
mon to a people, to the circumstances by
which they are surrounded, than to their
national characterestic or that of their race:
and especially so as to the Scots, who are
o eminently distinguished for their in
tellectual capacity.
I have said that the Scots were distin
guished for their religion and conservative
character; and this is eminently so with
all the people who derive their origin from
the Ancient Britonsthey desire to ad
here to their religious, and to their position,
and not fly in haste to that which is new,
until satisfied of their error, or convinced
of the truth of the new. This is confessed
ly so of all the old British Celts. This is
strikingly so with all the people, as their
descendants, along the western part of
Britain, from Devonshire to the northeast
of Scotland. The Welsh, with all, have
always been distinguished for their ad
herence to the right and liberty of the
freedom of opinion and conscience. Per
haps the Scots have not been equally dis
tinguished in preserving the right and
freedom of conscience: but the doctrine
inculcated upon this subject in the Triads
were not equally known to the Scots. But
at all events, the Scots have ever been
among the foremost people in all reform
and reformation of the church. They were
launch Catholic, until convinced of the
errors and corruption of the church, and
then they became equally as staunch Pro
testants. It is very questionable whether
the Scots were obnoxious to the charge
made against them by Mr. Buckle, of being
priest riden, more than any other religious
people of that day. Their clergy were their
most learned body of men of that time, and
were therefore entitled to their veneration
and confidence; that in some instance may
have been abused, as they have in most in
stances where much confidence and power
have been conferred upon them. But that
U rather to be attributed to the unfortunate
failings common to human nature, rather
than to the perversity of any particular
people or race.
The Scot* became Protestants from the
very earliest period in that movement, and
were among the most radical reformers of
the abuses of the Roman church, and es
tablished the Presbyterian organization of
their church with a view of keeping it within
the simplicity and purity of the original
Christian church, and giving no temptation,
for ambition or covetousness, for those
high in the confidence of their church
Whatever grounds there were for Mr.
Buckle's charges against the Scottish
clergy, and the superstition of the people
in the old Catholic church, it is probable he
would have withheld his censure, had he
witnessed the patriotic devotion, and the
absence of all selfish interest in the Scotch
clergy, manifested by them at the establish
ment of their free church. At that time,1*
the Scots claimed that by terms of the
union, their Presbyterian church wag
guaranteed to be free from the powers of
the British parliament, and that the various
acts of power and oppression which were
impossed upon the church were illegal and
void. To oppose the measures, and insure
free religion to the people, four hundred
and seventy four of the clergy, the most
eminent for piety, learning, eloquence, and
usefulness, withdrew irom the established
church, and organized the free church of
Scotland. This devoted and patriotic act
of the clergy rendered the established
church in a great measure paralyzed ; the
new church abandoned all support from the
government, and relied upon the free con
tributions of the people. The history of
the free church has generally been that of
peace, and its progress has been that of
prosperity and success, and is now a great
power, in the land, sustained and enjoyed by
the people themselves, making this one of the
most self-denying and patriotic movement*
the world has ever witnessed.
It appears, therefore, probable that Mr.
Buckle has mistaken that which was pro
duced in the Scots by their surrounding
circumstances, as evidence of their ethnic
or national characleristics. Without
great deal of care, travelers and philoso
phers are liable, if not apt, to commit thi
u In A. D. 1*43.
 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
mistake. And it is possible, if not proba are rathe'r a refined conclusion of meta
ble, that Prof. Arnold has committed a sim physical logic, which among Christians IE
ilar mistake in relation to the Welsh, a drawn from very narrow premisessome
kindred people to the Scots, in saying: expressions of the scriptnres and dogmas of
"The religion of Wales is more emotional the church ; but those narrow premises
and sentimental than English Puritanism; have not only divided Christians, but the
Romanism has indeed given way to Cal whole world, from the earliest times.
vinism among the Welsh, the one super Among the pagans and Mohammedans, it
stition has supplanted the other, but the was destiny; among Christians, predestina
Celtic sentiment, which made the Welsh tion and God's will. But the Ancient
such devout Catholics, remains, and gives Britons and their descendants have ever
unction to their Methodism. Theirs is not occupied a most distinguished part in the
the controversial, rationalistic, intellectual rational and logic of the controversy, with
side of Protestantism, but the devout emo Pelagiiis as the extreme of the more liberal
tional, religious side."""' Mr. Arnold has, and rational views of the different ques
in his essay, done the Welsh ample justice, tions on the one side; and with Jonathan
still I believe he has missed the intellect Edwards following St. Augustine on the
ual character of the Welsh, as Mr. Buckle other. The intellectual capacity of the
did that of the Scots. I have had no op Celtic race cannot be questioned, whether
portunity of judging ol the characteristics we refer to Brittany, Wales, Scotland or
of the Welsh, except as I have seen them Ireland, as these in all ages have produced
in America, alongside the Teutons and the foremost men in intellect and philoso
other nationalities. And liere we observe phy, as evidenced by the names of Pelagius,
a striking contrast between the supersti Duns Scotus, Des Cartes, Reid and Ed
tion of a German and that of a Welshman. wards, and oven the grandfather of Kant
The former has his superstition in regard was a Scotchman.
to everything he docs; he neither sows What has been said of the Welsh, that
nor reaps, ploughs or tills, or builds a house, they were religious, devotional, and senti
without inquiring what time it was in the mental, is equally true of the Scots. They
moon; and he is equally as superstitious as | resemble each other more strikingly than
to whether he turns to the right or left. almost any other two distinct people. Ther
The Welshman, with all his devotion and differ more in the fact that the Scots have
sentiment, has none of this superstition; adopted the English language as their
what he has to do he does without inquir common tongue, while the Welsh have
ing as to the face of the moon, or which not to the same extent, as probably it
way he should turn so that he turns sue- j would be better if they had, and leave the
cesslully. His Calvinism is not founded Cymrcig, like the Greek and Latin, a dead
upon superstition, but upon metaphysical language, to the learned professors. This
reason and logic, though founded, as I be resemblance is another striking evidence of
lieve, upon lalse premises. The Methodist, their origin from the same source. Of the
of America arc generally Armenians, as Scots it has been said, which is equally
the Welsh are generally Calvinistic: and I true of the Welsh, that " no |>eople have
have been often surprised in listening to shown a more resolute determination in
their polemical controversies, to witness defence of civil and religious freedom."'*
the force and ingenuity with which the lat . . . " Notwithstanding the srnallness
ter maintained their position. They had of its population, Scotland has produced an
always a reason for the faith that was in array of names, eminent in literature and
them; it will not do to put the conclusio ns science, which scarcely any other nation
of Calvin, Thomas Coke and Jonathan j can surpass.""
Edwards as the result of superstition; thev
14 New American Cyclopaedia. Vol. xiv. Title
13 See Prof. Arnold's Essay, The Stint v of Celtic Scotland.
literature, No. or jiart iii. 15 HMU, and enumerates a host of great names im
Ohap. in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 429
A foreign historian, a Frenchman,1" kind- Christianity have recently come to its re
Iv furnishes an opproprintc conclusion to lief. Still the people, by their own nature*
this division, and says"when the Scots and the laws of humanity, were deserving
lost their religious and political enthusiasm a better fate.
thev directed to the cultivation of literature It has been stated that the original in
the imaginative faculties which seems in habitants of Ireland, so far a history can
them a last trace of" their Celtic origin, as determine, were a portion of the Celtic
Gauls, or as Britons. Scotland is perhaps people of Gaul denominated the Gaels or
the only country of Europe where know ancient Celts, before the arrival of the Cym-
ledge is really a popular acquirement, and ry. It is claimed that these were first vis
where men of every class love to learn for ited by a colony of Milesians, but whether
learning's sake, without any particular the latter were directly from Miletui in
motive, or anv view to change their con Asia Minor, or from a colony of theirs in
dition The number of distin Spain, is uncertain, but it is more probable
guished authors of every class, since .the j to be the latter. These occupied the south
middle of the last century, tias been far j of Ireland. When the Romans came to
greater in Scotland than in England, taking conquer Britain, many of the Ancient Brit
into consideration the difference of popula ons Cymry and Lloegriansfled from
tion of the two countries. It is more es the conquest over to Ireland, while others
pecially in historical composition and in pressed north into Scotland; the former
narrative that the Scots excel: and we became known as the Scots, the latter the
may consider this peculiar aptitude as one j Picts.
of" the characteristic indications of" their The oldest historical account we have of
original descent; for the Irish and the the Scots is a map of Ptolemy, an Egyptian
Welsh are the two nations who have at astronomer and geographer, who flourished
greatest length and most agreeably drawn about A. D. 160, a hundred years or more
np their ancient annals/' after the Roman conquest. On his map
the Sfati are mentioned as one portion of
4-77/c /;-/.<*. the people;1 and this is in sufficient time
Ireland! That emerald island of perpet after the Roman conquest to enable them
ual verdure that island for which nature to be a portion of the Britons who fled
has done so much, and lavished upon it all from the Roman oppression. The Greeks
that renders anv land beautiful and lovely, called the island lerne, and the Romans
is still the land which the wickedness and Hibernia. The Romans made no serious
avarice of man, bv the m 'ans of piracy and attempt to conquer it; but from the time of
robbery, by war and plunder, have subject the northern barbarians, the Saxons and
ed it to misery and suffering. Being placed Scandinavians became formidable to the
on the outside of Europe, ivs solitary posi Roman empire, Ireland also became an ob
tion rendered it the object coveted by all ject of their ciipiditv and annoyance in
the neighboring countries, savage and civ ! every shape of piracy, plunder and con-
ilized, to despoil and subjugate it not to | quest. The Anglo-Saxons also made at
well govern it, but to plunder it, to render tempts upon it. but England was never
it tributary, and to tax it. This was the able to make a permanent footing there
course pursued by the Saxons, the Danes, until the time of the Norman, Henry II,
the Scandinavians, and iinally by the Nor about A. D. 1172. It was about eight hun
mans and the Anglo-Saxons. It is no dred years before the latter date and about
wonder then it was often the scene of op I the time that the Romans finally left Brit-
pression, misery and suffering, until mod i ain that St. Patrick was successful in con-
ern civili/atiori and better development of ': verting the people of Ireland to Christiani-
I tv; but even this time historical facts and
every department of liter;iuirc. science and enterprise.
16 2 Thierry's Norman Conquest, p. 318. i New American Cyclopiedifl, Title Ireland.
43* THE MODERN PERIOD.
antiquarian objects go to prove that the
Irish had made considerable progress in
civilization, probably under the guidance
of a body of men similar to the druids.
After Patrick's time great progress was
made in Christianity, learning and the arts,
and they were able to send missionaries of
Christianity and learning to other parts of
Europe, as Columba to Scotland, and Col-
umbanus to the continent; and as to Ere-
ginus or Duns Scotus, one of the most
learned and talented men of the middle
age and patronized at Paris as the most re
nowned schoolsman of that day, it is ques
tioned whether he came from Ireland or
Scotland ; but it made no difference which,
for he was in 'either case a representative of
the same people.
From the fourth to the eighth century
the people of Ireland were successful in
making great progress in civilization ; and
it was during this period that they built
those high round towers so common in va
rious parts of Ireland, which are now and
have been for a long time in ruins ; and to
the same period is assigned the erection of
numerous castles, now also in ruins. Not
only do these relics of antiquity attest to
their progress in the arts, but the remains
of their literature in prose, poetrv and his
tory sustain their claims to civilization.
But towards the close of the eighth cen
tury that same cloud of desolation which
darkened Europe cast its malignant shade
over Ireland. The barbarians came also
there, as Danes and Norwegians, and in
the course of three hundred years did what
they could to plunder and destroy the pros
perity of the country, as was done in the
rest of Western Europe; and all evidence
of the progress that they had madetheir
architecture, their numerous churche* and
monasteries devoted to Christianity, were
all, during those disastrous times, cast to
ruins, and the country thrown back many
centuries in its course of civilization and
improvement. The barbarians came and
departed, for a time, In casual and desul
tory expeditions to rob, plunder and de-
itroy; the most effectual method to de-
troy a country and ruin a people. Af
ter a while there was more method
[Beokr,
and design in the Injuries committed by
these enemies of the country. They then
took various towns and held them u
their own, subjecting the people in varlou*
ways to their own interest. These invad
ers took such possession of Dublin and
other towns that at length an effort wa*
made toexpel these injurious and pestiferous,
invaders, and the Irish rallied under their
king in chief, Brian or Boroimhe, and in
1014 a great battle ensued, memorable in
the annals of Ireland as the battle ot Clon-
tarf, fought in the immediate vicinity of
Dublin, in which the Irish were eminently
victorious; but no success would finally
prevent the return of the barbarians. In
this condition of war, dilapidation of im
provements and deterioratioti of the coun
try, the people of Ireland remained until
the time of Henry II, as above stated. In
the meantime, in consequence of these in
vasions ui the barbarians and pirates, the
country and people retrograded ; none
could tell when an enemy would fall upon
them, their houses or town laid in ashes,
themselves stripped of their property, and
fortunate if they barelv saved their lives.
Such were the misfortunes and injuries to
which Ireland succumbed and to which all
Western Europe, in that age of barbarian
conquest, had yielded. No wonder, then,
that during the three or four hundred year*
from the eighth century to the time of
Henry II, these hostilities had reduced the
Irish and their fair island to that state ot"
semi-barbarism in which thev wore found
and which characterized their former in
vaders. Thes'e had annihilated that cirlli-
/.ation, progress and improvement which
followed the mission of St. Patrick, and for
three or tour hundred years had so aston
ishingly improved the island and it people;
and which would have grown up into a
splendid civilization of its own if those bar
barians and pagans who invaded them had
permitted it. It is contrary to every prin
ciple of human progress to contend that
the character of the Irish was such that the
literature they had cultivated, and the
learned, men they had tent to Germany,
France and Italy* to teach as the most
a. Such men u Columbaaus, Krigna. and other*.
CKp. HI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 431
learned of the age, could not have produced ary of the island, had not been halfa century
in Ireland that civilization which charac ead when Irish Christianity flung itself
terized the Celts in France and elsewhere with a fiery zeal into battle with the mass
in their better days, in case they had been f heathenism which was rolling upon the
let alone and permitted to do so. Christian world. Irish missionaries labored
The history of Ireland in her happy mong the Picts of the Highlands and
4)ays, when she wai permitted to work out mong the Fresians of the Northern Seas.
her own civilization, before the barbarian Vn Irish missionary, Columban, founded
had ruined her prosperity, is thus happily monasteries in Burgundy and the Apen-
and truthfully condensed, though by an ines. The canton of St. Gall still com
unfriendly witness to Celtic injustice. Up memorates in its name another Irish mis-
on the death of Edwin of Northumbria, in ionary before whom the spirit of flood
634, a reaction took place with the Anglo- nd fell fled wailing over the waters of the
Saxons Christianity was expelled and pa .;ikr of Constance. For a time it seemed
ganism restored to the Saxons in England. if the course of the world's history was
Then says the historian : "It was not the o be changed, as if the older Celtic race,
church of Paulinus which nerved the hat Roman and German had swept be-
Christian to the struggle for the cross. bre them, had turned to the moral con
Paulinus had fled, from Northumbria, and quest of their conquerors, as if Celtic and
the Roman church in Kent shrunk before not Latin Christianity was to mold the des-
the heathen reaction. Its place in the con inies of the churches of the west."3
version of England was taken by mission And so, undoubtedly, it would have done
aries from Ireland. To understand the f barbaric invasions and heathen conquest
change we must remember that before the lad not prevented and subverted it. Chris-
landing of the English in Britain the Chris :ianity was then under Celtic auspices, on
tian church comprised every country, save the highway to a better and purer develop
Germany, in Western Europe, as far as ment in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, than
Ireland itself. The conquest of Britain by the church of Rome itself afforded, and
the pagan English thrust a wedge of heath without its corruption. But, however that
endom into the heart of this great com may be, this history of what the Irish ac
munion, and broke it into two unequa complished for themselves in that age is
parts. On the one side Italy, Spain anc truly evidence of what the Irish are capa
Gaul, whose churches owned obedience to ble of when they have a fair chance, unmo
the See of Rome; on the other the church lested by rude invaders. How completely
of Ireland. But the condition of the two too, does this history refute the usual asser
portions of Western Christendom was tion of Irish enemies, and Celt haters, that
very different. While the vigor of Chris the Irish by character and nature were sav
tianity in Italy and Gaul and Spain was ages and incapable of civilization and re
exhausted in a bare struggle for life, Ire finement : and this should remind the
land, which then remained unscourged by Anglo- Saxons of the character that the Nor
invaders, drew from its conversion an ener mans gave them, when similarly situated,
gy such as it has never known since by the injustice and oppression put upon
Christianity had been received there with them by the Norman conquest. Man is
a burst of popular enthusiasm, and letter: the creature of circumstances, and it makes
and arts sprung up rapidly in its train great difference with him whether he is
The science and biblical knowledge which in the ascendance of the ruler, or in the
fled from the continent took refuge in fa depressed condition of an oppressed and
mous schools which made Durrow am injured subject. But this is a lesson too
Armagh the universities of the west. The often forgotten by the former class.
new Christian life soon beat too strongly tc The prosperity of Ireland, just described,
brook confinement within the bounds o
Ireland itself. Patrick, the first mission 3 Green's History of the English People, p. 578
43* THE MODERN PERIOD.
continued for more th.in two hundred and !
fifty years, and it is supposed that it was the
Anglo-Saxons who first disturbed it. In
683, Egfrid, king of Northumbria, sent his
general, with an army, into Ireland; and,
says Bede,4 "miserably wasted that harm
less nation, which had always been most
friendly to the English." The ravages
committed by this expedition, were most
disastrous, for they not only plundered and
destroyed a large tract of the country, but
wantonly destroyed an innumerable num
ber of churches and monasteries. On the
return of the army, the king, elated with
its success, made an expedition against the
Scots, who led him into an ambush, where
he was slain with the greatest part of
his army. " He refused to listen," says
Bede, " to the advice of his friends, not to
attack the Scots, who had done him no
harm." Some time after this, the Danes
and Northmen, and other pirates and free-
bcoters, commenced their depredations on
Ireland, and continued them until they had
reduced the unfortunate country into that
deplorable condition in which Henry II
found it. This monarch, like his kinsman
of that age, sought every opportunity of
war upon the neighboring people, to plun
der and subject them, thought the Irish, a
proper subject for his purpose, he obtained
the sanction of Pope Hadrian IV, for his
wicked purposes. This alliance between
the king and the Pope, was under the pre
tence of civilizing the Irish, and bringing
them in subjection to the Romish Church.
Notwithstanding this authority of the
Pope, the king delayed the expedition for
some years on account of his engage
ment elsewhere. In the meantime, one of
the provincial kings of Ireland had been
expelled, as he probably deserved, by the
name of Dermot He came over to Britain,
soliciting aid to recover his lost possession.
He engaged in the enterprise two of those
Norman wolves, who had been preying
upon Wales in the same manner. The
one, Richard de Clare, as Earl of Pembroke,
and the other, Robert Fitz Stephens, con
stable of Cardigan. These collected a
4 B. iv, ch. 26, p. 223.
[Book v.
S'nall force of their retainers, and passed
over to Ireland for a conquest. They were
successful as thev were unwelcome and
unexpected to the Christian people of Ire
land. Dermot profited by his betrayal and
treachery to his country ; and it was accom
plished by the same policy always pursued
by the Romans, the .Saxons, and the Nor
mans, and by every plundering scamp from
that time to this : to aid the exile and dis-
allected, and thereby divide the people and
conquer them. This success of his men
excited the jealousy of Henry, and he re
paired thither in person, with additional
force. He soon succeeded in establishing
his authority satisfactorily in the southeast
part of Ireland, from Dublin to Cork; and
returned to England, leaving his dominion
in Ireland in the hands of Richard de
Clare, known as "Strong-bow." From this
time Ireland was never able to extricate
itself, from either the clutches of England,
or those of the Church of Rome. Their
hollow pretence that it was their object to
civilize and improve the Irish, only renders
their conduct more hypocritical and wicked
Ireland stood in no need of their aid for
that purpose ; the people by their genius
and talents were able to do that for them
selves: and raise themselves again to their
former high position as to Christianity and
civilization, in case they were let alone by
their enemies, who came solely to plunder
them, and to raise taxes and tribute. From
that time Ireland became the field for every
poor politician or nobleman to seek a for
tune for himself, and plunder and gain for
his government. During the existence of
the Norman dynasty, the Irish endured
hard government with little or no change,
with continual oppression and injustice.
The English government were contin
ually sending people to Ireland to become
their rulers, to take from them their prop
erty and land; and to impose upon them as
their feudal lords and holders of manors.
Previous to this conquest, the land be
longed in common to the tribe, and its
products went to the tenants, except what
was granted to the chiefs for their support.
When the Anglo-Saxons and Normans
came, the land was taken under feudal ten
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM. 433
ures, divided up into manors and granted ed. When Henry, to conciliate the natives
to the feudal lords. This change was ter of Ireland, had appointed the Earl of Der-
ribly oppressive upon the Irish people; and mond, a native, his Lord Deputy of Ire-
this change their oppressors pretended and, a number of his retainers, who ex
was civilization, and that their former just >ected it for themselves or friends, remon- '
and humane laws were mere savage cus strated, and, as usual, urged the assumed .
toms: and this judicious and just discrimi vicious character of the Irish, and the
nation between one and the other system necessity of a strong and oppressive gov
of laws, has pretty generally been kept up ernment there. " Why," said thev, " if
ever since. But such discrimination and Desmond is appointed he will rule as he
justice are what is generally given by the ^leases, andall Ireland cannot govern him."
conqueror to his subjects,that justice But Henry was not to be driven from his
given by the wolf to the lamb. policy and wisdom, chastened by expe
The English army was kept up in Ire rience in adversity, and answered the cavil
land to enforce these oppressions and ex ing by saying; "If all Ireland cannot gov
actions. From time to time large emigra ern Desmond, then Desmond shall govern
tions from England, Wales, and Scotland all Ireland."
were encouraged to settle in Ireland, and After the death of Elizabeth, the Tudor
large tracts of land, taken from the native policy was neglected, and the old Anglo-
proprietors, was conferred upon them ; and Norman policy revived for the govern
every opportunity and advantage taken to ment of Ireland. James I. and Charles I.,
use the weak, the traitorous, and the faith alike oppressed the people of the Green Isl
less against their own country. During the and. These monarchs favored Protesant-
Norman rule this hard and oppressive gov ism with peculiar notions of their own;
ernment was kept upon them, and the con they favored Presbyterianism, and opposed
sequent uneasiness, remonstrance, and war; if not hated Catholicism, and were deter
and there remained for the unhappy people mined to enforce their views in matters of
little or no peace or justice. The Anglo religion, as well as their power in matters
Saxons were now aiding the Normans in of civil government, upon the Irish. This
fixing upon the Irish that very system of rendered matters still worse, for their op
oppression, rapine, and plunder which they pression still continued, and it gave them
themselves endured and complained of, another occasion to oppose and hate the
against the Normans at the time of the English. The Catholic priests took advan
conquest; much the same charges of sav tage of it, and made their people the more
age ignorance, and want of refinement intensified Catholics than ever. Thev
made against them. would say to them : " These English,
Upon the death of Richard III, and the Scotch, and Welsh came here only to rob
accession of Tudor, the Irish during his and oppress you; they not only rob you of
dynasty experienced somewhat a better day your property, but would deprive you of
and government. It was the policy of the your religion ; they not only strip you of
Tudors to cultivate peace and conciliation your property, but deprive you of your
instead of that of power and oppression hopes of heaven. They are your most
Henry Tudor had witnessed and expe deadly enemies, both in this world and that
ricnced in his native landin Wales, where which is to come. We are your friends;
he \vas"born and rearedthe difference be and though you arc here injured and op
tween the two systems, and accordingly pressed, we will lead you to that world
sympathized upon the subject. He wished which is full of peace, love, and justice."
as far as possible, for each-- country These made the Catholics more numerous,
to govern itself under the union, and work and intensified their opposition and hatred
out its own salvation. But this did not suit of the English government.
the avarice and ambition of the Anglo- In the fore part of the reign of Charles
Norman lords, by whom he was surround- I, that extraordinary man and tyrant,
 434 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book T.
Wentwor.h, Earl of Stafford, was appointed and antipathies againtt the Irish people,
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was attempted to produce a change of charac
man of great ability, genius, and executive ter by colonizing it with English, Scot*
talent, but with all, embodied as much tyr and Welsh, and for this purpose land wat
anny as was ever embraced by any proud taken, confiscated and applied, under pre
and haughty vlce-gerent. He was rude tense of rebellion or sedition, and the na
and overbearing, but eloquent and winning tive inhabitants removed or slaughtered in
when he chose to be ; and had as little sy m such districts. Instead of conciliation nnd
pathy for humanity as any Saxon ever peace, it became a strife and conflict be
brought to rule over his fellow man. He tween the races. It had the appearance of
went to Ireland, and his system of govern an attempt to exterminate the Celt, and
ment, both at home and in Ireland, he de supply his place with what was denomina
nominated " thorough ;" that is, it w ted Anglo-Saxon. But the object of these
thorough in producing oppression and im measures was not always a succest. Fre
plicit obedience. Though he possessed quently the colonist, under the observation
eloquence, he was a rough and rude man ; of so much oppression and injustice, be
yet he could be plausible, hypocritical, and came more of a Celt than English; and
pretentious. He once, in his early life, as sympathized with the sufferer. In the
sumed to be a leading republican, but when time of Richard II., laws were passed to
he found he could not win his sovereign, prevent such changes and sympathies
he became the most devoted loyalist; but against the government. They forbade any
his wavering principles, his love of power man of English blood to adopt the Irish
and tyranny eventually brought his head language, name, or dress. It was treason
to the block, as it might well do for every for such person to marry a person of Irish
such politician. In Ireland he organized a blood ; and it then seemed almost as though
most tliorough government of absolute at that time, the Irish were not entitled to
power, with a regular army and a due sys the principles of humanity. But these
tem of revenue for its support ; by means cruel times passed off as intolerable, and the
of which he brought all Ireland in subjec law became a dead letter. After a while the
tion to English rule, which probably was English complained, that instead of their
never before attained. Up to about this being able to make the Irish as English,
time the rule in Ireland was divided be the English there were becoming Irish, in
tween the then English conquest and the customs, manners, and language. Even
jurisdiction 6f the native government. this was the case with the great Anglo-
The extent of the former was denominated Norman families, who had become the
" within the pale ;" which at various times lords of the land, as the Geraldines, the
greatly varied, dependent upon the vigor Fitz Stephens, and the De Veres, and
with which the government was able to others, were becoming Irish, and adopting
maintain itself. This produced a continual Irish names, as McPhillips, McMahon, or
conflict, and consequent disturbance be McWilliams; while the natives were resist
tween the people and their foreign govern ing that oppression, which sought to com
ment; that was so organized as to sub pel them to become what the enemies were.
serve the interests of the English govern They were elements that could have easily
ment, and those sent them to rule, and not aeen molded into fusion and consolidation
that of Ireland and its people. This kept by benefits and kindness; but would be
up continual animosity and prejudice be resisted when attempted in blind haste, by
tween the people and those who governed compulsion. This was chatacteristic of the
them ; and utterly forbid any reconciliation Celts, if not that of the best part of the
between them : as is ever the case in any luman race. The Britons, Tacitus repre
government thus administered. sents, readily adopted the improvements
At several times and occasions the Eng. and civilization of the Romans, when
lish government, under strong prejudice tindly treated; easily led, but hard to be
Chap. HI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
driven. There was a hostile difference be
tween the principles of conquest of the
Romans and that of the Anglo-Saxons:
the former always permitted their cqn-
quered people to retain for themselves their
laws, customs, and language; and govern
themselves in local matters, BO they sub
mitted to their sovereignty as the necessary
paramount rule; and peaceably pay their
tribute and taxes. Rut the Anglo-Saxons
everywhere required a hasty change of
laws, customs, and language. This pro
duced an irreconcilable hostility, especially
when the unjust and oppre:>sive feudal
laws were proposed, instead of the equita
ble and humane Irish tenure laws, which,
in feudal tenures, were so very objectionable,
and long since abandoned by the English
themselves; but everything' Irish was then,
by the prejudices of the Anglo-Saxons, de
nominated, "savage." These unfavorable
operations of the government kept up a
hostility, instead of creating an assimila
tion and fusion between the two races. The
fact that the old Anglo-Saxon settlers were
becoming Irish, was strong evidence in
favor of the latter, that they possessed
something favorable and inviting in their
character; for the tendency of mankind is
to adopt that which is an improvement,
instead of that which is a deterioration.
These Anglo-Saxons were attracted by the
gentleness of character and sociability of
the natives, and felt an irresistible tendency
to assimilate with the conquered; to be
come Irish, and to adopt their manners,
language, and dress. They admitted the
Irish to their society and confidence, and
acquired a taste for their songs and poetry.
As was olten the case, that the Anglo-
Saxon conquerors and settlers were be
coming assimilated to the conquered. All
this the English government, and their
officers in Ireland, looked upon as being
very objectionable ; and denominated it, a
degeneration. They adopted strenuous
measures and laws to counteract it, and
required a substitution of the English lan
guage and dress, and even a change in the
cut of the hair. A non-compliance with
these severe and arbitrary measures were
severely punished. Such laws and meas-
28
435
ures were not at all times equally adopted
and rigorously enforced: dependent upon
the character of the times, and that of the
viceroys and officers sent them to rule.
Sometimes even the severity and tyranny
of the laws caused them to be disregarded,
and rendered them obsolete. The very
rigor of these laws tended to produce a dif
ferent result from that which they were
intended.
The reign of the Tudors had been gen
erally more favorable to the Irish, though
that of Henry VIII was here, as else
where, that of a master spirit. He intro
duced Protestantism into Ireland with as
much quiet and submission as elsewhere;
and the rule of the Catholic church and
the monasteries were as completely sub
verted to the interest of the Reformation
in Ireland as in England: and it is proba
ble that had the Anglo-Saxon government
continued to have been kind and concilia
tory to the Irish, they would have as deci
dedly adopted Protestantism as they had in
Scotland and England. But subsequent
severity aggravated the hostility and oppo
sition of Ireland to the Anglo-Saxon rule;
and by that means Catholicism was revived
and fixed in the minds of the people as
their only friend and hope; when under a
more parental and conciliatory govern
ment it would have been otherwise.
DuringCrom well's time the people of Ire
land became uneasy, and divided upon the
questions which divided and agitated the
English. Cromwell came to Ireland with a
large veteran army, and, with his usual
vigor and cruel measures, reduced the
island to his subjection. The effect of these
measures had but a few years to pass over
before they were greatly aggravated by the
war there, between James II and William
III. This war was principally founded
upon matters of religion, and the Catholic
elements rallied around James, as those of
the government and Protestantism did
around William; and this involved them
in a fierce war, exciting the irrepressible
questions of patriotism, conquest and reli
gion. The war and circumstances were
unfavorable to the Irish, as it might be ex
pected, with the power that William con
 436 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v
trolled, with his veteran troops, against the by the success of the American revolution'
inexperienced and undisciplined Irish. and the inspiration of the French revolu
These untoward events for the unhappy tion. France and Spain were ever encour
island, only increased their irreconcilable aging such insurrection, with the promise
hostilities, in which was involved the exci of efficient aid, but always deceived them
ting questions of patriotism and religion, with an insufficient support, wh'ch only
and established the unhappy party division brought the unfortunate island into further
of Catholics and Orangemen. This pro difficulties, and the people left to meet and
duced an intense opposition and hatred be battle the consequent misfortunes by them
tween the parties ; and gave the Catholics selves. The result was that, for this long
a better opportunity to ingratiate them time the state of the country and govern
selves with the Irish, especially the lower ment was going from bad to worse, until all
class, and satisfy them that the English was controlled by the English government
were their inveterate enemies; and the from abroad, and a few Anglo-Irish Prot
Catholic church their true and only friend, estant families at home; while four-fifths
upon whom alone they could build any of the inhabitants were' entirely excluded
hopes for the future, either in this world, from all participation in the government.
or that to come. This gave the Catholic While they were thus robbed of their free
priests a wonderful command over the peo dom, everything was done to subject their
ple, which, under the circumstances, was interest, labor, and commerce to that of
not to be wondered at, but should be con England.
sidered as their natural consequences, in The unhappy condition of the country is
stead of its being a national characteristic, thus described by no unfriendly hand to
or that of the race. Anglo-Saxon rule:1 "The history of Ire
From the time of the war of the English land, from its conquest by William III,
Restoration to that of A. D. 1798 and 1803, up to this time, is one which no En
from the battle of the Boyne to the de glishman can recall, without shame. Since
feat of the Dublin insurrection, in the lat the surrender of Limerick, every Catholic
ter year,a period of one hundred and Irishman, and there were five Catholics to
twelve years, Ireland endured every degree every Protestant, had been treated as a
of political wrong and mismanagement, stranger and a foreigner in his own coun
which would or could degrade and discour try. The members of parliament, the
age a people: a bad government, political magistracy, all corporate officers in towns,
disfranchisement and oppression, and reli all ranks in the army, the bench, the bar,
gious intolerance. If the country, during the whole administration of government
that time, were unable to exhibit the im or justice, were closed against Catholics.
provement and progress that characterized Few Catholic landowners had been left by
the rest of the British empire, it is not the sweeping confiscations which had fol
so much to be wondered, as that Irish in lowed the successive revolts of the i.-land,
dustry, perseverance, and endurance ena and oppressive laws forced even these few,
bled them to survive it. It made but little with few exceptions, to profess Protestant
difference with Ireland whether its unfor ism. Necessity, indeed, had brought about
tunate government were in the hands of a practical toleration of their religion and
the expiring house of Stuart, or that of the their worship; but in all social and politi
Guelphs, the Irish was sure to receive no cal matters the native Catholics, in other
other care or protection, but such as is words, the immense majority of the people
rendered by the wolf to the flock. The of Ireand, were simply hewers of wood
insurrection of the latter years referred to, and drawers of water, to their Protestant
was brought about by the hopes the people masters, who still looked on themselves as
had of relieving themselves of so intolera mere settlers, who boasted of their Scotch
ble a government, and thus secure their in
dependence and freedom. This was excited 5 Green's History of the English People, p. 771,
Chap, in.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING THE UNITED KINGDOM.
or English extraction, and who regarded
the name of Irishman ag an insult.
But smell as was this Protestant body, one-
half of it fared little better as far as power
was concerned, than the Catholics ; for the
Presbyterians, who formed the bulk of the
Ulster settlers, were shut out by law from
all civil, military, and municipal offices.
The administration and justice of the coun
try were thus kept rigidly in the hands of
members of the Established Church, a
body which comprised about one-twelfth
of the population of the island; while its
government was practically monopolized by
a few great Protestant landowners." Such
was the condition of the Irish people until
after the union of tSoi ;and if it be asked, why
did not the. people rebel and throw off such
oppressive and unjust a government? one
may as well ask, why the Anglo-Saxons
did not do so to the oppressive Norman
government? or the Britons that of the
Saxon, or Roman? There are many rea
sons: the robber succeeds to rob his victim
because he takes him unawares or unpre
pared. The hopes of the invaders are
always greater than those who act on the
defensive; and their preparation and disci
pline are always greater: then they are
always supported and reinforced from
whence they came, or they are not success
ful ; and when once successful they possess
greatly the advantage to retain their pos
session. These matters are regulated by
fixed and inevitable laws of nature; and
not that a just God favors one people more
than another, or that he uses these horri
ble wars and oppressions to accomplish
any of his just purposes. These are the
works of a wicked and unjust man, and he
alone is responsible for them ; and a just
and righteous God will bring them to a ret
ribution, according to fixed laws and the
ways of Providence.
The interference of the English govern
ment with the progress and prosperity of
Ireland was not only with its political and
social happiness, but also with its industry
and economical prosperity. Laws were
passed to compel the Irish people to change
their industrious pursuits, to abandon cer
tain enterprises or manufactures, so that
437
they might not come in competition with
English interest. Thus was Ireland, for a
long time, kept in a slavish subordinate
condition to the interest of their masters;
and this will fully account for the low and
humble condition in which a large portion
of the Irish people have been found : out
of which under a more liberal and right
eous government, and fairer opportunities,
these active and industrious people are fast
retrieving themselves, both at home and
abroad.
In the course of time there arose a min
ister of the English government, who had
studied, and well understood, the action
and character of the Irish government;
and was determined, as far as lay in his
power, to correct it. This was William
Pitt, the younger. He was determined to
give peace, and conciliation to the people of
Ireland with a just and good government.
One of his first objects was to bring about
an universal toleration in matters of reli
gion, and emancipate the Catholic; but
when this came to the ears of George III,
his stupid and bigoted head forbade it. Al
though he was, therefore, unable to accom
plish all he intended for the good govern
ment and conciliation of Ireland, he did much
While the rule of the island was confined
to the persons and party in whose hands it
was then confided, Pitt had no confidence
in a fair and honest legislation of the Irish
parliament; he, therefore, produced meas
ures by which that parliament was abol
ished, and both countries united under one
government and parliament; and the whole
country, England, Scotland, and Ireland,
was declared to be united in one Union,
and denominated the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland; each having
a proportion of members in the House of
Commons,their common parliament, and
each country subject only to a fair propor
tion of the common taxation necessary for
the support of the whole. This was a be
neficent measure for Ireland, and the whole
country; it made parliament not the parlia
ment of England only, but that of the
United Kingdom : that of Ireland as well
as of England and Scotland; and it gave
hopes to Ireland, with its large representa
438 THE MODERN PERIOD.
tion in parliament, that they would even- I
tually be able to obtain a good government,
founded upon the principles of justice and
humanity. This was accomplished in 1801 ;
and since that time much has been done to
improve the government, and improve the
condition of the Irish people. The Catho
lics have been emancipated; the Church of
EnglancMias been separated from the gov
ernment, and placed on the same principles
of right as other churches: thus giving a
general toleration in matters of religion;
and the people generally enfranchised as
those of England.
While England had thus entirely changed
her mode and principles of goierning Ire
land, the Irish people had been so ruthlessly
treated, by a bad government and oppres
sive tyranny, that they had lost all faith in
English justice, and hopes of any better
government from it, that the patriotic peo
ple continued their efforts for independence
and freedom, Those efforts were led by
some of the best men of Ireland, and with
talent and skill; but the English govern
ment anticipated the movement before it
was matured. It culminated in 1803, and
the patriots were effectually defeated in
battle at Vinegar Hill, near Wexfor,d;
which involved the death or exile of many
of the best men of Ireland, among whom
were Robert Emmett and his family, and
others,as talented and patriotic as are to
be found in any country; but the powers
and resources of England were against
them, and their conquest was inevitable.
But now, since Irelapd is admitted into
the Union, upon equal terms with the other
countries, with the assurance they are to
have conciliation and justice instead of war,
oppression, and injustice, it may and must be
the true and inevitable interest of the peo
ple of Ireland to cling to fee Union, and
insist only upon equal and even-handed
justice. Let that portion of the English
who so vainly pride themselves, without
knowing who they are, upon being a purely
Anglo-Saxon race, cease to treat Irishmen
with that unjust and bigoted contempt,
which "would regard the name of an Irish
man as an insult," and a Celt as contemp
tuous. These will well bear comparison
[Book v.
with the character given by the Normans
of the Anglo-Saxons, which they them
selves admitted to be true, but excused by
saying that they were habits and manners
acquired from the Danes. Let such un
just national reproaches cease; and when
due and just allowance is given to circum
stances, there will be left much to be ad
mired in both the Anglo Saxons and Irish.
The latter is impulsive, but his impulses
are oftener for good than evil. Under the
inspiration of Father Matthew, he could
sacrifice his enjoyment to the cause of tem
perance. Under the call of the " United
Irishmen," or the "Association for the
Union," he would drop his antipathies and
injuries for the call of duty and patriotism,
any stilish interests or desires are at once
sacrificed for the calls of kindred or human
ity. His heart is ever open to the impulses
of every good, and never hardened to the
reproaches of the want of duty, or of
crime. Calumny and reproaches between
two such races as the Teuton and Celt,
the two best races of menis at once an
evidence in the individual of the want of a
due discrimination, and a proper sense of
justice. Kindness conquers them .to sub
mission, but injury and oppression rouses
them to indignity. A just cause, or a good
object, will induce them to drop their big
otry er resentment. The evidence of this
is well told by a foreign historian:6 "The
men whom the Irish Union acknowledged
as their superior chiefs, were of various
origin and religion: Arthur O'Connor,
who, in the popular opinion, was descended
from the last king of Ireland; Lord Ed
ward Fitz-Gerald, whose name connected
him with the old Norman family of the
Fitz-Geralds; Father Quigley, an Irish
man by birth, and a zealous papist ; Theo
bald Wolf-Tone, a lawyer of English ori
gin, professing the philosophical opinions of
the eighteenth century. Priests of every
religion were members of the society; in
general, they filled the high stations, but
6 Thierry's Norman Conquest, p. 339; founded
upon the authority of Sir R. Mustrrave, who was
"one of the agents of the government in the troubles
of 1798, and indeed prejudiced against the Irish, but
his very partiality more fully confirms all the facts
he relates to their advantage."
Chap. HI.] PEOPLE CONSTITUTING UNITED THE KINGDOM.
there was no jealousy among them, or dis
trust of the skeptical doctrines of some of
their associates. They urged their parish
ioners to read much and variously, and to
form reading clubs at the houses of the
schoolmasters, or in the barns. Sometimes
ministers of one religion were seen preach
ing in the church of another; an auditory
composed half oi Catholics and half of
CalvinistS, listening with earnest atten
tion to the same sermon, then receiving at
the church door a distribution of some po
litical philosophical tracts." This w.ould
be a lair description of what we have fre
quently witnessed in free America, and
such a peaceable scene is a natural produc
tion of a free and generous government;
and hostility, bigotry, and oppression that
of a tyrannical government.
,It is, therefore, vain to contend that the
Irish are incapable, as some of their ene
mies do, of a peaceable, civilized govern
ment, free from bigotry and lawlessness.
What has been just said, and their position
in America proves the contrary, and that
would be the case with them, wherever a
tyranny and bad government did not pro
duce the contrary. What, to contend that
such men as Burke, Sheridan, Castlereagh,
O'Connell, Palmerston, and Cams, men
who triumphantly led in the House of
Commons; and also such men as Welling
ton, General Evans, Goldsmith, or Moore,
are incapable of good government and of
civilization and progress? That would be
preposterous! But since Pitt's time there
has been great progress in good govern
ment. The English people begin to see
the great mistake they have committed, and
the injustice they have done to unhappy
Ireland. For some years the parliament
of the Union have been endeavoring to re
form and restore the government of Ireland
to just and equitable principles, founded on
Christian conciliation and peace. Not only
has Ireland progressed in making sMch im
provement in govermentsl and civil affairs,
but in the mean time has accomplished
great amelioration in the social condition
of her people. In former times, by the
confiscation and transfer of the real prop
erty of the country, from the natives and
439
resident owners, to those of Britain, in
vast estates, the people and country thereby
became impoverished; there -was no ac
cumulation oi wealth, and the fertility of
their land went to enrich other people.
Out of this arose innumerable other injuries
and oppressions. Of this the British par
liament has become well aware, and of late
with a Christian generosity have done
much to relieve these just complaints.
Much has been done to encourage und fos
ter the return of the real property to actual
residents; and thereby rid the country of a
set of official harpies, who preyed upon the
country as middle men, between the absent
landlord and the unfortunate tenant.
These measures are a happy relief, and effi
cient means in restoring the country to a
latural and prosperous condition.
Besides, the British parliament, with a
view of restpring to the Green Isle her
just due and just capacity for improvement,
have made a large appropiration for drain
ing and reclaiming a large amount of her
most fertile lands which in a state of na
ture were covered with water. These returns
of natural rights, accompanied with such
generous amends for errors and injuries past,
give to the Irish a well-founded hope, alter
centuries of oppression and injustice, that
they and their country are now restored to
that happy state of prosperity and wealth
that God, and a generous nature, intended
for them. Not only at home, in the midst of
oppression and adversity, have Irishmen
sustained their capacity for the higher pur
suits of civilization, as statesmen, warriors,
poets, author*, and philosophers, but in for
eign countries, when relieved of the former
oppression of their own, have they sustained
a capacity and position equal to the best;
as in America, in France, and in Spain:
wherever a free competition is opened to
them, for the exercUe of their sprightlincss,
their wit, their industry, and capacity for
all the industrial pursuits. In America
and France has their gallantry been fully
tested, when at home, circumstances would
not admit of a fair test: as witness the gal-
lantrv of the brigades of Irish exiles in the
French service, at the bloody battle of Fon-
tenoy : and what Christian country is there
44 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book. v.
that does not hear testimony to the merits of history,of truth and science; and
and capacity of Irishmen, or their desceu- wherever that places it, let it stand, wher
dants, and their renown? ever that may be. It is very natural, it is
CHAPTER IV. true, for those who are conscious that they
or their ancestors have injured another, to
CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE.
hate and despise those they have wronged.
In considering the history of the Ancient A robber always hates those he has robbed,
Britons, I was led to inquire how far their and never has a good word for them ; he is
bloou now formed the basis of the present desirous that his robbery may, in some way,
population of Britain. I was surprised to be justified, or forgotten, or excused. But
find such conflicting opinions on the sub the present Englishman who conceives
ject : Some with bigoted bitterness denying himself to be a pure descendant of the
that the Ancient Briton or Celt formed any Saxon, and of unquestioned lineage, is not
part of the English people; that the Celts at all responsible for any injury the Saxons
were aliens to them in "blood and religion ;" may have done the Britons: for that is too
and every opportunity was taken to express long passed; the descendants of both na
their opposition to the claim and contempt tionalities have been too long commingled
for the idea. Not only was the relation and intermixed, and long since have be
denied, but the Celt was calumniated and come fellow-subjects, fellow-citizens, of
traduced, and the Saxon and Anglo-Saxon the same country. As to pedigree and an
lauded and exalted at his expense. It was cestry, that has become a mere question of
this which first led me to inquire into its history and science.
hUtory as a matter of truth and science, But as to the term, hatred, which, if it
and to ascertain its credibility and truth exists, is so unjustifiable, pardon me, if I
fulness; and my history is the result of it. refer to a few facts to show its existence.
But I found upon investigation that this Prof. Arnold speaks of Celtic hatred as
bigoted opinion was confined to only a having an undoubted existence; and to no
class of the English people, and generally other principle can those instances, to
to those who knew the least upon the sub which we refer, be attributed. This class
ject, or at least of their own lineage and of Englishmen, who thus lam! the Saxon
extraction; for such were the least re and hate the Celt, are relatively few, though
strained in dressing up in their imagination widely spread over the British Dominion
as they pleased the virtues and greatness and America,* and should, therefore, be
of their unknown or forgotten ancestors. pardoned; for this development of charac
Why people should be so very desirous of ter may be a constitutional defect which
connecting their ancestry with a people they can no more help than insanity, for
whose very origin in history was that ot which they are not responsible. Besides
pirates ami plunderers, whose ferocious the other and opposing class of English
and savage habits and manners1 were in men are fast increasing, as evidenced by
keeping with their former residence in the the works of Sharon Turner, Mathew Ar
swamps and wilderness at the mouths of nold, and others.
the Elbe and the Eiderso far from the This opposition and fanaticism has pro
center of civilization, or, as Caesar suggests, duced "a body of men in Britain and Amer
because so far from Rome one is at a loss to ica, who, in politics and in literature pro
imagine, unless it be that ignorance gives claim the merits of the great Anfflo-Sa\on
free vent to the imagination and distance race, and foresee for it an almost universal
adds charms to the fancy. ascendancy over the world. * * * *
But why such enmity and hatred upon They call the British Empire an Anglo-
the subject? It is, in fact, only a question Saxon empire; and the United States an

I Sec Tor character of the Saxons l Hume's His 2. See New Amer. Cyclopedia, Title, Anglo-
tory, p. 177; also ante, IJ. iii, ch. . Saxon.
Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE. 44'
Anglo-Saxon confederation ;"3 and alt this circumstances of history, more glaringly
with little or no regard to historical facts. than anywhere else found in the literature
These usually go through a formula, as of our races. Gibbon has no other words
the basis of their theory, that when the for Britain or Britons, than those of degra
Saxons came to Britain they " slaughtered dation and despair; to the Romans she was
all the ancient Britons, who did not flee "the last province acquired, and the first to be
to the mountains of Wales," so that they thrown away :" with little or no remorse,
had a new country free from other race*; he tells us, that " the Saxons, who hated
and, as the result, a pure Anglo-Saxon the valor of their enemies, disdained the
race. However heartless this theory may faith of treaties, and violated without re
be, their conclusion would be right if their morse, the most sacred objects of the
premises were true; but it is thought that Christian worship. The fields of battle
it has been shown to be palpably untrue:* might be traced almost in every district, by
and many of the best-informed English monuments of bones; the fragments of
writer* most decidedly support this latter falling towers were stained with blood:
ophiion.5 These opponents of the British the last of the Britons, without distinction
claim, and advocates of an exclusiveJAnglo- of age or sex, were massacred in the ruins
Saxon elements of their race, are more or of Anderida;6 and the repetition of such
less virulent in their claim. Their object calamities was frequent and familiar under
seems to be to ignore, to exclude and abol the Saxon Heptarchy. "1 Still, he reminds
ish everything connected with the history us that "the love of plunder was more nat
of the country; they admit that the Ro ural than the inspiration of ambition."
mans were once there, but they had left : And every object of veneration and pride
that a few of the Britons were left, to a true Briton that may be possibly con
but of them who did not flee, all were troverted, is denied them with a zest, upon
slaughtered and exterminated; and they any pretext or slightest evidence. Maxi-
were so very uncultivated and savage-like, mus, Constantine, the Briton Helena, and
that the Saxons were justified in the cruelty every one, are made natives of Spain or
of exterminating them. All this is built any place, rather than they should be the
up by ignoring and falsifying the facts and natives of Britain.
Hume, too, though usually kind to the
3. Ini4, lit supra.
4. Sec Ante B. --. C. --. --. '
Britons, must have a fling at them, and call
5. Palgrave's A. S. p. 3S-4O, p. S^-sS; on p. 71, it them, "the abject Britons;" an epithet
issnid: "Tiie political subjugation of the country which should never be applied to a Briton,
did not neccs.*arilv lead to the tolal expulsion of the
British tribes. * * * * The British peasantry con of whatever race he might be, especially to
tinued to dwell upon the soil, tnoui^h the domain win those brave Britons who so valiantly de
transferred to the lords." See also Latham's Eth
nology of the British Islands, who has fully studied fended their country and freedom, from
this subject, and in page 2^9, says: "Kelts, Ro
mans, Germans, and Scandinavians supply us with the time of Ciesar to that of Edward I;
the chief elements of our population, elements but it might still be a question whether
which are mixed up with each other in numerous de
grees of combinations; in so many, indeed, that in that epithet was as applicable to the ancient
Ihe ease of the last three there is no approach to pu
rity. However easy it may be, either amonp the Britons, as to those who, upon the event of
Gaels of Connaui^ht, or the Cambro-Bntons of one battle, subjected themselves to the rule
North Wales, to find a typical and genuine Kelt, the
German, equally genuine a/id typical, whom writers of William the Norman. At least, we might
love to place in contrast with him, is not to be found
within the four seas, the nearest approach beiogr the suppose that a representative of the brave
Frisians, of Friesland." " It is important, too, to
remember that the mixture that has already taken Scots might spare the word, "abject," as'
place, still j^oes on; and as three pure sources of applied to the Britons, while writing the
Keltic, without a corresponding spring of Gothic,
blood are in full flow, the result is a slow but sure history of the Saxons.
addition of Keltic elements to the so-called Anelo- Though such partial and unjust remarks
Saxon stock, elements which are perceptible in Brit
ain, and which' are very considerable in America. in this connection, so frequently found in
The Gael or Briton wh'o marries an English wife,
transmits, on his part, a pure Keltic strain, whereas
no Englishman can effect a similar infusion of 6. Ante, B., C..
Germanism, his own breed beine more or less 7. Gibbon's Decline and Fall, Ch. 38, Vol. I, P.
hybrid." 516.
 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
English histories, still, seldom so glaringly fairs.
as in Mr. Woodward's History of Wales; This history of Mr. Palgrave's was sent
where, in almost every page, he calumni to me from Liverpool, and it contains some
ates the subject of his history : and why he illustrations of its subject, andamongthem
should select such a subject, one is at a loss was a picture of Caesar's first attempt to
to guess, unless it was for the very purpose land in Britain. There was Oesar, upon
of doing so. the deck of his vessel, directing the affair;
The object of this small class of English the standard-bearer of the tenth legion,
writers is, undoubtedly, to cut off all rela plunging into the sea, and calling upon his
tion with the Ancient Britons, and form a men to follow: the Britons valiantly rush
new and independent basis of English his ing, with their weapons, to meet and oppose
tory. Some have fallen into this error them ; and men with horses and chariots,
without considering well the subject, or filling and exciting the scene. Under this
what they were doing in following a matter was printed the subject of it: "Conflict
of temporary fashion. Mr. Francis Pal- between the Romans and the Saxons."
grave, in his history of the Anglo-Saxons, This is in keeping with some of the infor
though admitting, abundantly, the mixture mation we get of British history. Though
of the ancient Britons in the modern En the picture represented a scene which trans
glish, yet undertakes to represent that the pired more than five hundred years before
Ancient Briton and his descendants, incapa the Saxons came to Britain, I do not at all
ble of the necessary skill of a mechanic charge the fraud upon Mr. Palgravc; ibut
and mariner for a naval and sea-faring life; the publication must have passed through
and that his coracle was the uttermost of the hands of those who knew belter, but
his capacity.8 Whereas, both in ancient were willing that the fraud should pass, to
and modern history, we have abundant evi create a false impression in the history of
dence of the Cymry's skill, in the mechan their country,, upon the minds of those who
ical arts and naval affairs, both in Britain were not so well-informed.
and Brittany. Polybius and Caesar allude A very recent historian, the author of
to it. Constantius, in Gaul, sent to the "A Short History of the English People,"
Britons for skillful mechanics to build a has given us a very good history, except
town in his province. Southey informs us his occasional labor to traduce and calum
in his history of British Naval Affairs, niate the Celts, and misplace the rigin of
that Alfred sent to Wales for men skilled the English people. He begins by exclu
In naval affairs and architecture, to aid him ding the Ancient Britons and Celts from
in building a navy to operate against the having any participation in the formation
Danish invasion. Not long since I read of the present English people and govern
a long article in Harper's New York Mag ment. He commences by saying: "For
azine, upon the great development of steam the fatherland of the English race we must
ships on the Atlantic, between Britain and look far away fiom England itself. * * *
this country; in which a great English The one country which bore the name of
steamer was selected for the subject, and England, was what we now call Sleswick,
its captain was a Captain Price, a native of a district in the heart of the peninsula
Swansea, whose great responsibility, skill, which parts the Baltic from the Northern
and care would have been adequate to any sea." Thus the Ancient Britons, as well as
naval command: and ii thus directed the Welsh, the Scotch, and the Irish are
would have filled the place of an Arthur, made entire aliens to the English people.
a Tudor, a Cromwell, or a Picton. There He admits that "of the temper and life of
is no large town in the United States but these English folk in this old England
what can produce evidence of the Cymry's we know little," and the "country was then
mechanical skill and abilities for naval af- but a wild waste of heather and sand, girt
along the coast with sunless woodland,
8. Palgrave'a History of the Anglo-Saxons, ch.
l, p. 4. broken only on the western side by mead-
Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE. 443
ows, which crept down to the marshes battle began, that the conflict would be lost,
and the sea. * * * * The dwellers of and advised all that could do so to save
this district were one of those tribes, * * * themselves. A terrible slaughter ensued ;
who bore among themselves the name of and the author says that the Welsh who
the central tribe of the league, the name of were engaged with Montfort, in his strug
Englishmen.1' That there was but "little gle for freedom, "fled. like sheep," and were
known," is true, but that gives the writer a slaughtered in the cornfields and gardens,
chance to dress them up as Englishmen, while fighting in company with the En
the better; and as they might appear in glish, in Montfort's ranks. Welshmen,
his own imagination. Latham, in his Eth- like other men, were sometimes compelled
nologv of the British Islands, after a most to flee, and sometimes slaughtered; but of
profound and learned investigation, for the all men they were least liable to be branded
localitv and history of the Angli, comes to with the epithet of fleeing like sheep: and
the conclusion that it is not to be found : one would have supposed that the author
but that it was not to be found in Sleswick, could have spared that offensive epithet.
and if found anywhere, must have bee-n But then it was hardly to be expected of
south of the Elbe, in Hanover. So uncer an author who began his history of the
tain and doubtful did the learned author English as he did.
find the ethnic character of the Saxon in But Macaulay thinks that the history of
vaders of Britain, as to their history and the " English nation did not begin" until
original country, that he says of them : modern times; not until the great charter
" A Saxon population, considered without of John had reconciled a people to each
reference to c"ate, locality, and similar im other by means of a free and just govern
portant circumstances, may be in any or ment. "The history of the preceding
no ethnological relation to the Angle; this events," says Macaulay, "is the. hiitory of
meaning those who are not only Angles in wrongs inflicted and sustained by various
reality, but whose actions are described tribes, which, indeed all dwelt on English
under the name of Angle. It is only when ground, but which regarded each other
this is the case that we can be sure of our with an estimation such as has scarcely
men. A Saxon may be anything, provi ever existed between communities separa
ded he be but a pirate." "An Englishman, j ted by physical barriers. * * * * In
representing as he does the insular Angles, no country has the enmity of races been
and looking to the part they have played in carried farther than in England. In no
the world, may, \vith either pride or regret, country has that enmity been more com
s the case may be, say that on their native pletely effaced. The stages of the process
soil of Germany, the Angle history is next by which the hostile elements were melted
to a nonentity." It is well for another, down into one homogeneous mass, are
who pretends to write English history, to not accurately known to us. But it is
begin, by excluding all connection with it, certain that when John became king, the
of the Ancient Britons antecedent to the distinction between Saxon and Norman
Saxon conquest ; to have a subject of was strongly marked, and that before the
which so little or nothing is known : and of end of the reign of his grandson it had
which anything may be said, except that almost disappeared. In the time of Rich
they must not be pirates. Although that ard the First, the ordinary imprecation of a
author thus carefully excludes the Briton Norman gentleman, was, ' May I become
from his history, yet their descendants are an Englishman?' His ordinary iorm of
not so oblivious of his notice; nor does he indignant denial, was, ' Do you take me for
neglect an opportunity of heaping upon an Englishman?' The descendants of such
them undeserved obliquity. Thus his ac a gentleman, one hundred years later, were
count of the battle of Eversham, in which proud of the English name."'
the great Simon Montfort, Earl of Leices
ter, met his last. The Earl saw, before the 9. Macaulay's Hist. England, p. 12.
+44 THE MODERN PERIOD.
If it be true 'that such enmity has been
effaced," in England, and " the hostile ele
ments melted down into one homogeneous
mass," it is well, and a happy event; and a
great moral and rational reform. It is
what human progress and civilization
should be. But it is to be feared that it
was a reform that Macaulay, himself, did
not always observe. Why were the Celts
left out in the cold, when everything was
made warm and comfortable for the Saxon
and the Norman? Are the Welshmen,
the Scotchmen, and the Irishmen no part
of the people who constituted the national
ity of the United Kingdom, or even of En
gland itself? Are these, who constitute so
large a portion of the British people,
and who have done so much for the honor
and glory of the " English name," to pass
for nothing? To judge from Macaular's
history, one would suppose that was the
case. He leaves no opportunity untouched,
where he may laud the Saxon and calum
niate the Celt. In telling the story of the
Highlander, Macdonald of Keppoch, he
represents that "Inverness was a Saxon
colony among the Celts ; a hive of traders
and artisans in the midst of a population
of loungers and plunderers: a solitary out
post of civilization in the region of barbar
ians." Now, this may be all true, for aught
I know for a certainty, but I doubt it. If it
were exclusively a Saxon colony, how came
the place by the name of Inverness? Or
the Celtic people by the designation of
loungers and plunderers? for these always
belonged to the Saxons, with the addition
of that of pirates : or the place to be a hive
of tradesmen and artisans? for that was
more the characteristics of the Celts than
the Saxons. For, from the earliest times,
the Saxon was always associated with piracy
and plunder; as the Celt, in general, has
been that of an artisan, a laborer, and an
honest man. I have no doubt the place
was made up of. a mixed population of
Celts and Saxons; but among the indus
trious artisans, the majority, undoubtedly,
were the Celtic-Scots. But Macaular goes
on to say, that on a Sunday in April, 1689,
Keppoch and his Highlanders, in favor of
King James II, attacked the town. "The
[Book v.
ravagers went round and round the small
colony of Saxons like a troop of famished
wolves round a sheep-fold. Keppoch threat
ened and blustered. He would come in
with all of his men. He would sack the
place. The burghers, in the meanwhile,
mustered in arms around the market
cross to listen to the oratory of the minis
ters. The day closed without an assault;"
and the place was relieved. All this is said
in the most obnoxious manner to the feel
ings of the Celt, and to the exaltation of
the Saxon, at the expense of the former.
But it is not nationalities alone, that Lord
Macaulay attacks and disparages, but car
ries it to individual personalities. He en
deavors to rob Goldsmith and Ireland of
their mutual right to his birth-place, and
him of his hi^h honor of being an Irish
man and a Celt. I know not how much
Saxon blood, if any, Goldsmith may have
had in his veins, but have every reason to
believe he was born in Irela" d, of Irish
parents; and his own character and gener
osity, and that of his brother, Henry, who
was said to have been of a "thoughtless
generosity of manner, and a quick and sen
sitive temper, though his anger was only
momentary, and he never cherished resent
ments," marked them and their family as
decidedly Celtic. Yet Macaulay asserts
that Goldsmith was a Saxon;'" and with
usual greed, he is claimed as an English
author, born in Ireland, where all he had and
all he possessed, was due to his nationality.
This claim is usually made for all authors
who write in English, whatever may be
their blood, Celt or Jew. In the same
manner, Macaulay treats Sir Walter Scott,
and says : " Yet, when Sir Walter Scott
mentions Killiecrankie he seems utterly to
forget that he was a Saxon, that he was of
the same blood and of the same speech as
Ramsay's foot and Annandale's horse. His
heart swelled with triumph when he rela
ted how his own kindred had fled like hares
before a smaller number of warriors of a
different breed and of a different tongue."11
I imagine that Sir Walter Scott knew
best whether he was a Celt or Saxon; and
10. Macaulay's History, p. 339.
11. Macaulay's History, p. 291.
 , iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE.
all we know of him shows that he rejoiced
in being the former. It is also probable
that in case he had lived to read Macaulay's
history, he would have been as indignant
at the manner in which his Celtic friends
had been calumniated, as Hugh Miller was,
who wrote an indignant pamphlet to his
Lordship upon the subject ; and reproached
him of forgetting or ignoring his own lin
eage : and referred to his Lordship's grand
father (I think it was), who was himself a
Celtic-Scott, a native of one of the islands
of Western Scotland. But this was noth
ing more than a common circumstance in
history, of a person ignoring his own lin
eage, and claiming to be an Englishman.
This was the case with Lord Lyndhurst,
who denounced the Celts as "aliens in
blood and religion." This might be ex
pected of a lord who was disposed to forget
his lineatfe; for his grandfather's family
were Irish emigrants from the county of
Limerick, Ireland,"to Boston, in the United
States, where he himself was born.'2 How-
much Celtic blood there was in his veins,
we are not exactly informed; but we must
not be surprised if such a man should ig
nore that there was any.
These instances are lamentable and dis
graceful enough; especially when used by
a comparatively few persons, towards a
great body of their fellow subjects, and cit
izens of a common country, who have
done as much as any' part of that popula
tion to support and maintain that common
country's glory and renown. No battle
has been fought, in which England rejoiced,
from that of Cressy to Alma, but that in
which the abused Celt has acted a generous
and noble part, and aided Englishmen in
their achievements, as the common prop
erty of a common country. What, is all
that has been done by Welshmen, or Scotch
men, or Irishmen, in maintaining the rights
and glory of Britain in the Spanish penin
sula, in the Crimea, in India, at Waterloo
itself, to pass for nothing; or to be paid for
in unjust reproaches or abuse? These
three Celtic nationalities have not only sus
tained their country in war and battle, but
12. Chamber's Encyclopedia, Tit Lyndhurst.
445
added their full share to everything, in the
literature, the art, and sciences, and the
civil achievements, which Englishmen
boast as their own, or as that of the United
Kingdom. Whatever is achieved by a
Celt, or whiitever is written in the English
language, is immediately claimed by those
who have been denominated Celt haters, as
English productions, and their authors as
Englishmen. Such as Price, Prichard,
Owens, Lewis, or Jones, born in Wales, or
of acknoweldged Welsh parents, and un
doubted Celtic blood. Or such as the gen-
'iug of Scotland has produced in a Scott, or
a Burns, or a Hugh Miller, or a Reid. Or
what the wit and genius of Ireland have
produced; or the learning of a Burke, or
the eloquence of a Sheridan, or a Curran,
or an O'Connell, have added to the renown
of the English parliament, or the courts:
all will be claimed for English glory, in
case they were not calumniated and tra
duced as Celts. This animosity exhibited
by a part of the English people towards
another portion of their fellow-countrymen,
who^ since the union, especially, have a
common right and interest in whatever
concerns the whole country Great Britain
and Ireland : and as such should be exempt
from these. But, at least, it sub
jects their traducers to the application
of an humble English proverb, "That
it is a foul bird that befouls its own
nest." With them it would be treason or
heresy, for one to affirm that such men as
Prichard, Howell, Sir Wm Jones, Sir G. C.
Lewis, Baxter, Vaughan, or anvof the like
names of a thousand, were Welshmen; or
that Burke, Sheridan, Moore, or Goldsmith,
were Irishmen; or that Ferguson, Reid,
Campbell, Burns, or Thomson were Scotch
men, and all of them of a Celtic lineage:
or to affirm that Shakspeare and Milton
were the descendants of Celtic ancestors,
and that their writings and peculiarities
prove them such; yet this has been fre
quently stated by the best of judges and
critics.
Generally speaking, when an author
writes in English, or speaks the English
language fluently, he is claimed to be an
Englishman, and is no longer reproached
446 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book y
with being a Celt, unless, like Sir Walter aulay says, until the various elements of
Scott, he will still insist upon being a Celt, which they and it are composed, were
and glory in the achievements of his coun melted down into a new and homogeneous
trymen. It would be greatly to the advan and composite individuality, wholly unlike
tage of all, it" the business and educational their original elements, but retaining some
language of Great Britain and Ireland were traces and analogy of each. But the En
that of the English language, for this is glish is wholly unlike the original Saxon,
fast becoming the language of the world; the language ot Caxlmon. The mistake
and every gentleman of these three coun that English authors make in considering
tries learns to speak English as though it the English language to be identical with
was his mother tongue, and retains his the Saxon, is iu consequence of their tak
Celtic speech as a dead language, as he ing the Anglo-Saxon of a later date, as
does his Latin and Greek. The people of that of Alfred, as evidence of what the
the Lowlands of Scotland, those of the Saxon was, originally. In the course of
country between the Severn and Ofta's those four hundred years, the language had
dyke, and those on the peninsula between materially changed, by their intercourse
Bristol and the British Channel, have long with the Britons, so that the language of
since adopted the English as their mother the Saxons had changed in the Anglo-
tongue; and this will now soon be the ease Saxon of Alfred, and of subsequent
under all the facilities now afforded for that times; but the great change in lan
purpose, with the residue of those countries. guage was still at a later period: as it was
This will subserve their own interests, as with the people themselves, when they
well as those of the other parts of the whole were still more mixed up with Danes
country. and the Normans, of William the Con
But this change of language does not queror, and the vast amount of Celtic-
change the blood of the ra,ce. The Afri French who came with him. It was this
cans of the United States, because they amalgamation of races which formed the
speak Eriglish only, do not become En English people, and produced their modern
glish, or their descendants, Aryans. A language. The English language then be
vast amount of people now speak the En gan to grow, but did not acquire its full
glish language only, who are the descen form, so as to be fully distinguished as the
dants of the Ancient Britons, or the Celts, language of Milton, until about the time of
and these pass Tor English, though they are Gower and Chaucer, a period of about a
wholly unlike the Teutons; and the Ger thousand years irom the first advent of the
mans say so, so unlike are they, that noth Saxons. In the mean time there was a
ing is more common here than to hear the constant intercourse between the Saxons
Germans talk of their desire to Germanize in Britain anil the Britons themselves.
the English of America. The English The British army under Cadwallon, and
language, and the English themselves, are that of the BritUh-Saxons under Penda,
the production of modern times; and there were for a number of years united in their
is little, or nothing, in either like the lan operations and war, at least two hundred
guage or the people of the ancient Saxons years before Alfred's time; and that inter
This is perfectly apparent when one exam course was ever kept up, as much as it was
ines the poem of Qvdmon in the original, between Wessex and Northumbria. Mar
or read the description of the Saxons when riages were going on between the two peo
the Normans came, or even in the time of ple, in their highest as well as in the lower
Henry I.W ranks of their societies in their respective
It was not until modern times that the provinces. The Saxons generally came as
English people and their language were single men, as warriors, and took for their
formed. This did not take place, as Mac- wives the British women they chose. The
, . t> . rest of the population who married, cultiva
13. See ante, B. V, ch. ii. i Macaulay's Hist. ted the land, and manufactured for them. In
Eng.( p. ii, i Hume, p. 246;'ulso tht Appcntlix l.
Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE.
this intercourse the English language was
lormed, wholly unlike the Saxon; and
as much of it Is due to the Britons as to
the Saxons. London and its vicinity was
its headquarters, from whence it spread out ;
and even in our own day the learned men
of London, and the people of distant p;irts
of England could hardly understand each
other. Here, then, were found the fathers
of the English language, and not among
the Angles or Saxons who came from the
Elbe or Eider. Instead of English being
imported from thence to England and
Scotland, it was London that sent it to
Scotland and Friesland. It was carried into
Scotland by James I, who had been educa
ted in London, by Henry IV, and from his
time, by other intercourse with the English,
and St. Boniface and other missionaries,
carried it to Friesland. There is no other
way of accounting for the similarity of the
languages found in those three countries'
when the old Saxon was so totally unlike
the English.11 This is my conjecture,
which, upon a thorough examination, I
doubt not will be so found. The contrary
is only proved by taking the recent Saxon,
modified by the English, as what the Saxon
was, when it was brought over to England.
England, English, and Anglo-Saxon are
all modern names. Even the name of
England was unknown until about the
time of Athelstan, about four or five hun
dred years after the Saxons came.
Such were the materials out of which
the English people and the English lan
guage have been formed; originally, prin
cipally Saxon and British, the growth of
British soil, and not that of Germany.
Since then, additional Celtic blood has been
14. I-nlham's Ethnology of the British Islands,
215, where it is said: " It is only cerium that as early
as thu 9th century there were continental writers
who attributed to the Germans of Britain, movements
from the Island to the Continent, :is far back from
their own time ;ie the 5lh century. Nay, later still,
there were some historians who wholly reversed the
order of Anglo-Saxon migration, :mu deduced ihc
true Fatherland Germans from England." So that
the English, or the resemblance of English in Fries-
land, is more to be attributed to their intercourse with
London, than that the English people owe their Ian
gnage to the Saxons or the Frieslanders. This is a.
subject which needs a more thorough investigation.
It is a cosmopolitan language, borrowed from every
other, which the liny lihh have assimilated, and made
it a new language of their own.
447
constantly added to the original stock.15
First came the Danes and Norwegians, a
very different people from the Saxons; and
then came the Normans, an almost pure
Celtic blood, whose fathers were only com
paratively a lew Norwegian soldiers, who
by treaty took possession of Rouen, and
then the government of the whole of Nor
mandy, married native wives, and were in
themselves in proportion to the Celtic popu
lation of the country, only one to several
hundred: and to this disproportion they were
constantly receiving additional Celtic stock
by constant marriages with the people of
Armorica. The Norman conquest greatly-
increased the Celtic stock of the English
people. Since then other additions of pure
Celtic blood have been made: i. From
the Welsh, as the Tudors, the Williams,
the Jones, Evans, Owens, and others; 2.
From the Scots, as the Stuarts, the Camp
bells, the Murrays, the Gordons, McLean,
Macaulay, and others; 3. From the Irish,
as the Burkes, the Sheridans, the O'Con-
nell, O'Connor, and others; and then on
the female line, constant additions were
made, as in the case of Lord Palmerston,
whose mother was a Miss Mee, or Meehan,
a pure Celt We are also informed that>
some years since, three young Irish ladies
came from Ireland to London, by the name
of Guning. They were most charming
girls, and became stars in English society,
and each became married to an English
peer. In every such intermixture, the En
glish are becoming more and more Celtic,
for, says Latham, "The Gael or Briton who
marries an English wife, transmits on his
own part, a pure Celtic strain, whereas, no
Englishman can effect a similar infusion of
German, his own breed being more or less
hybrid." " The process," says Macaulay,
"by which these elements have been melted
duwn into one homogeneous mass, are not
accurately known to us." But we may
conceive it is bv the ordinary process that
families are ordinarily formed; and that
process is still going on.
Thus we may claim that the English
people are not Teutons, but Britons slightly
15. Sec ante note,this ch.
44* THE MODERN PERIOD.
tinctured with the Saxon, but eminently
interested in everything that is British,
from the sarliest time to the present day.
The Germans themselves say that the En
glish are not Teutons, but are a different
breed. That difference must depend upon
their intermixture with the Ancient Britons
the Celts; and the pure Celt more
easily becomes an Englishman, than a Ger
man ordinarily can. This is proved by ex
amination ol" their history, '6 language, eth
nology, and of their physiology, as well as
of their cranium, taste and style. It is,
therefore, not a question to be determined
by prejudice or whim, but by investigation
and science.
This question does not concern the Brit
ish people alone ; for it equally concerns us
in America to be truly informed to what
race of people we belong: and whatever,
character, morally and intellectually it may
be. The Germans, of course, have a right
to claim that they are pure Teutons. But
they themselves claim that the people of
the Low Lands, along the German or
Northern Sea and Atlantic Ocean, from
Brittany to the north of Norway, are not
a pure Teutonic race, but a mixture of sev
eral races, as the Teutons, the Sclaves, and
the Cimbri. Ptolemy, the geographer, who
wrote in the 2<1 century of the Christian
era, places the several tribes, occupying
this whole coast, in his time, and this is the
latest account we have until after the dark
ages. He places the Cimbri at the very
north end of the Cimbric Chersonesus,
now Denmark. Of course, this was after
that great body of Cimbri, who left near
the mouth of the Elbe, many centuries be
fore; and after those had left there, with the
Teutons, to invade the Roman Empire, in
the time oi Marius. Those noticed by
Ptolemy, were the remnants still left there,
who became mixed and assimilated with
the Danes and Norwegians, in conjunction
with the Sclaves; which will account tor
their differing so much from the Teutonic
16, See Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons;
Thierry's Hist, of the Norman Conquest; Prof. M.
Arnold's Celtic I-iterature; Dorl Nicnolus' Pedigree
of the English People; Mr. Owen Pike's, The En
glish and thi-ir Oriijin; Prof. John Fiske's, "Are We
Celts or Teutons: .
[Book v
races. This association of the Danes and
Norwegians with the Celtic people, shows
that Rollo and his Normans were some
mixed with the Cymric-Celts, when they
first came to Normandy, and were more
acceptable to the natives of Neustria.
The theory of the few CcH-ha/ers among
the English, has taken root with a few
among us in America; and they have taken
it upon trust, without an examination: and,
like all such theories, it takes well because
it is cheap, and formed to their hands with
out any study. They are taken by such
bold assertions as that the English were
free from any intermixture with the Brit
ons, and borrowed nothing from their lan
guage, unless it be the word, basket; and
that the Britons and Welsh were unac
quainted with maritime affairs, and were
only acquainted with their coracles. They
either ignore or deny the fact that a great
many Welshmen, whose names have been
already suggested, have greatly added to
English literature and English fame. The
same may be said of Scotchmen and Irish
men; but then all the fame and renown
thus acquired, are attributed to English
men. How much of English literature, or
fame, or renown would be left, if all were
taken from them that may be justly attrib
uted to one or another of the sons of these
three Celtic peoples? This would put it to
a severe test; and under it, in the opinion
of many fair critics, the works of Shaks-
peare and Milton would be included, as
those of the descendants of the Ancient
Britons, or those of Celtic origin.
This opposition to the just claims of the
Celts in America, I am disposed to contest
upon personal observation here, and not
like that which has been said concerning
the British people, which was wholly
founded upon evidence deduced from his
tory. This disfavor towards the Celt has
been aided here by a few Englishmen, who
have come over, and written about us in
the United States. At the commencement
of the late Rebellion, an Englishman came
here as reporter for the London Times,
whose name, I think, was Dr. Russell,
who made many observations in dis
paragement of the Celt, and in laudation of
Chp. iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE. 449
the Teuton. He (poke of, and compared judging of the merits and capacity of a
those of the name of Hampden and Thur- race, it is necessary, in order to do justice,
low, I believe, when compared with the that we should take into the account the
Mc's and the O's; and how much better circumstances of oppression or freedom by
men the former names produced than the which such race was surrounded. Thus
latter. Either this or some other person, the Anglo-Saxons should be judged of
made also this statement : That the Teu for ages by the Normans, and the whole
tonic or Anglo-Saxon race were far more raceeven the noblemenbecoming serfs,
prosperous than the Celt; that if fifty fam voluntarily, rather than bear the opppres-
ilies of each were settled in Edinburgh, sive hand of their masters in freedom.
under similar circumstances, a few years Then the Anglo-Saxons were held in op
would find the first successful and prosper pressive contempt, and calumniated by the
ous, while the latter would be among the Normans, in derision, as slow, ignorant,
unprosperous and degraded. This is the and degraded people. They would be en
substance of the statements, and it is be titled to a very different judgment when
lieved they were found in the Times. The the same people became freemen, and for a
Times is not to be held responsible for the long time enjoying a free government un
sentiments of the reporter, who alone must der the civilizing influences of the later
be responsible. I understand that the en English government
terprising and distinguished proprietor of Every race, Teuton as well as Celt, will
the Times is a Mr. Walters. I know not occasionally show a poor, declining and de
how this is, but, judging from the name, I graded family, and I have seen some of
would risk any odds upon the fact that Mr. these among the descendants of the Anglo-
Walters would find himself a descendant Saxons as well as among the Celts. Wheth
of the Ancient Britons ; and not many gen er they were the descendants of the young
erations back he would find his parentage er sons of nobility, oppressed and pushed
in Wales. My observations in America down to lower grades, I am not for a cer
would not sustain Dr. Russell in his obser tainty informed; but of truth we may say,
vations and comparison between the llamp- "we always find the poor among us." But
dens and the Mc's and O's. '7 The Irish as to the Mc's and O's, I must say that
have been an oppressed people, compelled to both in the British Islands and in America
seek labor and subsistence in other coun they possess some of the most talented men
tries, under poverty and adversity- In of genius and intelligence of either country ;
very differently when they were oppressed the Irish in America have among them as
prosperous and exalted families in society
17. Since writing this I find in Mr. D.trwin's " De as any race. Among the Irish and their
scent of Man," Vol. I, ch. v, p. 16^, where he says:
"Thus the reckless, degraded, and olten vicious ini-ni- descendants are enumerated such men as
hers of society tend to increase at a quicker rale than T. A. Emmet, Charles O'Connor, Brady,
the provident and generally virtuous members. Or,
as Mr. Greg put the case, 'The frugal, rorc-seeing, Gen. Jackson, Calhoun, Greeley, A. T.
self-respecting, ambitious Scot, stern m his morality,
spiritual in his fiiith, sagacious and disciplined in Stewart, the prince of merchants, and the
his intelligence, passess his best years in struggles
and celibacy, marries late, and fcaves few behind list may be increased to any extent. They
him. Given a land originally peopled by a thousand frequently come here poor and degraded,
Saxons and a thousand Celts, and in a dozen genera-
lions five-sixths of the population would be Celts, having been for generations oppressed and
but five-sixths of the property, of th'" power of the robbed of the native wealth of their coun
intellect, would belong to the one-sixth of the Sax-
ona ihiit remained. In the eternal struggle lor exis try, and in a few years we find some of
tence, it would be the inferior and least favored race
that had prevailed; and prevailed by virtue, not of them among the most successful and pros
; i good qualities, but of its faults.1 " While I con
cede to this article all it says in favor of the Scots, perous men in the country. I have now
who are and must be, essentially, the descendants of in my mind a lawyer who holds a high
the Ancient Britons, ami those who so nobly fought
for iheir independence under Galgacus; yet I must rank in his profession, whose parents came
protest against its spirit as to what is said m its com here quite poor, and to be employed on our
parison of the Saxons and the Celts, to judge on my
extensive observation in America, as being uutrue canals and railroads. In 1832, while on
and founded in prejudice, and upon false and unwar
ranted classification. ; heir way, the parents were taken with the
 45 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book r
cholera and died, leaving an infant child less so In the other, or answered bv coun
the future lawyeran orphan, dependent tervailing qualities in the other, and each
upon charitable and kind friends unknown merit has its concomitant foible or evil; so
to the parents. But the Irish infant grew that, upon the whole, tHe characteristics of
up, was educated, and ranked first amongst the two races are pretty well balanced. The
lawyers of Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic de difference is more in the circumstances by
scent. Another instance, not very unlike which each have been surrounded. What
it, where an Irish boy was by an accidental I protest against is that neither should be
friend selected for a West Point cadet. He calumniated or traduced by prejudice and
made a gallant officerone of the most hatred, and the one extolled at the expense
distinguished and renowned of the late re of the other. Each has his peculiar merits
bellion. Instances of this kind, where an and let him stand there. In taking the ac
Irish youth has made his way up in the count, the fact should not be overlooked
world in the midst of the best Anglo-Sax that the Irishthe extreme wing of the
ons or Teutons, are not rare. His wit and Celtic race have been an ' oppressed and
activity often gives him a fascination. injured people by all their surrounding
When a fair opportunity is given to him, neighbors the Saxons and Anglo-Saxons,
the Irish Celt is not behind the Anglo-Sax the Danes and Scandinavians, the Nor
on or Teuton in the battle of life. In my mans and English; but happily now, in a
immediate neighborhood is a street a quar great measure, that is being removed and
ter of a mile in length, from the iron bridge a better government, guided by the princi
to the depot, every family in which is an ples of Christianity, humanity and justice,
Irish family living on their own lots, with being extended to them. And is to be
good, substantial, neat and comfortable hoped that Ireland, under her better auspi
homes, all painted, who came here about ces, may yet recover and hold a position as
twenty-five years since poor and depressed, she did in the sixth and seventh centuries,
and compelled then to live in shanties. No when she sent her mis?ionarits and schol
people, under the circumstances, have done ars to the rest of Europe.
or can do better than these. If some of We often see it stated in English papers,
our German immigrants are better oft" in and perhaps in the Times as otten as any,
the world, it is because they came here un that America is to be a Celtic country, that
der better circumstances; not that they a majority of the people are Celts or their
have done or can do better under their descendants. It is believed that this is true,
circumstances since they have been here. though that was undoubtedly said with a
I have nothing to say against the Ger view that it should be a reproach. The
mans; they have great qualities and merits immigration of French, Welsh, Scotch and
of their own. The Teuton and the Celt Irish, and the mixture of Celtic blood in the
are the two best races of the world; each English, render us far more Celtic than
has his superior points and their concomi Teutonic.i* The Irish emigration alone
tant foibles; each is very industrious and exceeds that of the German. The German
productive. The German may, as a gen here often talks of Germanizing America,
eral rule, hold on to what he gets with a but the previous hold that the people from
more severe grip, because he is a little the British Islands had acquired renders
more selfish, the Celt a little more free and that now impossible. It is now impossi
generous ; but both in his way equally in ble for them to change the habits and the
dustrious and productivefew loafers or moral and religious feeling of fifty millions
loungers to be found with either. But what of people. Americanism is now too deep
is insisted upon is, that though the Teuton ly fixed to be so eradicated or changed.
and the Celt have each their peculiar mer Nor is it really to be desired ; we have too
its and good points more strikingly develop iS Those who doubt Ihis let them examine Prof.
ed in the one than in the other. What is a Fiske's essay, "Are we Celts or Teutons," in Ap-
pteton's Journal, October, 1860; alsu, Nicholas:,
striking merit in the one is only a little Pike :ind Arnold on Uie same subject.
Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE. 45
many evidences of its moral good and pros were founded. In all the original settle"
perity for any such desire. What was not ments of the United States, from the first
long since said by a distinguished member to the present time, a full share of the Brit
of the British parliament upon this subject ish emigrants were due to the Celtic lami-
may be appealed to as> truth, and admitted ly, either the Welsh, Scotch, Irish or Hu
by every unprejudiced observer. Mr. guenots. This was the case with the set
Bright, in speaking of the United States, tlement of New England and Virginia; in
said: "That great and free people, the most the Mayflower there were some Welsh
instructed in the worldthere is not an people and, tor aught I know, some Scotch
American to be found in the New England and Irish. However that may be, it is cer
sUttes who cannot read and write, and there tain that these Celtic families form a large
are not three men in the whole Northern portion of the people of every state in the
states who cannot read and write, and those Union. They gave tone and force to the
who cannot read and write are those who sentiment which brought forth the revolu-
have recently come from Europe." Upon lution and formed the constitution.
another occasion he said: "Considering the I. The Huguenots,19 numerous refugees
short space of time to. which their history from the oppression of France. These
goes back, there is nothing on the face of were connected with the names of Nantes
the earth besides, and never has been, to and Tours in France, the very home of
equal the magnificent arrangement of the the Cymric Celts ot that country. These
churches and ministers and of all the ap came and formed very important and intel
pliances which are thought necessary for a ligent settlements in every state from those
nation to teach Christianity and morality of New England to Florida, and in the his
to its people. Besides all this, their econo tory of this country have placed high the
my in the annual public expenses is won names of Jay, Laurens, Marion, Bayard
derful; and there has always existed and others.
amongst all the population an amount of II. The Scotch, who have settled in
comfort and prosperity and abounding every part of the country, and have
plenty such as I believe no other country greatly added to its fame as well as to
in the world, in any age, has displayed." its prosperity; they have honored every
Now if it be said that this country, in the profession as well as tilled with credit
main, is a Celtic country, so be it, as I really every place, and given us numerous names
claim it is; the Irish are numerous, as it of renown,as Weatherspoon, Breckcnridge,
has been already said, and outnumber the Wilson, MacLean, Scott and others, who
Germans. Then comes the French Hu have here sustained their well earned rep
guenots and othersall of whom stand in utation in their native land.
need of no'eulogy here, are numerous and III. Thelrish, who are to be found
important citizens throughout the country. in every part of the Union; distin
Then come the Scots, who from the e;irli- guished for their generous sympathies,
est times, with their prudence, industry, their wit and activity, as well as for
talents and genius, have been adding to talent and genius of every kind; and, not
the wealth and prosperity of the country, withstanding their being calumniated and
as their names in brilliant numbers every traduced by their special enemies, are
where indicate. admired by all who have generosity
It has been frequently remarked by these and sympathy to perceive and acknowledge
prejudiced writers on the subject that the the merits and energy of a people who are
Celts were incapable of being successful capable of rising so far above the misfor
colonists, compared with the Teutons. This tunes and oppressions ot their race. This
too is a great mistake, founded upon preju augurs well, that under the great reform
dice and a partial view of facts, and not Ip Sec in the New American Cyclopaedia for this
making due allowance for those facts and article, Vol. ix, p. <!?, where a very interesting arti
cle is found of the Hn^ucnots and their emigration
circumstances upon which those opinions to America.
29
 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Bookv.
that the British government appears now station in every office and profession in the
to be disposed to render Ireland in accord state and Union. Robert Morris was the
ance with the policy and views of William great financier of the revolution ; Gen. Cad-
Pitt, in return for ages of injustice, robbery wallader was known as a military man and
and oppression, that the Irish at home will special friend of Washington ; Oliver Evans,
be able, as in this country, to acquire and of Philadelphia, was the first to invent and
retrieve a position in the United Kingdom set in motion a steam carriage and steam
to which they are entitled under the great boat.
natural gifts that Providence has bestowed Of these people who rendered important
upon them and their country. But it is to services during the revolution, or since, in
be hoped that they will seek their future forming the government of the several
prosperity as a member, as they now are, states and Union, their numbers are singu
of the United Kingdom, under a stern de larly great and their service and positions
mand for equal justice and humanity, in distinguished. It is said that there were
stead ol a chimerical reparation and disso fourteen of them who signed the declara
lution.> tion of independence, and their names are
IV. The Welsh or Cymry, though easily distinguished upon it. But in the
last, not leastthe descendants of the army of the revolution their numbers are
Ancient Britonshave materially aided in surprisingly great, as the Putnam*, Mor
the settlement and prosperity of the United gans, Lees, Humphreys, Cadwallader,
States. They were found among the earli Wayne, Shelby, the hero of the King's
est immigrants to New England and Vir mountain and of the Thames, the late gov
ginia. William Penn, the founder of Penn ernor of Kentucky, and numerous others
sylvania, who himself claimed to be a de might be mentioned. But it is not alone
scendant of the Ancient Britons who lived among the warriors that we find them, but
in Devon and other counties south and amidst every profession and every position
west of Bristol, had a warm side and par requiring intellect, industry and fidelity.
tiality for the Welsh, and held forth every New England has had many of them, and
encouragement for the Welsh to settle first of these should be remembered Roger
in Pennsylvania. Large settlements of Williams, the founder of Rhode Island,
them were formed in the vicinity of Phila who was the first to teach to the American
delphia Chester, Delaware and other people, in accordance with his Cymric edu
counties in the slate. These became flour cation, to insist upon the right and freedom
ishing settlements, long retaining their an of individual conscience, and the right of
cient language, the Cymracg, and became religious liberty. To him we may add
distinguished for their patriotism during Jonathan Edwards, one of the great intel
the revolution. But the same course of lects of America; Daniel Webster, whose
events overtook them which has every father was a Scotchman and his mther a -
where, in England and America, overtaken Welsh woman ; Morse, the geographer,
them and converted their descendants into and father of Morse, the inventor of the
an English speaking people, though prid telegraph; Breese, of Utica, the father of
ing themselves upon being of the blood Commodore and Judge Breese, of Illinois.
and descendants of the Ancient Britons, But in New York they have been numer
though by strangers taken to be of English ous as governors, judges, chancellors and
descent, and found among the most promi members of Congress, as Floyd, Lewis,
nent people of the state, yet fully acknow Morgan, Jones and others. In Virginia
ledging their ancient lineage, and known they have been specially distinguished, as
by such names as Morrii, Merideth, Lewis, President Jefferson, Chief Justice Marshall,
Brans, Griffith, Merrick, W illiams, and the Benjamin Watkins Leigh, the distinguished
like, who have occupied every honorable jurist, and the late General G. H. Thomas.
We might thus go over the whole of the
10 As to the merits of the Irish people, see ante United States, but they become too numer-
this chapter.
 Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE.
ous; but we might say that of the numer
ous families who claim an ancient British
descent ig the distinguished family of the
Beechers.
As to the Welsh of America, this may
be noted as a contrast between them and
the German settlers, that the latter are
noted for their acquisition of rich lands at
any cost, while the former will accept such
lands as Providence seems to throw readily
into their hands and deem it their duty to
improve them. While there are many in
stances where the Welsh have made good
choice of fertile lands for their settlements,
there are some instances where it has been
otherwise. About the commencement of
the present century an emigration came
from Wales and made a settlement on the
Alleghany mountains in Pennsylvania,
which they first called Bula. Their settle
ment has since received the name of Ebens-
burg, and has become the capital of Cam
bria county. They immediately upon
their settlement proceeded to erect a church
and a school house. Although their place
was a mountainous, hard and sterile land,
their industry and perseverance made them
a thriving and prosperous community. The
Germans equally wondered at their choice
of place and at their success. The Ger
mans had been for ages taught by their
feudal tenures to look upon the land as that
of the lord of the manor, and that their in
terest in it to be nothing unless' it vras in
the fertility of the land. The Welsh, how
ever, had not generally been subjected to
feudal tenures, except in those parts con
quered by the Saxons before prince Llew
ellyn's time, and every man held his land
in fee as by the civil law, and looked upon
it as his home, and cultivated it with an af
fection for it, though it might be sterile and
rugged. The feudal tenures they always
opposed and fought. The Ebensburg peo
ple, therefore, when asked how they caine
to make choice of so rugged a place for
their settlement, replied that it was more
the result of accidental circumstances than
of choice; that it was now the home of
their affection, and as a part of God's crea
tion they were bound to cultivate it; and
wherever Providence cast to them their
453
lot, their industry would make it product
ive, even if the rock required to be pounded
into tilth.
AYiother instance of a similar kind hap
pened at what is now called Steuben, in
the midst of the elevated hills about fifteen
miles north of Utica in New York. A
large settlement of Welsh people settled
there in a few years after the revolutionary
war. General Steuben, at the close of his
services to the United States, had a tract
of land given to him in Steuben, and about
the close of the last century settled upon
it. He soon became attached to his Welsh
neighbors, who, by their honest industry
and faithfulness, gained his confidence and
regard. The general, by his testamentary
will, devised a part of his land to a neigh
boring Welsh congregation, reserving ten
acres of it for his own burying ground, and
entrusted the care of it to the congregation ;
so that the Teutonic general entrusted his
body and last resting place to the care and
honesty of his Celtic neighbors, which
trust, I believe, has been honestly and
faithfully performed. The Steuben people,
soon after their settlement there, by their
industry, made their hilly and sterile coun
try flourish, and became known in New
York city as one of the most flourishing
dairy countries in that State. Similar in
stances might be pointed out in other parts
of the United States, but this must suffice.
In reviewing the history of the Ancient
Britons, the candid student will observe
and be compelled to admit how important
a part the Britons occupied in ancient times,
and their descendants not only in the west
and north of Britain, but must also occupy
in England itself. History and science
prove this. No country was ever con
quered by a race of the same femily, as the
Saxous and Britons were of the same fami
ly of the human racethe Aryanbut
where the original race become an import
ant part of the new people formed by the
conquest. This is everywhere proved by
history, and as apparent in England, Nor
mandy, and in all other countries, as it is
fully shown by their history, and proved
by all the investigation into the present
physical and moral characteristics of its
454 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book v.
people.21 ! ing numbers those from Germany. The
The course of history shows this; and | descendants of the English, Welsh, Scotch,
though in England the Saxons, in their and Irish come far nearer those ol a deci
conquest, swallowed up that portion of the ded English or Anglo-Saxon origin, in
Ancient Britons in England, known as the manners, habits, and prcdelictions than
Lloegrians, who became Anglo-Saxons ;*< Germans do to either. Go to the farms of
but the residue maintained their position the two races, and an immediate difference
in Britain until modern times, in all the is perceived, in their culture and taste.
west and north from the British Channel While there is a striking similarity in all
to the Cheviot Hills, the south line of Scot those from the British Islands, there is a
land; and thence all the north of Britain, striking difference in the Germans. The
which includes as the rnilants of the I latter, everywhere, cultivate a larger stock
Ancient Britons, the people of Strath- of horses than the former people. The
Clyde, the Picts and Scots: the latter hav Germans have a larger number ot" horses
ing emigrated from Southern Britain to than of neat cattle; while all the British
avoid the Romans, to the north ot Ireland, people cultivate a larger stock of the latter:
and thence to Scotland; where they united taking great pains to have a fine and choice
with the Picts as a common people. The herd and breed of neat cattle; and this is
English from tiie first 'landing of the Sax the case whether they claim to be of a Cel
ons to the present duy, have been contin tic or Anglo-Saxon origin.23 There is also
ually forming unions with the Britons, not this difference between these two great na
only by the well-known union of the two tionalities, in their general mode and habit
people, under Cadwallon and Penda, A. D. of thinking and acting in civil and political
633; b"t even earlier, bv their conquest, as matters: The Teuton is generally more
socfations, and marriages: and since by the inclined to take care of selfhis own indi
like intercourse. The English and the vidual intereststo the exclusion of that of
English language is the development of others, or the public. This difference .be
this union, and the subsequent addition of tween the two races is by no means always
Danes, Normans, and other emigrations so, 1'or instances of the reverse are often
from Cymric France. The British people found; but, then, it is the exception rather
of the present day are a new development than the general rule. This individual and
of a race and language, the growth of Brit self-interest leads the Teuton people to pre
ish soil; partaking more of their British fer a close centralization, rather than to a
than of their Saxon origin. The Saxons federal or confederate union of the sur
constantly carried on their wars in which rounding elements; and to look for his in
their prominent men were constantly being terests to be with those above him, with
slaughtered; and this was especially the the hopes of arriving there himself, rather
case in the war of the Roses : so that the than with those in his own level, or class.
old race was constantly disappearing, and The former he supports, the latter he leaves
a new race coming on from the midst of every one to take care of himself. The
the people; and sometimes from its lowest Celt is more inclined to sympathize with
ranks, so that it became dilncult, if not im his own class, and to be charitable; to con
possible, for any one to trace his lineage sider whatever interests man interests him.
to an Ancient Saxon origin. In this respect the Celt is more like the old
In America the Celt and the Teuton Greek of the republic ; the Teuton more like
meet upon a perfect equality as to their the Roman, not of the Republic, but of the
political, legal, and social standing; but imperial times of Diocletian and Constan-
those who are descendants from immigants tine the Great. The former tends to build
of the British Islands, exceed in overwhelm- up the republic, the federal or confederate

2i See ante, B. , ch. . 23. This appears also from a comparison of the
enlistment upon the tax duplicates, in counties where
22. See ante, B. , ch. , J. British or German settlements prevailed.
Chap, iv.] CONCLUSION OR EPILOGUE. 455
union; and to unite the exterior and several conflict of the Rebellion: but, now, the
parts, for the purpose of controlling the war being over, amnesty is cultivated, and
tyranny or oppression of the center, as we no blood is spilt on accout of that conflict,
find it to have been in Ancient Greece, in hatred and revenge. The Southern gen
and now in the United States. The Teu eral approached the Northern man, and
ton tends more to consolidation and cen said : " Sir, as we now have peace, let us
tralization, as we find it now in Germany, shake hands over the bloody cavern,'1 " No,
with William as emperor, and every man sir:" said the other, "not over a bloody
a soldier. The Teuton looks to that which cavern, but over a free and happy coun-
is above him for his interest, rather than to try."
sympathize for those around him in his What has been said in relation to the raJ-
own level; concentrating his hopes in his ative character of the two races, has not
own elevation, rather than in the common been said in malice, but in the spirit of truth
elevation of his class. "Support and pro and science, in vindication of the Celt from
tect our lord," says the Saxon, "for he pro what was conceived to be a false and un
tects, me." But says the Cymro, "You just aspersion against them. All that is
must not unman the man." To which the asked is that the investigation of the sub
Scotchman says, "Man is man for a' ject be placed upon the basis of truth and
that." And the Irishman affirms, " Man humanity. Some take it for granted that
must sympathize with man, and defend his as the Saxon has conquered, that settles
rights and liberties upon terms of equal the question of their relative merits. But
justice, benevolent".1, an,I humanity." The it should be remembered that conquest is
Tcut >:)i.: element was manifest in the Sax often the result of the advantage that " the
on gov rnment from its origin to the Nor assailant has over those who act on the de
man conquest, when all the landed 'prop fensive;" and are constantly reinforced
erty, and almost all the wealth of the coun from their original source. It was thus
try were in the hands of the sovereign and that the Tartars conquered the more civil
his earls, all descendants of Woden; while ized Chinese; the barbarian Turk, the civ
two-thirds, or three-fourths of the people ilized Grecian ; the northern barbarians,
were either slaves or serfs. Of that govern civilized Rome; and a thousand similar ex
ment the House of Lords is a lineal de amples, where the result depended more
scendant, while the House of Commons upon fortuitous circumstances than upon
and the Congress of the United States are the relative merits of the intellectual and
the Representatives of the Celtic elements. moral qualities of the two contending
The Teuton's supreme regard, is power, races. The Turks, however, contend for
position, and wealth. The Celt, though he the rule of success and power; but, possi
regards these, sympathizes still more for bly they may change their opinion on this
the individual man, and demands the great subject, as people often have.
est good for the greatest number. Still, Hut, is it not true that there is, on the
each of these two great nationalities have part of some, who claim a pure Saxon ori
their better points, and their foibles, while gin, often without any evidence to prove
both are admitted to be the foremost of the it, a sentiment of hatred? And, if so, is it
world. Here, in the United States, it is not high time it should be reformed? We
but seldom that either is found traducing find it so stated in Hume, Macaulay, and
or calumniating the other, but admit the others; and Prof. Arnold, in. his superior
good qualities of each. Hatred is left for essay on Celtic Literature, repeats the of
the calamities of war; but in peace, the cul fensive epithet as lamentable evidence of
tivation of the amenities of friendship and the fact. \Ve all know with what unre
amnesty. Recently a Northern man met strained energy. Lord Nelson expressed his
a Soulherner, who had been a general in hatred of the French; yet in the next gen
the Confederate service; and both bad been eration, Queen Victoria and Napoleon III
engaged against each other in the mortal meet in the most cordial friendship. The
 456 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Book. v.
two nations coalesced as allies in the Crime the freebooter was exalted into a hero of
an war; and like Christians forgot their romance. As long as the Gaelic dress was
animosities. Politicians will express hatred worn, the Saxon had pronounced it hideous,
of their foreign foes, in order to gain pop ridiculous, nay, grossly indecent. Soon af
ularity with their constituents; and a soldier ter it had been prohibited, they discovered
may do the same, for the purpose of crea that it was the most graceful drapery in
ting war, that he may have a field to exer Europe. The Gaelic monuments, the
cise his profession, and gain fame: but they Gaelic usages, the Gaelic superstitions, the
who do it against their fellow-countrymen, Gaelic verses, began to attract the learned
in time of peace, are to be pitied, for it the moment they began to disappear." *
would seem that they acted without rationa * * * "At length this fashion reached a
motive, unless it would be a pure mali point beyond which it was not easy to pro
ciousness. ceed. The last British king who held a
If such unfounded and unjust opinior court in Holyrood, thought that he could
and sentiment were prominent, as an unal not give a more striking proof of his respect
terable matter, it might be more serious for the usages which had prevailed in Scot
and lamentable. But as a fact such senti land before the Union, than bv disguising
ments and opinions are <.fteu a mere tem himself in what, before the Union, was
porary whim or fashion; not founded upon considered the dress of a thief."
substantial' tacts. Macaulay gives us a Thus, it appears from Macaulay, as well
good instance of this. He tells us of the as others who might be quoted, that there
bitter hate and calumny once entertained was not much reliance to be placed upon
against the Highland Scots, which after these hates or fancied affections, for both
awhile passed away. "The English nation," were often the result of anything but that
says Macaulay,24 "still heated by the recent which was founded upon facts and justice.
conflict, breathed nothing but vengeance. But now, since the Union, and since the
The slaughter on the field of battle and on government has made so many reforms
the scaffold was not sufficient to slack the towards an equality of justice and freedom,
public thirst lor blood. The sight of the it is to be hoped that the people of the same
tartan inflamed the populace of London government, and under an Union beneficial
with hatred, which showed itself bv un to all ; and who are at least as much Britons
manly outrages on defenseless captives. A as Saxons, will cease to hate, asperse, and
political and social revolution took place malign each other: but respect and love
through the whole Celtic region. * * * that Union and people, who have, by a
As long as there were Gaelic marauders, common effort and merit, of both Saxon
they had been regarded by the Saxon pop and Celt, extended their rule and influence
ulation as hateful vermin, who ought to be around the whole globe; so that it is not
exterminated without mercy. As soon as so much the hailing of the reveille as the
the extermination had been accomplished, iiTfjrning sun passes in its dailv course
as soon as the cattle; u ere sale, iround the world; as it is that it carries
with it the English language, and British
24. Macau). iv'b Historv, Vol. 3, i eedom and civilization.
13, p. 2.|0.
 APPENDIX.
NOTE I.ERRORS IN HISTORY.
ST. HELENA'S BIRTH-PLACE.
Truth in history is what gives to it inter
est and confidence; and when that is absent,
history itself sinks into the fable and ro
mance. The latter class of writings are
tolerated when well written, for the reason
that, when we read them we know them to
be what they assume to be. But when we
discover that our history is false, we feel
indignant at the deception it produces.
Still, errors do abound in history, and that
from necessity; the frail imperfections of
man, in all cases, in ascertaining the truth,
and in others from his prejudices or bigotry,
wh'ch disables him from investigating and
ascertaining the truth, and satisfies him
with the errors.
In- our history we have, in several in
stances, pointed out the injustice done by
some English writers to the Celtic race,
and especially to the Cymry, by prejudices
and unfounded assertions. The laboring
oar at which they all labor, is the assertion
that the Ancient Britons form no part of
the ancestors of the present English, or
impart any blood to the present in habitants
of England; for the reason, they say, that
the Ancient Britons were all slaughtered
or driven to Wales: or tlAt the present
inhabitants of Wales are not the descen
dants of the Ancient Britons. These as
sertions are fully and ably refuted by some
of the best English historians; they also
contradict each other, for one of these theo
ries refutes the other; and the whole is the
most glaring perversion of the truth of his
tory found in the annals of any country.
These instances need not again be point
ed out. They are made specially manifest
in all that relates to the Celtic race, and
nothing is so hostile to their antipathies as
as any claim of capacity or honor claimed
by that gallant, but unfortunate race. Let
the reader compare Tacitus, Sharon Turner,
Whitaker, M. Arnold, Thierry, Michelet,
and Guixot as one class of historians, with
Gibbon, Macaulay, Green, Woodard, and
Wright as a class on the opposite side;
and he can not help but become convinced
of the unwarranted prejudice and antipa
thies of one class of fellow-citizens against
another, who are fellow-subjects of a com
mon co'untry, entitled to equal justice and
forbearance and common rights. In the
United States, after a most bloody and ter
rific war, between two classes of people,
now that the war is over, an effort is made
by all good citizens to forget and forgive
their former differences, and shake hands
not over a bloody cavern, but over a free,
happy, and prosperous country. Should
this example be followed by that class of
English writers referred to, it might be the
means of restoring peace and good will
to their fellow-subjects; especially now,
since the whole of the British Islands
have become a common country and
nationality to all their people, under the
renowned name of "The United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland: thus giving
to all the common protection and prestige
of that glorious name of Briton and
British.
 APPENDIX. [Note i.
Macaulav, Latham, and others show- with great liberality and fairness. With
how great a variety of nationalities, people, special manifestation of regret that he is
and language of which the English people compelled, by facts,thus to write, he says:
and their language are composed. The "The fame of Constantine has rendered
former author speaks of these various ele posterity attentive to the most minute cir
ments being "melted down " until they cumstances of life and actions. The
have become one nationality. Of these place of his birth, as well as the condition
those of a Celtic origin form the greatest of his mother, Helena, have been the sub
portion of the present British people. Be jects not only of literary, but of national
sides the Celtic elements that entered into dispute. Notwithstanding the recent tra
this composition at the first entrance of the dition which assigns to her father a British
Saxon conquest, there has been ever since king, we are obliged to confess that Helena
a constant addition to it by immigratie was the daughter of an inn-keeper; but at
from Celtic countries, as from France, Nor the same time we may defend the legality
mandy, Brittany, Wales, Scotland, ant of bur marriage against those who have re
Ireland, who have amalgamated with the proached her as the concubine of Constan-
Saxon until that element has been "melted tus."' And, with great regret, he labors
down," so that the people have become to make her the daughter of an inn-keeper
more truly a British people than that of the of Drapanum, a town of Nicomedia in
character of their Saxon origin; and so Asia Minor; or that her lather kept an inn
very different from the Teutons of the at Naissus,1 where, he says, it is probable
continent. This idea should especially re that Constantine the Great was born. All
store them to a friendship, and to liberal that Gibbon has said upon the subject is
principles of "peace and good will," since carefully written, and is contrary to what
they have become under the Union, citi has been written by numerous historians.
zens of a. common country and govern We gather the following facts from Gibbon,
ment: that of the United Kingom of as well as from other sources of history :
Great Britain and Ireland. In the year A. D. 270, Aurelian was made
At present these benevolent principles emperor. Gaul at the lime was greatly
prevail with a large portion of the Briti.-h overrun by the barbarians He soon sent
people, and give hope that they will soon those two distinguished generals, Probus
take place of those of evil sentiments of and Constantius, to Gaul to recover il, and
prejudice and hatred. This disposition ol restore it to the full possession of the Ro
hostility to races first made its special ap man laws. This was accomplished by
pearance in English literature, by a person them in A. D. 272. At the same time Zen-
of the name of Pinkerton, then a citizen of obia, the queen of the East, was making a.
London, a little over a century since; and successful progress against the Roman do
his antipathies have been kept up by others minion; and Probus was called from his
in the present time. By these opponents operations in Gaul, to assist Aurelian in
every claim set up by the Celts to their his conquest of the Queen of the East.
credit, has been controverted and contested, This was during A. D. 273; and in the
and every merit traduced, without regard same time, Conslantius was left in com
to facts or history. If any of the great mand of Gaul, which had been reduced to
heroes of ancient times were claimed to submission and peace. In 274, Constantius
be Britons, it was certain to be denied, with was made governor of Moesia, which placed
regret, that they were obliged to give their riim at Naissus, its capital. These facts
nationality to some other countrv. Thus, clearly prove the improbable story of Gib-
Gibbon, in a number of instances, denies x>n, that Constantius in the year 273 had
to a number of distinguished persons the
right of British nationality, where history i. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Km-
most evidently made them such; although pirc, Vol I, ch. xiv, p. 143; and notes H, I. and K.
3. Xaissus is not m Daria, as Gibbon says, but ID
it is said he has generally treated the Celts Upper Mcusiu, south of the Danube.
 ERRORS IN HISTORY. 459
met Helena, a daughter of an inn-keeper probabilities of the case: and leaves no ac
at Drapanum,or Nuissus, and there became knowledged fact controverting it. All the
the father of her child, the Great Constan- older historians on the subject, assert Brit
tine : for that year he was in command of ain as the birth-place of Constantine the
Gaul, and could not have been at either of Great; and if he was born there, that ren
those places : Drapanum being the greater ders it the probable nativity of his mother.
part of a thousand miles east of Naissus, They contend that the words of Ccmstan-
and the latter place still a far greater dis tlne's panegyrist, "Britannia* tlli'c arii-ndo
tance east of Constantius's residence in tioliilics fecisti" prove his birth to have been
Gaul. The storv is also refuted by its own in Britain. But Gibbon, under his singular
circumstances, for it is admitted by Gibbon, partiality, alleges that these celebrated
and all historians, that Helena must have n-ords, " may with as much propriety be
been legally married to Constantius, for referred to the accession as to the nativity
otherwise, his divorce would not have been ot Constantine." Then, if it may be as well
required. Independent of the alibi, it is referred to his nativity, as contended, then
the most improbable storv in the world, why not so refer it? The only answer is,
that Constantius, a great Roman general, that his prejudice forbade it.
in the midst of his renown, should, upon a Gibbon, in Note K. to Chap. XIV, says,
casual occasion, meet an inn-keeper's that there have been three places that con
daughter at Drapanum, or Naissus, and tended for Constantine's birth-place, viz.:
actually marry her. Nothing but prejudice Britain, Naissia, and Drepanum. To the
would enable an historian to believe so im first he decidedly objects; but to the claims
probable a story. The best evidence is that of the latter two, he appears to be doubtful
Constantine the Great was born A. D. 274, and indifferent which should prevail. He
and the most ancient historians Bay in Brit says: " It is, indeed, probable enough that
ain; and that agrees with circumstances. Helena's father kept an inn at Drepanum,
In 270, Constantius, the father, was sent by and that Constantius might lodge there
the Emperor Aurflian to reconquer Gaul. when he returned from a Persian embassy,
During 271 and '2, he was actively engaged in the reign of Aurelian. But, in the wan
with IVobus in that mission. In 273, he dering life of a soldier, the place of his
was governor of the province oi Gaul, and marriage, and the place where his children
probably that year built his town of Con are born, have very little connection with
stances, in Gaul, a sea port on the British each other." This sentence is written by
Channel, as stated by Henry of Hunting Gibbon, with very little regard to his own
don's Chronicle.3 It was here, or in Brit sentiment, or that of mankind: it is,
ain, that Constantius Chlorus met Helena at least, heartless. But it is also against all
as a British princess, and married her. probability. Constantius was not, during
This also agrees with an old British history, the time in question, an embassador to
which I, many years since, read, but which Persia ; nor engaged in the war against
I can not now cite; but it was as reliable Zenobia, the Queen of the East. That was
as any other history on the subject, which the task of Probus. From A. D. 271 to
stated that that year Constantius was called 274, Constanlius was entirely engaged in
from Gaul to Colchester or Camelodhim, Gaul; first as general, and then as governor,
in Britain, as an arbitrator in a matter there and, during the latter time, both Spain and
in litigation, where he met Helena, the Britain were also under his command. But
daughter of King Coel, of Colchester, the supposition that a Roman general of
whom he then married.* This agrees with Constantius's rank and standing, upon a
all the acknowledged facts, and all the casual, stoppage at an inn-keeper's house,
would actually take that inn-keeper's
3. See this History in Bohn's Antiquarian Lib. p. daughter; who, it is said by her enemies,
28.
4. See also "Six Old English Chronicles," in was then a hostler-girl, and marry her in so
Bohn's Lib., Geoffrey of Mnnmmith, p. tto; also public and legal a manner as to induce the
Bicrmrd of Cirincestcr, ]>p. 444, 446, and 467.
 46o APPENDIX. [Note i.
necessityin the opinion of the Emperor ynia, at the eastern extremity of the sea of
Diocletianof a solemn and public divorce Marmoria. She was sent there as an eligi
The supposition is preposterous, and contra ble place for the education of her son.
ry toallmorals and even Roman manners There she and her noble son lived many
Helena at the birth of her son, Constantine. years ; and Britain had become almost a for
was twenty-seven years of age, and it was gotten country, by means of the wars then
eighteen years after that that she was sol agitating Gaul and Britain, and the attach
emnly divorced, in order that her husband ment she formed for her new home. Thus
might legitimately marry an emperor's she became forgotten by her native land.
daughter. If the marriage had not been During that time she was under a cloud,
so legal and notorious, it would have been especially after the divorce, and before the
better and easier to have considered Hele accession of her son ; she was scoffed at
na's marriage as illegitimate and void ; and and derided by the members of the new
thus cut off her children as heirs, to the court, who had taken her husband away
prejudice of the children of the second from her. But, still, Drepanum had be
marriage. come to her as her dearest home on earth;
In confirmation of this improbable story and after the accession, it was ordered by
of Naissus or Drepanum, it has been al Constantine, the emporor, to receive the
leged that Constantius was never in Brit appellation of Helenapolis, in honor of his
ain until after it was recovered from Car- mother. Constantine was known to have
ausius, in 294. But this is said without lived there while a child, and was educated
any evidence, or probability, to support it. there. In the minds of her enemies who
Nothing is more probable than that Con- little cared who she was, she acquired a
stanlius, while governor of Gaul, in 273, new biography : the keeper of the house
after Probus had gone east; and while it is in which she lived, became an inn-keeper,
said that both Spain and Britain were and she herself became the former's atten
within the jurisdiction of the governor of dant on the horses of "the guests at her
Gaul, he may have been in Hrilain. Besides fathers inn. During the time she was
the history referred to, states that in that so under a cloud, there were plenty of per
year he was called there at Colchester, sons at the new court, who aided in robbing
upon an important arbitration, where he tier of her marriage rights,, who were ready
met Helena and married her. Besides, it is to give currency to this story.
no ttretch of probability to say, even if there Early in the reign of her son, and before
was entire absence of evidence of his having 'hristianity was generally adopted by the
been then in Britain, that Helena may have ruling portions of the Roman people,
been married to him at his new city of Helena, in the enthusiasm of her Christian
Constances, where she was visiting her faith, took an early opportunity of visiting
Cymric friends in Armorica, on whose the Holy Land, and to pay her devotion to
coast the city was built. the birth-place of Christ. At Bethlehem
Now, it maybe asked, how came Naissus he hastened to find the place of the stable
and Drepanum to be mentioned, and that ind manger in which she acknowledged
Helena attended her father's stable at one icr Savior was born. This gave occasion for
or the other of those places, as a hostler- itlicule by the heathen Roman people, and
girl? These three items can be easily ac n her case applied the term, stabularia*
counted for. It was eighteen years after which was afterwards used in narrating the
the marriage when she was divorced ; and tory of her early life, as evidence of its
it was thirteen years further, in all thirty- ruth, and of her humble origin, bv those
one years, before she was relieved from the who know nothing of her British birth,
consequences of the marriage, bv the death
of her husband, and the accession of her 5. This word is translated. " a tender of cattle,"
and was first applied to Helena in reference to her
great son. During almost all of that long regard to the stable at Bethlehem, by her pagan en
time she lived at Drepanum, a city of Bith- emies, and which gave occasion for the storv of her
having been an imi-keeper's daughter.
 ERRORS IN HISTORY.
and Christian life : which were all forgotten
in her long absence from her native home,
and stories invented to cover up the inju
ries she had received at the hands of the
emperor, in her divorce.
In the like manner, by those who were
ignorant of the truth, Naissus was made
the birth-place of both Constantine and his
mother; and the story of her humble ori
gin, ignorantly or maliciously repeated. It
is true that Constantine may have been
born there, or taken there in his infancy,
for the facts of history render it doubtful
whether he was born there or in Britain ;
for it was in 273, while Constantius was
governor of Gaul, that he was married to
Helena, at Colchester: and in the latter
part of that year, or the fore part of the
next, that Constantius went to Naissus, as
governor of Mccsia, to which place Helena
was brought, either before or after the birth
of her renowned son.
The story of the inn-keeper was first in
vented with reference to Drepanum, but
afterwards discovered that it did not apply
there, it was transferred to Naissus by those
who were utterly ignorant of the true his
tory of St. Helena. The story was man
ufactured long after the deatli of every
person whose life was concerned in it. But
the only early written authority we have
_ on the subject is that taken from the obit-
uarv eulogium of Constantine the Great:
" Britanias illic oricndo iiobilies fecisti."
And this has always, until Gibbon'* time,
been applied to the emperor's birth; and it
required Gfbbon's partiality or prejudice to
say that it applied as well to his acces
sion.
It is true, that the birth-place and nation
ality of Helena are not positively estab
lished by history ; but the stories of Drep
anum and Naissus are inconsistent in them
selves, with each other, and with other
historical facts. The course of argument
here pursued, the writer hopes, is fair, con
sistent, and truthful; and .f it is not so he
has been honestly deceived himself. It has
been said that a writer of history should be
so impartial as not to disclose his partiality
or nationality. But this rule must neces
sarily be violated in an advocacy of this
461
kind; hut it is hoped that this partiality has
not been manifested greater than called for
bv the words of Gibbon.
The truth of history gives us the assu
rance of these facts of St. Helena. She was
born A. D. 247; was married to the Empe
ror Constantine Chlorus, in 273, while he
wasgeneral-in-chief and governor of Gaul.
In 274, Constantius was governor of Moesia,
on the Danube, and made Naissus his
headquarters; and then Constantine the
Great was born, either in Britain or at
Naissus. Soon after that. Helena and her
son were sent to Drepanum, in Bithynia,
in Asia Minor, among the Ionian Greeks,
for the education of the son ; where they
lived until the divorce in 292, when Con
stantine was eighteen years of age. And
she continued to live there until the death
of her husband, Constantius the Emperor,
in 307, and was succeeded by his s,on Con
stantine in Britain. Helena was then sent
for by her son, the emperor, and lired with
him at Trieves, in Gaul, a lew years; then
at Rome; and then was engaged in her
travels and pilgrimage in the East, in 325,
where she expended in the most magnifi
cent manner, at Jerusalem and Bethlehem,
in building churches and other monuments
in commemoration of early facts in the his
tory of Christianity. Of these, the Church
of the Nativity, and that of the Sepulchre
were particularly distinguished, and have
endured to the present day. It was as
sumed that she then found the true cross.
But it was the place of the Nativity, and
the stable, and the manger which received
her special attention and veneration. This
gave opportunity to the Greek heathens of
her day to repioach her with the term,
stalmlaria (cattle- tender), and to invent the
story, that she was the daughter of an inn-
keeper ot Drepanum, and attended her
father's stable; in which condition she was
found bv Constantius, on a casual journey
through that place, and there married her.
Helena returned from her pilgrimage in
327; and on her way to Constantinople, met
her great son, the emperor, at Nicomedia,
but a short distance from Drepanum, in
Bithynia, and died in his arms, in the
eightieth or eighty-first year of her age.
 462 APPENDIX. [Note I.
All the established events in Helena's and Spain. As it has never been claimed
life forbid that the stories of Drep.imim that she was a native of Gaul, we mav as
and Naissus should be true. In person sert that she was a native of Britain, which
and acquirements, she always received the has been claimed by so many historians.6
consideration of a person of personal dis This article, up to the last paragraph but
tinction, which she could not have re one, was wiitten previous to 1871, when I
ceived if, at the time of her marriage, received from Liverpool, a copy of Miss
twenty-seven years of age,she hud Jane Williams's History of \Vales. That
been an inn-keeper's daughter, and an at history was written with great care and
tendant on the horses of the inn. At that truthfulness; with accuracy of citation to
time of life such an employment would her authorities hardiv to be found in any
have stamped upon her that humble char other history, which renders it a very desir
acteristic for life. She was the acknowl able and most acceptable history of Wales.
edged wife of a great and distinguished Upon reading it I found that Miss Williams
general, which, in the opinion of the Em had avoided laying any claim to Helena as
peror Diocletian, required a divorce, in or a Briton; and I took that occasion to write
der that Constantius might marrv the to her my views of the question, and soon
daughter of hN colleague, Galerius; and afterwards had the pleasure of receiving
Constantius himself always treated her as from her a very kind letter, written at Lon
a mother worthy of his distinguished son. don, where she then had her residence, ac
But the mother of no sovereign was ever companied by a manuscript of her views
more honored than Helena was by her il and authorities on the snbject. This letter
lustrious son. Upon his accession she was and manuscript are given below. They
sent for, and at Trieves and at Rome every are, in hand-writing and compostion, a
distinction, consideration, and bounty were masterly spcciujcn of literary and scholarly
conferred upon her, and she was entitled, attainments. In the composition of the
Augusta. He conferred upon her all desi- manuscript she took the pains of a thorough
rable wealth and distinction, which, in after , examination of the books in the British
life enabled her to gratify her Christian Museum, on the subject of our inquiry;
piety, her taste, and munificence at Jerusa and the result of it is her very scholarly
lem and Bethlehem. This could not have manuscript on the subject. It seems that
been if her manners and habits had been this investigation again satisfied her that
those of a rustic stuhiilnriti. In all history, there was nothing in history ihnt positively
Helena is generally made the native proved that Helena was a native Briton;
of the same place that gave birth to and, giving away to the authority of Gib
her distinguished son. Gibbon says that bon, her vivid regard for the truth forbade
three places have been assigned to that her liberal sphit to claim it as a fact, how
honor: i, Britain; 2, Drepanum; and 3, ever strongly and repeatedly asserted in
Naissus. Now, as history shows that du British history. But she overlooked the
ring the year 273, Constantius was in Gaul, fact, as Gibbon himself had done, that du
as governor, the story of their nativity of ring the years 271, '2, and 3 Constantius
either of the latter places, must be false;
and the logical conclusion is that the former Henry of Huntingdon, Geoffrey of Mnnmnulh,
must be true. Tt-,1Ihat the birth /
of ,~i
Constan- ', Richanl of Cirincester, SpcriS'Vs Fairv Queen. Lu-
tcr En_,.,ish ],istori,ns, i,(,lh i!ly :md cccesiastic.
tine may have been at Naissus, is here ad- adopt the Hriiish nativity of Helena with zeal and
force, nnd among them ;tre scveni! distinguished
mitted, but the marriage of Constantius En(jlih bishops, until Gibbon's great authority
silenced it, ... : ip.illy
I.:.., rests princ
which :.. .n_. u|K>n
. a story. *_i_1
told
ami Helena must have been in Gaul or bv So<:r,tes, a historian who nourished a limit, a
Britain, and that she was a native of one tury after Helena. The probability is, that he
made but little or nn inquiry about Helena's nativity.
or the other countries is equally evident; The language of Miss Jane Williams, in her manu
and it is as probable that the marriage took script, is certainly true: "Probably the terms, 'inn-
kee|>er's daughter' and 'cattle-tender,' were oppro
place in Britain as Gaul, for Constantius as brious epithets used by the indignant heathen to vil
ify the Christian mother of the first Christian empe
governor of Gaul governed also Britain ror."
 ERRORS IN HISTORY. 463
was actively engaged in Gaul; the first he former was called Cymric, and tli.it of
two years in a vigorous war for the recov he latter, Llcegyr. The difference between
ery of Gaul, and the last year as governor hem was about that between the people of
of that province, to which Britain and S'ew England and those of Virginia; bu
Spain were attached. The marriage, there he intercourse between them, under the
fore, inust have been in 273, and the birth /tomans, was infinitely less. The great
of Constuntine in 274 may have been in earning of the Ancient Britons- -poetry
Britain or in Gaul ; or it may have been and history were with the Cymry; and
at NaisBus, where his father had been, just none of the Lloegrian literature has come
then, transferred as governor of Mrcsia. down to us. It probably all disappeared in
This effectually contradicts the theories in the early barbarous times of the S;;xons,
relation to Drepanum and Naissus, and which began soon after Helena's time. It
renders them ridiculously improbable; that is, therefore, not at all strange that her
a. great general, as Constantius then really name does not appear in the poetry and
was, would, upon a casual journey, as Gib listory of the Ancient Cymry. They,
bon tells the story, stop at an inn and marry ruobably, knew nothing of her, who to
the inn-keeper's daughter;but history them would have been then considered as
proves that he could not have been there: a foreigner.
and that he had not at that time made any At the ripe age of twenty-seven, Helena
journey upon a Persian embassv, or other became the legitimate wife of C'onsuuitius.
wise, as Gibbon suggests it. If, at the The next year she resided with her hus-
probable time of the marriage it were ban.l at Naissus, but whether her son was
shown that Constantius had such a journey born there, or in Britain, before she emi
to perform, instead of the contrary appear grated, we do not know; for both countries
ing, there might he some shadow of possi claim the honor of his birth.
bility that such improbable a story might When Helena emigrated to Naissus, her
be true; otherwise, the repeated claims father, Coel, may have been dead, and in
made by the old historians, down to Gib those days of war, and the commencement
bon's contradiction that Helena was a Brit of the Dark Ages, she may have bade
ish princess, is historically true, and con Britain an eternal farewell ; may have been
sistent with all known facts. and likely was forgotten by every one there.
In the letter and manuscript of Miss Soon therafter her residence was fixed at
Williams, there are a few suggestions as to Diepanum; and, having received a Roman
the evidence in this matter, which deserve education at Colchester, in Britain, was re
notice. The fact that Constantius and his ceived by the Greeks of Asia Minor, as a
son were very popular rulers with the fair Roman lady, and the wile of a great
Britons, is as strong evidence in favor ol general, without inquiry as to her parent
their claim that Helena was a true Briton, age, or the birth-place of her son: for
as that it was founded upon a false as Britain then was as unknown and strange
sumption. a land to them as Nova Zembla is to us.
That the older poets and historians do During almost the whole oi the eighteen
not notice Helena, is not in the least years, from the birth of her son to her di
strange, under the circumstances. If she vorce, Helena resided with her son at
was the daughter of King Coel, she was Drepanum, as the legitimate wife of Con
only nominally a princess; for her father stantius, the great Roman general, with all
was only a stipendiary king; a mere mag the appliances due to her position and rank.
istrate under the Roman government. The Though, probably, more a Roman, by edu
Britons of that day were divided into two cation, she had now become a Greek in
nominally distinct people, and, under the habits and manners; and all reference to
Romans, in two distinct provinces: the her nativity, by herself, was neglected and
Cymry people of the west, and the Lloe unknown to all about her. The two joint
grian-Cymry of the east. The country o emperors, Diocletian and Galerius, now
 APPENDIX. [Note I.
proposed to add another colleague to their father, was in Gaul, as governor, during
number, and for that purpose, Constantius the year before the birth of his son ; and
was acknowledged as worthy their choice. could not have been at Drepanum or Nais-
But Galerius insisted that he should first sus at the time of his marriage.
marry his daughter Theodosia, as means o Miss Jane Williams is overpowered by
securing him to his interest. Diocletian the authority and judgment of Gibbon, in
insisted that if the marriage should take claiming Britain as the birth-place of Hel
place, rfhere should be first a divorce pro ena; and by her love of truth and candor,
cured from his lawful wife, Helena, as a was induced to abandon it, without observ
decent respect to law and custom. Thus ing that Gibbon, in his own history, shows
was the case of Josephine prefigured, in that Constantius was so engaged in Gaul
every respect,as founded in political con that he could not have been at either of the
sideration, and its selfishness and reckless places in the East, as the places of the
ness. If it had not been for ihe literature marriage. If it could be proved that Con
of the day, and its rapid intercourse, Jo stantius, instead of being engaged in Gaul
sephine's nativity in Martinique, a West during the years 271 and '73, was engaged
India island, her parentage might be as ob in an embassy to Persia, and therefore, may
scure as that of Helena. have (as Gibbon says,) casually passed
After the divorce, Helena continued to re through Drepanum or Naissus, and mar
side at Drcpanum thirteen years longer, un ried an inn-keeper's daughter, with whom
til tlie accession of her son as emperor, upon he temporarily sojourned (an assumption
the death of his father. During these long both at once improbable and scandalous, to
years she was under a cloud, suffering every say the least of it), I admit that the strength
indignity from the new court; traduced by of my argument is taken from me, but not
every invention ; the history of her nativity overturned ; and so thought all the great
neglected and forgotten ; and became even English historians previous to Gibbon's
indifferent to herself. The first allusion to time, both ecclesiastical and lay, with great
her in history, that has survived to the force and zeal.
present day, is found in the Life of Con- The discrepancy pointed out by Miss
stantine, by Euscbius, written soon after Williams, between the Latin text of Henry
the death of Constantine, which was about of Huntingdon and its translation, will be
nine years after that of his distinguished satisfactorily understood by reading the
mother. Euscbius there, without intend translation in Bohn's edition, which gives
ing to say anything about her, merely says, the name of the village or city built by
in the most concise and unsatisfactory Constantius in Normandy (then Armorica),
manner, that the mother of Constantine as Constances, which was their pronuncia
was born of obscure parents, in the village tion of his name: which city was built by
of Drepanum. This Eusebius was a con him in the year 273, the year of the mar-
temporary, but considerably younger than iage. The fact that this city, now in
Constantine. He was, probably, informed France, was built by Constantius, and so
that Constantine and his mother resided at named after him, is a well-known and rec
Drepanum, when the former was a mere ognized historical truth; and these facts,
child, and her nativity was unknown to n connection with others in relation to
him, it was said she was born of obscure Helena's nativity, are important
parents. But later Latin historins positively Upon a review of all the evidence within
deny their nativity at Drepanum, and with my reach, I am constrained to affirm that
as little evidence, transfer the whole story the weight of evidence is greatly in favor
of their nativity to Kaissus. Gibbon, of Helena's Britanic birth, as a historical
feigning to believe those unfounded and act, independent of the fact that Constan-
improbable stories, rejects the British na ius was a resident of Gaul, as its governor,
tivity of Constantine and his mother, and during the year 273, the year before Con-
overlooks the fact that Constantius, the stantine's birth.
 ERRORS IN HISTORY-
The numerous errors tuggested and de
veloped in this history of St. Helena, all
in the like manner followed by Gibbon in
relation to other distinguished persons of
British birth. It would seem that all
claimed by the Britons as conferring dis
tinction on their race, is either denied or
traduced by him, where it was possible to
do so ; where the subject was not conclu
sively supported by the Greek and Latin
historians ; and all their errors were accep
ted at, true. It is true that Gibbon highly
eulogizes Britain ; but in this respect great
distinction is made in relation to truth and
justice between what transpired before or
after the Saxon conquest. As a special in
stance ot this kind, we may mention that
of Clemens Maximus, who eventually be
came a Roman emperor. Gibbon asserts
that he was a Spaniard, and in no manner
a Briton. The facts and history of the
matter show beyond a historical doubt, that
Maximus was born at Rome of British
parents on both sides. When quite a
young man he was placed in military ser
vice, under the great general Theodosius, in
Spain. After serving there a longtime, he
returned and settled among his kindred in
Britain, and married a princess in North
Wales; wheje for a long time he resided,
and raised a family; and many families
there claim descent from him. While thus
residing in Britrin, he was chosen emperor
of Rome. Other similar errors must be
delayed for some future occasion.
The following is a part of the letter from
Miss Jane Williams, so far as it refers to
the subject under consideration :
"51 CoLESHILL STREET,
LONDON, S. W.
April 18, 187^.
'DEAR SIR:
Your interesting letter dated March 27,
together with the papers enclosed, reached
me on the i6th of April. It gave me very
great pleasure to find that my History of
Wales had traveled so far and had met
with so kind a welcome, and I derived
scarcely less satisfaction from the assur
ance that at Delaware, Ohio, after an ab
sence of three score years and ten, the true
heart of a Cymro is still beating waimly
465
towards the ken giulad
'Of fair Glamorgan, ocean's band,
Sweet margin of the sea ; * * *
The beauteous shore, whose harvest lies
AH shelteri.-d from inclement skies.
Radiant wllh corn and vineyards sweet,
And lakes offish and mansions neat.'
"These lines were translated by my
friend, the late Mr. A. J. Johnes, of Garth-
myl, Montgomeryshire, from Dafydd ab
Gwilym's Address to the Summer, which
was written about Chaucer's time.
"It is a pleasure also to tne to communi
cate with a person of so much intelligence
and information upon anv historical topic
connected with our common country. My
father was a Cymro of the Cymry. I have
spent the greater part of my life in Wales,
and my nearest relatives reside there, but
in historical researches I seek for truth
alone, not for the glory of my race, though
I love that dearly too. I live almost alone
with my books around me, and my time is
at any one's disposal to whom I can be
useful
"I should be very glad if the discovery
of some old MS. or unknown medal, or
forgotten monument or memorial of any
sort, could prove the British birth of Hel
ena and of Constantine. I was fond of the
hypothesis, and resigned it with regret,
not to the argument of a prejudiced "cavil
ler," but to the silent evidence of my
friendly and truthful books.
"The testimony of contemporary and
nearly contemporary historians must, of
course, prevail against .the unsupported
or ill supported assertions of the chroni
clers of the twelfth and following centuries.
I have access to the London Library,
where any books can be had; and I pos
sess a good collection of historical, poeti
cal and religious works, besides others on
botany, science and general literature, hav
ing taken delight from infancy in the ac
quisition of knowledge.
"Inclination would lead me to welcome
fresh evidence on the subject we are now
discussing; but, judging by the proofs now
available, I believe that any candid and
judicial mind must arrive at the decision
which I have formed.
"The enclosed papers are the result of a
survey of authorities made since the re
466 APPENDIX. [Note i.
ceipt of your interesting communication. chapter of his first book calls Helena,
I could quote many other books on both the mother of Constantine, 'a tender of cat
sides, but they would add nothing of real tle' (stabularia). Bohn's Ed., p. 5. Matthew
value either to testimony or judgment upon of Westminster repeals the particulars re
testimony. Indeed the Monumenta His- lated by Socrates. Bohn's Trans., Vol. i,
torica Britannica comprises all the extant pp. 191, 192.
authorities on British subjects preceding "Whence Richard of Cirencester, alias
the Norman Conquest, and, thanks to Lord Bertram, derived his Helenic information,
Romilly's kindness, I possess that admira it is not difficult to conjecture, but an inti
ble work. * * * * " mation of doubt may be traced as an ac
The following is Miss Williams' manu companiment to many of his assertions
script, which accompanied her letter: concerning this princess.
"Spencer, in his Fairy Queen, justly "The series of factsthat Constantius
praises the author of the Brittania as 'Cam- Chlorus was a popular ruler in Britain and
den the nourricc ofantiquity and lantern un died in Britain, that his illustrious son Con
to late succeeding time;' and Camden, in stantine was here proclaimed emperor and
his account of the Romans in Britain, hav hence proceeded on his conquering career,
ing mentioned Constantius Chlorus, adds: that Constantino's mother was highly hon
'While he was a soldier in Britain under ored by him, that she distinguished herself
Aurelian he married Helena, the daughter by signal acts of religious munificence
of Ccelus or Cselius, a petty prince here, shown more especially at Jerusalem, that
and by her had Constantine the Great in she was canonized after death, and that
Britain. For in this all writers agree with several Cambrian princesses were called
the great Bnronnis, (I list. Eccl.) except one after her name, particularly Ellen, the wife
or two modern Greeks, who are inconsid of king Howel Daa, tends, I think, to show
erable and vary from one another; and a cer how easily the erroneous belief of Helena's
tain learned person, who grounds his dis British birth obtained acceptance in the
sent upon a faulty passage of J. Firmicus. Middle Ages, and how carelessly that be
Chlorus was compelled by Mecimian to lief was suffered to prevail until Gibbon
divorce his wife and marry his daughter dispelled it by passing judgment upon the
Theodora.' Gibson's Ed., 1772, Vol. i, p. evidence. The flippant sneers of Wood
49. Camden quotes the words of St. Am ward are unworthy of notice.
brose in praise of 1 lelena in the same para "None of the early Welsh bards mention
graph, and in various other passages Helena in -their poems, none of the old
throughout the Brittania h<t admits as a Welsh catalogues of saints enroll her name,
fact the British birth of Helena. Baronius none of the ancient pedigrees claim her as
wrote his Annales Acclesiastici A. D. a Cymraes, and out of many hundred na
1588 1607. It appears from the words of tive triads only one alludes to her as born
St. Ambrose that stalmlaria was a term of in the country, and that one is of monkish
reproach applied to Helena on account of origin. Gildas, Nennius and Bede know
her erecting an edifice upon the supposed nothing of her British blood, and the An
site of the sacred stable at Bethlehem. nales Cambriae are equally ignorant.
Probably the terms inn-keeper's daughters The Rev. Rees Rees, in his able work
and cattle keeper were also opprobrious epi on the Welsh Saints, has deliberately re
thets used by indignant heathens to villify jected the claims of Helena and Constan
the Christian mother of the first Christian tine to British birth. The Rev. Robert
emperor. Williams omits their names from his
"William of Malmesbury discreetly says : Enwogion Cymru.
'I vouch nothing for the truth of long past "The chronological abstract prefixed to
transactions but the consonance of the the Monumenta Historica Britannica, un
time; the veracity of the relation must der the date of A. D. 273, says: 'Constan
rest with its authors ' Preface in the first tius, afterwards emperor, surnamcd Chlo
 ERRORS IN HISTORY.
rus, married Helena Ixxii, 2; she is said to
have been the daughter of Coel, king of
Colchester, 702, n.' Under date of A. D.
275: 'Constantine, son of Constantius and
Helena, is born about this time, Ixix, I, 2,
Ixxx, i, &c.' And under date of A. D. 292:
'Constantius repudiates Helena and es
pouses Theodor^,' &c.
"Ex Panegyricis Veteribus, M. H. B., p.
Ixix: 'O fortunata, et mine omnibus beatior
terris Britannia, quae Constantinum Ca_'sar-
emprima vidisti."
"Another Rhetorician hailed the ascen
sion oftonstantine in words which have
been misunderstood as descriptive of Brit
ish origin The very same orator, how
ever, used similar terms when celebrating
the accession of Constantius Chlorus, who
was of Illyrian birth: 'Britannias illic ori-
endo nobiles fecisti.'
"At .p. Ixxii, 'Ex Eutropio,' Lib. vi, ch. 17 :
'Verum Constautio mortuo Constantinus,
ex obscuriori matrimonio ejus filius, in
Britannia creatus est impcrator, et in locum
patris exoptatissimus moderator accessit.'
"P. 702 gives that part of the first book
of Henry of Huntingdon's Histora: Anglo-
rum which relates to Helena, with the fol
lowing note 3 appended to the name of
Coel: 'Unde hauscrit llenricus tarn haec,
quam quae p. 703 de Londonia, et de Col-
cestria ha'oet, haud constat.' Mem. For
ester's translation. , H. B. Throughout the Monumenta His-
"Bonn's Ed., 1853, is evidently corrupt
regarding the names, for the text in the
M. H.B is: 'Condidit anteni Constantiam
in ea parte Galliae quae nunc vocatur Nor-
mennia, accepitquc filiatn regis Britannic!
de Colcestre, cui nomen crat Coel scilicet
Helenam, quam sanctum dicimus, et genuit
ex ea Constantinum magnum.'
'Ex Paulo Orosio. Lib. v, c. 22, p. Ixxx.
" 'Constantius vero Augustus sunimae
mansuetudinis et civilitatis, in Britannia
mortem obiit, qui Constantinum filium ex
concubina Helena creatum imperatorum
Galliartim rcli([uit. Igitur mortuo, ut di-
xi, Constantio in Britanniis, Constantinus
imperator est creatus.'
"Lxxxi and Ixxxii
"Ex Eusebio sive Hieronymo: 'Constan-
3
467
tius sextodecimo imperil anno diem obiit in
Britannia Eboraci. Post quern filius ejus
Constantinus ex concubina Helena pro-
creatus regnum invadit.'
"Lxxxvil.
"Zonaras mentions the mother of Con
stantine merely as 'a former wife of Con
stantius. Beade Chronicon sive de sex
^Etatibus Sieculi: 'Constantinus Constan-
tii ex concubina Helena filius, in Britan
nia creatus imperator, regnavit annis xxx
et mensibus x.'
M. H. B., 90 D.
"B. H. Ecc. Gentis Anglorum, Liber i,
c. xii: 'llisteinporibus Constantius qui
viveiite Diocletiano Galliam Hispaniam-
que regebat, vir summit' inansuetudinis et
civilitatis in Britannia morte obiit Hie Con
stantinum filium ex coiiiiibina Helena
creatum imperatorum Galliarum rellquit.
Scrihit autem Eutropius quod Constantin
us in Brittania creatus imperator patri in
regnum successerit.' M. H. B. 115, E.
"Becle Hist. Eccl. Gentes Ang., Liber v,
cap. xvi: 'Hanc Constantinus impcrator eo
quod ibi crux Uomini ab Helena matie
reperta sit, magnitico et regio construxit.'
"M. H. B., 266, C.
"The two passages from Henry of Hunt
ingdon's History are given in the original
Latin at p. 702 D. and p. 703 B. of the M.
torica Britannica no other mention is made
of the. mother ot Constuntine. Geoffrey of
Monmouth's Chronicle is exiled from that
invaluable treasury.
"In his Ecclesiastical History, Euscbius
mentions and Eulogizes the father of Con-
sUmtine, but avoids mentioning Helena.
Socrates, who wrote in or about the year
445, gives a very particular account of her,
and relates that Drepanum, once a village,
having been made a city by the emperor,
"was called Helenopolis after her name.
Eccl. Hist., Lib. i, c. xvii.
"Bonn's Translated Ed., pp. 47, 48: 'Val-
esius, in a note on the passage, p. 395, says
that Socrates borrowed the story from
Euscbius' Lite of Constantino, L. iii, c.
xxxiii.' Theodoret, who wrote soon alter
Socrates, about A. D. 450, devotes the xviii
 APPENDIX. [Note ii.
chapter of his first book to her proceedings NOTE II.
at Jerusalem, but he does not allude to her DATES BETWEEN 388 AND 420 32 YEARS.
parentage or the place of her birth. Eva-
gruis begins his history after her time. So- . There is some conflict of opinion as to
zomen' the contemporary of Socrates, says the true dates of events between A. D.
much of Constantino, but nothing of Hel ^SS, the date of the death of Maxim us, and
ena. Philostorgitis, epitomised by Photius, that cf A. D. 420, when it is assumed that
does not mention her. Britain had become independent of the Ro
"Besides 'ho extracts in the M. H. B., I man government, and that resumed by its
have carefully looked through the above own people.
which I possess in the edition published by Mr. Sharon Turner, in his History of the
Bohn. I have likewise examined the fol Anglo-Saxons, who is, on account of his
lowing various other works bearing upon learning and his impartial fairness, entitled
the subject. Eutropius. was the contem- | to a Sreat deal of confidence and" respect,
porary of Julian, and he says: "Galerius, a | places the date of the acknowledgment of
the independence of Britain by Honorius,
man of excellent moral character and skill
ful in military affairs, finding that Italy, by and the assumption of the government by
Constantius' permission, was put under his the Britons themselves, following the death
government, created two CajsarsMaxim- of Maxim us; and previous to A. D. 410,
in, whom he appointed over the East, and and atlempts to show that Gildas is erro
Severus, to whom he committed Italy. He neous in his chronology ; and that Bode, in
himself resided in Illyricum. But after following him, is likewise in error. He
the death of Constantius, Constantine, his says (B. II, Ch. VII, p. 119, n. o.j: "Bede
son by a wife of obscure birth, was made without any authority, and contrary to. the
emperor in Britain, and succeeded his fath literal meaning of Gildas, postpones it for
er as a most desirable ruler.' Watson's about twenty years, lib. i., c. 12, and thus
Translation, L. x, Ammianus Mar- lays a foundation for his subsequent mis
celinus, the soldier, and friend as well as takes."
the historian of the emperor Julian, men Now, I most respectfully dissent from
tions 'the town formerly known as Dre- Mr. Turner's assertion that Bede, contrary
panum, but now as Helenopolis.' Yonge's to the literal meaning ot Gildas, and with
Trans., L. xxvi, c. vii, p. 425. out any authority, postpones the events al
"The writers in Knight's English Cyclo luded to for twenty years. It is believed
paedia weigh evidence very carefully, and that the events alluded to, transpired after
their 'Biography,' Vol. iii, 'St. Helena,' on the death of Constantine (the Usurper),
the authority of Eusebius' Life of Constan in A. D. 411, and, not depending upon the
tine and Hubner's De Cruci's Dominica; death of Maximus fri 388, a period of twen
per Helenam inventione, states that the ty-three years. Between those two periods
first wife of Constantius Chlorus 'was born there are too many known events that did
of obscure parents in a village called Dre- transpire, to admit those claimed by Tur
panum In Bithynia, which was afterwards ner, to have also transpired previous to A.
raised by her son Constantine to the rank D. 410; as he has done in his history.
of a city, under the name of Melenopolis.' The government of Maximus, from A.
p. 342. Eusebius was the contemporary D- 383 to 38S, was a strong one, until he
of the first Christian emperor, and would passed over into Italy, and soon afterwards
gladly have assigned royal birth to Helena lost his life. During his reign of five years,
Augusta if he could, for she was royal in his capital and seat of government was at
munificence. Trieves. in Belgic-Gaul, much more con
venient to Britain than to Spain and South
JANE WILLIAMS,
ern Gaul, his southern dominion. We
56 Coleshill street, London, S. W. learn of no special complaint during Max-
April 18, 1872. imus's time that the northern invaders we
 ERRORS IN HISTORY.
not well kept down. Whenever there was a
strong government existing over Britain,
these northern invaders were kept quiet
for some time after it; but as soon as they
ascertained that there was a weak or feeble
government in Britain, they became trou
blesome, and that just in proportion as they
found that government more or less feeble.
After a strong government, which had for
cibly repelled their invasions, they usually
remained quiet for some time, until they
could ascertain how feeble or inefficient the
government was. Some time after the
death of Maximus, the invaders from Cale
donia became troublesome, and we learn
that Theodosius the Great, who came into
power in the West after the death of Max
imus, sent Chrysanthus as his vicarius and
governor of Britain.' He was an able and
experienced administrator of public affairs,
and we learn he expelled the invaders, and
restored a time of peace and prosperity.
Soon after this, in A. D. 395, Theodosius
died, and left the empire to his two sons;
to Honorius, the West, and to Arcadius,
the East. Honorius was then an infant of
only eleven years of age. Stilicho, the
very able and successful general against the
Goths, under their leader Alaric, was his
guardian; who soon went to Gaul, repelling
the barbarians on the Rhine, and sent an
efficient force inlo Britain, to restore peace
and order against their enemies. But in
A. D. 403, Stilicho was recalled to Italy to
meet another invasion of the Goths under
Alaric. With him was recalled the princi
pal part of the army in Britain. Italy was
now attempted to be overrun by the uni
ted armies of the Goths and Germans, but
was relieved by the victory of Stilicho at
the battle of Pollentia, in A. D. 403; and
the deliverance of Florence in A. D. 406.
During this time the government in Gaul
and Britain was neglected, and the rem
nant of the Roman armv left there to hold
I. Mr. Turner assumes that Chrysanthus, as the
vicarius of the emper-ar, had no right io control the
military force in Britain, hut was confined to the civil
department. The law separating the military from
the civil department did not operate on the emperor
or his vicarius. The vicarius had all the powers of
the emperor, and was, therefore, in this case fully
governor-in-chief of Britain. The exception taken
By Mr. Turner to the powers of Chrysanthus, is,
therefore, believed not to be well taken.
469
possession of their military posts, and to
do police duty, became disorderly and re-
bellious. Notwithstanding the great body
of the Roman army having been called to
Italy, yet the Britons having been so long
and completely under the control and gov
ernment of the Romans, they did not yet
dare to think of their independence, under
the threatening clouds of the barbarian in
vasions. They deemed it at present more
prudent to submit to the control of the Ro
man army than to incur at once the enmity
and hostility of both the army and their
northern enemies. They, therefore, permit
ted the army, as a Roman army, to control
and lead without any change in the civil ad
ministration ; toelect and set upa newempe-
ror, not of Britain, but of the empire. This
was in A. D. 406. "The spirit of revolt,"
says Gibbon, "which had formerly disturbed
the age of Gallienus, was revived in the
capricious violence of the soldiers; and the
unfortunate, perhaps, the ambitious, candi
dates, who were the objects of their choice,
were the instruments, and at length the
victims of their passions." Their first
choice -was that of an officer in the army,
said to have been their general, whose name
was Marcus; but finding his ability not
equal to his task, they soon deposed him,
and elected another, by the name of Gra-
tian, equally unknown; and who was
equally unceremoniously deposed, and
murdered. Within four months thereafter
they proceeded to another election, and
made choice of an officer of low grade in
the ranks, by the name of Constantine,
whom they elevated to the honors and dig
nity of Emperor of the Western Empire,
as has been already stated. This man,
however humble his former position may
have been, proved himself to have been
worthy of this choice; and proceeded with
energy to discharge the duties of the posi
tion to which he had been elevated,not
as emperor, or as pendragon, or wledig of
Britain, but as emperor, by the Roman
soldiers, as one of the emperors of the Ro
man Empire. Here, probably, there was a
great mistake committed; but could the
people of Britain help themselves? They
were not then independent; they were still
 470 APPENDIX.
under the control of Roman officers and
soldiers, and they did not desire to elect an
emperor of Britain, but of the Roman Em
pire; to bring Rome, if possible, under
their control, and to their aid. As such
Constantine proceeded to regulate the af
fairs of what he and his constituent sol
diery claimed to be their dominion- -the
Western Empire. He first put the affairs
of Britain in order, and the most important
part of that was to put the northern fron
tiers in a proper state of defense, in order
to secure the country from an attack from
that quarter. His next object was to collect
and secure a sufficient army to render his
crossing over safely to Gaul; and to en
force obedience to his command while there.
He collected together as many as he could
of the Roman soldiers left at the various
military stations in Britain; and calling to
his service, as Roman soldiers, as many
foreign adventurers and soldiert of fortune
as possible: he then added to his ranks as
many of the young men of Britain as it
was possible for him to command. Having
arranged for the defense and protection of
Britain, he passed over the Channel to Bo-
logne, A. D. 407, with a considerable army,
calling upon the cities of Gaul to .submit
and ubserve his authority. He soon re
ceived the submission of Gaul, and ob
tained a decided victory over the Germans
on the frontier, eo as to confine them to
the east side of the Rhine. He was soon
able to obtain the recognition of his riijht
and authority in Britain, Gaul and Spain;
making Aries his capital and imperial res
idence, before A. D. 410, the year in whicli
Alaricand his Goths sacked Rome. His suc
cess was great,2 and his rule and authority
as emperor was acknowledged and obeyed
from the Friths of Albion to the Pillars of
Hercules. But in 411, he had the misfor
tune to incur the enmity of both Honorius
and his ablest general, Gerontius. The
latter was a Briton and had been Constan-
tine's most efficient ally in establishing his
reign, and supporting his authority; but
had taken irreconcilable offense because
Constans, the son who had been made C<e-
3. i Gihhon'tt Decline and Kali, ch. xxxi, p. 434. man general, he received from Honorius
Pictorial History of En^hiud p. 50, B. i, ch. i.
[Note u
sar and ruler of Spain, had taken a favor
ite and i.ext in command, instead of Geron-
tius, who had been the most efficient instru
ment in acquiring for them the possession
and control of Spain. This slight and in
justice was more than the gallant soldier
could bear; and, possibly, they, the father
and son, were convinced that their obliga
tion to the general was greater than they
were willing to sustain, and had deter
mined that the cheapest way to pay the
debt of gratitude was to dispose of him.
It may, therefore, have been a question of
life or death between them. Gerontius was,
therefore, determined on revenge, if not on
the safety of his life. He might have as
sumed the government of Spain himself,
but he chose to place the diadem upon the
head of a friend and countryman by the
name of Maximus, as another emperor of
that name, amidst the usurpers of that day.
He then proceeded to dethrone Constantino
and the son. The latter he captured and
put to death, and the former he besieged at
Aries. This was relieved by the appear
ance of the imperial forces, under the gen
eral Constantius, and the army of Geron
tius declaring in favor of adhering to Rome
and Honorius. This led to his romantic
death in the manner already stated.
While Gerontius was besieging Aries, he
negotiated with the barbarians on the
Rhine, to come to his aid as allies. This
has been laid to his charge by unfriendly
historians, as a confederation with the bar-
bariaiis against Britain, his own country:
but this was not so. At Aries it was doing
no more than Rome and all powers at that
time were doing, in employing the bar
barians as allies. Whatever may be said of
his conduct toward Constantine and his
son, his negotiation with the barbarians
could not be charged against him as trea
son against his own country; for it was no
more than the Roman government was
then in the constant practice of doing,
whenever they could engage the barbarians
in their service, instead of fighting them.
After Aries and Constantine were surren
dered to Constantius, the most efficient Ro
and the court at Ravenna, says Gibbo
 ERRORS IN HISTORY.
"the important commission of extirpating
rebellion in the West."3 He, undoubtedly,
proceeded to restore the government of
Honorius in Gaul and Britain. In consid
ering the situation of those countries at
that time it is proper to remember that
Rome did not release her grasp upon these
important provinces until the last moment
they were able to hold on to them; nor
were these provinces willing to dispense
with the majesty of the Roman name and
tlie protection of her army as long as it
could be retained. This was not done in
Britain until after A. D. 420, and in Gaul
until A. D. 485, when Clovis, the Frank,
took possession of the whole of Gaul, and
the Roman armv was finally withdrawn.
Previous to these times whenever we learn
that the Roman army was withdrawn to go
where they were elsewhere demanded, it
was only the great bulk of the army that
could be spared; there were always enough
retained to keep possession of the military
stations, and to do police duty. So that
when the Germans, under Radagaisus,
and the Goths, under Alaric, in A. D. 406,
invaded Italy,* and the army in Britain
was recalled, there were sufficient troops
still left to preserve Roman rule, and sol
diers enough in the name of the Roman
army to elect Constantine emperor; and to
install him in his majesty as emperor of
Rome in Britain, Gaul, and Spain. In the
name of Rome, Constantine and Gerontius
in A. IX 4oS-'io restored Roman rule in
Britain and Gaul; beat back the barbarians,
and regained the dominion in Spain. After
the fall of Constantine, late in A. D. 411,
the general Constantius proceeded to exe
cute the commission he received from
Honorius, by reclaiming northern Gaul
and Britain, in A. I). 4i2-'i4. In the latter
year, the Goth, Adolphus, who had, with
more than romantic fortune, married 1'la-
cida, the sister of Honorius, and daughter
of Theodosius the Great, was installed at
Narbonne in Gaul, as the faithful ally of
Honorius;1 commissioned with Constan-
tius to preserve the western provinces to
3. Gibbon, ch. xxxi, p. 435.
4. Gibbon, ch. xxx, p. 410.
5. Gibbon, p, 433, etc.
47*
the Roman Empire. In A. D. 414, Adol-
phus, in good faith to Rome, repelled the
invasion of Gaul; presented the heads of
the two rebel tyrants of Gaul, Jovinusand
Sabastian, to Honorius at Ravenna, as tro
phies and evidence at once of his faithful
ness to the emperor, and the restoration of
Gaul to its obedience to his brother-in-law,
Honorius. He then readily accepted the
proposal, says Gibbon, "of turning his vic
torious arms against the barbarians of
Spain; the troops of Constantius inter
cepting his communication with the sea
ports of Gaul, and greatly pressing his
march towards the Pyrenees," on his way
to Spain. This was in A. D. 414, with
Constantius and the Roman troops in pos
session of the seaports of northwestern
G.iul and Britain; and Gibbon assures us:-
" The remainder of the reign of Honorius
was undisturbed by rebellion; and in the
space of five years, seven usurpers had
yielded to the fortune of a prince, who was
himself incapable either of counsel or ac
tion."
This agrees with the assertion of the
British historians, that Britain was aided
and relieved from the invasion of her ene
mies by the Roman army, in A. D. 414,
again in 416, and finally in 4i8-'i9. In the
first of these three dates, the Roman army
of relief was, undoubtedly under the gen
eral Constantius, who, it is said, had served
much in Britain.6
After the death of Adolphus in Spain,
in A- D- 4'5, ne was succeeded by \Vallia,
another Gothic hero, as the head of these
barbarian allies of Rome, in protecting
their rule and dominion in Spain and Gaul.
For that purpose he was established as, the
faithful ally of the Romans, and bound to
preserve Gaul, in Narlranne and Aqui-
tania, in A. D. ^i6-'i<j, and so continued in
this position, at least during the reign of
Ilonorius, who died in 423. And Gibbon
continues to assert: "The title of Hono
rius and his successors, their laws, and their
civil magistrates, were still respected in the
provinces of Gaul, of which they had re
6. Xcnnius, 27, where Constantius is rclerred to
as one of those who had served much in Britain, but
his numbers are very erroneous.
473 APPENDIX.
signed possession to their barbarian allies;
and the kings, who exercised a supreme
and independent authority over their native
subjects, ambitiously solicited the more
honorable rank of master-general of the
Imperial armies. Such was the involuntary-
reverence which the Roman name still im
pressed on the minds of those warriors,
who had borne away in triumph the spoils
of the capital."
It is impossible to draw any accurate in
formation as to the chronolgy of events in
these times, at stated by Gildas and Nen-
nius. Though treating of the difficulties
of these unfortunate times, they confound
and transpose events so that itis impossible,
from them, to fix the precise time when an
event happened, or their relative position.
Stili, we mav, by the aid of other histories,
fix the time when some of these events
did happen. Thev both pass over the
time from Maximus to ConstaiHiuswhom
Bede calls "Count Constanlius,"? and
then speak of events which must have hap
pened after that event. They appear to in
dicate that the country "groaned for many
years under the cruelty of two foreign na
tions, the Scots and Picts;''8 and "thrice
were they relieved by the Romans."9 At
one time the Roman legions came in strong
force, to aid the Britons in punishing and
driving away the enemy. It appears from
Bede that the Romans came several times
to the rescue of the country, and aided the
Britons to recover the northern province,
and rebuild the wall from the Frith of
Forth to the Clyde. This was probably
during the year 414, and again in 416, un
der the command and direction of Count
Constantius.li>
Bede describes the last of the Romans in
Britain and their former relief thus: "But
the former enemies, when they perceived
7. Bccle, Eccl. Hist., B. i, ch. xi.
8. Gildas, $14.
9. Nenntus, 30.
10. About the latter date this Constantius returned
to the court at Ravenna, was married to the empe
ror's sister, Placulia, the widow of Adolphus, and
became- by her the father of him who was afterwards
Valentinian III. About A. 0.421 or '22 Honorius
created Constantius Augustus, but he lived only
about Seven months after that to enjoy his honors.
See Gibbon, p. 452, ch. xxxiii. Historians say he
was th last emperor who had visiled Britain.
[Note IP
that the Roman soldiers were gone, imme"
diately broke into the borders, and overran
all places, and, like men mowing ripe corn,
bore down all before them. Hereupon
messengers are sent again to Rome, im
ploring aid, lest their wretched country
should be utterly extirpated, and the name
of a Roman province, so long renowned
among them, overthrown by the cruelties
ofbarberous foreigners, might become ut
terly contemptible. A legion is according
ly sent again, and, arriving unexpectedly
in autumn, made great slaughter of the
enemy, obliging all those that could escape
to flee beyond the sea. * * * * Then
the Romans declared to the Britons that
they could not for the future undertake
such troublsome expeditions for their sake,
advising them rather to undertake for them
selves, like men, the charge of engaging
their enemies, who would not prove too
powerful for them, unless ther were de
terred by cowardice."'1 This is extracted
from Gildas and Nennius, the latter of
whom says: "Once more the Romans un
dertook the government of the Britons and
assisted them'in repelling their neighbors;
and after having exhausted the country of
its gold, silver, brass, honey and costly
vestments, and having besides received
rich gifts, they ceturned in great triumph
to Rome.""
The British (Cymric) historians say in
confirmation of Bede's Chronology, that
after the death of Constantine, the Briton,
the Roman forces returned to Britain three
times, i. e., in A. D. 414, 416 and 419. In
an ancient book, abstracted from all the
best authorities, after stating the difficulties
of the times after Constantine the Briton
was dethroned in Gaul, and the repeated
attacks of the Picts and their allies, the
Franks and Saxons, it is stated: "A coun
cil of the leading Britons was held, at
which it was determined to invoke once
more the interposition of the Romans, and
offer them tribute and the entire submis
sion of the country. The names of those
who were deputed to carry this resolution
u. Bede, is. rl. Hist. b. i, ch. i).
13. Nermms, 30.
 DR. NICHOLAS LETTER. 473
into effect were Peryf Ap Cadifor and its influences were withdrawn. This ef
Gronw Dda ApEinion Lvgliw. Notwith fort of Turner and Gibbon thus to estab
standing the affairs of Rome could scarcely lish a new chronology is contrary to Bede
justify any expectation of assistance, yet, and all the old historians,'1 and inconsist
by the importunities of these men, they ent with many of the facts narrated by
obtained a legion of troops, who returned Gibbon himself. Mr. Turner is a very fair
with them to Britain, and soon destroyed and impartial historian, and there can be
or dispersed their enemies. This occurred no question as to his honesty and truthful
in the year' 42O."13 ness. He may be right, but the weight of
This authority states the assistance ren evidence arising from the circumstantial
dered by the Roman army in expelling the facts renders the probabilities very strong
enemy, in repairing the defenses, and cn- against his conclusion. It is deemed that
COuraging the people to make arrangements a fair and reasonable construction of the
to defend themselves, informing them they old authorities will accord with the venera
would be able to aid them no more, they ble Bede.
then hade the country and people a final
adieu and separation. NOTE III.
It was then, upon this final departure, DR. THOMAS NICHOLAS1 LETTER.
that Ilonorius sent his letter to the cities of The following letter of Dr. Thomas
Britain, absolving them from allegiance to
Nicholas, M. A., Ph. D , F. G. S., of London,
Romf, acknowledging their independence,
wasiirst published Ui the Cardiff Principality,
and exhorting them to provide for their
\\hith sufficiently explains itself, and the
own defense. It was after that the Britons author's \iewsnnd hopes of this history. Dr.
deemed themselves at liberty to act inde
Nicholas was the author of "The Pedigree of
pendent of Rome. Up to this time it was
he English People '' and several other his
the Roman soldiers and their officers who
torical works of much scientific repute.
controlled the political affairs of the coun
Greatly lamented, Dr. N. departed this life,
try, and were in possession of the military May 1 2th, 1878, while actively engaged in
stations. It was them who elected and making arrangements to have this history
set up the last emperor, or tyrant as thev simultaneously published on both bides of
were called, Constantine, and he ruled the the Atlantic:
country as a Ror-.an emperor until he was
dethroned at Aries in A. D. 411, by the LONDON, February, 1878.
Roman general Constantius. It was after I am anxious to bring before the notice
all these events and the acknowledgment of the readers of the Principality what
of their independence by the emperor promises to be a remarkable work by a re
Honorius in A. 1). 420, that the people markable man, who has spent a long
of Britain made that noble effort in their life and risen to great distinction in Amer
own defense, as stated by the ancient ica, but as will be seen from his own narra
historians, and repeated by Mr. Tur tive, is a native of the county of Glamor
gan, whose "hills'1 and famous "vale"
ner.1* This agrees with Bede's Chronolo
have sent out so many men of worth into
gy, and accords with all the dates and in
the world. The author and the work shall
formation we have upon the subject. Still
be described in his own language, taken
Turner and Gibbon endeavor to place the
from a letter which I have recently had the
the latter fact the effort made by the Brit
ons themselvesbefore 410 instead of alter 15. Heck', Whitakrr's HiM. nf Manchester. Smith's
420, when their independence had been ac the Vindication 01" Bedc's Chronology. Tin- author of
Pictorial Hist, of England, "b. I, ch. I, p. 51.,
knowledged and the Roman army and all slates the separation to be A. D. 430, after much ex
amination ot authorities. See also The Anglo-
Saxm Chronicle, A, 418: "The Romunf-lctt Brilam."
i.V Translated from Rev.^Theo. Hv:ins' Primitive It is also said liy Richard of Cirincestcr, p ^50, B I .
A^cs, which seems to have consulted the authors, ch 6, .(1, that the wall of Antdmus, "was repaired
Roman and native. and strengthened \vith uli v< n towers, bv ihe general
Actius." It so it must have been as laic as A I>
14. I Turner's Anglo-Saxons, p. 126, 8. 2, ch. 7.
474 APPENDIX.
gratification of receiving from him. Lord
Aberdare, always on the alert, I imagine,
to discover greatness in Welshmen of the
last one hundred years, will be pleased to
rcognize in our author none other than the
distinguinhed American lawyer, the Hon.T-
W. Powell, the writer of "Analysis of Amer
ican Law," and other works of authority in
the United States. He was born eighty -one
years ago, near Cowbridge, Glamorgan
shire, removed to America with his parents
when four years of age, and lias been a res
ident of Delaware, Ohio, since i8->o. This
is one of those cases we frequently meet
with where Welshmen, subjected to new-
conditions and the stimulus of new ideas
and impulses, exhibit great power of men
tal growth, and rise to celebrity. The Uni
ted States is the very land where the quick
ening influence of education, of surround-
ing personal energy, of inviting opportu
nity, of vnst fields, schemes and prixes, are
fitted to s-eizc and inspire the Celtic mind,
and carry it on to culture, enterprise, and
success; and one could hardly conceive of
a more interesting subject for inquiry than
the proportion of prominent men in Amer
ica whose origin mav be traced to a Celtic
ancestry. Mr. Powell, in one part of his
letter, has made more than an indirect allu
sion to this very point.
The occasion of his writing to me is thus
explained:"! hope I may be pardoned
for the liberty I take in addressing you this
letter, stranger to you as I am. Having
recently obtained a copy of your interesting
and able work, 'The Pedigree of the En
glish People,' with which I have been so
greatly pleased, I arn encouraged to write
to you with the hope of meeting some sym
pathy on the subject of my letter. I am a
native of Glamorganshire, born at Bwlch-.
gwyn, a farm near Cowbridge, September
7th, 1797, came thence with mv parents to
Uticn. in Ihe State of New York, in May,
1801. In 1820 I settled in this State, and
have since been residing here in the prac
tice of the law. I have thus lived a long
life among the Americans, without losing
my attachment to my native land. The
American people have been very kind to
me, often conferring upon me positions of
[Note in.
responsibility and trust." Mr. Powell has
been a member of the Legislature, and his
forensic works are referred to as authori
ties; his "Analysis of American Law" hav
ing pretty much the status in America, I
understand, which lilackslone's "Commen
taries" have in England.
Further on he says: "While engaged in
the study and practice of the law I was not
negligent of history, and especially of that
of my native country." And here his Welsh
nature met with an oflence which he de
termined to resent. "I soon discovered
that there was a class of English historians
who, in the ellort of elevating their own
history, neglected no opportunity of tradu
cing or ignoring the Ancient Britons.
What could, not be ignored was calumnia
ted. At this I was not only surprised, but
felt indignant arils injustice and illiberali-
ty. I do not know when it began, but I
suppose it began with the Saxon Conquest.
I fir.-t found it in Gibbon, who would speak
of Britain as the last of the provinces
taken, and the first to be thrown away ;
whereas, in truth, it was the most loved and
cherished of all Rome's distant provinces.
Of ihis class of English historians are to be
arraigned with Gibbon, Hume, Macaulay,
Green, Wright, and others. On the other
side we may rank able historians who do
justice to the Ancient Britons, as Sharon
Turner, Whitaker, Thierry, M. Arnold,
and others." As to the hostile side,- " the.
vilest of them," he says, "is Wood ward,
who pretended to write a history of Wales,
who calumniates the subject of his history
on almost every page. Their bitterest ha
tred is to the name of Celtthat glorious
name, which sheds a glory over twenty-five
centuries."
This leads to the writing of the history
in question. "This matter (of injustice)
has induced me to study for the truth of
British history, and ascertain whether this
aspersion was just, or founded in prejudice
and hatred. As the result of this, about a
year since, I finished a manuscript history,
of about the size of your ' Pedigree of the
English People,' which 1 entitle 'The His
tory of the Ancient Britons and their De
scendants.' My history was almost com
 DR. NICHOLAS' LETTER.
pleted before I had your book, and I was
much gratified to find that my book was in
perfect harmony with your theory and
ideas. Some four years since Professor J.
Fiske, of Cambridge, Mass., published a
number of articles in Appleton's Journal
(New York), entitled, 'Arc We Celt or Teu
ton?' He often referred to your work.
These articles .ire very valuable, and did
the Celt ample justice. My book agrees
with all this, and with whatever I have seen
that was not prejudicial against the Celtic
people. In America the Celts predominate
The American spirit is theirs. They were
the authors of the Revolution, and occupy
a prominent position in all the professions.
Professor Rawlinson, in his edition of 'Her
odotus,' vol. iii, p. 152, &c., suggests that it
would be interesting to trace the migrations
of the Cymry, with an antiquity of above
2,500 years, from the steppes of Asia to the
mountains of Wales. This I have done in
my history, by the collection of circum
stantial evidence founded upon authorities,
facts, and history, which leaves nodoubtas
to when and whence they came."
Now, it is evident that in this work a
method of treatment has been adopted
which had never been hitherto pursued in
dealing with the earlier westward migra
tions of the Celtic race. Meyer marked
their footprints in many places and by dif
ferent routes, by means chiefly of local
names those almost ineffaceable memen
toesbut much was left by him toothers to
complete a well-established demonstration.
Powell's "History of the Ancient Brit
ons," although written, is not yet published,
and one of his objects in writing this inter
esting letter was to inquire as to the means
and advantages of its publication in Lon
don. I hope that it will be issued simulta
neously on both sides of the Atlantic, and
prove the means of giving a new impulse
to a study of boundless and absorbing in
terest. It is not a history of Wales, be it
remembered, but rather a history, first, of
the generic Celtic stock, which long held
475
battle with the nations on the Asiatic and
European continents, and next, of those
branches of that stock which at different
times peopled Britain, and are commemo
rated in their main divisions in the power
ful tribes or nations whom the Romans
conquered and civilized, the Saxons and
their confederates over-ran and incorpora
ted, and a part of whose descendant still
survive in Wales, not unmixed in blood,
but prominently Celtic by reason of the
retention of a Celtic speech. All must
wish health and good speed to the venera
ble author to bring to a full completion his
arduous and long elaborated work.
THO.S. NICHOLAS."
NEW YORK, June 3d, 1879.
Amierin Jones, Esq., 39 Nassau St.
DEAR SIR:We hae given Judge
Powell's MSS., " The Ancient. Britons," a
careful rending, and bear willing testimony
to the ability and painstaking research dis-
plaved in it. It is a most thorough and
comprehensive as well as able work, and
undoubtedly fills a vacant place.
Very Respectfully Yours,
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS.
Dr. Thomas Nicholas, the eminent En
glish scholar and historian, writes me as
follows, in reference to this history:
'The wide range of your work, and es
pecially the earlier questions you have ta
ken in hand to illustrate, viz., the original
migration of the Cymric-Celt from Central
A*ia, and their arrival in Britain, must give
the book unusual interest and importance;
tliis early period having been left in a state
of most unsatisfactory obscurity ; and I shall
look forward to the appearance of your dis
quisition upon it with earnest expectation.
The Germans have alone done anything of
value as yet, but the field is left almost
blank for a learned Cymro to fill it up. I
sincerely hope that your eminence as a
forensic writer will be equalled by your
achievement in the difficult branch of An
cient History."
 INDEX.

Agincourt, 333, 403.

Alesia, 93.
Abaris, 57,107, 114, 176.
Allia, 67.
Aber or Inver, 50, 135.
Ariovistus, 73.
Aberconwav, Treaty of, 324.
Bambury, 214.
Adrian, 137. Bannockburn, 328.
Aetius, 150, 156.
Bos worth, 338.
Age of Stone, 37.
Boyne, 373.
Agricola, 124, 129, 136, 169.
Camlan, 210.
Agriculture, 136.
Caractacus, last, 126.
Alban, or Albion. i;2, 99.
Cottraeth, 214
Alfred, the Great, 244, 247, 255, 285.
Cressey, 328.
Allecia, Taken, 94.
Dagratan, 222.
Allectus, 141.
Danish Battles, 245, 246, 249.
Allia, Battle of, 67.
Ancient Britons and Cymry, 44, 97. Flodden, 361,.
Andredes Caster, Destroyed, 206, 281. Galgacus, 13$.
Hastings, 305.
Anglia and Northumbria, 211, 221.
Herold, at Battle Bridge, York, 303.
Anglo-Saxon, 283, 291, 347, 352, 399.
Ivry, description, 68.
^Enius, 64. Longborth and Ballon Hill, 2O7-'8.
Antiquities, 60.
Lyons (A. D. 197), 138. .
Antonius Pius, 137.
Venetian, Naval, 76, 117.
Ariovistus, defeated, 73.
Verneuil, 334.
Aristotle, 52.
Becket, Archbishop, 317.
Armorica, 43, 45, 55, 75.
Belgium and Belgs, 53, 74, 90, 97.
Aquitania, 76.
Boadicea, 130.
Arthur, 207, 209, 212. Brenhin, or Brennus, 68, 72, 109.
Arviragus, 96.
Bretwalder, 225, 239, 244.
Aryan Language, 61, 112.
B ritain, 46, 52, 78, So, SS, 96.
Asia Minor, 47, 55, 68.
Britain, after Ciesar's invasion, 95.
Asser, 254, 289.
Britain, Division of, 62, 99, 100, 163.
Athelstan, 257.
Brittany, see Armorica.
Attilla, 150.
British and Saxon People, zo6-'7, 224, 292.
Augustine, 217 British Church, 294.
( ) and the Cymry, 218.
British Laws, 173, 294.
Avaragus, 133.
British Union, 25.
Avebury, 59, 99, 114, 118.
British Works, Acts, &c., 174.
B Britons, became Romans, 172.
Barbarians, 145. Britons, History of, 51, 63, 85.
Bards, &c., 105. Britons, under Saxon Rule, 275,-'6, 286, 293
Barter, 54, 120. Brutus, 76, 117.
Battles (Great), Burke, 376.
 INDEX.
Cradle of the Human Race, 29, 33, 38.
Crida, 215.
Cade, Jack, 4O4-'6. Cromwell, Oliver, 870.
Cadwallader, 231. Cymbeline, 90, 122, 149.
Cadwallon, 223, 226, 231. Cymry, 20, 21, 43, 51,61,65,71, 97, 114,120.
Ccesar, 41, 72, 78, 88. 254, 267, 287, 338, 342, 359, 379, 414,
Caesar's Commentaries, 59, 116.
Cajsar's Conquest of Gaul, 72, 78, 88, 97. 44-
Cymry and Lloegrians, 213.
Caledonia, 25, 135. Cynan, of Cambria, 241.
Caligula, 121.
Cambria, 213. D
Cambrian and Saxon Territory, 224. Danes, 240, 242, 247, 251, 255, 263, 285.
Camelford, Battle of, 240. Dark Age, 175, 186, 361.
Canterbury, 215. Devon and Cornwall, 240.
Caracalla, confers citizenship, 179. Diocletian. 139, 158, 175.
Caractacus, 101, 122, 125, 183. Diodorus, 54.
Carausius, 141 and N. 2, 174, 180. Druids, 47, 101, 104, 129, 133, 144, 168, 182,
Cannae, Armorica, 114. 185.
Carthage, 53. Dustan, Archbishop, 261.
Cartismandua, 127.
Cassivalinus, 84, 86.
Cerclic-Wessex, 206. Edgar, 261.
Celtic Clothing, 120. Edward, the Black Prince, 329.
Celtic Race, a~>, 32, 40, 46, 51,61, 97, 229. Edwin, Ilumbra, 221, 226.
Celtic Race, Their Characteristics, 411, 420 Egbert, 41, 239, 242.
Chariots. 47, 69, 126, 135. Ella and South Saxons, 205.
Charter, Great, 317, 350. Elbe River, 45.
Christianity, 143, 168, 182,219,230,288, 143. Empire, East and West, 145.
Christianity, among the Saxons. 216. Enemies of the Britons, 207.
Church of England, 366. England, 242, 258, 260.
Cimbria, 261, 298, 319. England, Kings of from Alfred to Victoria.
Cimbri against the Romans, 65, 70. A. D. 872, Altred, 244
Cimbri and Teutons, 69. 901, Edward the Elder, 256.
Cimbrici Chersonesus, 45. 92^, Alhelstane, 256.
Cimmarians, 44. 941, Edward I, 260.
Cities, 280. 948, Eldred, 261.
Cities, Roman, 153, 178, 279. 955, Edwy, 261.
Civiliaation, 35, I08, II3, 120, 136, 158, 174, 959. Edgar, 261.
279 295- 976, Edward the Martyr, 262.
Claudius, i2T-'4- 978, Ethelred II, 263.
Clergy, 262. . f 1013, Swevn, 264.
Colonies, 165, 177. I 1015, Canute the Great 264
a I 1017, Edmund II, 261;.
Coke, Lord, Laws of England, 102, 181. D [1039, Harold & Hard! -Canute, 265,
Commerce, Ancient, 53. 1042, Edward the Confessor, 272.
Commons, See House of Commons. 1066, Harold (son of Godwin), 271),
Constantius, 141. 300.
Conslanline, 142, 148. 1066, William the Conqueror, 299.
Constantinople, 144. 1087, William Rufus, 316.
Constantius, the General, 157. noo, Henry I, 316.
Council of Arleg (A. D. 416), 184. 113.1,, Stephen, 316.
Constitutional Government, 171. 1154, Henry II, 316.
Cradle of Mankind, 20, 29, 31, 4I, 44, 46. 1189, Richard I, 317.
 INDEX.
H99, John, 317.
1216, Henry III, 318
1276, Edward I, 318.
1307, Edward II, 328.
1327, Edward III, 328.
1377, Richard II, 330.
1399, Henry IV, 330.
14x3, Henry V, 333.
1422, Henry VI, 334.
1461, Edward IV, 336.
1483, Edward V, 336.
1483, Richard III, 336.
1485, Henry VII, 361.
1509, Henry VIII, 364.
1547, Edward VI, 367.
1553, Mary, 367.
1558, Elizabeth, 367.
1603, James I, 398.
1625, Charles I, 369.
1649, Commonwealth. 370.
Cromwell, 370.
1660, Charles II, 370.
i68s, James II, 371.
1689, William III and Mary, 372
1702, Anne, 317.
(1707, Great Britain.)
1714, George I, 374.
1727, George II, 375.
1760, George III, 376.
1820, George IV, 377.
1830, William, IV, 377.
1830, Victoria, 378.
English Language, Origin of, 390, 446.
Erkemvin Essex, 211.
Ethelbert', 217, 220.
Ethnology, 387.
Euxine, or Black Sea, 46.
Evidence in History, 44, 51.
Extension of Saxon Territory, 220.
F Jeffrey, Judge 371.
Feudal System, 307, 339, 354, 409.
Foreigners, 273.
France, 328, 333.
Franks, 139, 176.
Freedom of Conscience, 104.
Gael, 135, 229.
Galatians 48 68 72.
Galgacus 134-5.
Gaul 57 67 73.
479
Geoffrey of Monmouth 20.
eology, 32.
ermans, Bishops 152 188.
Jerontius 148.
ildas 157 210.
iraldus Cambrensis 211.
lendower, Owen 330.
ladiators 106.
Godwin, the Great Earl 266 272.
omer 30.
oths 176.
Government of the Britons 100163170172.
Sovernment, Saxon and English, 308 310
347-
Jrecian Account of Britain 57.
ireeks of Asia Minor 45.
irimth Ap. Llewellyn 269 272 318.
H
Helena, St. 180, See Appedix.
Helvetia, 73.
llengist and Horsa, 197 200.
Heptarchy 176 212 223 229 242 256.
Herodotus 20 44 58.
History of Britons 526^ 116 120.
History falsified 20 2^ 290.
History should be true 19 276.
Honorius 147 150.
House of Commons 322 355 362 376 398.
Howel Da 256 258 261 268.
Huns and Goths 176.
Hyperboreans 57.
Immortality of the Soul 106.
Inhabitants of Western Europe 29.
Ireland United with England and Scotland
377 437-
Irish 429.
Joan of Arc 334.
Josephus 51 72.
Judiciary 102 181.
Jutes 197.
K
Kent 233- 236-
L
Language 62 112 280 291 389 445.
Language, Development of English 389
 INDEX.
Laws 100 103 no 167 294 315 342 393. People, Amalgamation of, 236, 283.
Law of Howel Da 259 260. People, Condition of, see Progress and
Liberty and Slavery 102. People.
Literature 279 286 322 341 344 425. People of Britain, 19, 167, 175, 346.
Livy, battle in 68 69. Petrarch, 24, 26, 135, 230.
Lloegrians 62 99 100. Phoenecians, 52.
Loire River 53 56 76 117 158. Picts, see Scots and Picts.
Londoni3i 145 166 179 215 219280291 Pirates, 243, 289.
343-
Pitt, Earl of Chatham, 376.
London, never taken 215. Pitt, William, 437.
Lydia 44, Polybus, 54.
Population of Great Britain, 380.
M Population of the World, 34.
Marius in Gaul 70. Porta, Portsmouth, 206.
Massacre (St. Brice) 264. Priest (Saxon), 284.
Maximus 146. Probus, 139.
Media 44. Progress in Arts and Civilization, 78 82 97
Menakia 140. 113 120 136 149 158 161 172 283 285
Mercia 211 214 223 291. 295 315 385-
Michelet 46 61. Protestantism, 365 383.
Mistletoe 106. Provinces, 144 163 169 186.
Money nS. Pythagoris, 47.
Monks of Bangor 222.
Monmouth, Duke of 371. R
Morbeham in Armorica 53 76. Races of Western Europe, 39.
Mounds and relics 56 60 159. Ragner, 245.
Municipal Law 172 181. Rebellion, 330 403.
Reformation, 356.
N Retaliation on Rome, 175.
Revolution, Ami. and French, 377.
Names of British People 224.
Rhodri Mowr, 246.
Navy 117.
Rhuddlan, Battle of, 237.
Nennlus 63.
Richard II, see Rebellion.
Nineveh 44.
Roads, 162.
Normans 297.
Rollo of Normandy, 297.
Norman Conquest 305.
Roman Conquest, 121, &c.
Neustria 297.
Roman Departure, 190.
o Ionian Period, 124 194.
itoman Rule Ended, 150 169.
Offa 236.
Origin of Human Race, See Cradle of iloman Sovereignty, 179.
Mankind. iome, 175.
Oswald 227. iome Taken, 67 143.
Rowena, Vortigern, Hengist, 200
P
Paris 91. Sardis, 44.
s
Parliaments, See House of Commons. Saxons, 139 144 176 280 283 289 308 340.
Patrick St. 186 149. Saxons and Cymry, 230 108.
Peculation 170. Saxon Falsification of History, 20 95 49 59
Pelagian Theory 152 186 279. 116 162 167 169 230.
Penda 212 215 223 226. Saxon Period, begins (A. D. 449), 195.
Pendragon 96 112 163 224 225 244. Saxon Pirates, 198 289.
People 47 56 99 167 292 398 407. Saxon Shores, 182 195.
 INDEX. 481
Saxon States, (A.- D. 530600), 211. Triads, 62 190.
Schools, 186 279. Turanian Race, 32 36 40 55 60.
Scotland, 230 233 272. Tyler, Wat, 404.
Tyris River, 44.
Scots and Picts, 246 135 152.
Seneca, 167. Vandals, 176.
Senoncs, 68 98. Vanity of Ambition and War, 228.
Severus, Septimus, 138 165. Vaughan, 55.
Sidon and Tyre, 33. Vercingetorix, 73 92 94.
Sinigaglia, 66 98. Vespasian, 122 124.
Somme Valley, 31 37. Vortigern, 196.
Stilicho, 147 150. Vortimer, 200.
Stipendaries, 145 168 170.
Stonehenge, 57 99 118. 277.
w
Wales, 246 255 261 269 288 313 324 341 353
Strabo, 54. 357 380-
Strath-Clyde, 213 222, 230 261 Wales, Division of, 224 267.
Suetonius, 129 169. Walls, Roman, 1378.
Sythians, 44. War, 244 288.
War, Private, 356.
War between the Britons and Saxons, 202.
Tacitus, 65 177. War of the Roses, 3345.
Teutons, 24 41. War of the Saxon Heptarchy, 220.
Teutons, Their Characteristics, 410 440. Welsh, 27 414.
Tewdric, King Recalled, 223. Wentworth, Earl of Stafford, 434.
Theodosius, 14. /Woden, 198 229 242.
Tin, 52. Woodward's History, 62.
Titus, 122 124. X
Treachery of the Saxons, 202 238. Xenophon, 52.
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