Module 2.

LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2.

LAN Hardware

Objectives:

After the completion of this module, the student is expected to:

Describe the different LAN hardware and components
Describe the factors affecting data transmission
Enumerate and describe the different types of transmission media
Enumerate and describe the different types of LAN topologies
Describe the different LAN Access Methods
Enumerate and describe the different connectors us in a LAN
Describe the IEEE standards used in Networking

2-1
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-1. LAN Hardware Components

Every LAN is likely to be composed of Workstations and Server nodes, each having a Network
Interface Card or NIC. These nodes are interconnected via different transmission media types, such as
twisted pair, coax and optical fiber. Each LAN could be organized using several topologies, including bus,
star and ring. These nodes could then access each others resources using several methods such as
token passing and CSMA/CD.

Other devices that could be found in a LAN are:

Hubs
Repeaters
Bridges
Switches
Routers

2-2
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-2. Factors Affecting Data Transmission

Bandwidth

This is the measure of the channel capacity, the wider the bandwidth, the greater the capacity.
Bandwidth could be a greater channel (baseband), or it can consist of multiple channels (broadband).

Electrical Interference

Electrical noise from sources such as telephone and power lines may cause interference with
data as it is transmitted over network cables. Shielding the cable reduces errors caused by these
interferences.

Attenuation

Attenuation is the weakening of signals as they travel along the transmission media. As he signal
weakens, external interferences increases, and errors may occur. To boost the signals, amplifiers
(analog) and repeaters (digital) are used.

2-3
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-3. Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable

The Twisted-Pair Cable consists of two single wires, each encased in color-coded plastic
insulation, and then twisted together to form a pair. Unshielded twisted-pair was originally designed for
telephones. Due to recent technologies, these cables could now be used to transmit both Data and Voice
signals. Twisted-pair cable can be used in powerful workstations and large networks. It supports
distances of up to 100 meters. The distance may be increased using amplifiers or repeaters.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable Categories

UTP Category Bandwidth Designation Support Cable Length

Category 3 15 MHz Voice Grade 10Base-T 100m
Category 4 20 MHz None 10Base-T 100m
10Base-T
Category 5 100 MHz Data Grade 100m
100Base-T

Category 5 is now the standard for creating new networks, though, some networks still use
Category 3 UTP because it is the standard telephone wires and works well with 10 Mbps networks.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable consists of a central conductive wire surrounded by a shield of either fine copper
mesh or extruded aluminum sleeve. Between the center conductor is a dielectric material. Coaxial cable
is heavier and stiffer to handle than UTP cable. Coaxial cable supports simultaneous transmission of
voice, data and video. It is typically used as a backbone, the cable connecting different networks over a
major transmission path. Coaxial cable supports an error-free transmission rate of 10Mbps.

2-4
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Optical Fiber Cable

The Optical Fiber cable is made up of glass fiber that transmit data using light pulses. Optical
fiber cable could support extremely high bandwidth using a small cable. They are immune to electrical
interference and thus, could transmit data error-free along great distances. The cable is inexpensive but
is difficult to install. It is currently limited to point-to-point connections. Optical Fiber supports transmission
rates of 10Mbps and 100Mbps.

Comparison of LAN Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Coaxial Optical Fiber

10Mbps and 10Mbps and

10Mbps over
Transmission Rate 100Mbps over 100Mbps up to
500m
100m 1Km
Flexibility Flexible Stiff Flexible

Ease of Installation Very Easy Relatively Easy Difficult

Inexpensive
Cost Inexpensive Moderate cable, costly
installation

Reliability Good Good Excellent

2-5
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-4. LAN Topologies

Bus topology is commonly used wiring system in which all equipment is connected to the same
cable, and none of the equipment has priority over any other. Bus networks consists of a cable with
devices attached at intervals along the link/ Devices are connected to the cable by cable taps. Messages
are broadcast in all directions at the same time.

Ring topology consists of nodes connected to nodes in a circular fashion. Data is transmitted
from node to node in a relay manner. Each device along the cable path determines whether the message
is addressed to it, or should be passed along the communications path.

Star topology applies primarily to hubs and switches, where one input signal is replicated over
multiple output signals. While this topology appears unique, its implementation is simply that of a
collapsed Bus topology.

2-6
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-5. LAN Access Methods

LAN Access methods are procedures used to gain access to the bandwidth in order to send
messages to other nodes on the network.

CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Detection. It could be
defined as Wait, Send and Listen. A node waits for a chance to send data across the network. After it
sends the data, it listens if a collision has occurred in the network. If a collision occurs, all colliding nodes
detect the condition and waits for a random amount of time for it to retransmit. CSMA/CD is very efficient
in very large LANs.

Token Passing involves the passing of a token from node to node in a continuous manner. A
node can only send data if it has the token. If a node has no message to send, it passes the token to the
next node. Token passing provides access to every user. It is efficient under heavy traffic.

2-7
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-6. LAN Connector Devices

Repeaters and Terminators

Repeaters enhance data signals and thus, can be used to extend maximum cable length . A
repeater allows you to extend the length of your LAN beyond its normal single segment length. Repeaters
are generally used to connect two LAN segments. The repeater propagates the signals from one cable to
another, creating a single physical network.

The maximum topology is four repeaters, and five segments between any two nodes of the
extended segment. In this setup, it is recommended that only three segments have stations attached.

Terminators delete signals at the end of the bus so that no signal reflection occurs. Remember
to connect terminators on each end of a bus topology.

Hubs

A Hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub provides a central connection point for computers and other
systems. By using hubs, you could build departmental networks and increase the overall network size
and the number of nodes as compared to network composed of single segment cable.

A hub is the central part of a wheel where the spokes come together. The term is familiar to
frequent fliers who travel through airport "hubs" to make connecting flights from one point to another. In
data communications, a hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions
and is forwarded out in one or more other directions. A hub usually includes a switch of some kind. (And a
product that is called a "switch" could usually be considered a hub as well.) The distinction seems to be
that the hub is the place where data comes together and the switch is what determines how and where
data is forwarded from the place where data comes together. Regarded in its switching aspects, a hub
can also include a router.

1. In describing network topologies, a hub topology consists of a backbone (main circuit) to which a
number of outgoing lines can be attached ("dropped"), each providing one or more connection
port for device to attach to. For Internet users not connected to a local area network, this is the
general topology used by your access provider. Other common network topologies are the bus
network and the ring network. (Either of these could possibly feed into a hub network, using a
bridge.)

2. As a network product, a hub may include a group of modem cards for dial-in users, a gateway
card for connections to a local area network (for example, an Ethernet or a token ring), and a
connection to a line

Remember that Hubs:

Automatically repeats the signal across every port

Physical star topology., but is implemented as a logical bus topology

Can easily add/remove nodes without disrupting the network

Does not filter data, and thus, errors and collisions are passed through

Usually uses twisted pair instead of coax for workstation connections

2-8
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Bridges

A Bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area network that
uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or token ring). You can envision a bridge as being a
device that decides whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local area network in
your building or to someone on the local area network in the building across the street. A bridge examines
each message on a LAN, "passing" those known to be within the same LAN, and forwarding those known
to be on the other interconnected LAN (or LANs).

In bridging networks, computer or node addresses have no specific relationship to location. For
this reason, messages are sent out to every address on the network and accepted only by the intended
destination node. Bridges learn which addresses are on which network and develop a learning table so
that subsequent messages can be forwarded to the right network.

Bridging networks are generally always interconnected local area networks since broadcasting
every message to all possible destinations would flood a larger network with unnecessary traffic. For this
reason, router networks such as the Internet use a scheme that assigns addresses to nodes so that a
message or packet can be forwarded only in one general direction rather than forwarded in all directions.
A bridge works at the data-link (physical network) level of a network, copying a data frame from one
network to the next network along the communications path.

Like repeaters, Bridges could also be used to extend a LAN. They could also improve security by
restricting traffic flow. Networks with could be extended with up to eight bridges between any two nodes

Switches

A Switch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a unit of data to its next
destination. A switch may also include the function of the router, a device or program that can determine
the route and specifically what adjacent network point the data should be sent to. In general, a switch is a
simpler and faster mechanism than a router, which requires knowledge about the network and how to
determine the route.

A switch offers much of the same advantages of the bridge. Like a bridge, a switch could be
used to connect many types of LANs, and can filter frames by MAC address in order to divide a busy
network into separate segments.

Unlike a bridge, a switch is able to manage multiple parallel conversations across its ports which
can help improve the performance of LANs.

Relative to the layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, a switch is
usually associated with layer 2, the Data-Link layer. However, some newer switches also perform the
routing functions of layer 3, the Network layer. Layer 3 switches are also sometimes called IP switches.
On larger networks, the trip from one switch point to another in the network is called a hop. The time a
switch takes to figure out where to forward a data unit is called its latency. The price paid for having the
flexibility that switches provide in a network is this latency. Switches are found at the backbone and
gateway levels of a network where one network connects with another and at the subnetwork level where
data is being forwarded close to its destination or origin. The former are often known as core switches
and the latter as desktop switches.

In the simplest networks, a switch is not required for messages that are sent and received within
the network. For example, a local area network may be organized in a token ring or bus arrangement in
which each possible destination inspects each message and reads any message with its address.

2-9
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Routers

Routers connect two or more independent networks with different network IP addresses. Routers
are needed to communicate with remote networks.

A router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network
point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two
networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding of
the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets
another), including each Internet point-of-presence. A router is often included as part of a network switch.

A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and use this
information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet.
Typically, a packet may travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving at its
destination.

Routers are able to connect networks that are totally different in the OSI Layers 1 to 3. Routers
forward packets based on destination IP addresses. They exchange routing information and use this
information to build routing tables. Routing Tables contain the IP addresses of different networks and
other routers where they could pass packets to determine their destination node. Each router has a
minimum of two LAN cards, each having its own IP address belonging to different IP networks.

Gateway

A Gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a
node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of
Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes. The computers that control
traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet service provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.

In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often also acting
as a proxy server and a firewall server. A gateway is often associated with both a router, which knows
where to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the
actual path in and out of the gateway for a given packet.

Gateways match up all the seven layers of the OSI model. They connect very dissimilar network
architectures, such as Ethernet-TCP/IP and IBM SNA.

Gateways are special-purpose computers with associated software, and at least two network
interface cards. Gateway must convert all layers of the OSI model. This could slow the performance of the
network.

Gateways could perform the tasks of bridges and routers.

2-10
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

Module 2-7. The IEEE Standards

The IEEE 802.3 Standard

The main features of the IEEE 802.3 Standard are:

Topology Bus
Access method CSMA/CD
Medium Coaxial Cable, Twisted-Pair, Optical Fiber
Signaling techniques Baseband, 10MHz, Manchester Code

The most significant advantage of the IEEE 802.3 standard is the large number of vendors who
design nodes and other devices for attachment to this type of network.

The most important sub-specification of the IEEE 802.3 standard:

10Base5 10Mbps baseband Ethernet specification using standard (thick) 50-ohm baseband
coaxial cable, with a distance limit of 500 meters per segment.

10Base2 10Mbps baseband Ethernet specification using 50ohm thin coaxial cable, with a
distance limit of 185 meters per segment.

10BaseT 10Mbps baseband Ethernet specification using two pairs of twisted-pair cabling
(category 3,4 or 5), one pair for transmitting data, the other for receiving, with an average
distance limit of 100 meters per segment.

100BaseT 100Mbps baseband Ethernet specification using Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

wiring. The same signaling technique used by 10BaseT.

Supported Cable Types

ThinLAN ThickLAN EtherTwist Fiber-Optic

Standard 10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT FOIRL

Medium Coaxial Coaxial Twisted-Pair Fiber-Optic

Topology Bus Bus Star Star

Segment Length 185 meters 500 meters 100 meters 2 km

Nodes per
30 1000 1 1
Segment
Distance between
0.5 meters 2.2 meters N/A N/A
nodes
Speed 10Mbps 10Mbps 10-100Mbps 100Mbps

2-11
Module 2. LAN Hardware UNIX Network Administration

The IEEE 802.5 Standard

The main features of the IEEE 802.5 Standard are:

Topology Ring
Access method Token Passing
Medium Twisted-Pair Cable
Signaling techniques Baseband, 1-16MHz, Diff. Manchester

The 802.5 standard defines the ring network using the token passing access method. IEEE 802.5
ring networks are often referred to as the IBM token ring networks, because it is based on the LAN
networking technologies developed by IBM. The IBM toke ring network is the most prevalent IEEE 802.5
compatible network.

The FDDI Standard

The main features of the Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Standard are:

Topology Dual Ring

Access method Token Passing
Medium Twisted-Pair and Fiber-Optic Cable
Signaling techniques Baseband, 100MHz, NRZI Code

The FDDI network consists of two independent 100Mbps rings: the primary and the secondary.
The dual-ring approach provides redundancy and the ability to reconfigure the network under fault
condition. An FDDI ring has two station types: Dual-Attach (Class A), which connects to both primary and
secondary rings, and the Single-Attach (Class B), which connects to either primary or secondary rings,
but not to both.

2-12