A.

Delinition and Nature of Philosophy

The tvord philosoplty can be looked at from two aspects: its etymological and its rcal
dcfinition.

., E-$mologically, philosophy comes from trvo Greek rvords , philo and sophia, n{rich nrcan
of wisddt7fTJtus, a philosopher is a lover of t'isdom.
@r%r "*.**'*"-!'
. 1<irrc

Its realdcfrnition can be stated briefly: philosoph-v is a segfct!-lor rnentingrThc n'ord

"search" means to look, to find, to seek. [t connotes something morc scrious. more intcnse, nrorc
of a quest. In essenee, the philosopher searches for the meaning of life - its importancc, rclcvance,
signifrcance, and value.

It is in the very nature of philosophy that man searches for thc meaning of himscl f and his
rsorld. [n fact. it can be said that philosophy rvas bom Lhe vcry first tirnc man startcd s'ondcring at
rvhat hc sarv around him.
*r

B. The Philosophy of Man

Philosophy, as a scarch for nreaning, has ouly one obscssion: MAN. As an attcrnpt to
undsrstand lrim and &e rvorld he lives in, the philosophcr cannot but start his inquiry on man.
Thus, the philosophy of man isthe inq]4ry into nwn in all hi.r dimensiotts o.r pcrlror? qntl as an
,,--l----
existent bcing infrtffiV[l. It cxamines his dignry;truth.
ielation rvith others and God.

We may say nmn has trvo faces: that of the West and that of thc East. Far too long and too
oftcn, ottly thal. of the West is exposed and scrutinized. lndeed, our vicrv of rnan is usualll.
onc-sided in favor of the West. Hon'cver. looking at man irom thc pcrspcctivc of thc East is a
nclconre treat that is doubly signi{icant for the Filipino. After all, he is a part of thc Oricnt morc
lhan hc rcalizss.

Cuided by the same vision, this chapter is devotcd to botlr aspccts: thc Western and thc
Eastcrn vicw of rnan.

C. The Western View of Man

To the early Greeks, philosoplry rvas a supsrstarof a subject. Thw looked rvith favor n...
on a total world picture, in the unity of all truths - rvhether they tvere scicnti{ic. cthical, rcligious.
or aesthctic. A Grmkp/rilosophos r.vas concemed not only rvith particular typcs of knorvledgc, but
tith all ttpes-" The most important Greek Philosophcrs arc Socrates, Plato, and Aristotlc.

l. Socrates (470-399 B.C.)

Socrateswas the son of a sculptor and a midwife" His wift, Xantippc, said to bc an ugll
lvsnraR, tlore him thrm childrcn. He wmrld go !o tlre rua*etp{acc, th* agora, sficrc hc urxold discuss
things. using thc qucstion and &nsu,er method. Hs wes arrestcd and conde,rnncd to dcath bccausc
of tlro clrarges: {a} irnpieq," because of not woshipping the gods of thc statc and introducing ncrv
and unfamiliar rvalt of norship, and (b) cornrption of the minds of the 1,ourg, rvho {lock arctrnd

23
him. He did not adnrit any guilt, he refused to be set frce by fricnds, and he dicd aftcr drinking
a
glass of hcmlock in the presence of friends. His last day on earth, according to
Plato \\'as spcnt on
lalking about the immortaliS of the soul.

The philosophical contribution of Socrates may be summariz-ed as follorvs:

(a) He employed "inductive arguments and universal definitions." callcd his "practical
method," it took the form of "dialectic" or conversation.
(b) For hint, man's bodv comes from this world of mattcr, but his rcason conlcs fronr thc
Universal Reason or Mind of thc World.
(c) In his dialectical method he sought to discover the truth. This hc did to discovcr thc goo<l
Iife. He strcsscd thc "valuc of the soul, in the sense of tlrc thinking and rvilling subjccianrl
he sarv clearly the importance of knorvledge, of true rvisdom, if the soul is to be propcrll'
tcnded.l'
(d) To Socrates, knorvlcdge leads the way to ethical action. To hinl "krrorvledgc and virtuc arc
onq in the scnse that thc rvise man. hc rvho larcv's rvhat is right, rvill also do s'hat is rigtrt."

2. Plato (428-343 B.C.)

A pupil of Socrates, Plato. also had a bias against dcrnocracv. llc had an aristocraric
upbringing and rvas imrncrsed in the culture of his day. Horveyer, his plan. cncouragcd b1. rclatir.cs.
to cnter politics rt'as abandoned after he sarv rvhat rvas done to socratcs.

Among the salient points of Plato's philosophy are:

(a) Knorvledgc is not scnse perccption, not what sinrply appcars to nrc.
(1r) Liks Socrates, Plato belieras in 'lvirtue is knorv ledge." and flrc sourcc of knorvlcdgc is
virtue. It is not abstract but concrete knowledgc, not theorctical but practical knou'lcdgc.
A nran must know what is good so that he rnay do good.
(c) Virtuc can be taught, and there are four cardinal virtucs: rvisd.om, courage or fo(itudc,
temperance, and justicc.

In spite of Socrates' influence, Plato rvas his olul man of idcas, cspcci;rllr' in his pcriod of
maturitr'. Proof of this is his thrce best knoun torks in dialoguc fonrr: ( I S)urrlxrsirrnr. u hiclr
)
spcalis of ercrvthirtg on earth as but a shadorv of rvhat is in the rnind of Cod, tlrc beautl'of thc carth
but a shadorv of divine Bounty; (2) The Republic, rvhich is about thc statc and rhc idcal
governmenti and (3) Phaedrus, rvhich is about the nature of love.

Plato has shor m his iutercst irr firan as kno\ycr and as posscssor of au furunortal soul. Much
has been rnadc of his theory of knowledge, his rnain contribution to philosophic trurh.
I

' 3. Aristotle (334-322 B.C.)

; Aristotle at seventecn rvas Plato's student at the Academy wherc hc also taught until his
tc:achex's da:rth. Then he werit to Asia Minor, rvhere he became the tutor of Alcxardcr of
It{acedonia- rvho bmame Alexander the &eat. Upm his rstum to Athens, ho foundcd thc school hc
cillcd thc'L-vceum. Hc le{t only rvhen he feared persecution kom Athcnians consumed bv
ahti-Macedonian feelingp upon thedeath of Alexander. He dicd at thc agc of 62.

' Ariststle u'as the nrost prolific of the Greek philosophcrs. His philosophy rvas largclv
ill{luenced by tlrrce factors in his life: (l) his father, a court physician, frorn riho,n hc golhis

24
intcrest in biolory and science in goreral; (2) Plato and his stay at the Acadcml';
and (3) Alcxgdcr
the Great, rvho furthered his interest in botany and zoology rvhich he
studicd to knorv nran bcttcr
and rvho got him involved in the constitution and tlre gorr.n*ent
of the Greck statcs. Such bcirrg
thc case, he was scientist and philosopher, as well as researcher, rwitcr,
and tcachcr. It rcrnains
for Arisnoile, to delure nurn as a rotional animal. His ideas on alinost cvcrything
tlrat conccrns man
have influenced Thomas Aquinas as well as philosophers beyond ure
tuiaalci g... ioi,i,rr, n1on
is not the center of the u3iverse. Man is only a part of it; it is the cosrnos
that is thc focal point.
Tltis is Aristotle's so-called "geocentric spherical system."

Among the salient points of Aristotle's philosophy are:

(a) Knorvledg. comes from the senses and can be true in itself.
(b) Reality consists of matter and form, and matter is a contiuuous proccss ol' dcvcloping or
becoming.
(c) There is a First Cause, source of all change, but is unchangcablc itself. This.
for him, is
God.
(d) Tlre goal of human life is happiness. This can be reached through nrodcration
or tlc
avoidancc of extrcmss. -.
q
(e) Logic rvould enable man to perceivc that thc ideal state is onc governed b1.
a rulc of larr.,
a statc ruled by the middle class.

D. The Eastern View of Man

There arc four great systems of phitosophy in the East that dcals nith
thc traditional
conccpt of man: Hinduism and Buddhisnl for hdia; and Confucianism
and Taoisrn. for Chirra.

l. The Hindu View of Man

All lndian thoughts have as their fountainhead - tlglpgoisfuds,-Thc fundarr"rcnral crmccpr

found in the Upanishads is &at underlying the externalToild of change
thcre is unehangcablc
reality rvhich is ider:tical with that rvhich underlics the esscnce
of man. This urrchangcablcicalitl.
is Bralrman and that rvhich underlies the essence of man is Atman. Thc
main rciching of thc
Upanishads is that Atman is Brahman. What is Brahman? Brahrnan
is ttrc ground of all things.
It is the Absolute (Pure Consciousness) that goes beyond the heart of nran.
lVhat is Atman?
Atman is the higher aspect of the "soul," the principle of life. It is
thc inmost cssencc in man.
Horvever, man is seen as consisting of five sheaths:
(a) Annamayatman, &e self dependent on food- This is the rnatcrial laycr
of man bcltcr knorrr
as the physical or corporeal self.

ib) Pranarnayatman, the self as vitar breath.. This is the biological la1cr.
(c) Manonrayatman, the self consisting of will. This is ttrc psfchotogical la1cr.
(d) Vijnamamal'atman, the self oriconsciousness. This is the intcllcctual lar.cr: and
(e) Anandamayatnran, the finar edsence ofthc serf as pure briss.

Thes sheaths areconsidd es dark coverings ofignoraece that lic undcrncath the r.-lrolc
g*jtd rurrld. Only nhur this has beer;'tom away can-the trie sclf, rrolriclr is Atman idcntilid
rvirtr
Bratrrman, be knorvrL To reach the Abs, rlute Mar"
tlre petretd man, one must somchorv discard all
the sheaths of man for &ese are noi the true.self, the Atman,
contingcnt manifcstations of Bralrma,l. Thus, the final goal of rnan
lrt
onty supcrirnpositions or
is to inow thc irue rcalitS. -
Brahnran' The only rvay to dessoy igporaflffi is by trrorvlige- This
is acquircd througlr the praaicc
'
of Yoga Mditation, Concentration, and Absorytion ilr thc Brahman. Thus. onc obtains
Self-Realization.

25
 2. The Buddhist View of Man

Throughout his life, the Buddha constantly reminded his disciplcs of thc transitorincss of
all phenomena, He pointd oul. that all conditioned things or phenomcnal proccsscs. rncntalas n'cll
as material are impermanent or transient and subject to arising and passing arval'. What is
irnportant is for man to realize that man is also subiect to thc samc lg,:_!l$
Ap:"Slq ,qllS+tgjl,g!.
being!. The paradigm of reality f"ffi,cffiffiE;iio" hich-Eiirffi
t
I-rnmediately by its consequerce, not substance as it is in the Upanishads. Hence, thc fundamcntal
conccpt running through Buddhism is that rvhatever exists changcs. Existencc hcrc mcarrs thc
capacity of producing everything.

Man, and everything in the rvorld is analyzed under two catcgories:

(a) lN{!!A- rvhich literally means name but is usually fanslated into Englisir as "mind." It is
uscd as a collective name that rcfers to thc psychological and mcntal aspccts of thc human
bcing; and
(b) "Rqp$" rvhich lilerally means form but is translated into English as "lnattcr" or "bodl'." It
d'...ry,
-ts used as a collective name that describes tlre physical4spccts of bcing.

Thus, "nama-rupa" taken together cornprises the psychophvsical organism rrfiich

cottstitutcs a person or a scparate or distinct individual. Buddhism considers "nama" and "rupA" as
intcrdepcndent. Thcy belong to each other in an integral mBnncr. This divisiolt of nran and othcr
beings in the rvorld inl"o lt,o categories is only the first step in thc arrall'sis of thc sclf.

The ncxt step is the analysis of man and lhe things cxisting in thc rvorld as a stream of fir'c
cotlioincd currcnts, th" nfryflf}glqp$. These arc:
(a) Matter.
(b) Scnsation.
(c) Pcrccption.
(d) Mental constructs, arrd
(c) Consciousrless.

None of thesc eletnents is pcmrauent, hence, man has no abiding support undcrl;-ing thc
sEcaln. Thcre is no soul. Whcn [re livc aggrqgatcs come togcthcr, thcy takc a ccrtain fonn or shapc
and rvhat is fbrnred is given a namc. Thus, wc have nanrs and fornr but uhcn thc elctrrcrrts
disintegratg Lhere is no "nama-rupa,u no pcrson, no cgo. "These ph-vsicnl fornr arc likc foanr:
s$tsatiotts, like bubbles; pcrceptions,like mirage; mental mnstructs, like thc flimsy trunk of banalra
plant: and consciousness, like phantonrs" (Samyutta Nikaya lll).

The conccpt of no soul (anatta) is tied up with thc concept of inrpcrmancncc (anicca) and
has a direct bearing sn the concept of suffering (dutrkha). The thrce go togcthcr. Thc s.ord
su{fering is an inadequate translation of &e term "dukkha.n lt is a n'ord thrlt dcscribcs thc
prcdicament in udrich man is bound by conditional cxistence. trt is the dcsire to exist, to rc-mrist. anrl
to continue to exist rvhich arises as a result of the belief in a permancnt self or soul. This is,
thereforg bassd on ignorance. It is by ignorance tlrat one dcsireq or thirsts to exist. llcncc, to
eliminate odukkhd' which in effect meaos the elimination of the notisn of tlre sel;; it is ncccssary
that ore comes to a uue urrderstarding of the real nature of {he sclf - that is, {hcrc;is no pcrmancnt
sclf. i

I
So, what
corrxpose
tcndcnry to trook upon things ns pennaddfri ffifpErmancnt" Becarisc of this \r'rorig

26
 \'ic$',nlansufIbrs.Heis.boundbyignorance,sothefinalgoalof@
to frec himself from the bonds ofigiorance 'f"
things and that heit nE$q-qygi!-S Beiie;g rhffi#.r Ni*r*,
o ;ffidtdy yoga or deep mcditation.
rvhictr is rtrc cxri,ctiorr

3. The Confucianist View of Man

confucius (551-478 B.C-), caUed the grgaj Chinese

sage, has been for somc 2.500 ycars,
the "bible" of the East for his moiat
lllan. t, teachings which are -^-J ' -'chiefly;r.d; n*"rr"rrrri.,
i,
The ideal soallr.ch.r|ese Philosophy is
to form men u,ho can.v the trvin charactcristics of
"sageliness l'ithin and kingliness rvithout.'i
This is to say that in t i, sagclincss *,itlrin, man
nglincts lvithout, man functions in socicty. ln othcr
n"ords, tjrc ideal man shouiil-lffi,rvhat ,ra
is ,igrr't ana co.reci
ffil ,o *"
chinese ideal' Confucianism is essentialty
from politics' Thus, rnan is regarded as "ihicut;.and
i" tr,itryli.il];;il'jffi;il"'iil*r*o
ainoral being and u r&J'J u.ing. For confucius, a
man is a noble rnan (chun-tzu| a superior rruc
posscss the four virtues of Confucianism,
man, a man of utt .ounJ u?rtr..' irir"l,l.*"d
.o
namely:
(a) Humanheartcdness (ar), consideration for oihers;r loving
-aothcrs; doing
sv.rl, to othcrsr rvhat
rv vlrrwr rrrl vou
rvish o{rcrS to do tO 3,Ou.
(b) Righteousness (vi), doing t'vhat one ought
to do; doing acts that are obligatorv *.ithout a
personal utilitmian end in vierv; aoing
the dgllt and prftrthing rvithout rcgand of persorral
proht.
1c) futual or propnety (li), humbling oneself to pay respect to others;
putting others hrst and
oneselfsecond: and
(d) wisdorn (chic). the understading of the other threc
*irtues.

Mencius'thcory of human nature is intimal.ely ticd-up

lvith this. According to Mcncius,
hunran nature is originallygood. To
support his theory, t tencius spealis of thc four
tlrat belonged to man's original nature,,ra*"ty, bcginnings
(a) The feeling of comrniseration, the begirning
of the virtue of humanhcartcdncss: man tcnds
to slmpathiz* rvith his fellowmen.
(b) Thc fceling of sharnc anrl dislike, the beginning
of righteousncss; man tcnds to bc ashamcd
of evil and dislike evil.
(c) The"feeting of nrodesty and yielding torvards the good,
ttre beginning of ritual or propriely:

1d) Thc scnse cfright and *rong

tr4an is naturaltt,endo*rcd wirh the
q.rlldgt jr.lighll
g "{1"!"r
al naturc possess Lhcsc four
bcginnings' Thcse four bgsinninss difterentiate
rnan from the bcasi It is expectd tlat man
defelop tlrese lour beginnlrgs be"uus* it is should
only througi trteir oeveroenrcnt that man is tnrly
Through &e &ll devetroprnart of his nahrre man a nran.
cannff only know *eavcn (univcmc) bdt can also

4. TheTaoist View of Man

=**"*xffitr*',,lf:ffiffiil,
27
"]uo.'l The "Tao" is generally understood as the Porver or the Principlc behind a.ll thin&s. lt is

frgmfito,thereddiitcs lhqse':'liom thr,ec"thqrc contcs all t[ipgs." T6c

Yo;
oken of
pok ol re fus t{Bcing} the tollvo",are 'ffin"" -an(i'."Yanguj-
and "Yang";- the cosmic principlcs of
'fomcs r,vhere "Yin" signifies fcrhirrlffB', pai$ivity,
ifics fcrhirTffrry,, pai'sivib, col&ess., darknessl, sofuicss
sofurcss and lhe like. rvlrilc
thc like: u,trite
""1n*" signifies masculinity, activity, warmth, brightness, hardness and the tike. The "thrcei rcfcrs
to the "Tao," the "Yin" and the "Yaog-" Through the interaction o[rhq,'yiq]-ardrhc_"yans-,,
f3ngJaau
@xrodumd. When a *a, isTffiffis in f,inr "yin" nnilfrffi*
and mental faculties ftat make him superior to beasts and birds. Man should
strivc to be a ',man of
T1o" - a sage, a perfect man. A sage is one who has a completc understanding
of thc naturc of
things. To understand nature, one has to lurorv the invariable or abiding Laru oiNatrre. To
do so
means to be enlightened.

Thc fint thing that man must know is that things are ever changeable and changing but
thc
laws that govern this charrge of things are not Lhemselves changeablc. Taoisnr rnaintains
that thc
sagexho has a complete understanding of the nature of things thcreby has no cmotiorrs. This is to
sa.v that hc is not bothcred by cnrotions but enjoys peacebf soul.

'lhe sage is
no longer a{Iected by ttre changes of the world. ln this rvay, hc is not dcpcndcnt
upon external things and hence tlrey do not limit his happiness. As such, he is said lo harc
actrio ca
absolute happirress. He is perfectly happy because he transcends lhe ordinary distinctions
betrvccn
the sclf and the u'orld, the''nle" and the "non-me." Therc is nolv an idcnti{ication of man
rvitlt thc
uoiverse. To acirieve this,frilleeds k ro*i-J$lnd understanding of still a highcr lcvcl.
Taoisur
speaks of tr,r'o levels of knorvlcdgg namely:
(a) TheJ"qverlevel the finitc point of vierv r,vhen rnan sees distinctions bctnccn rigtrt and
u"rong; and
(b) The.Hi.gher lcr':.!, thc highcr point of vierv s,hen man sees things in the light o[Hear.cn,
that is frorn thdpoiut of vierv of the.Tao"

Frorn the vieu'point of dle "Tao," &ings though di{Icrurt are unitcd and bcconrc olrc.
Ttrus,
altlrough all the tlrings di{fcr, lhcy are aliks in that &ey alt constitutc something and
arc good for
snrncthing. They equalty come from the "Tao." In order to be one with tlrc
Creat One (uiilcrsc;,
thc sage has to transcct'ld and forge{. firc distinctions betlvccn &ings. Tlrc rr-a'
to do this is to discard
knowlcdgc and the nrethod used by Taoists for achieving ,'sagcliness *,ithin.,,

Thc task of knowledge in thc ordinary senso is to makc distinctions; ro knou,a thing
is to
knorv the di{ferencc bctrywn it and other things Thercfore, to discard knox;ledgc
mcans to torgct
these distinctions. This is to say that at first sagcs had knowldge,
Ihc),kngv dislinctions, but la{cr
Iranscsnded this knowldge to go kyond distinctions. This kno\r!'ledg.
bqo,.d distinctiors is *.hat
Taoists called'No'L-norvledgd'or "latorvledge u,hich is not knolrlcdie."
In surn, Taoisrn statcs tlrat
evcry man can bc a sage.

Thus, rve realizc tltat rvhether Indian or Chinesg the conccpt

of man is the same, that is,
to bc*omc a pcrfmt man. The four systems difter only in thc approach
torvards the attainmcnt of
thcir goal.

28