SCH 2120 CHEMISTRY LECTURE NOTES: 15/2016

Inorganic chemistry

Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of
elements and inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad
organic compounds (carbon based compounds, usually containing C-H bonds), which are the
subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute,
and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.

THE ATOMIC THEORY

One of the oldest ideas in science is that matter can be divided and further divided until the
smallest possible particles of matter are obtained. This idea was put forward by Greek
philosopher Democritus, in 400 BC. He called these particles Atoms (from the Greek word
atomos, Indivisible). His idea was not accepted until the 18th century.

Daltons Atomic Theory

From 1803 to 1808, John Dalton, an English schoolteacher, used the two fundamental laws of
chemical combination just described as the basis of an atomic theory. His theory involved three
assumptions:

1. Each chemical element is composed of minute, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms
can be neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change.
2. All atoms of an element are alike in mass (weight) and other properties, but the atoms of
one element are different from those of all other elements.
3. In each of their compounds, different elements combine in a simple numerical ratio, for
example, one atom of A to one of B (AB), or one atom of A to two of B (AB2)

DISCOVERY OF SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

The atomic theory of the Greek philosopher Democritus held that continued subdivision of
matter would ultimately yield atoms which would not be further divided. Dalton (1808) based his

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atomic theory on the ideas of Democritus and was able to explain the laws of chemical
combination. Toward the end of nineteenth century, it began to appear that the atom itself might
be composed of even smaller particles. This discovery was brought about by experiments with
electricity.

The Discovery of Electrons

CRT, the abbreviation for cathode-ray tube, was once a familiar acronym. Before liquid crystal
display (LCD) was available, the CRT was the heart of computer monitors and TV sets. The first
cathode-ray tube was made by Michael Faraday (17911867) about 150 years ago. When he
passed electricity through glass tubes from which most of the air had been evacuated,

Faraday discovered cathode rays, a type of radiation emitted by the negative terminal, or
cathode. The radiation crossed the evacuated tube to the positive terminal, or anode. Later
scientists found that cathode rays travel in straight lines. The cathode rays produced in the CRT
are invisible, and they can be detected only by the light emitted by materials that they strike.
These materials, called phosphors, are painted on the end of the CRT so that the path of the
cathode rays can be revealed. (Fluorescence is the term used to describe the emission of light by
a phosphor when it is struck by energetic radiation.) Another significant observation about
cathode rays is that they are deflected by electric and magnetic fields in the manner expected for
negatively charged particles

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In 1897 Sir JJ Thompson studied the deflection of cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields;
from his measurements he established the ratio of electric charge (e) to mass (m) for cathode
rays, that is, e/m was -1.76x1011C/Kg

Also, Thomson concluded that cathode rays are negatively charged fundamental particles of
matter found in all atoms. (The properties of cathode rays are independent of the composition of
the cathode.) Cathode rays subsequently became known as electrons

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Robert Millikan (18681953) determined the electronic charge e through a series of oil-drop
experiments (19061914). The currently accepted value of the electronic charge e, expressed in
coulombs to five significant figures, is -1.6022x10-19C. Combining this value of charge with
Thompsons value of e/m gave a value of 9.11x10-31Kg for the mass of electron.

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen (18451923) noticed that when cathode-ray tubes were operating,
certain materials outside the tubes glowed or fluoresced. He showed that this fluorescence was
caused by radiation emitted by the cathode-ray tubes. Because of the unknown nature of this
radiation, Roentgen coined the term X-ray. We now recognize the X-ray as a form of high-
energy electromagnetic radiation,

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Further experiments on x rays led to the discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel Ernest

Rutherford (18711937) identified two types of radiation from radioactive materials, alpha and
Beta particles. Alpha particles carry two fundamental units of positive charge and have
essentially the same mass as helium atoms. Beta particles are negatively charged particles
produced by changes occurring within the nuclei of radioactive atoms and have the same
properties as electrons. A third form of radiation, which is not affected by electric or magnetic
fields, was discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard. This radiation, called gamma rays

The atomic nucleus

The discovery of sub-atomic particles like electron, led to a revision of this theory. Thomson
(1904) proposed a model for the atomic structure, known as "plum pudding" model. He
considered an atom to be a uniform sphere of positive electricity of about 10-8 cm radius, with
the electrons embedded in such-a way as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement.

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In 1909, Rutherford, with his assistant Hans Geiger, began a line of research Using particles as
probes to study the inner structure of atoms. Based on Thomsons plum-pudding model,
Rutherford expected that most particles in a beam of particles would pass through thin sections
of matter largely undeflected, but that some particles would be slightly scattered or deflected as
they encountered electrons. By studying these scattering patterns, he hoped to deduce something
about the distribution of electrons in atoms. Alpha particles were detected by the flashes of light
they produced when they struck a zinc sulfide screen mounted on the end of a telescope. When
Geiger and Ernst Marsden, a student, bombarded very thin foils of gold with particles, they
observed the following:

The majority of particles penetrated the foil undeflected.

Some particles experienced slight deflections.
Afew (about 1 in every 20,000) suffered rather serious deflections as they penetrated the
foil.
Asimilar number did not pass through the foil at all, but bounced back in the direction
from which they had come.

The large-angle scattering greatly puzzled Rutherford. As he commented some years later, this
observation was about as credible as if you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper

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and it came back and hit you. By 1911, though, Rutherford had an explanation. He based his
explanation on a model of the atom known as the nuclear atom and having these features:

1. Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom are centered in a very small
region called the nucleus. The remainder of the atom is mostly empty space.
2. The magnitude of the positive charge is different for different atoms and is approximately
one-half the atomic weight of the element.
3. There are as many electrons outside the nucleus as there are units of positive charge on
the nucleus. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

Schematics of Rutherfords experiment (1911)

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Expected scattering of particles in Rutherfords experiment and Actual scattering of particles

in Rutherfords experiment

Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

Rutherfords nuclear atom suggested the existence of positively charged fundamental particles of
matter in the nuclei of atoms. Rutherford himself discovered these particles, called protons, in
1919 in studies involving the scattering of particles by nitrogen atoms in air. The protons were
freed as a result of collisions between particles and the nuclei of nitrogen atoms. At about this
same time, Rutherford predicted the existence in the nucleus of electrically neutral fundamental
particles. In 1932, James Chadwick showed that a newly discovered penetrating radiation
consisted of beams of neutral particles. These particles, called neutrons, originated from the
nuclei of atoms.

Properties of the Three Fundamental Particles

A neutron and a proton have approximately the same mass and, relative to these, an electron has
negligible mass

The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons and is positively charged. The electrons
occupy a region of space around the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in
the nucleus

Atomic number, mass number and isotopes

A nuclide is any atomic species of which the proton/atomic number, Z, and nucleon/mass
number, A, are specified. Nucleon refer to the total number of protons and neutrons

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A shorthand method of showing the atomic number and mass number of a nuclide along with its
symbol, E, is:

Relative atomic mass

Since the electrons are of minute mass, the mass of an atom essentially depends upon the number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. the mass of a single atom is a very small, non-integral
number, and for convenience we adopt a system of relative atomic masses.

We define the atomic mass unit as 1/12th of the mass of a atom so that it has the value

1.660 x10-27 kg. Relative atomic masses (Ar) are thus all stated relative to . The
masses of the proton and neutron can be considered to be 1 u where u is the atomic mass unit

(1 u 1.660 x10-27 kg).

Atoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers (A) are called isotopes.

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Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Historically, studies of the interaction of radiant energy with matter have provided immense
insight into atomic and molecular structure. Although they appear quite different to our senses,
visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves, X rays, and other forms of radiant
energy are all different kinds of electromagnetic radiation. Collectively, they make up the
electromagnetic spectrum,

Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by a frequency, a wavelength, and amplitude. The

frequency ( Greek nu) of a wave is simply the number of wave peaks that pass by a given point
per unit time, usually expressed in units of reciprocal seconds (1/s ), or hertz (Hz; ). The

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wavelength ( Greek lambda) of the wave is the distance from one wave peak to the next, and
the amplitude of the wave is the height, measured from the center line between peak and trough.

Multiplying the wavelength of a wave in meters (m) by its frequency in reciprocal seconds gives
the speed of the wave in meters per second (m/s). The rate of travel of all electromagnetic
radiation in a vacuum is a constant value, commonly called the speed of light and abbreviated c.
Its numerical value is defined as exactly 2.997 924 58 108 m/s, usually rounded off to3.00
108 m/s

Which may be rewritten as

The reciprocal of the wavelength is the wave number

Electromagnetic Radiation and Atomic Spectra

The light that we see from the sun or from a typical lightbulb is white light, meaning that it
consists of an essentially continuous distribution of all possible wavelengths spanning the entire
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. When a narrow beam of white light is passed
through a glass prism, the different wavelengths travel through the glass at different rates. As a
result, the white light is separated into its component colors, ranging from red at the long-
wavelength end of the spectrum (700 nm) to violet at the short-wavelength end (400 nm). This
separation into colors is similar to what occurs when light travels through water droplets in the
air, forming a rainbow.
If the source of light is a discharge tube containing gaseous element, the observed spectrum
consist of a number of coloured lines on a black background. The spectrum is called an atomic
emission spectrum or a line spectrum

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All substances give emission spectra when they are excited in some way by the passage of
electric discharge or by flame. The atomic emission spectra of elements are in the visible and
ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum. The light emitted by an excited atom is found to
consist of only a few wavelengths rather than a full rainbow of colors, giving a series of discrete
lines separated by blank areasa line spectrum. Excited sodium atoms, produced by heating
NaCl or some other sodium salt in the flame of a Bunsen burner, give off yellow light with
wavelength of 590 nm; hydrogen atoms give off a bluish light made of several different colors.
Spectrometers are instruments used for viewing emission and absorption spectra.

Viewed through a spectrometer, the emission spectra of hydrogen is seen to be a number of

separate set of lines or series of lines. The consequence is the observation of spectral lines in the
emission spectrum of hydrogen; the spectrum consists of groups of discrete lines corresponding
to electronic transitions, each of discrete energy. Swiss schoolteacher Johann Balmer in 1885
pointed out that the wavelengths of the spectral lines observed in the visible region of the atomic
spectrum of hydrogen obeyed equation below, in which R is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen,
is the wavenumber in cm-1, and n is an integer 3, 4, 5 . . . This series of spectral lines is
known as the Balmer series. Other series of spectral lines occur in the ultraviolet (Lyman series)
and infrared (Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series).

R =1.097 x 10-2 nm-2

Johannes Rydberg later extended Balmers work to include all lines in the hydrogen atom emission
spectrum:

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Where n and m are both integers. The above equation is called the Rydberg formula and R is the Rydberg
constant.
All lines in all the series obey the general expression given in equation above where n > m. For
the Lyman series, n = 1, for the Balmer series, n =2, and for the Paschen, Brackett and Pfund
series, n = 3, 4 and 5 respectively.

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Spectral lines in hydrogen atom

Example
What are wavelength (in nanometers) in the Lyman series of the hydrogen spectrum for n=2 and
n=7?

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The two longest-wavelength lines in the Lyman series are at 121.5 nm and 102.6 nm.

Bohrs theory of the atomic spectrum of hydrogen

In 1913, Niels Bohr combined elements of quantum theory and classical physics in a treatment of
the hydrogen atom. According to quantum theory, energy can be absorbed or emitted in certain
amounts like separate sets packets of energy called quanta. Bohr suggested that electrons moving
in an orbit can have only certain amounts of energy and not infinite number of values. He stated
two postulates for an electron in an atom:
1. Stationary states exist in which the energy of the electron is constant; such states are
characterized by circular orbits about the nucleus in which the electron has an angular
momentum mvr given by the equation below. The integer, n, is the principal quantum
number.

where m = mass of electron; v =velocity of electron; r = radius of the orbit; h = the Planck
constant; h/2 may be written as
2. Energy is absorbed or emitted only when an electron moves from one stationary state to
another and the energy change is given by equation below where n1 and n2 are the
principal quantum numbers referring to the energy levels En1 and En2 respectively.

If we apply the Bohr model to the H atom, the radius of each allowed circular orbit can be
determined from equation below. The origin of this expression lies in the centrifugal force
acting on the electron as it moves in its circular orbit; for the orbit to be maintained, the
centrifugal force must equal the force of attraction between the negatively charged electron and
the positively charged nucleus.

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substitution of n= 1 gives a radius for the first orbit of the H atom of 5.293x 10 -11 m, or 52.93
pm. This value is called the Bohr radius of the H atom and is given the symbol a0.

An introduction to wave mechanics

The wave-nature of electrons

The quantum theory of radiation introduced by Max Planck and Albert Einstein implies a particle
theory of light, in addition to the wave theory of light required by the phenomena of interference
and diffraction. In 1924, Louis de Broglie argued that if light were composed of particles and yet
showed wave-like properties, the same should be true of electrons and other particles. This
phenomenon is referred to as waveparticle duality.
The de Broglie relationship combines the concepts of classical mechanics with the idea of wave-
like properties by showing that a particle with momentum mv (m = mass and v =velocity of the
particle) possesses an associated wave of wavelength .

The uncertainty principle

If an electron has wave-like properties, there is an important and difficult consequence: it
becomes impossible to know exactly both the momentum and position of the electron at the same
instant in time. This is a statement of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In order to get around
this problem, rather than trying to define its exact position and momentum, we use the
probability of finding the electron in a given volume of space. The probability of finding an

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electron at a given point in space is determined from the function 2where is a mathematical
function which describes the behaviour of an electron-wave; is the wavefunction

The Schrdinger wave equation

Information about the wavefunction is obtained from the Schrdinger wave equation, which can
be set up and solved either exactly or approximately; the Schrdinger equation can be solved
exactly only for a species containing a nucleus and only one electron, i.e. a hydrogen-like
system. A hydrogen-like atom or ion contains a nucleus and only one electron.
The Schrdinger wave equation may be represented in several forms and the equation below
gives the form of the Schrdinger wave equation that is appropriate for motion in the x direction:

where m= mass, E= total energy and V =potential energy of the particle.

in reality, electrons move in three-dimensional space and an appropriate form of the Schrdinger
wave equation is given by

Having solved the wave equation, what are the results?

i. The wavefunction is a solution of the Schrdinger equation and describes the behaviour
of an electron in a region of space called the atomic orbital.
ii. We can find energy values that are associated with particular wavefunctions.
iii. The quantization of energy levels arises naturally from the Schrdinger equation

The Atomic orbitals

The volume of space in which there is probability of 95% of finding an electron is called an
atomic orbital.
In order to completely describe an atom in three dimensions, Schrdinger introduced three
quantum numbers in addition to the principal quantum number, n. There are thus a total of four
quantum numbers that specify the behaviour of electrons in an atom, namely

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i. principal quantum number, n = 1, 2, 3,

ii. azimuthal quantum number, l = 0 to n 1

iii. magnetic quantum number, m = l to 0 to +l

iv. spin quantum number, s = 1/2 or +1/2.

The principal quantum number (n) is a positive integer (n= 1,2,3,4,5......) on which the size
and energy level of the orbital primarily depend. For hydrogen and other one-electron atoms, the
energy of an orbital depends only on n. For atoms with more than one electron, the energy level
of an orbital depends both on n and on the l quantum number. As the value of n increases, the
number of allowed orbitals increases and the size of those orbitals becomes larger, thus allowing
an electron to be farther from the nucleus. Because it takes energy to separate a negative charge
from a positive charge, this increased distance between the electron and the nucleus means that
the energy of the electron in the orbital increases as the quantum number n increases. We often
speak of orbitals as being grouped according to the principal quantum number n into successive
layers, or shells, around the atom. Those orbitals with n=3 for example, are said to be in the third
shell. The maximum number of electrons in a shell n is 2n2.

The angular-momentum quantum number (l) also called azimuthal quantum number
defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital. For an orbital whose principal quantum
number is n, the angular-momentum quantum number l can have any integral value from 0 to n-
1Thus, within each shell, there are n different shapes for orbitals. For example, l = 0 refers to a
spherically shaped orbit, l = 1 refers to two obloid spheroids, etc

Just as its convenient to think of orbitals as being grouped into shells according to the principal
quantum number n, we often speak of orbitals as being grouped into subshells according to the
angular-momentum quantum number l. Different subshells are usually referred to by letter rather
than by number, following the order s, p, d, f, g. (Historically, the letters s, p, d, and f arose from
the use of the words sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental to describe various lines in
atomic spectra.) After f, successive subshells are designated alphabetically: g, h, and so on.

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As an example, an orbital with n=3 and l=2 is a 3d orbital: 3 to represent the third shell and d to
represent the l=2 subshell.
The magnetic quantum number (ml) defines the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect
to a standard set of coordinate axes. For an orbital whose angular-momentum quantum number is
l, the magnetic quantum number ml can have any integral value from l to + l Thus, within each subshell
(orbitals with the same shape, or value of l), there are different spatial orientations for those orbitals.

A summary of the allowed combinations of quantum numbers for the first four shells is given by:

The spin quantum number describes the spin of the electrons. The electrons spin around an
imaginary axis (as Earth spins about the imaginary axis connecting the north and south poles) in
a clockwise or counterclockwise direction; for this reason there are two values, 1/2 or +1/2.
Quantum numbers describe the possible states that electrons can occupy in an atom. Additional
rules are required to define how the electrons occupy these available states and thus explain the
structure of multi-electron atoms and the periodic system of elements. An atom in its ground

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state has the minimum possible energy and electrons are distributed among the available and
allowed states according to the principle formulated by the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli
(19001958). This principle, called the Pauli exclusion principle, states that no two electrons in
any atom can share the same set of four quantum numbers.

Allowed combinations of quantum numbers

Example 1
Given that the principal quantum number, n, is 2, write down the allowed values of l and ml , and
determine the number of atomic orbitals possible for n =3.
For a given value of n, the allowed values of l are
0; 1; 2 . . . (n 1), and those of ml are -l . . . 0 . . .+l.
For n = 2, allowed values of l = 0 or 1.
For l =0, the allowed value of ml = 0.
For l = 1, allowed values of ml = -1; 0;+1
Each set of three quantum numbers defines a particular atomic orbital, and, therefore, for n =2,
there are four atomic orbitals with the sets of quantum numbers:
n = 2; l = 0; ml = 0
n = 2; l = 1; ml = -1
n = 2; l = 1; ml = 0
n = 2; l = 1; ml = +1
Example II
Write down two possible sets of quantum numbers that describe an electron in a 2s atomic
orbital.
The 2s atomic orbital is defined by the set of quantum numbers n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0.
An electron in a 2s atomic orbital may have one of two sets of four quantum numbers:

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n = 2; l = 0; ml = 0; ms = +1/2
or
n = 2; l = 0; ml =0; ms = -1/2
If the orbital were fully occupied with two electrons, one electron would have ms =+1/2, and the
other electron would have ms =-1/2, i.e. the two electrons would be spin paired.
Assignment
1. Write down two possible sets of quantum numbers to describe an electron in a 3s atomic
orbital.
2. If an electron has the quantum numbers n = 2, l = 1, ml = +1 and ms = + 1/2which type of
atomic orbital is it occupying?
3. Write down the three sets of quantum numbers that define the three 3p atomic orbitals
4. What is the wavelength (in meters) of ultraviolet light with = 5.5 x 1015 s-1?
Ground state electronic configurations
Stable atoms have as many electrons as they do protons in the nucleus. The electrons gather
around the nucleus in quantum orbitals following four basic rules called the aufbau principle.
no two electrons in the atom will share the same four quantum numbers n, l, m, and s.
Electrons will first occupy orbitals of the lowest energy level.
Electrons will fill an orbital with the same spin number until the orbital is filled before it
will begin to fill of the opposite spin number.

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To write a complete electron configuration for an atom,

Determine the number of electrons in the atom from its atomic number.
Add electrons to the sublevels in the correct order of filling.
Add two electrons to each s sublevel, 6 to each p sublevel, 10 to each d sublevel, and 14 to each f
sublevel.
Predicting the Order of Filling of the Orbitals
Write the possible sublevels for each energy level in organized rows and columns
Draw arrows like those you see below.
starting with the top arrow, follow the arrows one by one in the direction they point
List the orbitals along the rows one by one

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1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p

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Hunds Rule: Lowest energy configuration is the one in which the maximum number of unpaired
electrons are distributed amongst a set of degenerate orbitals.

Li (z = 3) : = 1s2, 2s1
B (z = 5) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
Mg (z = 12) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
Cl (z = 17) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
Ca (z = 20) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2
Sc (z = 21) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d1

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Ti (z = 22) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d2

Fe (z = 26) : = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d6

The periodic Table

In 1869 and 1870 respectively, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer stated that the properties of
the elements can be represented as periodic functions of their atomic weights, and set out their
ideas in the form of a periodic table. As new elements have been discovered, the original form of
the periodic table has been extensively modified, and it is now recognized that periodicity is a
consequence of the variation in ground state electronic configurations. A modern periodic table
emphasizes the blocks of 2, 6, 10 and 14 elements which result from the filling of the s, p, d and
f atomic orbitals respectively
A periodic tale is a chart that categorizes elements by groups and periods and all elements are
ordered by the atomic number
Groups are vertical columns that include elements with similar chemical properties
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table

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Periodic trends
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of electrons
as one moves from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the electronegativity
increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases.
Moving down a group, the electronegativity decreases due to the longer distance between the
nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom have
less of an attraction for electron

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Electron affinity
The electron affinity of an atom can be described either as the energy gained by an atom when an
electron is added to it, or conversely as the energy required to detach an electron from a singly
charged anion
As one progresses from left to right across a period, the electron affinity will increase, due to the
larger attraction from the nucleus, and the atom "wanting" the electron more as it reaches
maximum stability. Down a group, the electron affinity decreases because of a large increase in
the atomic radius, electron-electron repulsion and the shielding effect of inner electrons against
the valence electrons of the atom.
Atomic radius
The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost stable electron orbital
in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to decrease as one progresses across a
period because the effective nuclear charge increases, thereby attracting the orbiting electrons
and lessening the radius. The atomic radius usually increases while going down a group due to
the addition of a new energy level (shell)
Metallic property
Metallic property decreases across a period with increase in number of valence electrons as well
as a decrease in atomic radius, and it increases down the group with increase in number of shells
and atomic radius.
TYPES OF ELEMENTS
Metals
By far the largest category of elements on the Periodic Chart is the metal elements. Metals share
a set of properties that are not as universal to them as the inert gases. Metal elements usually
have the following properties: They have one, two, or three electrons on the outside electron
shell. The outside electrons make it more likely that the metal will lose electrons, making
positive ions. The ions of metals are usually plus one, plus two, or plus three in charge. Metals
tend to lose electrons to become stable. They will attach to other elements with ionic bonds
almost exclusively.
Nom metals

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Non-metals can either share electrons in a covalent bond or gain electrons to become a negative
ion and make an ionic bond
Semi Metals (Metalloids)
Metalloid is a term used in chemistry when classifying the chemical elements. On the basis of
their general physical and chemical properties, each element can usually be classified as a metal
or a nonmetal
The staircase-shaped line between metals and non-metals has several elements on or near it that
have properties somewhere between the two categories.
Some of the elements in this category include boron, silicon, arsenic, selenium,

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